The Meanings of Non-Violence: a Typology (Revised) Autho

!"#$%#&'(')*$+,$-+'./(+0#'1#2$3$!45+0+)4$67#8(*#9: 3;<"+=6*:2$>#'#$?"&=5 ?+;=1#2$!"#$@+;='&0$+,$A+',0(1<$7#*+0;<(+'B$/+0C$DB$-+C$EB$?<;9(#*$,=+F$<"#$G'*<(<;<#$,+= ?+1(&0$7#*#&=1"B$H*0+B$-+=I&4$6%&=CB$EJKJ:B$55C$LE.MM N;O0(*"#9$O42$Sage Publications, Inc. ?<&O0#$P7Q2$http://www.jstor.org/stable/172867 . 311#**#92$RMSTESRTEE$EM2RM

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.

Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at . http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=sage. .

Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission.

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

Sage Publications, Inc. is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Journal of Conflict Resolution.

http://www.jstor.org The meaningsof non-violence:a typology (revised')

GENE SHARP Institute for Social Research, Oslo, Norway

Despite the growing awareness of "non- tributed to this confusion are that the phe- violence,"2 there is widespread confusion nomena are relatively little known and that about what "non-violence" is. This confu- clarity of thought about them has often sion extends to such related terms as "paci- been handicapped by highly emotional atti- fism," "non-violent resistance," and "passive tudes among both proponents and oppo- resistance." Two factors which have con- nents of these approaches. At first glance, all that is "not violence" 1 The first version of this typology was a chap- may seem to be of a single kind. A failure, ter of the writer's M.A. thesis in "Non- sociology, however, to discern the real differ- Violence: A State Uni- very Sociological Study" (Ohio ences the various of "non-vio- versity, 1951). A slightly popularized revision among types lence" and to exercise more care in the use appeared in Mankind (Hyderabad), December, 1956, under the title "A Typology of Non-Vio- of terms may have a number of undesirable A of lence." pamphlet reprint this under the title consequences. Two of these are that evalu- The Meaning of Non-Violence (Introduction by ation of the merits and demerits of these Dr. RammanoharLohia) was issued in 1957 by will be Housemans Bookshop, London. The present re- approaches seriously handicapped vision was begun in February, 1957, while the and that research in this area will face un- writer was at the Institute of Philosophy and the necessary difficulties. A typology of the phe- of Ideas of the of under History University Oslo, nomena, therefore, may serve a useful role. its political ethics program (financed by the Nor- Hans Reichenbach has written: "Classifica- Research Council for Science and the wegian tion is the first toward scientific inves- Humanities). The major work on this revision step has been done at the Institute for Social Research, tigation."3 Oslo. The writer has made several major changes and additions,included documentation,and com- I. Distinctions Made by Devotees pletely rewritten the paper. of "Non-Violence" In order to clarify and document the necessar- Persons violence on grounds of ily brief descriptions of the types of "non-vio- rejecting lence," the writer has included references and principle have rarely analyzed the relation illustrative footnotes for readers desiring addi- of their particular belief systems to those of tional information. This documentation is more others also rejecting violence. They have extensive than to usual, compensate for the wide- failed to do this because such anal- lack of with these largely spread familiarity approaches. has seemed to them irrelevant: their 2 "Non-violence" in this refers to the ysis paper was to follow the of their absence of physical violence against human duty imperatives beings. It is here used to cover the group of approachesand methods in which this is an out- 3 H. Reichenbach, The Rise of Scientific Phi- standing characteristic.Fuller definitionsof "non- losophy (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University violence" are offered in subsequent sections. of CaliforniaPress, 1951), p. 83. 42 GENE SHARP

beliefs. However, some of them have recog- sophical" considerations. This distinction nized differences in motivation and behav- has also been made by non-pacifists.7 Paci- ior among those rejecting violence. fists have also recognized differences among For example, Guy F. Hershberger, a Men- themselves in their response to military con- nonite, distinguishes between "non-resist- scription. There have been (1) the "abso- ance" and "modern pacifism." Non-resist- lutists," who believe in civil disobedience to ance, he says, describes the faith and life of such laws and refuse co-operation with the those "who cannot have any part in warfare administrative agencies for military con- because they believe the Bible forbids it, scription even to obtain their personal ex- and who renounce all coercion, even non- emption from military duty where the law violent coercion." Pacifism, he says, is "a allows for such exemption; (2) those who term which covers many types of opposition refuse entry into the armed forces (even as to war."4 non-combatants) but are willing to co-op- Some Western pacifists5 have seen Gan- erate with the conscription system to ob- dhi's approach as sufficiently different from tain their exemption from military duty and their own that they have felt it was not are willing to perform alternative civilian genuinely "pacifist." Reginald Reynolds work where such alternative is allowed; and writes: "A reading of 'official' [British] paci- (3) those who refuse to bear arms but are fist literature from-say-1920 onward would willing to perform non-combatant (as med- reveal some odd things which many paci- ical) duties within the armed forces.8 fists would prefer to forget. People ac- Although Gandhi never wrote systematic cepted as 'leading pacifists' were, as late as treatises on "non-violence," he did distin- 1930, writing abusive articles about Gandhi guish between two or more types of "non- and defending British Rule in India. Such violence."9 After first calling his South Af- articles and letters could be found in The rican protest movements "passive resist- Friend (weekly unofficial paper of the Quak- ance," he discarded the term and adopted ers), in Reconciliation (monthly organ of a new term, Satyagraha.10 "When in a the Fellowship of Reconciliation), and in No More War (the of the monthly organ 7 For example, the United States conscription More [No War] movement)."6 law provides for alternatives to military duty for Western pacifists have sometimes distin- those objecting to it because of religious belief and such to ob- guished between the "religious" pacifists training but denies alternatives jectorswhose arises from a and the "non-religious" pacifists who base pacifism personal phi- humanitarianism, social, economic, or their on "humanitarian" or losophy, pacifism "philo- political views. 8 Military conscription laws throughout the 4 G. F. liershberger, "Biblical Non-Resistance world vary concerning provisions for objectors. and Modern Pacifism,"Mennonite QuarterlyRe- Many make no provisions for exemption from view, XVII (July, 1943), 116; cited by Theodore military duty or alternative civilian duty. Some Paullin, Introduction to Non-Violence (Phila- include either or both provisions for objectors delphia: Pacifist ResearchBureau, 1944), p. 5. establishing their sincerity. Still others provide either or both for certain 5 "Pacifists"here refers to persons and groups provisions only objec- tors, as ones. refusing participation in war on ethical, moral, "religious" or religious grounds. A fuller definition is offered 9 As will be indicated below, the term "non- below. violence" is used in a much broader sense in this than it was Gandhi. 6 R. Reynolds, "What Are Pacifists Doing?" paper by Peace News (London), July 20, 1956, p. 5. 10 Satyagrahawill be defined later.

C ONF I CT R E S OLU TON v O ,L UTJME III N U M, B ER 1 THE MEANINGS OF NON-VIOLENCE 43 meeting of Europeans I found that the term fism.13 This classification, however, did not 'passive resistance' was too narrowly con- purport to encompass the field of "non-vio- strued, that it was supposed to be a weapon lence" and was limited to those modern of the weak, that it could be characterized types of pacifism containing political the- by hatred, and that it could finally mani- ory. Professor Leo Kuper, of the Sociology fest itself as violence, I had to demur to all Department of Natal University, has dis- these statements and explain the real nature tinguished between non-violent resistance of the Indian movement. It was clear that movements aiming to achieve their results a new word must be coined by the Indians by means of embarrassment and conversion to designate their struggle."1 Gandhi also of their opponents, respectively;14 but again seems to have assumed an implicit distinc- this does not purport to be a full typology. tion between Western pacifism and Satya- Theodore Paullin15 comes close to devel- graha, although explicit statements to this oping a typology of "non-violence," al- effect are difficult to find. Bharatan Kuma- though this was not his main intention. rappa, in an introductory note to a small Paullin structured his discussion on the collection of Gandhi's writings prepared for basis of six types resulting from a contin- the World Pacifist Conference in India, De- uum, "'at one end of which we place vio- cember, 1949-January, 1950, writes: "It is lence coupled with hatred, and at the other, a far cry . . . from pacifism to Gandhiji's dependence only upon the application of idea of non-violence. While pacifism hopes positive love and good will. In the interme- to get rid of war, chiefly by refusing to fight diate positions we might place (1) violence and by carrying on propaganda against war, without hatred, (2) non-violence practiced Gandhiji goes much deeper and sees that by necessity rather than because of princi- war cannot be avoided, so long as the seeds ple, (3) non-violent coercion, (4) Satya- and non-violent direct and of it remain in man's breast and grow and graha action, non-resistance."16 The non-violence develop in his social, political and econom- (5) of his "active ic life. Gandhiji's cure is, therefore, very extremity continuum, good- will and reconciliation," becomes the sixth radical and far-reaching. It demands noth- Because Paullin's main in ing less than rooting out violence from one- type. objective the booklet was to consider the self and from one's environment."'2 application of "non-violent means of achieving group purposes,"17 his classification has suffered II. More Systematic Distinctions through lack of development and refine- Political scientist Dr. Mulford has Sibley ment. Some types of "non-violence" have distinguished three types of "non-violence": Hindu pacifism (Satyagraha), Christian 13 The Political pacifism, and revolutionary secular paci- Sibley, Theories of Modern Pacifism: An Analysis and Criticism (Philadel- phia: Pacifist Research Bureau, 1944). 14 11 Mohandas K. Gandhi, An Autobiography See L. Kuper, Passive Resistance in South or the Story of My Experiments with Truth Africa (London: Jonathan Cape, 1956), pp. 75- (Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House, 94. 318. 1956), p. 5 Op. cit. 12 B. Kumarappa,"Editor's Note," in Gandhi, 16 Ibid., p. 8. For Pacifists (Ahmedabad: NavajivanPublishing House, 1949), pp. v-vi. 17 Ibid., p. 9. 44 4GENESIIARP not been included,18 and some seem classi- volving a de facto withdrawal, though for fied incorrectly.19 Paullin has, however, different reasons, from aspects of life in- made a genuine contribution toward devel- volving physical violence rather than offer- oping a typology. ing a non-violent response in the situation), and (3) legislation, state decrees, etc. I1I. Generic Non-Violence (backed by threat of physical violence, as The whole gamut of behavior and belief imprisonment, execution, etc.). characterized by an abstention from physi- cal violence is hereafter described by the IV. Pacifism term "generic non-violence." This is the The term "pacifism" as here defined in- sense in which the term "non-violence" has cludes the belief systems of those persons been used hitherto in this paper.20 "Generic and groups who, as a minimum, refuse par- non-violence" thus includes a wide variety ticipation in all international or civil wars or of types of "non-violence": all the examples violent revolutions and base this refusal on briefly listed in the opening section of this moral, ethical, or religious principle. Such paper and more. These vary widely on sev- persons and groups are here called "paci- eral points, such as whether "non-violence" ists." "Pacifism" is thus a narrower term is viewed as intrinsically good or simply as than "generic non-violence" and is an inter- an effective method of action, the degree of mediary classification including several of passivity and activity, the presence or ab- the types of generic non-violence described sence of strategy, and whether the follow- below. These are indicated below after the ers of the approach are "otherworldly" or typology. "this-worldly." These phenomena have in common only the abstention from physical V. Non-Violent Resistance and violence, either generally or in meeting par- Direct Action ticular conflict situations or both. Not in- "Non-violent resistance and direct action" cluded in this broad classification are (1) is another intermediary classification, being cases of cowardice in- hermits, (2) (both both narrower than "generic non-violence" and broader than the specific types. The 18 For example, non-violent resistance with methods of "non-violent resistance and di- mixed motives of principle and expediency and rect action" fall on a continuum between international wars but not nec- groups rejecting behavior and verbal essarily personal violence. personal exemplary at one end, and and 19For example, including William Lloyd Gar- persuasion, sabotage at the other. rison's approach under "Satyagraha and non- physical violence, violent direct action." "Non-violent resistance and direct action" 20 "Generic non-violence" and "non-violence" refers to those methods of resistance and di- of this have thus a for the purposes typology rect action without physical violence in much broader than that given to "non- meaning which the members of the non-violent group violence" by Gandhi and certain other votaries of non-violence. Gandhi often referred to non- commit either (1) acts of omission-that is, violence as being essentially the same as love. they refuse to perform acts which they usu- It was ahimsa, which involved non-injury in ally perform and are expected by custom and deed to all It thought, word, living things. to perform or are required by law or regu- ill-will and hatred as well as physical rejected lation to perform-or (2) acts of commis- violence. For clarity, the new term "generic non- sion-that is, insist on acts violence" will be used hereafter in this paper, they performing not now that the subject area has been introduced. which they usually do not perform, are

