sign in sign up
<<
Home , Pacifism

GANDHI AND THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

INTRODUCTION

Mohandas Karamchand (1869-1948), was undoubtedly the most authentic and celebrated representative of the wisdom and culture of India in our times and people address him, with respect, as the Mahatma. For many, among the greatest, Gandhiji was the great. He was a social reformer, an economist, a political philosopher and a seeker of truth. His contribution to the Indian national movement was unparalleled. He made the Indian National Congress a peoples' Congress and the national movement a mass movement. He had a passion for individual liberty which was closely bound with his understanding of truth and self-realisation. He made people fearless and bold and taught them the non- violent methods for fighting against injustice.

His search for truth Ied him to make deep forays within his own inner self as it led him to probe into the natural and social world around him, particularly the tradition which he considered his own. Gandhiji's was a profound engagement with modernity and its pitfalls. Against the evils of wanton industrialisation, materialism and selfish pursuits, Gandhiji suggested, in turn, swadeshi, primacy of the self and ; against the institution of state, as the force personified, and the prevalent notion of democracy where only heads are counted, he favoured a type of democracy where everything springs from the free individual and where decisions are made bottom-up with the locus of power below. He proposed a minimal slate, vested only with coordinative powers, that supports decentralisation with the autonomous individual as its base of support.

VIEWS ON HUMAN NATURE

Gandhiji's views on man, human nature and society are in consonance with his philosophical outlook and reflect his convictions regarding and ethical pursuit of life. At the same time he was deeply aware of the imperfections of human beings. What is important, however, is the disposition: "There is no one without faults', not even men of God. They are men of God not because they are faultless but because they know their own faults. ... and are ever ready to correct themselves." Conscious as Gandhiji was about man's weaknesses as an individual or a member of a group, he still did not think of man merely or only as a brute. Man, he was convinced, was after all a as well. Even the most brutal ‘of rnen, fie felt, cannot disown the spiritual element in them, i.e. their potentiality for goodness.

While regarding the individual as imperfect, he had great faith in human nature. "I refuse", he says, "to suspect human nature. It will is bound to respond to any noble and friendly action". At another place, he says, ".... There are chords in every human heart. If we only know how to strike the right chord, we bring out the music." What distinguishes man from the brute is the self- conscious impulse to realise the divinity inherent in him. He writes: "We were born with brute strength but we were born in order to realise God who dwells in us. That indeed is the privilege of man and it distinguishes him from the brute creation." He argued that every man and woman has capacity in them to change their life and transform themselves truly into the self they are. "Man as animal," he says, "is violent, but as spirit (he) is non-violent. The moment he awakens to the spirit within he cannot remain violent." Man is inherently predisposed towards his self-realisation. In him, moral qualities and social virtues such as love, cooperation, and tolerance preponderate over , selfishness and brutality, and man keeps working for higher life. He writes: "I believe that the sum total of the energy of mankind is not to bring us down but to lift us up and that is the result of the definite, if unconscious, working of the law of nature". Gandhiji believed that human nature is, in its essence, one and that everyman has the capacity for the highest possible development: "The soul is one in all; its possibility is, therefore, the same for everyone. It is this undoubted universal possibility that distinguishes the human from the rest of God's creation."

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AND POLITICS

The modern world attempted to mark off religion from the political domain and made religion a purely personal affair. Religious beliefs and commitments by themselves are not supposed to shape the political realm. Against such a position Gandhiji called for the reinsertion of religion in shaping public life and saw an intimate relationship between the health of a polity and religious pursuits.

Concept of Religion

What does religion stand for? How does one make sense of diversity of ? Gandhiji's answer was, "I believe in the fundamental truth of all great religions of the world ... they were at the bottom all one and were all helpful to one another." There were, according to him, as many religions as there were minds. Each mind, he would say, had a different conception of God from that of the other. All the same they pursue the same God. He insisted that religion be differentiated from ethics. Fundamental ethical precepts are common across religions although religions may differ from each other with respect to their beliefs and practices. "I believe that fundamental ethics is common to all religions. By religion I have not in mind fundamental ethics but what goes by the name of denominationalism". Religion enables us to pursue truth and . Sometimes he distinguished religion in general and religion in a specific sense. One belongs to a specific religion with its beliefs and practices. As one proceeds through the path suggested by it one also outgrows its limitations and comes to appreciate the common thread that binds all religions and pursuers of truth.

Gandhiji once said: "Let me explain what I mean by religion. It is not the Hindu religion which I certainly prize above all other religions, but the religion which transcends , which changes one's very nature, which binds one indissolubly to the truth within and whichever purifies. It is the permanent element in human nature which counts no cost too great in order to find full expression and which leaves the soul utterly restless until it has found itself knows its maker and appreciates the true correspondence between the Maker and itself'. Any kind of sectarian foreclosure, he felt, was a violation of human nature and its authentic striving. He said, "Religion does not mean sectarianism. It means a in ordered moral government of the universe. It is not less real because it is unseen. This religion transcends Hinduism, , , etc. It does not supersede them. It harmonises them and gives them ". Talking about specific religions, he says, "Religions are different roads converging to the same point. What does it matter that we take different roads, so long as we reach the same goal? In reality, there are as many religions as there are individuals". While diversity of religions is admissible, he did not think that any religion can claim itself as superior over others. In fact, when a religion claims itself superior to others its credentials are suspect and it becomes a hurdle in the path of our self-realisation. "So long as there are different religions, every one of them may need some distinctive symbol. But when the symbol is made into a fetish and an instrument of proving the superiority of one's religion over others, it is fit only to be discarded. Concept of Politics

Politics, for Gandhiji, was but a part of man's life. Though lie thought that an increase in the power of the state did the greatest harm to mankind by destroying individuality which lay at the root of all , yet he viewed political power as a means that enabled people to better their conditions in every department of life. Politics therefore is an enabling activity. He wrote, "My work of social reform was in no way less or subordinate to political work. The fact is that when I saw that to a certain extent my social work would be impossible without the help of political work, I took to the latter and only to the extent that it helped the former". Political activity of man is closely associated with other activities of man and all these activities. According to Gandhiji, influence each other. "Life is one indivisible whole and all my activities run into one another". Therefore political activity is intimately related to other walks of life and pursuits. What he hated in politics was the concentration of power and the use of violence associated with political power.

