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3-2003

Christian Traditions of : Just and

M. Therese Lysaught Loyola University Chicago, [email protected]

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Recommended Citation Lysaught, M. Therese. Christian Traditions of Peace: Just War and Pacifism. Catechist Magazine, , : 50-54, 2003. Retrieved from Loyola eCommons, Institute of Pastoral Studies: Faculty Publications and Other Works,

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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 License. © Bayard Inc., 2003. Discipleship and the Moral Life

Christian Traditions of Peace: Just War and Pacifism

“But I say to you that hear, love your enemies, do “All these factors force us to undertake a completely good to those who hate you, bless those who curse fresh reappraisal of war” ( Pastoral Constitution on you, pray for those who abuse you. To him who the in the Modern World , Second Vatican strikes you on the cheek, offer the other also; and Council, #80). from him who takes away your coat, do not withhold even your shirt….Be merciful, even as your Father is merciful” (Lk 6:27-36).

50 MARCH 2003 • CATECHIST By M. Therese Lysaught, PhD

n October 7, 2001, the U.S. launched its first The Tradition of Just War military initiative in the now ongoing “war on St. Augustine is traditionally credited with introduc - Oterrorism.” U.S. citizens found themselves once ing just war reasoning into . But, though again faced with questions of war. What has Christian many equate the with Christianity, ethics to say to September 11th and this newest war? the notion of a “just” war did not originate with War seems to be an ineradicable feature of the hu - . As in much of his work, St. Augustine man condition. It is always there. However, since it is adapted the notion from the classical world in which rooted in particular social and historical contexts, he was situated. According to Roland Bainton, in his each war seems to present new variables, new chal - classic history of Christian Attitudes Toward War and lenges. Those who find themselves opposed to war re - Peace , the seeds of the idea of the just war doctrine peatedly find themselves faced with or in the midst of can be found in the Greek philosopher Plato. The doc - conflicts that seem to shout: in this instance, killing trine develops as it passes through the hands of Aris - is justified. Think of Hitler, Rwanda, and now the at - totle and the Roman Empire, so that by the time it tack on the World Trade Center. gets to Augustine (via St. Ambrose, the who How do Christians think through the moral pro - converts him) its basic outline is essentially in place. priety of particular ? Although they will not find St. Aquinas and others developed it further. easy answers, Christians struggling with these ques - Growing out of Greek antiquity and utilized until tions will find resources rooted deeply in the - contemporary times by many secular or non-Christ - ian tradition. Two traditions of thought have shaped ian thinkers, the just war theory is often employed or Christian responses to war through the millennia. understood as a general justification of the These are the traditions of just war and pacifism. of war. However, those who study just war theory and In the following, I will outline (far too briefly) the authentically attempt to apply it argue that the pur - history and main components of the just war theory