CONFLICT RESOLUTION VOLUME III NUMBER 1 THE MEANINGS OF NON-VIOLENCE 45 expected by custom to perform, or are for- violent resistance and direct action"22 are bidden by law or regulation from perform- indicated below following the typology. ing-or (3) both. These methods are "ex- tra-constitutional";that is, they do not rely VI. The Types of Generic upon established procedures of the state Non-Violence (whether parliamentaryor non-parliamen- In developing this typology, the writer tary) for achieving their objective. Act 1, 2, has sought to observe the "natural" group- or 3 may be directed toward a change in, ings or types as they seem to exist rather or abolition of, existing attitudes, values, than pre-selecting certain criteria and then social patterns, customs, or social structure, seeking to fit the phenomena into the pre- or a combination of these. This may take determined categories. After a classification place whether these are the attitudes, etc., of the types had been made, the writer of the society as a whole or of only a sec- sought to examine what were the intrinsic tion of it. Act 1, 2, or 3 may also be di- characteristics possessed by the respective rected in defense of attitudes, values, so- types which distinguished them from the cial patterns, customs, or social structure,or others. The criteria which emerged include a combinationof these, against attempts of such factors as whether the motivation for the opponent to alter or to abolish them, non-violence is expediency, principle, or whether by the introductionof particularor mixed; whether the non-violent group's be- general innovations or both. lief system is "otherworldly" or "this-world- In some cases of non-violent resistance ly"; whether or not the non-violent group and direct action the primary intent is to has a program of social change; what is the change attitudes and values as a prelimi- non-violent group's attitude toward the op- certain nary to changing policies. In other cases the ponents; whether all or only physical violence is whether the non-vio- primary intent is to change policies (or rejected; lent is concerned with its own thwart attempts to change policies), wheth- group integ- er or not the opponents have first changed their attitudes and values. In other cases the 21 "Non-violent direct action" is discussed as a of non-violence below in the intent may be to change attitudes and poli- type generic typol- cies Included in "non-vio- ogy. simultaneously. 22 lent resistance and direct action" are those This classification is similar to Hiller's cate- strike": "This [the generic cases in which violence has been gory-the "generic rejected strike] includes the labor strike, the social boy- because of (1) religious, ethical, or moral cott, political non-co-operation, demonstrations reasons; (2) considerationsof expediency; against official acts, and other similar group con- flicts. These various forms of and (3) mixed motivationsof various non-participation, types. although differing in the occasions from which the behavior of the non-violent Where they arise and the ends which they seek, are es- group is primarily resistance-usually acts sentially similar in their methods of coercion and of omission-it can be described as collective control" (E. T. Hiller, The Strike: A simply in Collective Action "non-violentresistance." Where the behav- Study [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1928], p. 4). "Non-participa- ior of the non-violent group is primarilyin- tion which is designed to interfere with official tervention-usually acts of commission-it acts most frequently takes the form of a refusal can be described as "non-violentdirect ac- to share in the prescribed institutional activities or to in affairs. tion."21The of non-violence participate political Occasionally types generic it may involve a suspension of labor" (ibid., p. which are included in the category "non- 234). 46 GENE SHARP rity; and others. Following the description standing and study of the phenomena, a of the types of generic non-violence, Chart tool which is neither perfect nor final but 1 lists the main criteria which emerged. may nevertheless be useful. The nine types of generic non-violence described below are non-resistance, active NON-RESISTANCE reconciliation, moral resistance, selective The non-resistant rejects on principle all non-violence, passive resistance, peaceful physical violence, whether on an individual, resistance, non-violent direct action, Satya- state, or international level. There are vari- graha, and non-violent revolution.23 These ous Christian sects of this type, such as the are listed roughly in the order of increasing Mennonites and the Amish.25 They refuse activity.24 There is no strict separation be- tween some of these types, and particular 2a With very few exceptions, the early Chris- tians refused all service and subservience cases may not seem to fit exactly into any military one of them. This classification should be to the Roman emperor.The crucial change began under the of Constantine, who was con- viewed as a tool to facilitate under- reign simply verted to Christianityin A.D. 312 and declared it to be the state religion in A.D.324 (G. H. Heer- 23 There is no type labeled "conscientiousob- ing, The Fall of Christianity[New York: Fellow- jection" or "war resistance,"because such objec- ship Publications, 1943], p. 33). After the main tion or resistance is a specific application of sev- Christian groups began to turn toward the state eral of the types of generic non-violence included for support and no longer refused participation here. in war, small heretical groups perpetuated the In this revision the writer has tried to offer pacifist interpretationof Christianity.They were terminology and definitions which, if adopted, cruelly persecuted. Some of their names have might reduce future confusion in the literature. been lost. In the Middle Ages and later there This has involved making refinements in the were many sects which sought a return to what existing teminology while seeking to use such they believed to be the basic gospel. Among these terms in ways harmonious with present general were the Albigenses or Cathari; "Christ'sPoor"; usage-hence the broader intermediaryclasses of the Waldenses, or "The Poor Men of Lyons"; "pacifism"and "non-violentresistance and direct the "Ilumilates";the Bohemian Brethren, of the action"; hence also the use of the terms "non- Churchof the Unitas Fratrum;the revived Unitas resistance," "passive resistance," "Satyagraha," Fratrum,or the MoravianChurch; the Schwenk- and "non-violentrevolution" in ways having clear felders; the German Baptists or Dunkers; the precedents (although the writer is aware that Obbenites; the Mennonites; the Collegiants the first two have also been widely used with (which represented a movement for a creedless varying connotations). It has seemed necessary spiritual worship within the existing denomina- to coin new terms, such as "generic non-vio- tions); the Simonians;the Socinians;the Brown- lence" and "selective non-violence" and to give ists. Some of these were Anabaptist sects. There more specific meanings to "moralresistance" and were others. "peaceful resistance."The writer does not regard Hershberger wrote: "Alongside of the medi- this terminology as perfect but, in the absence eval church there were certain small, intimate of an alternative, suggests its adoption. The final groups of Christians who refused to accept a solution to the terminological problem may lie compromise with the social order. They stood in creating entirely new terms, such as Gandhi aloof and maintained that indifference or hos- did with Satyagraha; the difficulties in gaining tility to the world which characterizedthe primi- their general acceptance, however, might be tive church. These groups are known as the sects. greater than the acceptance of terms and defini- They generally refused to use the law, to take tions offered in this paper. the oath, to exercise domination over others, or 24 This order is inevitably somewhat arbitrary; to participate in war. Their's was not an ascetic the most active expression of one type may ex- emphasis on heroic and vicarious achievement. ceed in activity the most passive expression of It was not an opposition, in most cases, to the the type(s) listed after it. sense life or the average life of humanity, but

CONFLICT R ESOI.UTION VOLUME III NUMBER 1 THE MEANINGS OF NON-VIOLENCE 47 participation in war and also in the state tion is based upon principle. It refers not by holding government office, voting, or only to outward actions but to personal rec- having recourse to the courts. They pay onciliation and improvement of one's own their taxes, however, and do what the state life before attempting to change others. demands, so long as it is not inconsistent "Its proponents seek to accomplish a posi- with what they consider to be their duty to tive alteration in the attitude and policy of God. They refuse to resist evil situations the group or person responsible for some even by non-violent techniques and in times undesirable situation; but they never use of oppression simply hold to their beliefs coercion-even non-violent coercion. Rather and follow them-ignoring the evil as much they seek to convince their opponent . . . as possible and suffering their lot as part of they place their emphasis on the positive their duty. The non-resistants are concerned action of goodwill which they will use rather with being true to their beliefs and main- than upon a catalogue of violent actions taining their own integrity rather than with which they will not use."26 A large part of attempts at social reconstruction, many even the basis of this approach is the importance opposing attempts to create a good society placed on the worth of every individual and here on earth. A common belief of non-re- the belief that he can change. Direct action sistants is that it is not possible for the and strategy are not involved. Tolstoy and world as a whole to become free from sin, many of his followers and much of the and therefore the Christian should withdraw present Society of Friends (Quakers) are from evil. To the degree that they have in- of this type of generic non-violence. So also fluence on the society as a whole, it results are many other individual pacifists. from their acts of good will (such as relief Tolstoy rejected the use of violence under work), their exhortations, and their example. all circumstances and also private property and association with institutions which ACTIVE RECONCILIATION practice coercion over men. Tolstoy de- The non-violence of the group favoring pended upon the power of example and the use of active will and reconcilia- good good will to influence men. He sought a regeneration in this world of as a an to the social institutions of society simply opposition whole the of love in all the world. through practice one's self-serv- "The sects generally emphasized lay religion, relationships, simple living, personal ethical achievement, religious equality, ice, and the persuasion of others to follow brotherly love, indifference to the state and the this way of life.27 ruling classes, dislike of the law and oath, and the ideal of poverty and frugality, direct personal 26 Paullin, cit., p. 43. religious relationship, appeal to the primitive op. church, criticism of the theologians. They always 27 See Leo Tolstoy, The Kingdom of God Is demanded a high standard of moral perform- within You (Boston: L. C. Page, 1951), and ance. This made for small groups, of course, but What Then Must We Do? (London: OxfordUni- what they lost in the spirit of universalism,they versity Press). made up for in intensity of life. This tradition Tolstoy said: "... it is this acknowledgement of the sects was carried down from the Montan- of the law of love as the supreme law of human ists and Dontanists through the Waldensians to life, and this clearly expressed guidance for con- the followers of Wycliff and Huss to the Ana- duct resulting from the Christian teaching of baptists" (Guy F. Hershberger,"Quaker Pacifism love, embracing enemies and those who hate, and the Provincial Governmentof Pennsylvania, offend, and curse us, that constitutes the peculi- 1682-1756" [unpublished Ph.D. thesis, State arity of Christ's teaching, and by giving to the University of Iowa, 1935]). doctrine of love, and to the guidance flowing 48 GENE SHARP