Relationship between Religion and Politics

He formulated the relationship between politics and religion as an intimate one. Religion cannot be divorced from politics. Given the fundamental objective of life as self-realisation, if politics does not enable religious pursuits it is not worthwhile at all. He stated categorically, "For me, politics bereft of religion is absolute dirt, ever to be shunned". He further thought that political activity that divorces itself from the quest of self-realisation is not worth the salt. Politics creates the conditions for pursuits which members of a polity feel are basic to the making of their selves. What could be more basic than pursuit of one's own self? He felt, "For me there is no politics without religion - not the religion of the superstitious and the bind, religion that hates and fights, but the universal religion of toleration." Politics is intimately related to the entire activities of human life. This is particularly true in modem times. He wrote, "The whole gamut of man's activities today constitutes an indivisible whole. You cannot divide social, economic, political and purely religious work into watertight compartments." While regarding politics as the method through which men can rule themselves without violence and religion as the embodiment of ethical and moral rules, Gandhiji argued that their close relationship has to be recognised. So much importance did he attach to politics that he insisted on taking part in politics as if it is something religious in nature.

UNITY OF ENDS AND MEANS

That the ends and means are related to each other is one of the basic tenets of Gandhian philosophy. Gandhiji drew no distinction between the means and the ends implying thereby that one leads to the other and that the latter is the effect of the former, Such an assertion, for him, approximates the scientific principle of the relationship between cause and effect, ' Gandhiji would not like to attain the noblest end if that was to be achieved through impure means.

Relationship between Means and Ends

He felt that the relationship between means and ends are integral and constitutive. "Means and ends are convertible terms in my philosophy of life". Refuting those who opined that 'means are after all means', he said, "means are after all everything". As the means so the end. There is no wall of separation between means and ends. While good ends have to be cherished they are not in our control. But means are in our control. "Indeed the Creator has given us control (and that too very limited) over means, none over the end. Realisation of the goal is in exact proportion to that of the means. This is a proposition that admits of no exception." Therefore, "If one takes care of the means, the end will take care of itself." He rebuked those who think that if one seeks good ends the morality of means can be left to themselves. For him, "Impure means result in impure end. One cannot; reach truth by untruthfulness. Truthful conduct alone can reach Truth". He argued that means and ends are enmeshed into each other. "Are not Non-violence and Truth twins?" He replies, "The answer is an emphatic 'No'. Non-violence is embedded in, Truth and vice-versa. Hence has it been said that they are faces of the same coin. Either is inseparable from the other." Inspired by the Gita, the ethical principle that he upheld was atmasakti. One does not perform his duty expecting the fruit of his action and does it for the sake of duty. It sought detachment from the fruits of action.

"By detachment I mean that you must not worry whether the desired result follows from your action or not, so long as your motive is pure, your means is correct. Really it means that things will come right in the end if you take care for the means and leave the rest to Him." His approach to action was to be stated by him in categorical terms “I have concerned I myself principally with the conservation of the means and their progressive use. I know if we can take care of them, attainment of the goal is assured. I feel too that our progress towards the goal will be in 'exact proportion to the purity of our means. This method may appear to be long, perhaps too long, but I am convinced that it is the shortest."

SATYA, AND AHlMSA

Truth or Satya, for Gandhiji, is God himself. He therefore changed the statement, "God is Truth", later in his life into, "Truth is God" and suggested that it was one of the fundamental discoveries of his life's experiments. It is Truth, he says, that exists; what does not exist is untruth. The life of man, for Gandhiji, is a march of his pursuit in search of Truth or God. According to Gandhiji, truth is what the inner self experiences at any point of time; it 'is an answer to one's ; it is what responds to one's moral self. He was convinced that knowledge alone" leads a person to the truth while ignorance takes one away from the truth.

Satyagraha means urge for Satya, or truth. Satyagraha is not merely the insistence on truth; it is, in fact, holding on to truth through ways which are moral and non-violent; it is not the imposition of one's will over others, but it is appealing to the reasoning of the opponent; it is not coercion but is . Gandhiji highlights several attributes of satyagraha. It is a moral weapon and does not entertain ill-feeling towards the adversary; it is a non-violent device and calls upon its user to love his enemy; it does not weaken the opponent but strengthens him morally; it is a weapon of the brave and is constructive in its approach. For Gandhiji, a Satyagrahi is always truthful, morally imbued, non-violent and a person without any malice; he is one who is devoted to the service of all.

