Of Early-Twentieth-Century American Architecture Author(S): Richard Pieper Source: APT Bulletin, Vol

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The "White Metals" of Early-Twentieth-Century American Architecture Author(s): Richard Pieper Source: APT Bulletin, Vol. 46, No. 1, SPECIAL ISSUE ON MODERN METAL FINISHES (2015), pp. 23- 28 Published by: Association for Preservation Technology International (APT) Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/43390258 Accessed: 10-11-2015 21:16 UTC

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of Early-Twentieth-

Century American Architecture

i Nickel and aluminum alloys and other "white metals" came into wide

use during the Art Deco and Modern period and transformed the look of American architecture.

1. Strausmausoleum, Woodlawn Fig. In New York City at the turn of the twentieth century, Cemetery,Bronx, New York, Monel doors.While Monel was generally the metals used in the construction of new buildings used forsheet-metal installations, were cast and and some wroughtand cast installations primarily steel, iron, zinc, copper were cour- produced.Photograph copper alloys. Steel had largelysupplanted unornamentedcast and tesyof Makenzie Leukart. wrought iron as a structuralmaterial by the late 1890s. With the exception of a few prominentlarge facades, cast iron was reservedfor storefronts,window surrounds,spandrels, gates, grilles,and fencing.A revival of decorative wrought iron, led by the master smithSamuel Yellin, resultedin the ambitious wrought- iron artistryof York and Sawyer's Federal Reserve Bank in 1924, but this was an unusually large installation of a metal that was passing into disuse. Copper, lead-coated copper, and galvanized or terne-platedsheet steel were the metals available for roofingand flashing.Stamped and brake-formedcopper was the preferredmaterial for durable roof cornices; cast and stamped zinc was used to ornament more modest cornices and facades of painted galvanized sheet steel. 23