George Fox and the early Quakers rec- a civil government30 and often today work ognized religious experience as the final for the adoption of legislation and some- authority in religion in place of the Scrip- times hold office, even as judges. Quakers tures, which were the authority of the non- have made large efforts at international re- resistant sects and other Protestants. The lief and reconstruction, international con- Friends believe that the life of every per- ciliation and peace education, social reform son, however degraded, has worth and is activities and conscientious objection. guided by an Inner Light (sometimes called Persons sharing the "active reconciliation" "the spirit of Christ"). This rules out any beliefs often prefer a rather quietist ap- right to constrain men by means of vio- proach to social problems, disliking any- lence.28 Also involved is the conviction that thing akin to "agitation" or "trouble." Some men should live the kind of life which re- of them may thus oppose non-violent re- moves the occasion for wars and builds a sistance and direct action (including strikes, world of peace.29 Friends in general have boycotts, etc.) and even outspoken verbal not completely rejected the use of force by 29 George Fox wrote: "I told them I knew therefrom, an exact and definite meaning, in- whence all wars arise, even from the lusts, ac- to and that I lived in the evitably involves a complete change of the es- cording James'doctrine; life that took the tablished organization of life, not only in Chris- virtue of that and power away of all An Autobi- tendom, but among all the nations of the earth" occasion wars" (George Fox, ed. Rufus (Leo Tolstoy, "The Law of Force and the Law ography, Jones, p. 128, quoted by Non-violent Coercion: A of Love," Fortnightly Review, p. 474). Clarence Case, Study "The time will come-it is already coming- in Methods of Social Pressure [New York: Cen- when the Christian principles of equality and tury Co., 1923], p. 95). "Thereis a and for the fam- fraternity, community of property, non-resist- right possible way of nations to live at ... It is ance of evil by force, will appear just as natural ily together peace. the of active of and simple as the principles of family or social way reconciling love, overcoming We feel life seem to us now" (Tolstoy, The Kingdom evil with good. an inward compulsion, of God Is within You [London: William Heine- which we cannot disregard, to strive to follow the of constructive the mann, 1894], p. 160). way goodwill, despite of our own the "The Christian will not dispute with any one, sense shortcomings and despite in which we have to labor suffi- nor attack any one, nor use violence against any failure, shared, for the of God on earth" one. On the contrary,he will bear violence with- ciently Kingdom (Phila- Arch Statement out opposing it. But by this very attitude to vio- delphia yearly meeting, Street, on Peace the lence, he will not only himself be free, but will adopted by yearly meeting, 1942, free the whole world from all external power" quoted by Lucas, op. cit., p. 43). 806 f.). (ibid., pp. 30 Early Quakers, believing in the imminence 28 "The conviction that the spirit of Christ of the spiritual regeneration of the world, even- dwells in the souls of all men is the source of tually identified themselves with the civil govern- our refusal to take part in war, and of our oppo- ment, expecting to administer the affairs of state sition to slavery and oppression in every form. on the principles of love, kindness, and good will. We believe that the primary Christian duty in With most Quakersthere was a fundamental dif- relation to others is to appeal to that of God in ference between the use of force in personal re- them; and, therefore, any method of oppression lations and by the military, on the one hand, or violence that renders such an appeal impos- and by a civil government, on the other. After sible must be set on one side" (The Book of some years of Quaker administrationin Pennsyl- Discipline, Part 1, "Christian Life, Faith, and vania, the Quakers withdrew from the govern- Thought"[London yearly meeting, 1920]; quoted ment (see Hershberger, op. cit.). There is vari- by Sidney Lucas, The QuakerMessage [Walling- ation in opinion on the matter among present- ford, Pa.: Pendle Hill, 1948], pp. 38 f.). day Quakers,many of whom are not pacifists.

CONFLICT RESOT.TION VOLUME III NUMBER 1 THE MEANINGS OF NON-VIOLENCE 49 statements, believing such methods to be England during the middle of the last cen- violent in spirit, perhaps even immoral, and tury was of this type. Adin Ballou32 and harmful in the effects on the opponent. They would prefer much quieter methods, such that it provides for all possible consequences, as personal representations, letters, and pri- will ensure all things needful to us, is armed with and must vate deputations. omnipotent power, ultimately triumph over every assailing force.... MORAL RESISTANCE "But while we shall adhere to the doctrine of Non-Resistance and passive submission to ene- in Believers "moral resistance"-a matter mies, we purpose, in a moral and spiritual sense, of principle-are convinced that evil should to speak and act boldly; to assail iniquity, in high and in low be resisted, but only by peaceful and moral places places; to apply our principles to all civil, and ecclesi- means. The emphasis on individual moral existing political, legal astical institutions ... we shall lecturers, is an of this employ responsibility important part circulate tracts and publications, form societies, "Moral approach. resistance" includes both and petition our State and national governments, a personal refusal of individuals to partici- in relation to the subject of universal peace. It will pate in evil-such as war or, earlier, slavery be our leading object to devise ways and means for a radical in the views, -and an imperative for individuals to do effecting change feelings, and practices of society, respecting the something actively against the evil, such as sinfulness of war and the treatment of enemies" or Non-violent speaking, writing, preaching. (William Lloyd Garrison:The Story of His Life resistance and direct action are not ruled Told by His Children [New York: Century Co., out, though the major emphasis is usually 18851, II, 230; quoted in Fanny GarrisonVillard, William Garrisonon Non-Resistance [New placed upon education, persuasion, and in- Lloyd York: Nation Press, 1924], pp. 25-28). dividual example. Believers in "moral re- 32 Adin Ballou stated: "The term non-resist- sistance" in Western society, although lack- ance ... requiresvery considerablequalifications. ing an over-all social analysis or compre- I use it as applicable only to the conduct of hu- hensive of social program change, generally man beings, toward human beings-not towards favor gradual social reform through such the inferior animals, inanimate things, or satonic methods as legislation, education, and ef- influences. .. . But I go further, and disclaim the term to absolute even forts to influence government officials. The using express passivity towards human I the offer of various societies31 in New beings. claim right to pacifism peace the utmost moral resistance, not sinful, of which God has made me capable, to every manifesta- 31 These societies were often called "non-re- tion of evil among mankind. Nay, I hold it my sistance" societies. This is one of the cases in duty to offer such moral resistance. In this sense which a single term has been used with a variety my very non-resistancebecomes the highest kind of connotations. The term "non-resistance"was of resistance to evil. ... There is an uninjurious, also used by Tolstoy. benevolent physical force. There are cases in A part of the "Declaration of Sentiments" which it would not only be allowable, but in the (written by Garrison) adopted by the Peace highest degree commendable, to restrain human Convention, Boston, September 18-20, 1838, beings by this kind of force . . . as maniacs, the reads as follows: delirious, the intoxicated, etc. And in cases where "We register our testimony, not only against deadly violence is inflicted with deliberationand all wars, whether offensive or defensive, but all malice of forethought, one may nobly throw his preparations for war. ... Hence we deem it un- body as a temporary barrier between the de- lawful to bear arms or to hold a military office stroyer and his helpless victim, choosing to die . . as a measure of sound policy ... as well as in that position, rather than be a passive spec- on the ground of allegiance to Him who is King tator. Thus another most important qualification of Kings and Lord of Lords, we cordially adopt is given to the term non-resistance.... It is sim- the Non-Resistance principle, being confident ply non-resistanceof injurywith injury-evil with 50 GENE SHARP

William Lloyd Garrison33 (of antislavery there is variation within the membership fame) were well-known spokesmen for these of most of the pacifist organizations. A non- groups. A very large part of contemporary Western example of "moral resistance" is Western pacifists are of this type,34 although the pacifism of the traditional Hopi Indian Nation.35 They are now seeking to spread evil" (Ballou, Christian Non-Resistance, in All Its ImportantBearings, Illustratedand Defended [Philadelphia: J. Miller M'Kim, 1846], p. 10). pate in any war or to sanction military prepara- 33 Garrisonsaid: "Non-Resistanceis ... a state tions; they work to abolish war and to foster of activity, ever fighting the good fight of faith, goodwill among nations, races and classes; they suffer ever foremost to assail unjust power, ever strug- strive to build a social order which will the gling for 'liberty, equality, fraternity,' in no na- no individual or group to be exploited for will en- tional sense, but in a world-wide spirit. It is pas- profit or pleasure of another, and which sive only in this sense-that it will not return evil sure to all the means for realizing the best possi- deal- for evil, nor give blow for blow, nor resort to bilities of life; they advocate such ways of trans- murderous weapons for protection or defense" ing with offenders against society as shall (Selections from the Writings and Speeches of form the wrongdoerrather than inflict retributive William Lloyd Garrison[Boston: R. F. Wallcut, punishment; they endeavor to show reverence 1852], p. 88; quoted in Villard, op. cit., p. 30). for personality-in the home, in the education those other Garrison (at the New England Abolitionists of children, in association with of Convention, Boston, May 26, 1858) stated: classes, nationalities and races; they seek to avoid to maintain the "When the anti-slavery cause was launched it bitterness and contention, and love while in the was baptized in the spirit of peace.... I do not spirit of self-giving engaged to these Asked believe that the weapons of liberty ever have struggle achieve purposes" (You been or ever can be, the weapons of despotism. about the F.O.R. [leaflet] [Nyack, N.Y.: F.O.R., I know that those of despotism are the sword, n.d.], p. 3). the revolver, the cannon, the bomb-shell; and, 35 Dan Kachongva, a foremost adviser and to therefore, the weapons which tyrants cling, spokesman of the traditional Hopis, says that and are not the upon which they depend, weap- people are turning away from the Life Plan of as a of I will not ons for me, friend liberty. trust the Great Spirit. "Each and every human being the war spirit anywhere in the universe of God, knows these simple instructions upon which are of six because the experience thousand years based all the various Life Plans and religions of proves it not to be at all reliable in such a strug- the Great Spirit,"he said. The laws of the Great as ours.... I still ad- gle pray you, Abolitionists, Spirit must be followed even though they might here to that truth . . . blood . . . shall not flow conflict with other "laws." All the various in- counsel of mine. Much as I through any detest structions of: the Great Spirit came from "the the oppression exercised by the Southern slave- seed of one basic instruction: 'You must not kill; he is a sacred before me. ... I have holder, man, you must love your neighbor as yourself.' From no other to wield him but the weapon against this one commandmentto respect and reverence simple truth of God, which is the great instru- life, came all the other commandments: to tell ment for the overthrow of all the iniquity, and the truth, to share what we have; to live together salvation of the world" Garrison: (William Lloyd so we can help each other out; to take care of our The His Told His III Story of Life by Children, children and old people, the sick and strangers, [New York, 1889], 473; quoted in Villard, op. friends and enemies; to not get drunk, or commit cit., pp. 34-37). adultery, or lie or cheat, or steal, or covet, or get 34 A large proportion of the members of the rich, because all these negative acts cause fights United States Fellowship of Reconciliation (a and struggles which divide the community into religious, largely Christian,pacifist organization) groups too small to support and carry on the life hold views which could be identified as "moral stream' (Craig, "Preface to a Review of the resistance."Their Statement of Purpose reads as Hotevilla Meeting of Religious Peoples" [MS]; follows: quoted in Sharp, "The Hopi Message of Peace "Althoughmembers do not bind themselves to for All Mankind," Peace News, December 14, any exact form of words, they refuse to partici- 1956, pp. 6-7; see also George Yamada [ed.],