pose of the just war tradition is not to justify war gen - and . Shaping the discussions of erally but actually to limit it. , in these positions will be the challenge that our editors his book Nevertheless , goes so far as to include it as a have —how do we think about questions of war variety of Christian pacifism. The U.S. Bish - and traditions of just war and pacifism from the per - ops, in their 1983 attention-getting pastoral The spective of discipleship? Behind our discussion will be Challenge of Peace: God’s Promise and Our Response , very important questions: What does “discipleship” likewise see the just war tradition as consistent with mean in our contemporary context? How do we “fol - the Christian mandate to be , insofar as low ” and his call to make real the Reign of God just wars are fought solely to protect or restore peace. on a day-to-day basis, in the ordinary, everyday con - texts of life, family, work, and society in which we find ourselves? How, more specifically, does our commit - This is the sixth article for this year’s course in The University ment to discipleship affect the way that we work of Dayton Catechist Formation Program in association with Cat - through difficult moral questions? How do we “follow echist magazine. By reading this and the other six articles in Jesus” when engaging in combat, supporting state- the series and forming a discussion group, you could earn a sanctioned , or contributing to the develop - continuing education unit or a graduate credit from the Uni - ment of institutions whose purpose (directly or indi - versity of Dayton. It’s not too late to be a part of this exciting rectly) is to take human life? program. For most of its history, the Catholic tradition has This year, for the first time, we are making the Leader’s attempted to balance the that war can at times Guide available on the Internet. The Leader’s Guide for Disci - be morally justified with the mandates to fol - pleship and the Moral Life is available at low a crucified Christ in loving one’s enemies, forgiv - www.udayton.edu/~cat . ing others, and being peacemakers. Through most of In addition to the print materials, we are offering an Inter - history, the balance has tipped in the direction of the net supplement to each course. These online supplements offer just war theory, with pacifism being relegated to participants an opportunity to interact with others in the pro - , eccentrics, and those within religious orders. gram and a chance to provide feedback on each session. Since the Second Vatican Council and the Church’s To enhance the traditional course, the Internet supplement shift toward a more biblically informed theology, the provides threaded discussions related to course content and balance has tipped in the other direction. In the writ - additional information about the author of each article. Also, ings of the Council, Popes Paul VI through John Paul each supplement contains links to other web sites so that the II, and the U.S. Catholic , the dominant theme participants can learn even more. is one of and , with an al - For more information contact: lowance made for war in the most limited of circum - zukowski@.udayton.edu or visit our web site at stances. Understanding this historical trajectory will http://www.udayton.edu/~cat . You may also call toll free assist those who seek to discern the call to Christian (800) 523-4625, ext. 140. discipleship in the midst of a world of violence.