Truth, he firmly believed, can be attained only through non-violence which was not negative, meaning absence of violence, but was positively defined by him as love. Resort to non-violence is recourse to love. In its positive sense, non-violence means love for others; in its negative sense, it seeks no injury to others, both in words as well as deeds. Gandhiji talked of non-violence of different people. There is the non-violence of the brave: one has the force but he does not use it as a principle; there is the non-violence of the weak: one does not have faith in non-violence, but he uses it for attaining his objectives; there is the non- violence of the coward: it is not non- violence, but impotency, more harmful than violence. For Gandhiji, violence was a better option than cowardice. Through non-violence one appeal to the truth that nestles in people and makes the latter realise it in them, come around, and join hands in the common march to truth along with those whom they earlier considered as their adversaries.

GANDHI ON PACIFISM INTRODUCTION

“Pacifism” is derived from the word “pacific,” which means “ making” in Latin, paci-(from pax) meaning “peace” and -ficus meaning “making”. Pacifism covers a spectrum of views, including the belief that disputes can and should be peacefully resolved, calls for the abolition of the institutions of the military and , opposition to any organisation of society through governmental force, rejection of the use of physical violence to obtain political, economic or social goals, the obliteration of force except in cases where it is absolutely necessary to advance the cause of peace, and opposition to violence under any circumstance, even defence of self and others. Pacifism is the broad commitment to making peace. Pacifism is often construed more broadly as a general nonviolent stance both inwardly, in the sense of seeking , as well as outwardly, toward the world and its inhabitants. Although pacifist teachings have been found in virtually every society with a recorded history, pacifism as a philosophy or a movement has grown mainly from religion. Adherents of pacifism disagree about what it actually is. Some would say that any sanction of violence or force negates a pacifist identity, while others would argue that pacifism is not absolute in its definition, nor need it be applied to all situations. THE BHAGVAD GITA AND PACIFISM

Gandhi drew two lessons from the : to base action on unselfishness and to be detached from worldly benefits. He did not believe that seeking Indian freedom by war-time service had been selfish or to be detached means to ignore or shun the profits of action. Gandhi’s moral was to avoid asking for something, it was not a refusal to accept something good from evil. Forgive the Opponents

As causes of war, Gandhi named western imperialism and . He also cited communism as a threat to . His criticism of the three is qualified by an ability to forgive opponents and his faith in their . Behind these political forces he saw man’s economic greed and recourse to violence as deeper sources of aggression. As remedies he called for economic justice, sovereign equality and peaceful cooperation among states as requisites for international harmony. Rejection of Materialism

Gandhi’s solution for a peaceful world received support from his views on economic grievances, western colonialism and his own philosophy of non-materialism. His insistence upon the equality of all states as a precondition to peace gained strength from his backing of the self-determination of the people.

GANDHI AS A QUALIFIED PACIFIST

Gandhi’s qualified pacifism is consistent with his system of belief in which dynamic is his dialectical method to find the ultimate truth without being the end itself. When this position is understood, it is evident that Gandhi does not offer an ethic of love divorced from justice as realists. Gandhi’s pacifism is well illustrated in some of his answers to criticism of his wartime service and by general remarks. They also illumine the differences between him and those who believe that war has no relation to justice. Gandhi held that as a member of a disarmed, subject nation which needed the spirit of resistance, he would vote for military training in a free India. Taking the initiative, he argued that Western pacifists aid war capacities by paying taxes for military purposes.

Gandhi pointed out that he opposed alien rule while they dealt with states to which they felt some loyalty. He made it clear to the everywhere that intellectual neutrality is indefensible during war-time. Gandhi told pacifists that they must decide which the just side is in a military contest. Applying his conviction to particular events, he considered righteous the Spanish Republicans fighting Franco, the Chinese struggling against Japan, and the Poles resisting Germany, although he deplored the violent defence methods involved. Gandhi identified the victims of aggression, he continued to pass moral judgments against the course of Jews, he said: “if there ever could be a justifiable war in the name of and for humanity, a war against Germany, to prevent the wanton persecution of a whole race, would be completely justified. But I do not believe in any war”. Gandhi found that justice rests with one party to a conflict and that some good is possible from war despite its wrong means. Evidence of this position is seen in his support of the Japanese in their war with Russia in 1904-1905, in debates with Western pacifists, and in a number of his comments during the 1930’s when he endorsed the cause of the victims of fascism. Gandhi as an Absolute Pacifist

Gandhi’s ideas about war cut across unqualified pacifism, conditional pacifism and patriotic realism. As an unqualified pacifist, Gandhi believed that nothing of value is produced from military conflict. This view can be found in his idea during the period 1909-1914, in his comments about Western democracies immediately after and during the early years of World War II. It is seen also in his condemnation of nuclear war. As an absolute pacifist, he is more utopian than his general premises suggest. After World War I, Gandhi alleged that the Allies had been as deceitful, cruel and selfish as Germany, and that they had been a menace to the world because of their secret treaties and military record. With the outbreak of World War II, he looked back and criticised the peace makers at Versailles for having denied justice to Germany and took to task Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points for depending on arms rather than nonviolence for their ultimate sanction.