CONFLICT RESOLUTION VOLUME III NUMIBER 1 TILE MEANINGS OF NON-VIOLENCE 51 their views which they believe may be help- Labour party; in the United States, the ful to other peoples. Socialist party, U.S.A.,38 and the Socialist Labor party; in Russia, the Bolsheviki; and SELECTIVE NON-VIOLENCE in Germany, the group of Socialists led by The chief characteristic of "selective non- Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg op- violence" is the refusal to participate in posed World War I. Most other Socialist particular violent conflicts, usually interna- groups abandoned the Socialist doctrine on tional wars. In certain other situations the war at that time. Only a few Socialists op- same persons might be willing to use vio- posed World War II on similar grounds. lence to accomplish the desired ends. The The Socialist party, U.S.A. (only a remnant two most obvious examples are the inter- of the earlier party), for example, tried to national Socialists, especially during World War I, and Witnesses. Also in- Jehovah's the principle of internationalism and working cluded are non-pacifist anarchists, objectors class solidarity the world over, and proclaims its primarily concerned with authoritarianism, unalterable opposition to the war just declared the of the United States.... The and other non-pacifists who believe that the by government is now un- manufacture and use of nuclear mad orgy of death which convulsing weapons fortunate was caused the conflict of can never be Europe by justified. capitalist interests in European countries.In each The international Socialists object to war of these countries the workers were oppressed because, they declare, it is a product of and exploited.... The ghastly war in Europe ... of the capitalism and there is no reason why the was the logical outcome competitive capi- talist Our entrance into the European workers of one country should fight the system.... war was instigated by the predatory capitalists workers of another when the real enemy of of the United States who boast of the enormous the workers of all countries is capitalism. profits of seven billion dollars from the manufac- Most, but not all,36 of the Socialist objectors ture and sale of munitions and war supplies and of American foodstuffs and to World War I would have participated from the exportation in a violent revolution of the other necessities. . . . We brand the declaration working peo- of war our as a crime to abolish and by government against ple capitalism, imperialism, the people of the United States and against the greed and to bring in the co-operative com- nations of the world" (quoted in Ray Ginger, monwealth. Their objections were intimate- The Bending Cross: A Biography of Eugene V. ly tied up with their conception of the Debs [New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1949], 341 f. ). class struggle.37 In Britain, the Independent pp. 38 At the party's state convention in Canton, Debs declared: "The master class has The Great Resistance: A [New Ohio, Hopi Anthology declared the wars; the class has York: The Editor, Rm. 825, 5 Beekman St., New always subject always fought the battles. The master class has YorkCity 38 ). had all to gain and nothing to lose, while the 36 all Some of the Socialists were objectors to subject class has had nothing to gain and all to forms of social violence. Whether United States lose-especially their lives" (ibid., p. 358). On Socialist leader Eugene V. Debs would have used trial for violation of the Sedition Act on ten violent means for the Socialist revolution is prob- counts allegedly committed during that speech, lematical. His statements on this are sometimes Debs told the jury: "It [the St. Louis Manifesto] contradictory. said, in effect, to the people, especially the work- 37 This conception is reflected in the 1917 ers, of all countries,'Quit going to war. Stop mur- St. Louis Manifesto, overwhelmingly approved dering one another for the profit and glory of the by the Socialist party, U.S.A.: ruling classes. Cultivate the arts of peace. Hu- "The Socialist Party of the United States in manize humanity, Civilize civilization'" (ibid., the present grave crisis reaffirmsits allegiance to pp. 370 f.). 52 GENE SHARP maintain a position of "neutrality" on the tor camps, interned, imprisoned, or sent to war, neither supporting nor opposing it, concentration camps by both sides during while some of its members gave full sup- World War II.42 port, some gave critical support, and some The position of certain non-pacifist but opposed it. In most countries, Socialist antiwar anarchists would come under this groups fully supported the war. classification also. Their position is similar Jehovah's Witnesses39 also object to par- to that of the international Socialists, in ticular violent conflicts. They regard all gov- that they would be willing, under certain ernments that took part in World War II circumstances, to use violence to abolish as being equally guilty. The existing gov- the existing order of society to bring in the ernments of all nations are regarded as classless, stateless, and warless society of being ruled by Satan; the Witnesses declare their dreams.43 that the existing governments have failed because they merely rendered lip service 41 Stroupstated: "The law of God forbids Wit- to morality. To support any such govern- nesses to engage in war. The view has commonly ment is to support Satan and to deny God. been taken that they are pacifists. Such they are must often The wars are as a not, for they feel that they employ present regarded merely force to resist and also of the end of an and a physical persecution, they sign age preliminary believe that Jehovah has engaged in and en- worldly step before the righteous King Jesus couraged wars between peoples. The Witnesses soon returns to establish his heavenly rule will not engage in the present war [World War because think that is not con- on earth. The people of good will will sur- II] they Jehovah would be vive the Battle of which will cerned with it; otherwise they quite Armageddon, to Most of them believe that Satan be Satan's willing fight. fought by angels against organi- is 'running the whole show' and therefore they zation, and will "carry out the divine man- will have nothing to do with it. This is similar to date to 'fill the earth' with a righteous their attitude toward the first World War. The were interned both because race."40 The Witnesses are not prohibited Witnesses by sides, that the war was from violence in their re- the Society boldly stated being using personal selfish interests and without or in as fought by equally lationships resisting persecution, the sanction of God. Their own fight, they de- they once were. If God were concerned clared, was not fought with 'carnal weapons': it with the present wars, as he was with some was a battle of cosmic proportionswith the ad- of Satan" 165 earlier ones, they would be willing to fight.41 versary every man, (ibid., pp. f.). 42 147 and 166. Witnesses were sent to conscientious objec- See ibid., pp. 43 For example, both principals in the famous Sacco-Vanzetti case had to Mexico 39 1872 Charles Russell in gone during Founded in by Taze World War I to avoid have been known military conscription Allegheny, Pennsylvania.They (Marion Denman Frankfurterand GardnerJack- under various names, in some coun- including, son [eds.], The Letters of Sacco and Vanzetti tries, the International Bible Students Associa- [New York: Vanguard Press, 1930], pp. 3 and tion Herbert Hewitt The Jehovah's (see Stroup, 78). In the last interview with W. G. Witnesses [New York: Columbia Thompson University before their execution, Vanzetti said that he Press, 1945], 2 ff.). pp. "feared that nothing but violent resistance could 40 Quoted from the official statement of belief ever overcome the selfishnesswhich was the basis that appears regularly in The Watch Tower, of the present organization of society and made official publication of the Witnesses; quoted by the few willing to perpetuate a system which Stroup, op. cit., p. 139. For a brief, but fuller, enabled them to exploit the many" (ibid., p. account of this conception see the excerpt from 404). the decision in an Appellate Court of South In his speech to the court on April 9, 1927, an- Africa, quoted in Stroup, op. cit., pp. 140 f. archist Vanzetti said: ". . the jury were hating

CONFLICT RESOLUTION VOLUME III NUMBER 1 THE MEANINGS OF NON-VIOLENCE 53

Also included in the category of "selec- believe that war with earlier weapons has, tive non-violence" are a number of individ- at least at times, been justified, are also in- uals whose objection to participation in cluded in this category of "selective non- modern wars is not essentially an objection violence." to violence per se but rather to authoritari- PASSIVE RESISTANCE anism in government, institutions, and even Passive resistence is a method of con- individuals. They have thus refused to co- ducting conflicts and achieving or thwarting operate with military conscription and have social, economic, or political changes. It is received the consequences of such non-co- preferred to violent resistance, not for rea- operation. Their objection is to ordering sons of but because either the re- individuals around, as contrasted to allow- principle sisters lack the means of violence or are ing their free action and development. They not likely to win by such methods. The aim may, however, use violence in their personal is to harass the opponent without employing lives. Some of these oppose participation in physical violence and to force him to make modem war because they view it as an ex- the desired concessions, whether or not he treme development of both regimentation desires to do so. Passive resistance be and violence. may used as a to Those individuals who now believe that supplement physical violence, as a preparation for it, following its unsuc- preparations for nuclear war cannot under cessful use, or as a full substitute for physi- any conditions be justified, though they cal violence. "Passive resistance" denotes actions which are not primarily self-initi- us because we were the war, and the against ated, motivated, or directed but, instead, jury don't know that it makes any difference be- are reactions to the initiative of the tween a man that is against the war because he mainly believes that the war is unjust, because he hates opponent. The attitude of the resisters may no country, because he is a cosmopolitan and a involve hatred. They are not concerned in man that is the war because he is in favor against a with their own character, of the other ... and a an major way country therefore, spy, or of but enemy.... We are not men of that kind ... we spiritual condition, way living in as were against the war because we did not believe mainly combating what they regard in the purpose for which they say that war was a social evil. We that the fought. believed war is wrong.... "Passive resistance" may be practiced on We believe more now than ever that the war was the local, regional, national, or international wrong, and we are against war more now than level. A number of strikes,44 ever, and I am glad to be on the doomed scaf- large boy- move- fold if I can say to mankind, 'Look out .... All cotts,45 and national non-co-operation that they say to you, all that they have promised ments are of this type of generic non-vio- to was a it was an it was you-it lie, illusion, a lence. The latter include, for example, the cheat, it was a fraud, it was a crime....' Where Hungarian resistance against Austrian rule, is the moral good that the war has given to the world? Where is the spiritual progress that we 44 have achieved from the war? Where are the se- See, for example, Tom Tippett, When SouthernLabor Stirs [New York: curity of life, the security of the things that we JonathanCape and larrison Smith, 1931); Steuben, Strike possess for our necessity? Where are the respect John (New York: Gaer Associates, Inc., for human life? Where are the respect and ad- Strategy 1950); Hiller, cit. miration for the good characteristics and the op. good of human nature? Never before the war as 45 See, for example, Harry W. Laidler, Boy- now have there been so many crimes, so much cotts and the Labor Struggle, Economic and corruption, so much degeneration as there is Legal Aspects (New York:John Lane Co., 1913), now" (ibid., pp. 370-72). pp. 7--166. 54 GENE SHARP