CATECHIST • MARCH 2003 51 Thus, those who employ the just war tradition in is resort to force truly a last resort? In how many situ - good in their decision-making about when ations have all other peaceful avenues been exhaust - military violence can be justified start from a pre - ed, giving them sufficient time to work? How does sumption against violence and in favor of peace. A one measure “proportionality”? How far back in a sit - just war must be fought to overcome injustice, but al - uation of historic wrongdoings does one go to deter - ways with an eye to restoring peace. At its best, the mine which side has the upper hand in terms of com - just war tradition helps to clarify and limit when force parative justice? Critics argue that those who wish to may be used and to minimize the violence of war it - pursue war often use the just war theory as a way of self. It does this through a set of criteria that help to providing moral legitimation to an action that would determine which wars one ought to reject as not be otherwise suspect. Advocates counter that the cri - morally acceptable. If a particular war fails on any one teria provide one of the only authoritative methods of these criteria, it fails the test of moral legitimacy. for saying “no” to particular military endeavors. What are the criteria? They have evolved over the The second category is referred to as the jus in bel - millennia, but for our purposes eight factors must be lo criteria. These criteria specify the minimum moral met for a war to be considered just and therefore requirements for acting justly in the conduct of war . morally appropriate. These eight to ten criteria (the These are: total number and exactly how they are described • Noncombatant Immunity—civilians may not be the varies depending on who is writing the list) are usual - object of direct attack and military personnel must ly divided into two categories. The first category is re - take due care to avoid and minimize indirect harm to ferred to as the jus ad bellum criteria. These criteria civilians; determine the question of justice as one moves to - • Proportionality—in the conduct of hostilities, ef - ward war . These criteria can be found in many places forts must be made to attain military objectives with (the following list is taken from the U.S. Bishops’ no more force than is militarily necessary and to 1993 pastoral The Harvest of Justice Is Sown in avoid disproportionate collateral damage to civilian Peace ): life and property; • Just Cause—force may be used only to correct a • Right Intention—even in the midst of conflict, the grave, public evil, i.e., aggression or massive violation aim of political and military leaders must be peace of the basic rights of whole populations; with justice, so that acts of vengeance and indiscrimi - • Comparative Justice—while there may be rights and nate violence, whether by individuals, military units wrongs on all sides of a conflict, to override the pre - or governments, are forbidden. sumption against the use of force the injustice suf - These criteria seek to limit the damage done by fered by one party must significantly outweigh that military forces during war itself. In other words, ac - suffered by the other; cording to the just war doctrine, while one might be • Legitimate Authority—only duly constituted public justified by going to war, the justice of one party’s authorities may use deadly force or wage war; claim could be erased by what they do in war. The • Right Intention—force may be used only in a rules of morality apply even within war. truly just cause and solely for that purpose; How does the just war theory square with a com - • Probability of Success—arms may not mitment to Christian discipleship? Some advocates be used in a futile cause or in a case argue that if nothing else, there are times—albeit where disproportionate measures are re - limited—when Christians have a moral responsibility quired to achieve success; to take up arms as a last resort, as a concrete way of • Proportionality—the overall destruc - embodying Jesus’ command to love one’s neighbor. tion expected from the use of force must Christian discipleship—service to the concrete other be outweighed by the good to be achieved; in ways that may entail suffering to ourselves—calls • Last Resort—force may be used us to come to the aid of an innocent “neighbor” who only after all peaceful alternatives is victim to an attack, to stand against tyranny and have been seriously tried and ex - evil. Others, following Aquinas, argue from a notion hausted. of the common good. The state, Aquinas and others These criteria clearly attempt have argued, has been ordained by God to protect the to limit the resort to force. All oth - common good. It has a right and duty to defend itself er avenues of resolution must be from attack, and Christians, as citizens of the state, tried first. It recognizes that one- have a moral responsibility to participate in public life sided claims of justice—though and contribute to the common good. strongly felt—are rarely true. As war is Although the just war theory has been the primary only properly a tool for the defense of the factor shaping Catholic response to the question of common good, it can only be waged by a legiti - war since the time of Augustine, within this century mate authority, and one’s goals must be Catholics have begun to join other Christians in ques - achievable and proportional. tioning whether just war is an authentically Christian Critics of the just-war theory note how dif - position. They advocate returning to the pacifism that ficult these criteria are to apply. In distinctively marked the first three centuries of the how many situations, for example, .