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Whilethis tradition of metaluse con- Table 1. Compositionsfor Uniform Color Matching tinued,the first four decades of the DrawnRolled and twentiethcentury would witnessthe in- Referredtoas Extruded Tubing Cast troductionof severalnew architectural 10%Nickel Silver copper 49.50% copper 65.00% copper 55.00% metalsin New York Cityas thesilvery- zinc 40.00% zinc 24.50% zinc 20.00% whitenickel alloys Monel, nickelsilver, nickel 10.00% nickel 10.50% nickel 12.50% and stainlesssteel and thenaluminum lead 00.50% lead 10.50% tin 02.00% came intolarge-scale use. At thesame 13%Nickel Silver 40.50% 55.50% 55.00% time,the introduction of a new alloyof copper copper copper lead drovea brief zinc 44.75% zinc 29.50% zinc 18.00% (containingantimony) 15.00% revivalof theuse of lead ornamentand nickel 13.00% nickel 15.00% nickel lead 00.75% lead 08.00% theterm "white roofing.Historically, iron 00.25% tin 04.00% metal"had beenused to referto easily- 00.75% 00.15% cast of and impurities manganese alloys silveryappearance 20% NickelSilver notproduced copper 75.00% copper 66.25% unspecifiedcomposition, often alloys of atthis nickel 20.00% nickel 20.00% tin,lead, or zinc.At thebeginning of the nickelcontent zinc 05.00% tin 03.00% twentieth theterm came to be century, (rolledand drawn lead 05.00% used in architecture forany silvery-white materialonly) zinc 07.50% alloy,contrasting them with the polished manganese00.25% and patinatedbrasses and bronzesof the Datafrom Nickel Silver in Architecture (1935) nineteenthcentury. Most of thesemetals werealloys of nickelor of aluminum. Nickelhad beenused forelectroplating NickelCompany (INCO) popularized zinc. Nickelcontent is fixedat 10%, by 1870; bythe end of thenineteenth theterm "nickel silver." 13%, and 20%, withextruded sections available in the 10% and 13% centurynickel plating was commonly INCO a illustrated only published lavishly nickel Whilethe most common used forlighting and plumbingfixtures, sales bookletin 1935 entitledNickel alloys. and tools.While nickel alloyused was silverywhite in color, hardware, Silverin Architecture, with a number could be used for yellowishand copperyalloys were often unalloyed plating, of examplesof themetal used forboth nickelwas difficultto workin used foraccent and contrast(Table 1). pure interiorand exteriorarchitectural appli- solid form.Two moremalleable nickel- cations.Most of thebuildings pictured Monel is anotheralloy of nickeland Monel and nickel copperalloys, silver, werein New York Cityand included copperbut one withmore nickel (histor- became forarchitectural popular ap- theGoelet Building at 608 FifthAvenue icallyabout 68%) thancopper. At the in thetwentieth plicationsearly century, (1931, altered1966); theCity Bank- end of thenineteenth century a major in commercialand primarily prominent FarmersTrust Building at 20 Exchange use of nickelwas in nickelsilver, which structures. public Place (1931); theMetropolitan Insur- was producedby smeltingthe constitu- "Nickelsilver" is a termused fora vari- ance Buildingon Madison Square (c. entmetals separately, then combining able alloyof copper,nickel, and zinc (it 1933); and theWaldorf-Astoria (1931). theminto the alloy. As INCO's Sudbury containsno silver).This combinationof Most illustrateduses wereinterior ele- ore bodywas composedof a combina- metals,remarkably similar to silverin mentssuch as elevatordoors, signage tionof copperand nickelsulfides, its appearance,had beenused forcenturies boards,and suchinterior furnishings as metallurgistsendeavored to producea in China,where it was called "white tables,stands, and separationstrips for matte(an impuresmelting product of copper."The Cantoneseword forthis terrazzoand stoneflooring. Exterior en- metalsand theirsulfides) directly from termwas phoneticallytransliterated into tries,gates, and grillesare also pictured. theore withoutseparating the two met- Englishas "paktong."In eighteenth- Not picturedin thebooklet, but also a als. The firstingot cast fromthe resul- centuryEngland paktong was used prominentexample of themetal in the tantalloy (in 1904) was embossedwith primarilyfor decorative objects such as same period,were the lobbies of build- thelast nameof INCO's then-president candlesticksand tableware.European- ingsin RockefellerCenter (1931-1939). AmbroseMonell. The namestuck, but fabricated of similar trademarkrestrictions on theuse of alloys composition As noted,nickel silver varies signifi- were in the and propernames required that it be short- developed eighteenth cantlyin composition.While the most nineteenthcenturies and weremarketed ened to Monel. As firstproduced, commonalloy is 75% copper,20% as "German as well as under Monel's nickelcontent varied with silver," nickel,and 5% zinc (called "20% nickel various names. in the theore from68% to 72%, withthe proprietary Early silver"),the booklet lists the different twentieth withthe remainderbeing copper. Monel has a century, develop- alloysto be used forcolor matchingex- mentof NorthAmerican nickel verylow coefficientof expansionand is deposits truded,rolled, and cast materials.These in theInternational quitefatigue- and corrosion-resistant. Sudbury,Ontario, alloysare shownto containas littleas It developsa dull graypatina and does 40.5% copperand as muchas 44.75% 24

