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A Critical Investigation of the Breadth of Mahatma Gandhi's Religious

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A CRITICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE BREADTH OF MAHATMA GANDHI’S RELIGIOUS PLURALISM THROUGH AN EXAMINATION OF HIS ENGAGEMENTS WITH ATHEISTS, QUAKERS AND INTER-RELIGIOUS MARRIAGE By NICOLA CHRISTINE JOLLY A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Theology and Religion School of Philosophy, Theology and Religion College of Arts and Law University of Birmingham September 2012 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT Mahatma Gandhi’s religious thought and pluralism have received attention from scholars and activists. This thesis provides an original contribution by addressing underexplored areas which reveal shifting boundaries in his pluralism. It explores Gandhi’s relationship with atheists, in particular his Indian friend Gora; the relationship between Quakers and Gandhi, in particular Marjorie Sykes and Horace Alexander; and Gandhi’s approach to inter-religious marriage in an Indian context, exploring both religious and societal dimensions. Throughout the thesis religious pluralism is addressed both in its philosophical or theoretical dimension and in the practical dimension of how one relates to people of other faiths. I provide a critique of the breadth of Gandhi’s pluralism in dealing with atheists in an inclusivist fashion and in his early opposition to inter-religious marriage. I also draw out its strengths in placing religious/ethical life above beliefs. This provides a framework for strong friendships with Quakers and atheists, and a positive approach to inter- religious marriage (in his later years) by allowing individual interpretations of religious life as opposed to community belonging. Gandhi’s theology and friendships offer a critique to theories of dialogue emphasising commitment to a particular tradition. They open a way to include marginalised groups in dialogue and respect the whole person rather than treating religion as a compartment of a person’s life. DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to John Hick, who opened up the field of religious pluralism and used to ask me every Sunday after Quaker Meeting how my PhD was coming along, for his inspiration and encouragement. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My first debt of gratitude goes to my supervisor, Sharada Sugirtharajah, for her encouragement and support from start to finish and intellectual stimulation and direction. I would also like to thank the department of theology and religion at the University of Birmingham as a whole, and John Hull, David Cheetham, Edmond Tang and Gurharpal Singh in particular for their interest in me and my research. Secondly, I would like to thank my family and friends, for emotional and physical support. In particular, my father Robert Jolly for his financial support, and my mother, Penny Jolly for her emotional support and for stimulating and encouraging my initial interest in Eastern religions and philosophies and the living practice of ahimsa. Finally I would like to thank Nadir Dinshaw, the Spalding Trust, and the College of Arts and Law development fund for providing scholarships and bursaries which have helped to make this research possible. A CRITICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE BREADTH OF MAHATMA GANDHI’S RELIGIOUS PLURALISM THROUGH AN EXAMINATION OF HIS ENGAGEMENTS WITH ATHEISTS, QUAKERS AND INTER-RELIGIOUS MARRIAGE CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………..1 Methodology………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..3 Outline of chapters……………………………………………………………………………………………………...4 CHAPTER TWO: ‘ALL RELIGIONS ARE TRUE MORE OR LESS’ – ISSUES IN GANDHI’S PLURALISM……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..11 Gandhi’s concept of religion………………………………………………………………………………………11 The unity of religions………………………………………………………………………………………………….14 Relative and absolute truth………………………………………………………………………………………..18 Scripture…………………………………………………………………………………………………………20 Creed………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………25 Mythological truth…………………………………………………………………………………………….26 Conclusions………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………..28 CHAPTER THREE: PLURALISM WITH A PLACE FOR ATHEISM?........................................32 Defining atheism in different cultural contexts: problems and concerns………………………33 Gandhi’s appreciation of atheists……………………………………………………………………………….