1850-67,46 and Egyptian non-co-operation PEACEFUL RESISTANCE British rule, 1919-22.47 Other ex- against "Peaceful resistance" is primarily a meth- are strikes in the amples political prisoner od of conducting conflicts and achieving in the Soviet Union48 and the 1942 camps or thwarting social, political, or economic teachers' resistance, which Norwegian pre- changes. In contrast to passive resistance, vented the use of the schools for Nazi in- there is in it a relatively widespread rec- doctrination and was the most of important ognition of non-violent methods as being several actions in halting Quisling's plans intrinsically better than violence and that for the State in Nor- instituting Corporate they are the methods to be used in the way.49 struggle. Many, most, or even all of the participants in "peaceful resistance" may adhere to a temporary non-violent discipline 46 for Arthur The Res- See, example, Griffith, only for the particular "Practical" urrection A Parallel Ireland struggle. of Hungary: for (3d considerations are still Non-vio- ed.; Dublin: Whelan & Son, 1918); A. Fenner important. lent methods of resistance be Brockway, Non-Cooperation in Other Lands may regarded (Madras: Tagore & Co., 1921), pp. 1-24; Paul- as more likely to achieve the desired re- lin, op. cit., p. 16, also cites A. J. P. Taylor, The sults than (1) violent resistance, (2) re- 1815-1918 (London: Mac- Hapsburg Monarchy, liance on established governmental proce- millan Co., Ltd., 1941), pp. 101-51. dures, or (3) verbal persuasion without 47 See, for example, Brockway,op. cit., pp. 25- supporting action. But, despite these con- 39; Charles Frederic Mullett, The British Em- siderations, a belief in the relative moral York: Holt & pire (New Henry Co., 1938), pp. of non-violent over 610-27. superiority violent meth- ods widely, and at times 48 deeply, permeates See the Information Bulletin of the Inter- the resistance movement. A variation national Commission Concentration slight against on this is that the use of non-violent meth- Camp Practices (Brussels), No. 4 (August-No- ods of resistance be as in- vember, 1955). Paul Barton (ibid.) reports that may regarded the situation of political prisoners in the Soviet trinsically more "democratic" than either Union has been "greatly eased," partly as a re- violent resistance or passive acceptance of sult of but "the general reforms, says Barton, what are regarded as social evils; hence the conscious and systematic action of the political non-violent methods may also an aura prisoners, particularlyof their leaders, is largely gain of on this tesponsible." The 1953 strike at Vorkuta is "rightness" ground. classified under "peaceful resistance"because of A widespread belief among the resisters the close association of religious pacifists (the in the relative moral superiority of non- Monashki) with that particular struggle. violent methods may have several causes. 49 See, for example, Aumunsen, Bjornstad, Where there is a distinguishable leadership Homboe, Pedersen, and Norum (eds.), Kirkenes- in the movement, such a belief may arise 1942 (Oslo: W. ferda J. Capplens Forlag, 1946), because (1) an important section of the lead- and Sharp, "KirkenesJourney" (series), Peace ership may be pacifists-that is, believe in News, January 31-April 11, 1958, being re- non-violence as a moral al- printed as TyrannyCould Not Quell Them (Lon- principle; (2) don: HousemansBookshop, 1959). Pacifistswere though none of them may be pacifists, some also associated with this teachers' struggle but or all of them may believe that non-violent not in such a as to the way permeate struggle methods are morally considerably with an aura of the moral of non- superior superiority to violent methods and that violence should violent over violent methods of resistance, or in sufficientnumbers, as to warrantits classification be used only in the most extreme conditions under "peaceful resistance." (not likely to arise during the struggle in

CONFLICT RESOLUTION vOL .UM E III NUMB E R 1 THE MEANINGS OF NON-VIOLENCE 55 question); or (3) both convinced pacifists that the Negroes should love the whites and persons believing in the relative moral while refusing to ride the segregated superiority of non-violent methods may be buses.50 among the leadership. Nearly all the resistance movements led Two further factors may operate, whether or inspired by Gandhi are classified under or not there is a distinguishable leadership "peaceful resistance," although Gandhi's (and, if there is, in addition to 1, 2, or 3 Satyagraha is recognized in this typology above). These are: (4) there may be among as one of the nine types of generic non- the resisters a sufficient number of pacifists violence. This is because of the very real to enable them through numbers or dispro- differences between these struggles and portionate influence to "color" the struggle Gandhi's full approach. Gandhi called the and help maintain it on a non-violent basis type of non-violence practiced in such re- even under severe provocation; and (5) the sistance movements the "non-violence of resisters may have been so repelled by previ- the weak" as contrasted to the "non-violence ous experience of extreme social violence of the brave" based on inner conviction.51 that they are determined to conduct this He believed that the former would achieve struggle without violence. certain limited goals but that its effect "Peaceful resistance" is generally more would not be so great as the latter. In his active than "passive resistance." The degree later years Gandhi distinguished more of conscious use of strategy and tactics in sharply between these, saying that the "non- peaceful resistance struggles may vary con- violence of the weak" was not genuine siderably. The "bias" in favor of non-violent Satyagraha.52 These movements include, for methods helps to keep the struggle non- violent in spite of provocations and diffi- 50 See, for example, "Attack on Conscience," culties which might turn "passive resisters" Time, February 18, 1957, pp. 13-16; Dr. Martin Luther "Our Liberation to violence. This "bias" may also have cer- King, Struggle," (New York), April, 1956, pp. 3-6, and "We Are Still tain social-psychological effects advanta- ibid., December, 1956, pp. 6-9; Dr. to the aims of the resistance Walking," geous peaceful Homer Jack, "U.S. Negroes in Mass Protest," movement. There is considerable variation Peace News, March 23, 1956, p. 1, and "Still in the degree to which peaceful resistance Walking to Freedom,"ibid., December 21, 1956, Dr. Martin Luther Stride toward movements aim at changing the opponents' p. 1; King, Freedom: The Montgomery Story (New York: attitudes and values as well as policies. Harper & Bros., 1958). The best of resistance examples peaceful 51 For further discussion of the "non-violence are the Montgomery, Alabama, 1955-57 bus of the weak" and the "non-violenceof the brave" boycott and the resistance campaigns led see Gopi Nath Dhawan, The Political Philosophy or inspired by Gandhi in which most of the of Mahatma Gandhi (Bombay: Popular Book 67 f.; Nirmal Kumar Bose, resisters and even part of the leadership Depot, 1946), pp. Selections from Gandhi (Ahmedabad: Navajivan were following non-violent methods only as Publishing House, 1948), pp. 123 f.; and various a for the of the policy achieving objective passages in Gandhi, Non-Violence in Peace and struggle. Although almost none of the par- War (Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House, ticipants or leaders of the Montgomery 1948 and 1949), Vols. I and II. 52 Negroes' bus boycott were avowed pacifists, In his later years Gandhi sometimes called this "non-violence of the weak" the term the movement had a strong religious char- by "passive resistance." For example, in July, 1947, acter. It was constantly emphasized that the Gandhi said: ". .. our non-violence was of the non-violent way was the Christian way and weak. But the weak of heart could not claim to 56 GENE SHARP

example, the 1928 Bardoli peasants' strug- Islanders' resistance against New Zealand gle,53 and the 1930-31 independence strug- rule from 1920 to 1936,57 the 1953 strike gle.54 at Vorkuta prison camp by 250,000 political Other examples of "peaceful resistance" prisoners in the Soviet Union,58 and the include the 1952 South African "Defy Un- 1956 Japanese resistance against construc- just Laws" campaign,55 the Korean resist- tion of a United States Air Force base at ance against Japanese oppression between Sunakawa, Japan.59 1919 and approximately 1921,60 the Samoan NON-VIOLENT DIBECT ACTION represent any non-violence at all. The proper "Non-violent direct action" is a method of term was passive resistance" (ibid., II, 272). producing or thwarting social, economic, or Two however, cause the writer to factors, classify political changes by direct non-violent inter- these campaigns under "peaceful resistance" vention aimed at establishing new patterns rather than "passive resistance": the degree of or or the institution of activity in these struggles and the degree to policies disrupting which belief in the moral superiorityof non-vio- new patterns or policies regarded as unde- lent methods permeated them. sirable or evil. The motivation of "non-vio- Gandhi said in 1946: ". . if the February, lent direct actionists" vary from belief truth is told as it must our non-violent action may be, in non-violence as a moral to ad- has been half-hearted. Many have preached non- principle herence to a non-violent disci- violent action through the lips while harbouring temporary violence in the breast" (ibid., p. 30). pline as a practical method to achieve a Gandhi, in December, 1947 (summary of a particular objective. There is variation in post-prayer address) stated: "He had admitted the to which the act of intervention that it was not non-violence of the brave that degree is intended to about a in the India had practised. But whatever it was, it bring change attitudes or values or to had enabled a mighty nation of forty crores opponents' simply [400,000,000] to shake off the foreign yoke with- produce a change in the policy in question. out of that bloodshed. It was the freedom India The direct action may follow investigation had freedom to Burma and A brought Ceylon. of the facts, discussions with those nation that had won freedom without the force respon- sible for the found ne- of arms should be able to keep it too without the policy objectionable, force of arms" (ibid., p. 340). gotiations, public appeals, and publicity 53 See Mahadov Desai, The Story of Bardoli about the grievance. An act of "self-purifica- (Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House, 1929). 57 See deLigt, op. cit., pp. 147-53; deLigt 54 See, for example, Louis Fischer, The Life of cites further references on pp. 149 and 153. Mahatma Gandhi (New York: Harper & Bros., 58 For an account of this strike organized by 1950), pp. 262-75; D. G. Tendulkar, Mahatma: the combined efforts of Leninist revolutionaries, Life of Mohandas KaramchandGandhi (Bom- Monashkis (religious pacifists), and anarchists, bay: Vithalbhai K. Jhaveri and D. G. Tendulkar, see Brigitte Gerland, "My Life in Stalin's Prison 1952), III, 1-93; Bhogaraju Pattabhai Sitara- Camps,"The Militant (New York), January 17- mayya, The History of the Indian National Con- March7,1955, Vol. XIX, Nos. 3-10. For accounts gress (Madras: Working Committee of the Con- of contrastingstrikes in other camps in which the gress, 1935), Vol. I. Monashki did not play a major role see Informa- 55 See Kuper, op. cit. tion Bulletin of the International Commission 56 Concentration No. 4 See Bart. de Ligt, The Conquest of Violence against Camp Practices, (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1938), pp. 149- (August-November, 1955). 53; Brockway, op. cit., pp. 40-70; F. A. McKen- 59 See, for example, Shingo Shibata, "Japanese zie, Korea'sFight for Freedom (London: Simp- Air Base Defiance Campaign,"Peace News, Oc- kin, Marshal,1920); Henry Chung, The Case of tober 26, 1956, p. 1; "10,000 Stop Air-Base Ex- Korea (London: Allen & Unwin, 1922). tension Plan," ibid., March 1, 1957, p. 3.