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not stainmasonry materials, making it Fig.2. ChryslerBuilding, New York extremelyuseful for roofing. City,cast stainless-steelorna- ment.Stainless steel remains The first architecturaluse of significant brightwithout significant treat- themetal was forthe roofing of McKim, mentbut can develop self-sus- Mead and White'sPennsylvania Sta- tainingpitting in areas ofsoiling tionin New York in 1909 (demolished and mustbe cleaned periodi- 1963-1966). Anotherprominent roof of cally.Photographs by the author, Monel was installedon theNew York unlessotherwise noted. PublicLibrary at 5thAvenue and 42nd Streetin 1936. JanHird PokornýAs- sociateshas recentlyfound Monel roofing(apparently from the 1930s) on the 1904 Enid A. Haupt Conservatoryat theNew York BotanicalGarden and as roofinginstalled in the 1930s at theBat- teryMaritime Building in LowerMan- hattan.Although Monel was mostcom- monlyused in sheet-metalinstallations, thereare otheruses to be foundin New York in Woodlawn for City: Cemetery, In theStraus mausoleum has en- thelate 1920s thecompany had a example, on trygates of hand-wroughtMonel fabri- monopoly aluminum-smeltingopera- cated thefirm of SamuelYellin tionsin theU.S. and controlledmost by (Fig. aluminumfabrication in the 1). The natural of the country. patination gates The was and brownin areas, company makingsignificant (gray gray exposed effortsto theirmarkets. A 1929 a blushin shelteredareas) is Unlikenickel silver and which expand graygreen Monel, Alcoa entitled instructiveof Monel's weathered exterior stain- marketingpamphlet, typical patinateupon exposure, "Architectural less steelremains It was also Aluminum,"pictured appearance. bright. seven thatmade use muchlower in cost thanboth nickel buildings significant Whilerust-resistant of chromium of aluminumfor exterior alloys silverand Monel and the 1940s applications. and steelhad beenformulated in the by early One of the of aluminum had bothof them earlyadopters firsthalf of thenineteenth largelysupplanted was theNew York and ar- century, forarchitectural use. Whilethe nickel- Pittsburgh contemporarynickel-bearing "stainless chitectHenry Hornbostel, who designed copperalloys had typicallybeen used steel"(typically about 18% chromium threeof theseven buildings pictured forgrand commercial and publicstruc- and 8% to 12 % nickel)was developed in theAlcoa pamphlet.Among them tures,relatively inexpensive stainless bymetallurgists working in England, wereHornbostel's 1929 GrantBuilding steellent itself to a considerablydiffer- Germany,and theUnited States in the in Pittsburgh,which was constructed entdemographic. It was commonlyused firstdecade of thetwentieth century. withcast-aluminum spandrel panels, an in New York Cityand elsewherefor Initialefforts were directed toward applicationthat was to becomequite exteriorand interiorcladding for diners. uses forindustry and forproducts popularin theearly 1930s. Aboutthree A hygienicmaterial for sinks and cook- suchas tableflatware and gun barrels, yearsafter the Grant Building was con- ingappliances, it eventuallyreplaced butincreased production of thealloy structed,aluminum castings played an porcelain-enamelsteel for many of these eventuallyallowed for architectural importantrole in whatis oftencalled applications.Since it retaineda bright applications.Perhaps the best-known thefirst large-scale use of aluminumin surface,stainless steel also provided extensiveearly use of stainlesssteel in op- architecturein theU.S.: New York's portunitiesfor mechanical finishes, such architecturein theU.S. was New York EmpireState Building. In his historyof as brushedand "engine-turn"designs, City'siconic Chrysler Building. Rolled Alcoa, FromMonopoly to Competition, whichwere not practicablefor exterior sectionsand sheet(of NirostaK.A.2, an authorGeorge Smith stated that the applicationsof theother nickel alloys. alloysimilar to contemporary302 stain- EmpireState Building utilized 750,000 less) wereused forexterior cladding and At thesame timethat stainless steel was poundsof aluminumfrom Alcoa. The storefrontframes. Interior and exterior beingused forexterior cladding and spandrelcastings of theEmpire State ornamentof thefirst floor made exten- ornamentat theChrysler Building, the Buildingwere finished by "deplating," siveuse of cast stainlesssteel, much of it use of aluminumin architecturewas an earlyelectrolytic oxide treatment readilyaccessible to viewat theground- expandingdramatically. The production thatused a sulphuricacid bathand an floorexterior and in excellentcondition of themetal at thattime was dominated impressedcurrent to producea dark (Fig.2). bythe Aluminum Company of America graycolor on thesurface of the (Alcoa), headquarteredin Pittsburgh. aluminum.