Expressing his standpoint, in April 1939, when the British and French guaranteed Poland’s security against German aggression, he wrote: “After all, what is the gain if the so-called democracies win? War certainly will not end. Democracy will have adopted all the tactics of the Fascists and the Nazis, including and all other forcible methods to compel and exact obedience. All that may be gained at the end of the victory is the possibility of a comparative protection of individual liberty.” The ‘Royden Affair’ gives an excellent illustration of Gandhi’s unconditional pacifism during World War II. Mude Royden, a British pacifist, decided late in 1941 that her capacity for nonviolence was not sufficient for the circumstances in which she found herself. Following her interpretation of Christ’s idea, she decided to support the war which she could not effectively diminish. When Gandhi learned of her decision, he criticised her new position and asked her to repent and to return to her former unqualified nonviolence. It does not seem that Gandhi understood that her personal incapacity to observe strict pacifism was a condition to which he himself confessed in the 1920s as one of his explanations for supporting the British cause in World War I. Gandhi’s Rigorous Pacifism

Gandhi’s rigorous pacifism during World War II was intensified by nationalist India’s negotiations with the British Government for immediate freedom. From 1939 to the spring of 1942 he generally found no righteousness in the Allied cause. Sometimes he became indifferent to any issues that were not Indian. Privately, Gandhi wrote to a friend in May 1940, that though Europe was destroying itself, he would not permit his sympathies to be involved. Change in Gandhi’s Pacifism

The change in Gandhi’s pacifism came about during the World War II when he gave his permission for an immediately liberated India to become a defence theatre for operations against Japan under the terms of a treaty with the democracies. He saw himself as a witness for non- violence, allowing the Western powers and those Indians who were not pacifist to defend the India-Burma frontier, and thereby Mother India. Asked if India itself would declare war, Gandhi replied: Free India need not do so. It simply becomes the ally of the allied powers simply out of gratefulness for the payment of a debt, however overdue. Human nature thanks the debtor when he discharges the debt. During a time of crisis in the Indian nationalist efforts to oust British power, the dictates of politics overcame his idealism. Nehru considers India as a unique change involving suffering in Gandhi’s mind and soul. It is clear that a precedent existed in Gandhi’s past for the shift in his outlook on war in 1942, namely, his support of the British imperialism in World War I following earlier pacifist declarations.

Gandhi resumed an unconditionally ironic attitude when the Second World War ended. Speaking about free India’s defence, he said that military forces would be incompatible with the ideal state and with democracy. The mention of war criminals brought forth the response that they ‘are not confined to the Axis Powers alone’. He felt that Roosevelt and Churchill are no less responsible for war than Hitler and Mussolini. In fact, at the time of Roosevelt’s death, Gandhi said that World War II had no positive achievement and that the future outlook for peace was dim. He was spared the humiliating spectacle of being party to a peace which threatens to be prelude to war, bloodier still if possible. Nature of Pacifism

The patterns that emerge from Gandhi’s views of the nature of pacifism are those of absolute pacifism, qualified pacifism and patriotic realism. The first is a viewpoint familiar to international relations: war is unjust as to its methods, participants and results. On the other hand, his qualified pacifism is exceptional in that it stresses the responsibility of nonviolent men – and of states since he drew no distinction between individual and nonviolence to decide who the aggressor is and to do so without abdicating the quest for peace. It is because of Gandhi’s assertive, conditional pacifism that Reginald Reynolds credited Gandhi with rescuing from overemphasis on passive resistance and non-resistance. As to his realistic position on war, this points to the difficulty of combining demands for self-determination with pacifism. Those men or nations wishing to be free and to be pacific are likely to discover some utility in violence.

CONCEPT OF SWARAJ

Gandhiji's concept of Swaraj was not merely confined to freeing India from the British yoke. Such freedom he desired but he said that he did not want to exchange 'king log for king stork'. Swaraj is not transfer of political power to the Indians. Nor does it mean, as he emphasized, mere political self-determination. For him, there was no Swaraj in Europe; for him the movement of Swaraj involved primarily the process of releasing oneself from all the bondages one is prey to both internal and external. It involves a movement of self-purification too. It is not the replacement of one type of authority by another.

He felt, "the real Swaraj will come not by the acquisition of authority by a few but by the acquisition of the capacity by all to authority when abused". Swaraj, he used to say, is power of the people to determine their lot by their own efforts and shape their destiny the way they like. In other words, "Swaraj is to be attained by educating the masses to a sense of their capacity to regulate and control authority"

Gandhiji, however, gave this term a much deeper meaning. 'The word Swaraj is a sacred word, a Vedic word, meaning self- rule and self-restraint and not freedom from all restraint which ‘independence’ often means". He saw swaraj as freedom for all plus self-control by all. It is related to the inner strength and capacity of a people which enable them to understand and control their social world: "The outward freedom that we shall attain will only be in exact proportion to the inward freedom to which we may have grown at a given moment. And if this is the correct view of freedom, our chief energy must be concentrated upon achieving reform from within".

Freedom from within means control over oneself, which, in turn, means a life based on understanding one's own self. Gandhi perceived non-violence as the key to attain such freedom and self-control. Non-violence needs to be imbued in our thought, words and deeds. Swaraj is thus a basic need of all. It recognizes no race, religion, or community. "Nor is it the monopoly of the lettered persons. Swaraj is to be for all, including the former but emphatically including the maimed, the blind, the starving, toiling millions. A stout hearted, honest, sane, literate man may well be the first servant of the nation." Swaraj will necessarily be inclusive of the poor and the toiling masses. Therefore, he adds, "Let there be no mistake as what means. .... It is full economic freedom for the toiling millions. It is no unholy alliance with any interest for their exploitation. Any alliance must mean their deliverance." (, 16.4.193 1, p.77).

In the same vein, Gandhiji made it very clear that India's Swaraj did not mean the rule of majority community i.e. Hindus. 'Every community would be at par with every other under the Swaraj constitution.' Swaraj, implying government based on the of the people is not a gift which comes from above, but it is something that comes from within. Democracy, therefore, is not the exercise of the voting power, holding public office, criticizing government; nor does it mean equality, liberty or security, though important as they all are in a democratic polity. It is when the people are able to develop their inner freedom which is people's capacity to regulate and control their desires impulses in the light of reason that freedom rises from the individual and strengthens him. His Swaraj had economic, social, political and international connotations. Economic Swaraj, as he says himself, "stands for social justice, it promotes the good of all equally including the weakest, and is indispensable for decent life." Social Swaraj centre’s on "an equalisation of status." Political Swaraj aims at ''enabling people to better their condition in every department of life."