CON FLI T R ESOLUTION VO UME III NU MBER 1 T1HEMEANINGS OF NON-VIOLENCE 57 tion," such as prayer, fasting, etc., may or and (4) the "non-violent invasion" in Britain may not precede the direct action. by supporters and members of the Direct Examples of non-violent direct action in- Action Committee against Nuclear War of clude (1) the 1924-25 Vykom "Satya- the North Pickenham rocket base in De- in in direct graha"60 South India, which the cember, 1958, using such techniques as ly- actionists to end the attempted prohibition ing in front of trucks and obstructing the against Harijans (untouchables) using a use of the concrete mixer in efforts to halt road passing a Hindu temple by simply further construction.64 walking up it and, when halted by a police barricade, keeping vigil in shifts on the road "SATYAGRAHA" day and night for 14 months until allowed Satyagraha is the type of generic non- to (2) the Helegolanders' non- proceed;61 violence Mohandas K. Gandhi. violent seizure in 1951 of the island of developed by Satyagraha means (approximately) "adher- Helegoland (off the coast of Germany) ence to Truth" or "reliance on Truth"- from the British Royal Air Force, which Truth having the connotation of "essence had been using it for bombing target prac- of or "reality." The believer in tice;62 (3) various projects of the Congress being," a Satyagrahi,65 aims at attain- of Racial Equality against racial segregation Satyagraha, and discrimination in the United States of America in which mixed Negro-white groups 64 See "Second Rocket Base 'Battle,'" Times have politely insisted on equal treatment (London), December 8, 1958, p. 10, and photo- 20; "Mud at Rocket Site," Man- for Negroes often by waiting for hours for graphs, p. Fight chester Guardian, December 8, 1958, p. 14; service, admission, etc., in restaurants, "What Really Happened at the Rocket Site," and until the theaters, public transportation Peace News, December 12, 1958, p. 12; Chris- policy was changed, until closing time, or topher Farley, "Swaffham Diary," ibid., p. 9; Decem- until they were arrested, returning repeated- "40 Arrestedat Rocket Base," Observer, ber 21, 1958, 1; "Nine More Rocket Base ly until Negroes received equal treatment;63 p. DemonstratorsCharged," Times, December 22, 1958, p. 8, and photographs, p. 16; "Nine More 60 "Satyagraha"here refers to the campaign Arrests at Rocket Site," Manchester Guardian, with non-violent methods, as this has been widely December 22, 1958, p. 1; Alan Lovell, "The known as the Vykom Satyagraha,rather than to Challenge of North Pickenham," Peace News, Gandhi'sover-all philosophy (see n. 65). December 26, 1958, p. 1; "A 'Cheerful' Christ- 61 See Krishnalal Shridharani, War without mas in Norwich Goal," Observer, December 28, Violence: A Study of Gandhi's Method and Its 1958, p. 9; Lovell, "Swaffham: 37 Face Jail," Accomplishments (New York: Harcourt, Brace Peace News, January2, 1959, p. 1. & Richard The Co., 1939), pp. 89-92; Gregg, 65 In India the term Satyagrahihas been used Power Non-Violence York: of (New Fellowship to describe both the believing in Satya- Ranganath R. person Publications, 1935), pp. 26-28; as a matter of principle and those persons Its and graha Diwakar, Satyagraha: Technique History in the resistance campaigns who Hind Kitabs participating (Bombay: Publishers, 1946), pp. were acting under a temporary discipline. Like- 115--17. wise, the term Satyagrahahas been used to de- 62 See "And No Birds Sing," Time, January15, scribe both Gandhi's full belief system and re- 1951, p. 30. sistance movements which he led or which are 63 See George Houser, Erasing the Color Line more or less patterned after the methods he used (rev. ed.; New York: Congress of Racial Equal- and advocated. This ambiguity in the use of these ity); CORE Action Discipline, CORE Statement terms may be too deeply rooted in Indian liter- of Purpose, and What Is CORE? (leaflets) (New ature to be corrected,but the writer suggests that, York: Congress of Racial Equality, n.d.). in future analysis elsewhere, it might facilitate 58 GENE SHARP

ing Truth through love and right actions. view was a constructive program to build Satyagraha is a matter of principle.66 It was a new social and economic order through developed by Gandhi through his searchings voluntary constructive work. This he re- and experiments in his personal life and his garded as more important than resistance. efforts at combating social evils and building The Indian constructive program included a better social order. The Satyagrahi seeks a variety of specific measures aimed at so- to "turn the searchlight inward" and to im- cial improvement, education, decentralized prove his own life so that he does no harm economic production and consumption, and to others. He seeks to combat evil in the improvement in the lot of the oppressed world through his own way of living, con- sections of the population. He believed that structive work, and resistance and action such a program would gradually build up against what are regarded as evils. He seeks the structure of a new non-violent society, to convert the opponent through sympathy, while resistance and direct action are used patience, truthfulness, and self-suffering. He to remove parts of the old structure which believes that sufficient truthfulness, fearless- are obstacles to the new one. ness, and deep conviction will enable him When social evils require direct and ac- to attack that which he regards as evil, re- tive challenging, Gandhi believed, the vari- gardless of the odds against him. He will ous methods of peaceful resistance and non- not compromise on basic moral issues, violent direct action (in the senses used in though he may on secondary matters. this paper) provide a substitute for rioting, Gandhi left behind no systematized philo- violent revolution, or war. Gandhi has made sophical system. He dealt with practical a unique contribution in combining non- problems as they arose and sought solutions violence as a principle with techniques and for them within the context of his basic strategy of resistance, forging it into a meth- ethical principles: Truth, ahimsa (non-injury od of meeting social conflicts which was to living beings in thought, word, and regarded as more influential both than in- deed), and equality. The Satyagrahi be- dividual example and persuasion without lieves means and ends must be equally such supporting action and than the previ- pure. Gandhi regarded Satyagraha as basi- ous forms of non-violent resistance. Investi- cally a matter of quality rather than quanti- gation, negotiation, publicity, self-purifica- ty. When facing social conflict, he believed tion, temporary work stoppages, picket- the Satyagrahi's own inner condition was ing, boycotts, non-payment of taxes, mass more important than the external situation. migration from the state, various forms of A basic part of Satyagraha in Gandhi's non-co-operation, civil disobedience, and the fast (under strict limitations) are among clarity if the term Satyagrahi were restricted to possible methods of action. The Satyagrahi those sharing the belief system, and the term is to a settlement "civil resister" used to describe those always ready negotiate partici- which does not basic pating in campaigns under a temporarynon-vio- compromise principles. Gandhi became convinced that lent discipline. Likewise, Satyagraha might be Satya- used to describe the belief system, and "peaceful graha based on inner conviction was more resistance"to describe campaignsinvolving "civil effective than non-violence practiced as a resisters." temporary policy. He said of the "non-vio- 66 Resistance movements led by Satyagrahis lence of the brave": "It is such non-violence with participation of others under a temporary that moves mountains, transforms life and discipline of non-violent behavior are discussed above under the heading "Peaceful Resistance." flinches from nothing in its unshakable