52 MARCH 2003 • CATECHIST Blessed are the Peacemakers, for they They are called, likewise, to live lives of mercy, for - shall be called Children of God giveness (“seventy times seven”), and compassion not Historians concur that from the time of Jesus until only toward one’s neighbors, but more amazingly, to - the reign of Constantine in 313 AD, the early Church ward one’s enemies. For those who attempt to live was pacifist. There is some evidence, from roughly lives shaped day-in and day-out by these commit - 180 AD onward, of sporadic Christian participation in ments, who strive to be shaped in body, mind, and military professions, but until 300 AD Christian bish - spirit by practices of forgiveness, love, and service, ops, theologians, and writers were united in their con - killing becomes less and less possible. demnation of violence, killing, and . This recognition that Christian pacifism is but one For many contemporary Christians, this witness of dimension of a life of discipleship points to an addi - the early Church is significant. Not only is the early tional factor: pacifism or is the Church considered by many to be uniquely positioned practice of a community. Although individuals must to interpret message, similarities and dif - discern their own , the practice of nonvio - ferences between our social locations and that of our lence is practically impossible apart from community. early sisters and brothers create a compelling argu - Without community it is difficult to be formed in the ment in favor of peacemaking and nonviolence as im - disciplines required to sustain a practice of nonvio - peratives for Christians. lence. Without the participation of many, it is difficult In discussing Christian pacifism, a few comments for nonviolence to be effective in the world. Stories of are in order about what it is not. Some conflate paci - nonviolence—from the Christian martyrs, to , fism with “passivism,” a position of “doing nothing,” to the civil rights movement—testify to its ineradica - “passively” submitting to evil done to oneself or oth - bly communal nature. ers. Certainly Jesus’ own actions vis a vis the authori - A third criticism of pacifism is that it is “irrespon - ties that condemned him, as well as those of the early sible,” that it is a position adopted by individuals who Christian martyrs, speak to a practice of nonresis - withdraw from society, who abdicate their responsibil - tance in the face of evil. But a deeper exploration of ity to defend others or right injustice, who fail to con - Jesus’ passion and the practice of martyrdom reveals tribute to the common good. Christian pacifists, how - that these ought rather be understood not in the neg - ever, would challenge some of the assumptions ative—not primarily as simplistic passivity in the face behind these claims. The early Christians, clearly, did of evil—but as complex, rigorous, powerful modes of not withdraw from society. They continued to under - action—of loving one’s enemies, as witnessing to stand themselves as Roman citizens and to follow the God’s truth and power. It is important to read the ac - laws of their countries (laws that did not involve them tions of these figures as they understood them. in idolatry). They lived, worked, paid taxes, raised As the U.S. Catholic bishops note in their pastoral their families, and worshipped in full public view, The Challenge of Peace : “The vision of Christian non - while rejecting the war and violence of Roman cul - violence is not passive about injustice and the defense ture. of the rights of others; it rather affirms and exempli - While doing so, however, they offered an alterna - fies what it means to injustice through nonvio - tive and theological way of understanding the world. lent methods” (#116). To read the stories of those who While they fulfilled the laws of their communities, have practiced nonviolent resistance to evil is to read they lived so as to witness to their belief that God, not stories of immense effort, struggle, , engage - the Emperor, rules the world. They sought to show ment, patience, and at times physical suffering and how Christian practices—such as forgiveness, love of death. Christian pacifists work assiduously for peace enemies, sharing of material goods, , etc.— and justice. Like the Christian martyrs, they are will - freed them from being controlled by the idols and ing for their lives to be taken. They simply maintain gods that so often rule our lives (e.g., hatred, exclu - that one means—that of killing—would contradict sivism, greed, gluttony, self-indulgence, etc.). the end for which they work. All in all, then, the witness of Christian pacifism Alternatively, other critics of pacifism reduce it to from the early Church onward has been an attempt of a “rule-based ethic,” a simplistic and absolute rejec - Christian communities to follow Jesus, to “put on the tion of war and violence. Christian pacifism, however, mind of Christ,” and to live in the kingdom of God is actually not rightly understood as an abstract prin - that Jesus proclaimed broke into historical in ciple that is put forward as a response to the question him, “fulfilled in your hearing” (Lk 4:21). Traditional of war and violence. As Lisa Cahill, in her book Love theology has proclaimed that with the incarnation, Your Enemies: Discipleship, Pacifism, and Just War passion, and , the kingdom of Theory , notes the pacifism espoused and lived by God has become “already” a reality in the world, al - Christians and Christian communities through the though it is “not yet” fully realized. To follow Jesus is ages is fundamentally a corollary of a way of life. His - to work to live in the kingdom “already,” to create torically, Christian pacifism has gone hand-in-hand communities of love of neighbor, love of enemy, for - with a serious commitment to communally embody giveness, worship, including within one’s community Jesus’ call to realize and live in the kingdom of God. the poor, the marginalized, and the enemy. As such, Christians are called to follow Jesus, to be merciful, the kingdom “already” is not simply an interior con - perfect, and holy as God is merciful, perfect, and holy. version—it is inescapably social.