GRAM SWARAJ OR DEVELOPMENT FROM BELOW

According to the Gandhian thinking, democracy can function smoothly and according to the concept of swaraj only if it is decentralised. "Centralisation as a system is inconsistent with non- violent structure of society". He wanted the centre of power to move from cities to villages. While conceptualizing the decentralised system of rule, Gandhi advanced his theory of Oceanic Circle, which he explained in the following words: "In this structure composed of innumerable villages, there will be ever- widening never ascending circles. Life will not be a pyramid with the apex sustained by the bottom. But it will be an oceanic circle whose centre will be the individual always ready to perish for the village, the latter ready to perish for the circle of villages, till at last the whole becomes a life composed of individuals, never aggressive in their arrogance but ever humble, sharing the majesty of, the oceanic circle of which they are integral units. Therefore, the outermost circumference will not wield power to crush the inner circle but will give strength to all within and derive its own strength from it.

Gandhi defended such a position even at the cost of being called a utopian. "I may be taunted with the retort that this is all Utopian and, therefore, not worth a single thought. If Euclid's point, though incapable of being drawn by human agency, has an.imperishab1e value, my picture has its own for mankind to live. Let India live for this true picture, though never realisable in its completeness". The building blocks of democracy have to be villages. Gandhiji wanted each village to have an annually elected Panchayat to manage the affairs of the village. Each village following the oceanic circle theory would be autonomous yet interdependent. As Gandhiji argued, "My ' idea of village swaraj is that it is a complete republic, independent of its neighbors for its own vital wants, and yet inter-dependent for many others in which dependence is a necessity".

CONCEPT OF SWADESHl

Swadeshi is 'that spirit in us which restricts us to use the services of our immediate surroundings to the exclusion of the more remote, Much of the deep poverty of the masses". Gandhiji felt, "is due to the ruinous departure from swadeshi in the econornic and industrial life." Swadeshi will not merely reinforce autonomous local units but also build cooperative relations with others with whom they need to associate. ‘If we follow the swadeshi doctrine, it would be your duty and mine to find our neighbors who can supply our wants and to teach them to supply them ..... Then every village of India will almost be self-supporting and self-contained unit exchanging only such necessary commodities with other villages as are not locally producible".

Swadeshi and self-sufficiency go together. The former is possible only if the latter is accepted as a matter of principle. Each individual, each family, each village and each region would be economically self-reliant, "Self-sufficiency does not mean narrowness; to be self- sufficient is not to be altogether self-contained. In no circumstances would we be able to produce all the things we need. So though our aim is complete self-sufficiency, we shall have to get from outside the village what we cannot produce in the village; we shall have to produce more of what we can in order thereby to obtain in exchange what we are unable to produce".

There are two other concepts, which go together with Swadeshi: they are Decentralisation and Cooperation. "Interdependence is and ought to be as much the ideal of man as self- sufficiency. Man is a social being. Without inter-relation with society he cannot realise his oneness with the universe or suppress his egotism. If man were so placed or could so place himself as to be absolutely above all dependence on his fellow-beings, he would become so proud and arrogant, as to be veritable burden and nuisance to the world. Dependence on society teaches him the lesson to humility". He felt that the value of self-sufficiency central to swadeshi has its limits. 'Self Sufficiency too has a limit. Drops in separation could only fade away; drops in cooperation made the ocean which carried on its broad bosom, greyhounds”. The concept of Swadeshi, for Gandhi, is encompassing. In religion, it means to be faithful to our ancestral religion; in politics, it means the use of indigenous institutions; in economics, it emphasized on the use of things produced in the immediate neighbourhood; one must prefer locally produced things even if they are of relatively inferior quality or costly. It does not mean that one should hate foreign-made products. Gandhiji had a place for foreign-made goods, especially medicines and life-saving drugs if they are not produced in the country.

GANDHI ON SATYAGRAHA INTRODUCTION

Gandhiji, during his stay in England, where he had been to study law and was influenced by Christian moral precepts like the and the idea of of . He was also influenced by Edward Carpenter’s critique of modern industrial civilisation and ’s views on non-violence, where the two were much in agreement. Gandhi advocated and emphasised nonviolent because India had had a strong tradition of . Ahimsa had been a central principle in both and . The notion of Ahimsa was based on the tenet of unity of all life, which was a key feature of Hinduism as well. All these cultural and spiritual ideas had been a major influence on Gandhi. These influences were instrumental in the formation and development of Satyagraha- the most systematic and developed mode of nonviolent action and . MEANING OF SATYAGRAHA