…39 The compatibility of Gandhi’s definition of God with atheism……………………………………….44 Truth is God………………………………………………………………………………………………………48 Is Satyagraha dependent on God? Relying on the power within…………………………………53 Inclusivism toward atheism…………………………………………………………………………………………….60 Atheists as ‘anonymous believers’……………………………………………………………………….60 Inclusivism and Buddhism…………………………………………………………………………………..66 Conclusions………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………70 CHAPTER FOUR: GORA AND GANDHI: FRIENDSHIP AND DIALOGUE BETWEEN ATHEISTS AND THEISTS…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..73 Including atheists in inter-religious dialogue……………………………………………………………….….73 The significance of Gandhi for today’s dialogue with atheists…………………………………………81 Gandhi’s engagement with atheists: Gora and his Centre………………………………………………83 Gora’s journey to atheism…………………………………………………………………………………84 Gora’s Positive Atheism………………………………………………………………………………………86 Global ethics and inter-religious engagement for change………………………………………………92 The social programme of Gora’s Atheist Centre…………………………………………………96 Gora and Gandhi: Atheists and theists in practical action……………………………………99 Atheists’ ethical challenge: caste discrimination…………………………………………………………103 Conclusions………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..114 CHAPTER FIVE: GANDHIAN AND QUAKER BELIEFS AND VALUES………………………………116 Context and significance of Quaker-Gandhi connections…………………………………………….119 The totality of life as religion…………………………………………………………………………………….…121 Are Quakers Christian or beyond?....................................................................................124 Expanding beyond Christianity: interfaith……………………………………………………..…128 Atheism in Gandhian and Quaker thought – Light, Truth and suspicion of ‘theologising’……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..133 Gandhian Ahimsa and Quaker Pacifism………………………………………………………………………139 Gandhi’s support for war......................................................................................143 Different emphases and methods……………………………………………………………………148 Ahimsa, peace and the place of non-human animals………………………………………154 Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………159 CHAPTER SIX: HORACE ALEXANDER AND MARJORIE SYKES: GANDHI’S QUAKER FRIENDS…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..161 Inter-religious friendship as dialogue……………………………………………………………………………161 Horace Alexander…………………………………………………………………………………………………………163 Affection and friendship in the colonial context…………………………………………………164 Individuality as mediation…………………………………………………………………………………168 Challenges and intellectual independence……………………………………………………….172 Uniting potential of religion…………………………………………………………………………….176 Fellowship of Friends of Truth……………………………………………………………………………182 Marjorie Sykes……………………………………………………………………………………………………………185 Constructive programme as peace work……………………………………………………………187 Education, work and play…………………………………………………………………………………192 Bringing Gandhi into modern environmentalism………………………………………………196 Christianity and Quakerism in an Indian context………………………………………………202 Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………207 CHAPTER SEVEN: GANDHI’S VIEW OF THE RELIGIOUS DIMENSION OF INTER-RELIGIOUS MARRIAGE - FROM OPPOSITION TO MULTI-RELIGIOUS FAMILIES…………………………………………210 Hindu and Islamic attitudes to inter-religious marriage – the Indian context………………216 Outline of Gandhi’s changing attitude to inter-religious marriage……………………………………………226 The meaning of marriage and restrictions through the eyes of a Brahmachari…………………………232 Conversion and marriage: a new perspective on Gandhi’s opposition to missionaries………………237 From conversion as an objection to welcoming multi-religious homes……………………………………244 The practicalities of dietary difference………………………………………………………………………………………249 Inter-religious marriage as an intimate inter-religious dialogue…………………………………………………252 Conclusions………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………262 CHAPTER EIGHT: SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF GANDHI’S APPROACH TO INTER-RELIGIOUS MARRIAGE IN THE INDIAN CONTEXT…………………………………………………………………………264 Inter-religious marriage and other social restrictions on marriage……………………………………………265 Freedom of choice…………………………………………………………………………………………………………266 Caste and province………………………………………………………………………………………………………272 Gender roles and inter-religious marriage…………………………………………………………………………………277 Inter-religious marriage in the context of Partition: sexual violence and forced marriage…………283 Inter-religious marriage in communal contexts…………………………………………………………………………286 A Gandhian vision for inter-religious marriage…………………………………………………………………………292 Inter-religious marriage and the deepening of Gandhi’s pluralism…………………………………………..297 Conclusions………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………300
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