CONFLICT RESOLUTION VOLUME III NUMBER 1 THE MEANINGS OF NON-VIOLENCE 59

faith."67 Satyyagraha, when developed by building a more equalitarian, decentralized, Gandhi, became unique among the existing and libertarian social order; and (4) com- types of generic non-violence by being a bating what are regarded as social evils by matter of principle, including a program non-violent resistance and direct action.69 for social reconstruction and an active in- A major objective of non-violent revolution dividual and group method of attacking is to substitute non-violent, co-operative, what are regarded as social evils.68 equalitarian relationships for such aspects of violence as exploitation, oppression, and NON-VIOLENT REVOLUTION war. The non-violent revolution is to be "Non-violent revolution" is the most re- effected largely (in the view of some) or cent type of generic non-violence. It is still entirely (in the view of others) without use very much a direction of developing thought of the state machinery. Some advocates of and action rather than a fixed ideology and this approach place relatively more empha- program. "Non-violent revolutionaries" be- sis on achieving changes in policies, institu- lieve that the major social problems of to- tions, ownership, power relationships, etc., day's world have their origins at the roots while others put relatively more emphasis of individual and social life and can there- on achieving changes in values as a pre- fore be solved only by a basic, or revolu- liminary to such social changes. tionary, change in individuals and society. The non-violent revolutionary approach There is general recognition among be- has been developing since about 1945 in lievers in this approach of four aspects of various parts of the world, including Hong a non-violent revolutionary program: (1) Kong,70 Germany,71 the United States,72 improvement by individuals of their own lives; (2) gaining the acceptance of such 69 An exception to this fourth aspect is Vinoba values as non-violence, equality, co-opera- Bhave, who favors "gentler" forms of non-vio- lence than used Gandhi in the Indian inde- tion, justice, and freedom as the determin- by pendence struggle. ing values for the society as a whole; (3) 70 See various issues of Chu Lieu ("Main Cur- rent"), issued from Kowloon by the Chulieu So- 67 Dhawan, op. cit., pp. 67 f. ciety, ProfessorLo Meng Tze, chairman. 71 68 For a fuller discussion of Gandhi's philoso- See Nikolaus Koch, Die moderne Revolu- phy and program see, for example, Diwakar, tion: Gedanken der gewaltfreien Selbsthilfe des op. cit.; Gopi Nath Dhawan, The Political Phi- Deutschen Volkes (Tiibingen and Frankfurt:The losophy of MahatmaGandhi (2d rev. ed.; Ahmed- author, 1951). abad: Navajivan Publishing House, 1951); Nir- 72 The Committee for Non-violent Revolution: mal Kumar Bose, Studies in Gandhism (2d ed.; "We favor decentralized, democratic socialism Calcutta: Indian Associated Publishing Co., Inc., guaranteeing worker-consumercontrol of indus- 1947); Gandhi, The Constructive Programme tries, utilities, and other economic enterprises. (Ahmedabad: Navajivan, 1948), Non-Violence We believe that the workers themselves should in Peace and War, Vols. I and II, and Satyagraha take steps to seize control of factories, mines, and (Ahmedabad: Navajivan, 1951); Shridharani, shops.... We believe in realistic action against op. cit.; Louis Fischer, The Life of Mahatma war, against imperialism, and against military or Gandhi (New York: Harper & Bros., 1950); economic oppression by conquering nations, in- Gandhi,All Men Are Brothers:Life and Thoughts cluding the United States. We advocate such of Mahatma Gandhi as Told in His Own Words techniques of group resistance as demonstrations, (Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific, strikes, organized civil disobedience, and under- and Cultural Organization, 1958); Arne Naess ground organization where necessary. As indi- and Johan Galtung, Gandhispolitiske etikk (Oslo: viduals we refuse to join the armed forces, work Forlaget av Johan GrundtTanun, 1955). in war industries, or buy governmentbonds, and 60 GENE SHARP we believe in campaigns urging others to do India,73 and England.74 Non-violent revolu- similarly. We see non-violence as a principle as well as a technique. In all action we renounce the methods of punishing, hating, or killing any tionary one and its problem is a revolutionary fellow human beings. We believe that non-vio- problem.... This order is ... bound to perish lence includes such methods as sit-down strikes . .. because ... the law of the universe that ex- and seizure of plants. We believe that revolution- ploitation, hatred, tyranny are evil and cannot ary changes can only occur through direct action endure is being vindicated. Therefore, once by the rank and file, and not by deals or reform- again, as the ground is swept clear the chance to ist proposalsdirected to the present political and build a revolutionarynew order presents itself to labor leadership" (quoted by Donald Calhoun, mankind.... It is not our business to save either "The Non-violent Revolutionists,"Politics [New capitalism or Communism;either the Russian or York], III [April, 1946], 118 f.). the American power state; either the Western Manas: "One curious cultural synthesis which capitalist culture or the present Communist cul- came out of the second world war was the al- ture. None of them now enshrine or allow for liance between young socialists and young re- the flourishingof essentially democratic and hu- ligious pacifists.More than ten years ago, a writer mane values ... in our age, whatever may have in a small pacifist periodical, Pacifica Views, been the case in other periods . .. violence must called attention to the new kind of 'radical' that be rejected as a means for radical social change. was emerging from the war resistancemovement: ... VWhether... we look at the problem of elim- 'In this synthesis of extremes, we witness the inating war or at the problem of radical social birth of a New Minority. Its members are des- change (abolition of competitive nationalism, tined to remain an enigma to the public for some colonialism,dictatorship, feudalism, development years to come, and they will probablybe a source of a non-exploitativeeconomy, etc.) we must re- of confusion both to Peace Church pacifists and sort to non-violence or we are lost. We need to old line radicals. It is certain that the American build a non-violent revolutionarymovement ... Legion will not understand them at all. Who is rooted firmly in local and national situations . . he, this New Minority Man? . . . He is working not . . . abstract cosmopolitanism.. . [yet] gen- for objectives which are both moral and practi- uinely internationalist in basis, composition and cal .... His ends will be easily identifiable as eventual structure" (Muste, "Problems of Non- revolutionarybut his reasons for working toward violent Revolution,"Peacemaker, March 1, 1952, them will unite moral content with critical pene- pp. 5f.). tration'' ("The New Men," Manas [Los Ange- Bradford Lyttle wrote: "We must think and les], IX, No. 13 [March 28, 1956], p. 7). act on the assumptionthat we can bring about a A. J. Muste stated: ". . . mankind faces a major non-violent revolution against the tradition of crisis. Only a drastic change, such as is suggested military power" (Lyttle, "On Non-violent Ob- by the terms rebirth, conversion, revolution, can struction," reprinted from Liberation, Peace bring deliverance. Tinkering with this or that News, December 26, 1958, p. 7). of economic or cultural piece political, machinery 73 In India the non-violent ap- will not suffice.... War and the war as revolutionary system, has taken two forms, often are inherent in our proach regarded by well as social violence, present their advocates as distinct. One is the order and the mate- respective politico-economic prevailing "'Land-Gift" (Bhoodan) movement and related rialistic culture.... War is not inevitable, though 73 continued on 61] it is certain to come unless a revolutionarymove- [Footnote p. ment against war and materialism soon comes 74The Rev. Michael Scott stated: "There is into existence" (Muste, "Build the Non-violent the urgent need for a new revolutionary move- Revolutionary Movement-Now" [New York: ment which will have the courage and incentive The Author, 1947?] [mimeographed]). to use methods of non-violent resistance not only "A non-violent revolution changes exteral re- against the manufacture of nuclear weapons but lationships and arrangementsbut it is primarily against oppressive legislation and violations of an inner revolution, a rebirth of man" (Muste, human rights and natural justice," and should "Proposed Manifesto," Peacemaker [Yellow be capable of a strong "effectual fight against Springs, Ohio], Special Suppl., January15, 1950, oppressionand injustice,"ignorance, and poverty p. 4). (Scott, "An Appeal to Reason," Peace News, ". .. The present period is a profoundly revolu- March 14, 1958, p. 8).

CO N F li CT RE S 0, TION VO I, M IE III NUIT B ER THE MEANINGS OF NON-VIOLENCE 61

tion has a mixed origin. This may, for the those in which ideological factors are pre- purposes of analysis be divided roughly into dominant and those in which they are sub-

[Footnote 73 continued from p. 60] the nation to give it all encouragementand sup- movements led by Vinoba Bhave. The other is port" (Patil, "Social Revolution through Bhoo- the emphasis on civil disobedience, most clearly dan," Gandhi Marg [New Delhi], January,1958, espoused by Dr. RammanoharLohia and his So- p. 67). cialist party of India but also advocated at times Gyan Chand (Indian economist) wrote: "The by the larger Praja Socialist party and other target of collecting 50 million acres before the groups. end of 1957 for distribution among the landless Dr. Lohia said: "Hitherto, in efforts to bring laborers has not been realised, and more than about majorsocial changes, the world has known half of the four million actually collected have the sole alternativesof parliamentaryand violent still to be distributed. And yet the movement is insurrectionarymeans. A reliance on only parlia- gathering more steam, has made gramdans- mentary means has often left people without any voluntary extinction of property rights in entire means of direct controlover social decisions when villages-its immediate objective and attained a Parliamentwas not responsive to the public will, large measure of success in realizing it. .... A real and parliamentarymeans have sometimes proved recluse [Vinoba] has left the seclusion of his incapable of bringing about genuinely funda- ashram and is using his piety, spiritual commun- mental changes in society when required. The ion and comprehension of life and its essence reliance upon the means of violent insurrection for bringing about basic social changes and un- has, however, also been proved inadequate. Even dermining the status quo-the net work of prop- apart from considerationsof the morality of vi- erty relations, the institutional framework and olence and its chances of success, the kind of so- the whole complex of views, conventions, atti- ciety produced by a violent insurrectiondoes not tudes and norms and patterns of behavior. Re- recommend such means. Now, however, a new ligion is being brought into action as a real revo- dimension has been added by the addition of lutionary force, as a means of awakening the individual and massive civil resistance as another people to the inequalities of the present economic way of bringing about major social changes... relations and the urgent need of replacing them All those desirousof maintainingmethods of non- by new relations based on a genuine community violence, must learn to be equally loyal to revolu- of feeling and quest for equality in status, in- tion... . Where such subordinationof revolution come and assignment of functions.... to non-violence takes place, conservative main- "From the very beginning the Bhoodan move- tenance of the existing order is an inevitable re- ment has been a movement for establishing a sult, just as chaos in the beginning and tyranny new social order.... The collection and distribu- afterwards are inevitable results if non-violence tion of land, it was . . . very clearly emphasized, is subordinated to revolution. . .. Mankind will was . . . only the first step in a succession of ever hurtle from the hands of one irresponsibility changes which were implicit in the concept of into another if it continues to seek and organise social revolution.Among them, a classless society, its revolutions through violence" (Lohia, "Non- extinction of property rights and the elimination Violence and Revolution,"Peace News, April 26, of acquisitive social relations had necessarily to 1957, p. 2). be given a very high priority in the list of the Concerning Bhoodan, R. K. Patil (formerly of new social objectives. The gramdan concept the Indian government's Planning Commission) brings these social objectives to the fore, stresses said: "In the course of its six year's progress ... their primacy and urgency and points to the about five million acres of land have been col- need of making them all-embracingand the basis lected. Lately the movement has transformedit- of the whole production organizationof the com- self into gramdan, the obtaining through gifts all munity. This means that if extinction of property the land situated in a village. About 3,250 whole rights in land is realized, the very logic of the villages have been secured . . . a gathering of step would make its applicationto trade, industry national leaders, representing almost all the pro- and services unavoidable. ... gressive parties in India, has issued a joint state- "The movement, relying as it does exclusively ment the movement welcoming and exhorting [Footnote 73 concluded on p. 62] 62 GENE SHARP ordinate to "practical" efforts to find solu- cial revolution (i.e., basic social change), tions to certain pressing social problems. including the socialist, anarchist, and de- The "ideological" and "practical" factors centralist approaches. In some ways, Satya- are, however, never fully separated. On the graha is the most important of these,75 large- one hand, the ideologies concerned propose ly because it combines a "pacifist" position solutions for social problems and, on the with a method of resistance and revolution, other, the search for solutions for such prob- thus serving as a bridge or catalyst between lems at some stage inevitably involves con- pacifism and social revolution. sideration of ideological approaches per se On the "practical" level the non-violent or methods of action which are closely re- revolutionary approach has had origins in lated to them. On the ideological level non- efforts to effect social, political, or economic violent revolution has been developing changes where parliamentary means are through the interplay and synthesis of sev- either non-existent or not responsive to pop- eral formerly distinct approaches. These in- ular control and where violent means are clude (1) certain types of pacifism, largely rejected either because the means of ef- "moral resistance" and the Tolstoyan and fective violent struggle are predominantly Quaker approaches ("active reconciliation"); at the disposal of supporters of the status (2) Satyagraha; and (3) ideologies of so- quo or for other reasons. Non-violent re- sistance and direct action have often ap- [Footnote 73 continued from p. 61] peared relevant in such situations. What on change through assent, that is, on a com- seems to be an reliance on non- basis and non-violent meth- increasing pletely voluntary by violent resistance and direct action libera- ods, makes democracyits substance and essential by feature. Experience is beginning to show that tion movements is an illustration of this. the movement is gathering momentum and the Where non-violent methods have been seri- imminence of radical social is changes becoming ously used in such situations, there have more and more obvious and inescapable; and often been ideological and programmatic that vested interests . . . are likely to see in the from the combina- movement a challenge and a danger and to use consequences resulting all their strength for defeating the processes that tion of non-violence and revolution. An as- it has set in motion. This resistance has, accord- ing to the premises of the movement, to be met by janashakti-the people's power-the power 75 Some would view non-violent revolution as generated by the will to change and the support an application of Satyagrahato a new historical of the masses. If the full support of the people is situation. Gandhi's later thinking included an mobilized through education and right guidance emphasis on radical social, economic, and politi- and can be sustained, it would create conditions cal changes. For example, in June, 1942, Gandhi for bringing into action the legislative power of said that, in a free India, "the peasants would the state in supportof the people's will to change. take the land. We would not have to tell them to The movement does not in any way preclude take it" (Louis Fischer, A Week with Gandhi legislative action but does not put its faith in it [New York: Duell, Sloan & Pearce, 1942], p. 54). as the primary or the major instrument of social Gandhi said, May, 1947: "There can be no change. The state has no doubt the organized Ramarajya[Kingdom of God] in the present state might of the community at its disposal, but if it of iniquitous inequalities in which a few roll in is to be truly democratic it has to use this power riches and the masses do not get even enough to as sparingly as possible and rely mainly on revo- eat" (Gandhi, Non-Violence in Peace and War, lution from below-the upsurge and initiative of II, 255). In 1945 he said: "... if we have demo- the people-for carrying out fundamental and cratic Swaraj [self-rule] ... the Kisans [peasants] social transformation"(Chand, "Bhoodan as a must hold power in all its phases, including po- Social Revolution,"Gandhi Marg, January, 1958, litical power" (Bose, Studies in Gandhism, p. pp. 44-46). 79).