Satyagraha is a compound word that consists of two words- Satya and Agraha. The word Satya is derived from sat, which means being, abiding, right, wise, self-existent essence, as anything really is, as anything ought to be.” Satya does not simply mean truth or veracity. It has a variety of connotations such as real, sincere, existent, pure, good, effectual, and valid. Satya, thus as derived from the root sat, was taken by Gandhi to mean that “nothing exists in reality except Truth, everything else is illusion.” Truth, for Gandhi, was a higher law that was just. The word Agraha is derived from the root grah which means “to seize or to grasp, to get hold of, to grapple with”. Literally, these refer to the “insistence on Truth” or “holding on to Truth”. Satyagraha combines the concepts of firm and truth to mean, factually, “standing firm for truth” or “a relentless search for truth and a determination to reach truth.” In March 1921, Gandhi declared that Satyagraha is literally holding on to Truth and it means, therefore, “truth-force or soul-force.” To hold on to the truth, it is essential to first discover the truth. Thus Satyagraha is an active technique of action in a conflict situation which consists of a search for the truth and a struggle for its vindication. In simple terms, the Gandhian method of conflict resolution is known as Satyagraha. Satyagraha, however, has been variously translated as ‘passive resistance’, ‘’, ‘nonviolent direct action’, ‘nonviolent action’, and even ‘militant nonviolence’. For the resolution of conflict, Satyagraha resorts to institutional means (e.g. petitions, courts etc.) if possible, or to non- institutional means (e.g.protests, demonstrations, sit-ins, strikes, civil disobedience etc) if necessary. GANDHI AND SATYAGRAHA

Gandhi had a holistic vision of human life that could be lived only morally. This morality permeated all aspects of his life- the individual, political and social. Satyagraha is Gandhi’s technique of nonviolent activism. However, for Gandhi it was not only a method of conducting conflict but also a way of life, of living in Truth, a birth-right as well as duty. It was not just a political technique but a complete programme of existence, which included proper food, dress, , celibacy and sanitation among others. Gandhi used the technique of Satyagraha to bring about social and political change. In elaborating his theory of Satyagraha, Gandhi placed heavy emphasis on the fundamental unity of the universe. He viewed human beings as basically ‘good’ and endowed with divine powers.

True Satyagraha can ignite the divine spark which will awaken the conscience of the opponent leading to his moral persuasion. However, this is possible only when the satyagrahi confronts the opponent with non-violence by conviction (Satyagraha) rather than non-violence by expediency (Passive Resistance). This is the distinction that Gandhi made between what he calls the ‘nonviolence of the strong’ (Satyagraha) and ‘nonviolence of the weak’ (Passive Resistance). The latter did not exclude the use of physical force of violence to gain one’s end. Satyagraha, on the other hand, was a weapon of the strong and excluded the use of violence in every form. The principle of self-suffering is central to the Gandhian conception of non-violence and thus to his approach to conflict. In Young India, Gandhi wrote on August 11, 1920, ‘Satyagraha is self- suffering and not inflicting violence on others.’ It is essential for the satyagrahi to be willing to suffer the violence of others without inflicting ‘himsa’ (violence) either by word or deed and suffering in return. This will not only result in less loss of life but will also be morally enriching for humanity as a whole. Elaborating further on this point, S. Shridharani said in 1962 that suffering by protesting citizens would influence the entire atmosphere within which the conflict takes place. ‘The basic assumption of Satyagraha (is) that self-sacrifice releases psychological and physical energies which influence the sufferer’s surroundings and contemporaries.’ The satyagrahi must endure self- suffering for a just cause. S/he must do so without hatred toward anybody and in the belief that the opponent can be converted to seeing the truth by touching his or her conscience. The perpetrator of violence generally makes a life-or-death judgment on the assumption that s/he has knowledge of the truth. However, writing in Young India on 23 March 1921, Gandhi had said that Satyagraha excluded the usage of violence because no one is capable of knowing the absolute truth and is, therefore, not competent to punish.

Self-suffering has to occur in the appropriate context and thus Gandhi warned the satyagrahi from treating the opponent roughly by compelling them to inflict punishment as this would “drag down” the satyagrahi too. The satyagrahi must show “exemplary self-restraint” regardless of provocation and repression, “even at the risk of being charged with cowardice.” Thus, Satyagraha was essentially a self-purification process which sought to inspire a sense of justice in the adversaries by subjecting the “self” or the “spirit” in the human body to suffering. This made central to the idea of Satyagraha. Gandhi constantly strived to bring justness even in the British policies and legislations. For him, these political acts were spiritual too, for they uplifted the human spirit of every person offering Satyagraha. Gandhi saw an inherent relationship between just demands and the absence of violence. Satyagraha can be successful only if the demands are right and just; if the demands are unjust, Satyagraha cannot succeed. Moreover, if the demands were unjust, the cause could still be weakened or it could be lost by resorting to untruth, violence or coercion. A real grievance is a fundamental prerequisite for Satyagraha. The satyagrahi is required to openly and civilly break a law because it is unjust and obedience to it is dishonorable. However, s/he must be willing to submit to any penalty for this course of action. One of Gandhi’s soft used tactics was to undergo fasts to compel his opponents to act quickly or else have his death on their hands. By doing so Gandhi committed himself to a course of action while the responsibility for his life rested with the opponent. Thus, the opponent was compelled to choose not just issues and their ‘pay-offs’, but also life or death for Gandhi (and obviously being a well known and widely respected man, the opponent could not risk Gandhi’s death). This affected the opponent’s pay- offs. However, Gandhi once said, ‘You cannot fast against a tyrant.’ This is so for the simple reason that the tyrant “will act from his own principles, deducing his actions from them and not from changes in pay-offs.” Moreover, Gandhi could not put his death in the hands of an opponent who is a tyrant “because to him Gandhi’s death and its consequences would mean nothing.” Therefore, for Gandhi, even a few protestors of sufficient ‘purity’ could guarantee success of the Satyagraha movement. What actually mattered in such circumstances was the firmness of the satyagrahi.