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The EmpireState Building was just be- of lead withantimony, marketed as ingcompleted when work began on a "Hoyt Hardlead" bythe National Lead secondsignificant use of aluminumcast- Company,sparked an unlikelyrevival ingsin New York City:the complex of in theuse of lead (theaddition of anti- buildingsat RockefellerCenter. Accord- monysupposedly overcame some of the ingto Smith,Alcoa supplied3 million creepand fatigueproblems that plagued poundsof aluminumfor Rockefeller purelead sheet).Much of thisarchi- Center,which was used forwindow tecturallead was used in Gothic-style sills,copings, and spandrelpanels. The religiousand universitybuildings, but darkgray appearance of thespandrel a fewArt Deco and Modernbuildings panelssuggests that the aluminum in New York used lead as well. One of castingswere deplated here as well,al- themost prominent is theDowntown thoughtheir treatment is not recorded AthleticClub, a towerat thelower tip in Smith'shistory (Fig. 3). Determining of Manhattandesigned by Starrettand originalfinish and appearance,in fact, van Vleck,which was completedin can be a majorissue for aluminum con- 1930. The toweris featuredin theNa- servation.Alcoa's publicationsof the tionalLead Company'spamphlet "Hoyt periodrecommended that aluminum for Hardlead:Architectural and Orna- exteriorinstallations be treatedfor du- mentalLeadwork," which pictures the rability.A 1938 Alcoa pamphlet,"Fin- sheet-leadspandrels on thestreet and ishesfor Aluminum," devotes significant secondaryfacades, depicting them with sectionsto whatthe company defined thediagonal "batten" seams so typical as chemicalfinishes, essentially chemi- of ornamentallead work.Another Art cal conversionlayers, to whichthey Deco structurein New York Cityusing gave namessuch as "caustic-etched," lead is the 1936 FerryBuilding on El- "diffusereflector," "frosted," and their lis Island.Sheet lead was used forthe proprietary"Alrok" finish. Also in- decorativecupola at thecenter of the cludedwere electrolytic oxide finishes, building,flanked by decorative cast-lead whattoday would be called "anodized" eagles (thesheet lead was replacedwith finishes,but which Alcoa at thattime zinc in 2007) (Fig. 4). For thisinstalla- called their"Alumilite" finish. tion,at least,the motivation to use lead is clear:in thismarine environ- In the 1930s aluminum com- quite ultimately mentnickel silver would oner- withnickel silver for interior require peted ap- ous 302 or 304 stainless The Alcoa aluminumfinishes maintenance; plications. steelwould and even 3. 30 RockefellerCenter, New of 1938 streamlined- eventuallyrust; Fig. pamphlet depicts Monel could York cast-aluminum escalator in Marshall patinateunacceptably. City, panel design housings Lead was the "whitemetal" that would at deck. Cast aluminum Field's storein that viewing department Chicago remain"white" in thislocation. was used forspandrel panels at are nearreplicas of thenickel-silver es- theEmpire State Building and the calatorsin thelobby of RockefellerCen- towersat RockefellerCenter. An- ter'sInternational Building (630 Fifth Conservation odic "deplating"was a common Avenue,1934). Otherinterior instal- treatmentfor architectural early lationsof theperiod featured polished The vaguenessof theterm "white cast aluminum. aluminum;one exceptionalexample is metal"is consistentwith a naïveté theremarkable entry lobby of theRCA about relativeperformance that ac- VictorBuilding by Cross and Cross at companiedthose materials' introduc- 51st Streetand LexingtonAvenue, com- tion.While unfinished surfaces of pletedin 1931. thesemetals may appear similar,nickel silver,Monel, lead, stainlesssteel, and If asked a historianto list you building aluminumhave dramaticallydifferent the "whitemetals" of the twen- early conservationconcerns. Absent special tieth thefour described century, alloys finishesand regularmaintenance, Monel above would quitecertainly be on the could be consideredthe most durable less to be includedwould be list; likely of thegroup. Monel's grayishpatina on lead. Lead weathersto a grayappear- weatheredsurfaces is quitestable and ance not unlikethat of alu- deplated requiresno maintenance.However, care however.As nickel and minum, alloys mustbe takento performrepairs and aluminumrose to popularity,an alloy