CONFLICT RESOLUTION VOLUME III NUMBER 1 THE MEANINGS OF NON-VIOLENCE

sociated factor in the development of non- volve a belief in the intrinsic value of non- violent revolution is that common concern violence, as does also "peaceful resistance." with pressing social problems (land in In- Six of the nine types of generic non-violence dia, nuclear weapons in Britain, freedom emphasize the value of non-violent behavior in South Africa, for example) has brought as a method for achieving desired social pacifists, Satyagrahis, and social revolution- objectives. These are "moral resistance," aries76 together to find and apply solutions "passive resistance," "peaceful resistance," for such problems. This interaction has con- "non-violent direct action," "Satyagraha," tributed to the synthesizing of these ap- and "non-violent revolution."78 There is thus proaches. overlapping between these groups, with The incomplete nature of the ideology "moral resistance," "peaceful resistance," and program of non-violent revolution is "Satyagraha," and "non-violent revolution" among the factors which have handicapped emphasizing the intrinsic value of both non- the spread of this type of generic non-vio- violence and non-violent behavior as a lence, especially in the West, but the gen- method. eral outline of its approach is sufficiently Of the nine types, the following always clear to justify its inclusion in this typology fall within the area of "non-violent resist- at this early stage of its development and ance and direct action," as presented earlier to indicate that it may increase in promi- in this paper: "passive resistance," "peaceful nence in the future. resistance," and "non-violent direct action." Often included also would be "moral re- VII. Conclusion sistance," "Satyagraha," and "non-violent Of these nine types of generic non-vio- revolution." On some occasions believers in lence, five fall within the definition of the approaches classified under "active rec- "pacifism" presented early in this paper; onciliation" and "selective non-violence" that is, their adherents refuse, on grounds might also undertake resistance which of principle, in all international participation would fall within the scope of "non-violent and civil wars and violent revolutions. These resistance and direct action." On rare occa- are "non-resistance," "active reconciliation," sions, believers in "non-resistance" might "moral resistance," and, "Satyagraha," gen- feel compelled not to co-operate with what erally, "non-violent revolution."77 These in- they regard as evil in such a way that their

76 Or other combinations of these, as pacifists and social revolutionaries,or Satyagrahisand so- 78 To the degree that international Socialists cial revolutionaries. Pacifists in such cases are and other social radicals classified under "selec- to be familiar with the methods of non- likely tive non-violence"regard their refusal to support violent resistance and direct action. international wars as itself a means of bringing 77 Sometimes practitionersof "peaceful resist- about the downfall of the system they believe to ance" and "non-violentdirect action" would also cause such wars, these groups would also be in- refuse such participation on grounds of princi- cluded. This attitude, however, is not sufficiently ple, but in such a case these individuals would characteristicof the type as a whole to warrant be classified also under other categories. Some its inclusion here. Persons adhering to belief sys- persons and groups advocating "non-violentrevo- tems included under "active reconciliation"-or lution" who have come to this ideological posi- even "non-resistance"on rare occasions-might tion from earlier non-pacifist beliefs may not at times resist what they believe to be evil, but categorically commit themselves in advance to the degree of emphasis on their non-violent be- such a pacifist position; their policies in practice havior as a method to attain certain objectives is may amount to this, however. insufficientto warranttheir inclusion here also. 64 GENE SHARP

behavior would come within the scope of violent resistance and direct action. These, "non-violentresistance." however, require separate treatment and lie There are, of course, many other com- outside the scope of this paper. parisonsand contrastswhich might be made The writer's object has been simply to among the nine types of generic non-vio- clarify, classify, and define and to illustrate lence. Some of these will be suggested by these definitions, particularly where this Chart 1, which indicates in a brief way may have been necessary to bring a sense some of the main characteristics of the of reality to descriptions of often relatively types of generic non-violence. There are little-known approaches. The writer does related questions which may arise in the not regard this typology as perfect or final minds of some readers, such as the relation but hopes that it may help in clarifying the between "persuasion," "conversion," and existing confusion about these phenomena "non-violent coercion" among the types of and may facilitate future study, research, generic non-violence, or an analysis of the analysis, and evaluation of the various ap- various techniques which are used in non- proaches within generic non-violence.

CONFLICT RESOLUTION VOLUME III NUMBER 1 CHART 1 SOMEMAIN CHARACTERISTICSOF THE TYPES OF GENERICNON-VIOLENCE* Non- Active Moral Selec- Passive Peaceful NV NV Resist- Reconcili- Resist- tive Resist- Resist- Direct Satya- Revolu- ance ation ance NV ance ance Action graka tion 1. Attitudesto self and sociey: a) "Otherworldly"...... Yes No No Maybe No No No No No b) "This-worldly"...... No Yes Yes Maybe Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes c) Concernwith own "purity"...... Yes Yes Yes Maybe No Maybe Maybe Yes Maybe d) Supportstatus quo in society...... No No No No Maybe Maybe Maybe No No e) Desire to effect a particularsocial change only...... No No No No Maybe Maybe Maybe No No f) Desire to effect social reforms,not basic changes...... No Maybe Yes No Maybe Maybe Maybe No No g) Desireto effect socialrevolution, i.e., basic changes...... No Maybe No Maybe Maybe Maybe Maybe Yes Yes 2. Attitude to "evil": a) Withdrawalfrom...... Yes Yes Yes Maybe Maybe Maybe Maybe Yes Maybe b) Imperativeto act against...... No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes S. Attitudesto violence(V) andnon-volence (NV): a) NV basedon principle...... Yes Yes Yes No No No Maybe Yes Usually b) NV basedon expediency...... No No No No Yes No Maybe No No c) NV based on mixed a and b...... No No No No No Yes Maybe No Maybe d) NV regardedas intrinsicallygood ...... Yes Yes Yes Maybe No Yes Maybe Yes Yes e) NV regardedas a method...... No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes f) NV as a methodregarded as a full substi- tute for V ...... Yes Yes ...... Maybe Yes Yes Yes Yes g) NV regarded as a method which may be used in associationwith V ...... No No .....* Maybe No No No No h) PersonalV in generalrejected ...... Yes Yes Yes No No No No Yes Usually i) GroupV in generalrejected ...... Yes Yes Yes No No No No Yes Yes j) State V in generalrejected ...... Yes Maybe Maybe No No No No Yes Usually k) Warin generalrejected ...... Yes Yes Yes No No No No Yes Yes ) Only certain V rejected as a subsidiary effect of a non-pacifistconception ...... No No No Yes No No No No No m) V regardedas more than physicalV, e.g., hostileattitudes ...... Yes Yes Maybe No No Maybe Maybe Yes Yes * The characteristicsattributed to each type are basedlargely upon the avowals of the respective groups; the section on "Attitudes toward opponents"thus refersto avowedattitudes toward opponents,for example. CHART 1-Continued

Non- Active Moral Selec- Passive Peaceful NV NV Resist- Reconcili- Resist- tive Resist- Resist- Direct Satya- Revolu- ance ation ance NWV ance ance Action graha tion 4. Attitudetoward opponents: a) Hatred ...... No No No Maybe Maybe No Maybe No No b) Resentment ...... No No No Maybe Maybe Maybe Maybe No Maybe c) Indifference ...... No No No Maybe Maybe Maybe Maybe No Maybe d) Respect ...... Maybe Yes Yes Maybe Maybe Yes Maybe Yes Yes e) Good will ...... Yes Yes Yes Maybe No Yes Maybe Yes Yes f) Love...... Yes Yes Yes No No Maybe Maybe Yes Maybe 5. Implementationof the approach: a) Acts of "self-purification" ...... Yes Yes Maybe Maybe No Maybe Maybe Yes Maybe b) Personal way of living ...... Yes Yes Yes Maybe No No No Yes Maybe c) Persistent friendliness ...... Yes Yes Yes Maybe No Maybe Maybe Yes Maybe d) Acts of mercy ...... Yes Yes Yes No No Maybe No Yes Yes e) Exhortations...... Yes Yes Yes Yes Maybe Maybe Maybe Maybe Maybe f) "Education ...... No Maybe Yes Maybe No Maybe No Yes Yes .) Verbal persuasion ...... Yes Yes Yes Yes Maybe Yes Maybe Yes Yes h) Use of state to effect social change...... No Maybe Maybe Maybe No No No No Maybe i) Use of non-state means to effect social change ...... No Yes Yes Maybe Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes j) "Constructive program"...... No No No No No No No Yes Maybe k) Passive forms of NV resistance ...... Rarely Yes Yes Maybe Yes Yes No Yes Yes 1) Active forms of NVR and direct action (D A) ...... No Maybe Maybe Maybe No Maybe Yes Yes Yes m) Strategy in the NVR-DA...... No No Rarely No Rarely Maybe Yes Yes Yes 6. Mechanisms of social change: a) Persuasion-conversion, leading to policy change ...... Yes Yes Maybe No Yes Yes Yes Yes b) NVR-DA, etc., to create new social situa- tion requiring opponent to reconsider atti- tudes, etc., leading to policy change...... Maybe Maybe No No Maybe Maybe Yes Maybe c) Attempting persuasion, etc., but use NVR- DA to force policy change whether or not attitudes first changed ...... No Maybe Maybe Maybe Maybe Maybe ?? Maybe d) No persuasion, etc.; NVR-DA to force policy change...... No No Maybe Maybe No Maybe No No