TECHNIQUES OF SATYAGRAHA

During his life, Gandhi gave much thought to the tactics as well as modes of Satyagraha. Satyagraha can be practised by several methods such as fasts, cessation of work, protests, and public demonstrations and can be used by people, either singularly or jointly, to resist unjust laws. Gandhi’s Satyagraha varied from small labour strikes to nonviolent demonstrations to secure better sanitary conditions for entire cities. Describing the various methods or techniques of Satyagraha, Raghavan N. Iyer wrote in 1973: “The methods of satyagraha may be broadly classified into four categories: purificatory, penitential devices; forms of non-cooperation; methods of civil disobedience; the Constructive Programme.”

There is an overlap in theory as well as practice between the four categories. All four can be employed by individuals, groups or mass movements in the political as well as social sphere. Moreover, the elements of truth, justice, morality, non-violence, and self-suffering are common to all the four categories. The purificatory, penitential devices include pledges, and fasts. “The pledge is a solemn public declaration of one or more satyagrahis that he or they will abstain from, or perform certain acts to combat untruth (in themselves or others) or recognized injustices.” Prayers involved “the invocation of “soul-force” or of external spiritual agencies as an act of “purification and self-surrender.” A pledge could take the form of a or a prayer could precede pledge-taking. Besides, short duration fasts could be undertaken “for the purpose of atonement or introspective meditation over a specific issue.” Non-cooperation means renunciation of the benefits of a system with which we are associated. It involves voluntary suffering in the process of resisting evil. Forms of non-cooperation include hartal, boycott, strikes, unto death, and hijrat. Hartalis a temporary strike with advance notice about its duration. It involves “closing down of shops and businesses and sometimes the halting of the work of administration.” Boycott of public institutions such as government schools, colleges and law courts is intended to protest against or even paralyse an unjust political system.

It can also be employed against a particular institution indulging in corrupt or discriminatory practices. Strikes are declared with the aim of redressing a wrong so as to cease to take part in the wrong and enable the wrong-doer to see the folly of continuing the wrong. Fasting is to be undertaken voluntarily and it should have no trace of coercion over others; fasting unto death is a Gandhian weapon for self-purification and atonement of sins. Hijratis voluntary migration or temporary withdrawal out of the boundaries of a state. Gandhi advocated it to the peasants of Bardoli in 1928. However, by 1931 he changed his mind and did not consider it to be a necessary part of the purest form of Satyagraha. Civil disobedience consists in defying and disobeying laws that are unjust. It is an act of civility since it is opposed to all forms of violent and uncivilised behaviour. Methods of civil disobedience constitute picketing, marches, non-payment of taxes and deliberate defiance of a specific law.

Gandhi considered the non-payment of taxes as one of the quickest methods of overthrowing a government; however, it should not be undertaken without the necessary discipline. Gandhi stressed on the Constructive Programme and saw it as the most novel mode of Satyagraha. He wanted the satyagrahis to engage in silent, active, constructive work of reform and social service. Taking over of the government machinery was just “a shadow” for Gandhi; it was only through the “Constructive Programme that a system of nonviolent self-rule could emerge,” and a new social order could be built. The Constructive Programme involved “working toward communal unity, the removal of untouchability, a program of adult education and village improvement, peasant uplift and the development of nonviolent labor unions, economic and social equality, decentralized economic production and distribution through the promotion of cottage and small-scale industries, and the abolition of various social evils.” A couple of days before his death, Gandhi emphasised that political freedom was meaningless to the individual citizen without the attainment of economic, social and moral freedom.

ECONOMIC EQUALITY

Of all the dimensions of equality, Gandhi focuses most on economic equality and sees economic equality as the basis of non-violence and freedom. He considers economic equality “as the master key to non-violent independence. Working for economic equality means abolishing the eternal conflict between capital and labour. It means the leveling down of the few rich in whose hands is concentrated the bulk of the nation’s wealth on the one hand and the levelling up of the semi- starved naked millions on the other. A non-violent system of government is clearly impossibility so long as the wide gulf between the rich and the hungry millions persists. The contrast between the palaces of and the miserable hovels of the poor labouring class nearby cannot last one day in a free India in which the poor will enjoy the same power as the richest in the land”.

According to Gandhi, violence stems from inequality, the wide gap that exists between the possessing and the non-violence and unless the root cause of violence is weeded out through non-violent means, one cannot rule out the possibility of violent . In Gandhi’s ideal society there would be absolute equality of incomes for all types of work and for all individuals. Believing in the concept of bread labour and dignity of work, Gandhi insists that same amount of work in any occupation ought to be rewarded by the same amount of wages. Echoing Ruskin, Gandhi observes that “if India is to live any exemplary life of independence which would be the envy of the world, all the bhangis, doctors, lawyers, teachers, merchants and others would get the same wages for an honest day’s work”. Gandhi knew that such an ideal would not be realisable in the foreseeable future but that does not justify the gross inequalities that existed in the contemporary human society nor is the argument that some need more than others is acceptable. He points out “let no one try to justify the glaring difference between the classes and the masses, the prince and the pauper, by saying that the former need the more….The contrast between the rich and the poor today is a painful sight. The poor villages…produce the food and go hungry. They produce milk and their children have to go without it”. Gandhi clarifies equal distribution as his ideal and till that is realised he would like to settle for work for equitable distribution as that would not only ensure elimination of gross disparities in income but also allow every member of the society to receive enough goods and services to meet his basic requirements and enjoy a certain minimum standard of living. “The real implication of equal distribution is that each man shall have the wherewithal to supply all his natural needs and no more….To bring this ideal into being the entire social order has got to be reconstructed. A society based on Non-violence cannot nurture any other ideal”. RACIAL AND CASTE EQUALITY

Gandhi was well aware of the contemporary situation, the savage brutality of the Nazi’s treatment of the Jews and was saddened by the expression of racialism anywhere in the world. What puzzled him was that even in democracies, racialism is a fact of life both in the British Empire and the United States. His initiation to politics was his first hand acquaintance of racialism in South Africa and what disturbed him the most was that both the Church and the state approved the basic denial of equality to non-European races. For him, any form of inequality based on race and colour was unreasonable and immoral and to fight for the redress of such illegitimate inequality and to restore one’s own dignity and honour, he began his satyagraha movements in South Africa.