CATECHIST • MARCH 2003 53 With Constantine all this changed. This change long section on the Christian responsibility to be went hand-in-hand with a change in Christian social peacemakers. Moreover, the document also calls for location. With the Edict of Milan in 313 AD, which ef - the legal protection of conscientious objection. This is fectively established Christianity as the official reli - the first time in history that such a statement has ap - gion of the Roman Empire, Christians gained social peared in a Catholic document of such prominence. power. Many understood this as the historic vindica - This two-fold approach to questions of war and tion of the truth of the Christian faith, of the sacrifice peace is carried forward by the U.S. Catholic bishops of the martyrs, and saw themselves called to build a in their 1983 pastoral letter “The Challenge of Peace: Christian society. God’s Promise and Our Response.” Easily three- But the honeymoon did not last long, and within fourths of the document is devoted to revisiting the decades this new Christian society was under attack Gospel message of peace, commending pacifism as a from without—by the “barbarians.” Augustine and Christian way of life. Like the Pastoral Constitution , others believed that the Church was required to de - they seek to describe pacifism and just-war theory as fend the society that God had established. To fight the complementary approaches within the Catholic tradi - barbarians was equally to defend the faith. Pacifism tion that both aim at peace. They retain for govern - and nonviolence became relegated to the internal ments the right to defense and laud those who serve sphere—as the proper feelings and attitudes one in the military as contributing to the common good. ought to have even while killing the enemy—or care - They employ just war theory as a tool for critiquing fully circumscribed to the realm of those living the the and as a way to provide a moral monastic life, those called to a “higher” or more au - analysis of deterrence. But apart from this, the over - thentic form of Christianity. riding message one comes away with is that the heart As Christianity remained allied with the state of the Christian faith is one of peace, and many have through the Middle Ages and beyond, the just war tra - credibly questioned whether the magisterium can dition remained its basic position on questions of consistently maintain its commitment to both just warfare and violence. This position was challenged as war theory and Christian pacifism. early as the late Middle Ages by those communities Thus it is that two days following the commence - that have come to be known as the “historic peace ment of bombing in Afghanistan, the U.S. Conference Churches”—those in the Anabaptist tradition (the of Catholic Bishops, through its then-president Bish - , , , and Brethren) as well op Joseph A. Fiorenza, followed their traditional habit as the . The Anabaptists especially champi - and issued a statement on the morality of the war. oned a of the church and understanding Their position is clearly stated: “Military action is al - of the meaning of discipleship for lay Christians that ways regrettable, but it may be necessary to protect looked to the earliest communities of faith as their the innocent or to defend the common good.” But if model. one goes to the USCCB website for materials sur - rounding the attack on the World Trade Center, one Where Just War and Pacifism Meet: finds overwhelmingly materials on peacemaking and Vatican II and the U.S. Bishops anti-violence. In the 20th century, many Catholics and Protestants Charting a path forward for individual Christians have likewise begun to take seriously the claims of the and Christian communities remains no easy task. Our historic that the Christian gospel is first step must be to remember that we are called to one of nonviolence. Significant Catholic figures would be disciples, to make real the Gospel message of include , , Gordon Zahn, peace, forgiveness, and God’s reign over all in the ac - the brothers Berrigan, and most recently . tions of our day-to-day lives in the midst of our com - These, in the ecumenical company of compatriots munities and countries. Our responsibility as Chris - across the Christian faith, have issued a compelling tians is to bear witness to the truth of the Gospel in challenge to contemporary Christians in favor of paci - the world, as we discern how we are to love both our fism. neighbors and our enemies. The magisterium has taken note of this. The Sec - ond Vatican Council marked a decisive shift in its M. Therese Lysaught, PhD, is an Associ - ate Professor in the Department of Reli - analysis of the questions of war and peace. Gaudium gious Studies at the University of Day - et spes, The Pastoral Constitution on the Church in ton. Dr. Lysaught is currently a member the Modern World , closes with a chapter on “The Fos - of the theologians working group on the tering of Peace and the Promotion of a Community of principle of cooperation at the Catholic Nations.” This title itself is significant. They certainly Health Association, on the editorial ad - retain for governments “the right to legitimate de - visory board for Christian Bioethics , and fense once every means of peaceful settlement has the co-chair of the Liturgy and Ethics Interest Group for been exhausted,” and by reminding those in the mili - the Society of . Her articles on bioethics, tary that as long as they fulfill their roles properly theology and bioethics, and liturgy and ethics have ap - they should “regard themselves as the agents of secu - peared in a variety of places, including the Encyclopedia of Bioethics, Health , Commonweal, The Journal rity and freedom of peoples…making a genuine con - of Law, Medicine and Ethics , and Lammers and Verhey’s tribution to the establishment of peace” (#79). On Moral Medicine . Nonetheless, this short discussion is framed within a © CATECHIST, March 2003. Posted with permission of the publisher, Peter Li, Inc., Dayton, OH 45439. 54 MARCH 2003 • CATECHIST