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Fig.Aě Ferry Terminal, Ellis Island, lead cupola. Lead experienced a briefrevival in the 1920sand 1930sand saw use insome Art Deco and Modernbuildings. Photographby Christopher Barnes,courtesy of Save Ellis IslandFoundation.

alterationswith Monel sheetand fasten- Becausenickel-silver installations typi- theMetropolitan Life Insurance Com- ersonly, to avoid galvanic-deterioration callyuse alloysof differentcolors to panybuilding, upper entry grilles at. the problems. accentuatedesign, it presentsmore com- Waldorf-AstoriaHotel, and recessed plicatedconservation concerns. Interior panelsof doors at 20 ExchangePlace Lead is remarkablydurable on exterior applicationsof nickelsilver remain (Fig. 6). If thehistoric appearance is to exposurein urbanand marineenvi- brightwith minimal maintenance and be maintained,however, nickel silver re- ronments,but its high coefficient of no protectivecoating. When used out- quiresa lacquercoating, similar to that expansionand susceptibilityto fatigue side withouta lacquerfinish, however, used forbright architectural bronze. crackingnecessitate careful design and it will eventuallypatinate naturally to a joinery.Lead is also subjectto deterio- Of all of themetals reviewed here, alu- dull brown(Fig. 5); thispatina changes rationwhen in contactwith alkaline minummay present the greatest chal- to greenin areas at thebases of gates mortarsor concreteand is vulnerable lengesfor conservators. Even without and doorwayswhere the metal is ex- to dissolutionby numerous acids, espe- treatment,aluminum can be exception- posed to deicingsalts. This weathered ciallytannic and acetic. allydurable in exteriorenvironments. It surfaceis relativelystable and could does have severalsignificant vulnerabili- UnlikeMonel and lead, whichpatinate be leftuntreated, but it does not reflect ties,however. Aluminum is quitesensi- upon exteriorexposure, stainless steel originalarchitectural intent, which was tiveto deteriorationby alkalinemateri- remainsbright. It is subjectto rustpit- predicatedupon a brightfinish. One als, suchas mortarsand concrete,and ting,however, especially in areas that commonproblem with maintaining a mustbe protectedfrom contact with becomesoiled or on surfacescontami- brightsurface on exteriorornamenta- alkaliswith a coatingof paint.It is also natedwith particles of mildsteel. Once tionof nickelsilver is thata residueof susceptibleto deteriorationby chlorides, rustingstarts, it is self-perpetuating. polishmay remain in therecesses of cast as well as byhydrochloric and tannic "Passivation,"typically with sulfuric ornament.The need forperiodic exte- acids,including those leached from acid, or cleaningwith an oxalic acid riormaintenance sometimes prompts wood. Aluminumis quitelow on the pasteis necessaryprior to installation ownersto paintthe installation, or at galvanicscale and is especiallyvulner- and afterrepairs with mild-steel tools. leastrecessed portions of theinstalla- able to galvanicdeterioration, especially Propermaintenance requires periodic tion,with a silverypaint rather than whenin contactwith copper but also cleaningto removesoiling and incipient attemptto maintaina polishedsurface, withiron and steel.This vulnerability rustspots in orderto maintaina passive especiallyon elementsabove ground extendsto runofffrom copper flashings surface. level.This is thecase withthe gates at 27