Gandhi was a great believer in the principles of democratic equality and the British constitution providing equality and justice to all and could not accept this serious violation when it came to involve the Indians in South Africa. When he arrived in India he was struck by the inequalities from which the Indian society suffered and took a vow to get rid of all stark inequalities. Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan considers that one of the greatest contributions of Gandhi is the removal of untouchability. Gandhi went to the extent of declaring “if I have to be reborn I should wish to be born as an untouchable so that I may share their sorrows, sufferings and the affronts levelled at them in order that I may endeavour to free myself and them from that miserable condition”. Though Gandhi called himself a sanatani Hindu, he was one of the severest critics of the curse of untouchability and any other form of inequality that was practised in the name of religion, caste, race or nation. He did not spare even the Indian princes and was very critical of the condition of the poor in their states. He was equally critical of the Permanent Settlement Act and the landlords and cautioned them hoping that “they will realise before it is too late that their safety and survival are bound up with the rapid introduction of responsible government which even the paramount power with all its strength was obliged to concede to the provinces”.

RIGHTS AND DUTIES

The crux of Satyagraha, for Gandhi, is in deciphering what one’s duty is. Gandhi speaks of rights in the context of duties and that is his distinctiveness; he considers ‘real rights as a result of performance of duty’ meaning, that all rights to be deserved and preserved as rights is derived from duties which are performed well. Rights cannot be divorced from duties and that rights have to be exercised in the interests of all. The concept of duty, for Gandhi, is derived from the idea of dispassionate action which the Bhagavad Gita advocates. Unless one’s action is performed with a degree of detachment one would not be free from the anxiety of its future consequences. He contends “if we are sure of the ‘purity’ of the means we employ, we shall be led on by the faith, before which any fear and trembling melt away”. Non-attachment does not mean lack of clarity about the ends one desires to achieve.

For Gandhi, the important thing is to get the people to do what they ought to do without offering inducements or threats or theological sanctions. Interestingly, Gandhi accepts the core idea of right-based individualism, the dominant in contemporary political theory, namely human equality and moral worth of every person but rights are coalesced with the idea of duties, assigning individuals with responsibilities to lead a moral life and devote to the good of their community. He also supports the basic rights of those at the margins of society, namely women, untouchables and the vulnerable, who have been objects of domination and humiliation. According to him, Freedom is not being left alone but the freedom to cultivate love and service which he describes as the best feature of human nature. He champions equal rights for women and the right of everyone to make the choices they desire. He rejects ascriptive properties such as gender, class, birth, caste, education or nationality that can justify unequal treatment and disqualify some as moral agents.

RIGHTS OF WOMEN

Gandhi speaks of equal rights for women. He wanted women and men to be complimentary to one another and insists that women and men differ but their differences cannot be the basis of women’s subjugation and oppression. He wanted marriage to be one of partnership between two equals. He censured women if they imitated men and appealed to women to get out of their habits of pleasing men. Writing in 1927, in an address to women in Ceylon, now Sri Lanka, Gandhi remarks: What is it that makes a woman deck herself more than a man? I am told by feminine friends that she does so for pleasing man. Well, I tell you, if you want to play your part in the world’s affairs, you must refuse to deck yourself for pleasing man. If I was born a woman, I would rise in rebellion against the pretensions on the part of man that woman is born to be his plaything.

Gandhi sees the primary tasks of a woman in being a mother and a householder. Additionally a woman, according to Gandhi, is the repository of spiritual and moral values and a teacher to man. A woman is the embodiment of suffering and sacrifice and it is for this reason that he considers her to be the best messenger of peace and non-violence. A woman is inherently more peaceful than a man. On these grounds he recommends separate education for women and men as women would make better soldiers than men in non-violent struggles. He credits his wife Kasturba and the black women in South Africa for helping him to evolve the technique of satyagraha. He considers the nature of women as being conducive to non-violent satyagraha based on dharma.…woman is the incarnation of ahimsa. Ahimsa means infinite love, which again means infinite capacity for suffering. Who but woman, the mother of man, shows this capacity in the largest measure? She shows it as she is the infant and feeds it during the nine months and derives joy in the suffering involved…. Let her transfer that love to the whole of humanity, let her forget that she ever was or can be the object of man’s lust. And she will occupy her proud position by the side of man as his mother, maker and silent leader.

It is given to her to teach the art of peace to the warring world thirsting for that nectar. She can become the leader in satyagraha which does not require the learning that books give but does require the stout heart that comes from suffering and faith. Gandhi’s credit lay in the fact that under his stewardship women participated in large numbers in the nationalist struggle. Initially, in the 1920s he confined them to their homes and made them take up the spinning-wheel. Subsequently he allowed them picket liquor shops as he knew majority of women suffered at the hands of drunkard husbands. At the peak of the civil disobedience movement in the 1930s, he allowed them to join the salt satyagraha. Women played an important role in many of the humanitarian works that Gandhi undertook such as helping the poor, nursing, promoting , spinning, weaving etc.