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and contactwith copper-bearingmaterials, Bibliography suchas wood. pressure-treated "ArchitecturalAluminum." Pittsburgh, Pa.:Alu- minum ofAmerica, 1929. Whilethe need to identifythe alloy for Company conservation is not as obviousan "Finishesfor Aluminum." Pittsburgh, Pa.:Alumi- purposes num of 1940. issuefor aluminum as it is forthe nickel- Company America, the of different Gayle,Margot, David W. Look, and John G. bearingmetals, presence Waite.Metals in America's Historic Buildings: alloyingmaterials for aluminum can have Usesand Preservation Treatments. Washing- importantconservation implications. ton,D.C.: U.S.Dept. of the Interior, National ParkService, 1992. Historiccasting alloys were primarily Howard-White,Frank Buller. Nickel: An Histori- mixesof aluminum,silicon, copper, and calReview. Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand, magnesium,but some contained small 1963. amountsof iron,nickel, zinc, and manga- "HoytHardlead: Architectural andOrnamental Leadwork."New York: National Lead Com- nese.The alloysvaried in fluidityand abil- pany,1930. ityto anodize,and thesefactors governed theirselection. Aluminum also ex- Jester,Thomas C. Twentieth-centuryBuilding alloys Materials:History and Conservation. New hibitsignificant differences in generaldu- York:McGraw-Hill, 1995. rability.Alloys containing metals strongly La Niece,Susan, and Paul T. Craddock.Metal cathodicto aluminum,such as copper, Platingand Patination: Cultural Technical performpoorly in marineenvironments. andHistorical Developments. Oxford, Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann,1993. As problematicas thesevulnerabilities are, NewYork City Transit Archives, Specifications themost difficult of aluminum'schallenges forConstruction ofStation Finish ("Deplat- forthe conservator is theidentification ing"),Section 3, Route109, 1931. and replicationof chemicaland electro- NickelSilver in Architecture: Some Applications oxide surfacetreatments. Dozens of ofNickel Silvers , for Architects , Decora- lytic tors,Builders , Building Owners , Managers treatmentoptions were listed in the 1938 andManufacturers. New York: International "Finishesfor Aluminum" booklet, and NickelCompany, 1935. manyof thesewere described in detail Pinn,Keith. Paktong: The Chinese Alloy in Eu- thereto encourageimplementation by rope, 1680-1820. Woodbridge, Suffolk, Eng- local fabricators.Most of thelisted treat- land:Antique Collectors' Club, Inc., 1999. mentshad as well as aesthetic Smith,George David. From Monopoly to Compe- protective tition:The Transformations ofAlcoa, 1888- functions;they improved resistance to cor- 1986.New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, rosion,as well as abrasion.They are diffi- 1988. cultto identifywith certainty and, because "WhiteMetal Inside and Outside: City Bank theyare shop-appliedtank treatments, FarmersTrust Company, New York City." 6 165. impossibleto replicatein situ. Metalcraft(April 1931): p. Zahner,L. William.Architectural Metals: A Perhapsbecause of theexceptional du- Guideto Selection , Specification , and Perfor- rabilityof the "whitemetals," methods mance.New York: Wiley, 1995. fortheir refinishing and maintenanceare Fig.5. 20 ExchangePlace, New not yetas standardizedas treatments YorkCity, detail of nickel-silver foriron, steel, zinc, and copperalloys. doors,which have notbeen main- As thesebuildings age and morework is tained.Nickel silver in exterior undertaken,new modelswill emergefor installationswill patinate to a dull methodsof treatmentand identificationof brownif not maintained with polish finishes. and a lacquerfinish. RichardPieper is directorof preservation SS Fig.6. 20 ExchangePlace, detail forJan Hird PokornýAssociates , Ine,,a INTERNATIONAL ofpolished nickel-silver doors. preservationfirm in New YorkCity, and TheAPT Bulletin is publishedby the Maintenanceof exterior nickel- an adjunctprofessor for Columbia Uni- Associationof Preservation Technology, an silverinstallations may be demand- versity'sGraduate School of Architecture, interdisciplinaryorganization dedicated to ing.It is notunusual to see highly Planning,and Preservation,where he has thepractical application of the principles and forthe care and wise exposed installations(such as gates taughta courseon architecturalmetals techniquesnecessary useof the built environment. A and grilles)or recessed ornament since1 996. He can be reachedat pieper@ subscription tothe Bulletin and free online access to (suchas thebackground behind jhpokorny.com. thelocomotive in this photograph) pastarticles are member benefits. For more coated witha silverypaint. informationplease visit www.apti.org. 28

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