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SMITH, Ronald Cabot, 1937- EVALUATION OF AN INTRODUCTORY COLLEGE LEVEL COURSE IN LANDSCAPE HORTICULTURE. The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1973 Education, theory and practice

University Microfilms, A XEROX Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan

© 1974

RONALD CABOT SMITH

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED EVALUATION OF AN INTRODUCTORY COLLEGE LEVEL

COURSE IN LANDSCAPE HORTICULTURE

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By

Ronald Cabot Smith, A.A.S., B.S.A., M.S.

*******

The Ohio State University 1973

Reading Committee Approved By

Dr. K. W. Reisch

Dr. H. A. Rollins

Dr. J. Robert Warmbrod

Dr. Philip C. Kozel Adviser Dr. D. C. Kiplinger Department of Horticulture ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author is grateful for the assistance and encouragement re­ ceived from many people during the pursuit of this study.

Special appreciation is extended to Dr. J. Robert Warmbrod, Pro­ fessor in the Department of Agricultural Education, for his unerring guidance in educational experimentation and interpretation.

Appreciation is also extended to Drs. Kenneth W. Reisch and Philip

C. Kozel, the author's advisers, for giving him an opportunity to teach

Horticulture 111 while in tenure as a graduate student at Ohio State

University.

A sincere thanks is extended to Dr. H. A. Rollins, Chairman of the

Department of Horticulture, for creating the type of intellectual atmos­ phere which encouraged the undertaking of this research.

A loving thanks is extended to the author's parents for the en­ couragement and support they extended to both him and his family during the past six years.

To Marcy, Todd, Guy, Eric and Kris he promises to make up for lost time, and will make a sincere effort to be a more attentive father.

The highest tribute must be extended to my wife, Ann. Without her assistance and willingness to assume a disproportionate amount of the responsibility, this study could not have reached fruition by this time. Her dedication to see the job through is without equal, especially in working on the manuscript for the manual and dissertation.

ii VITA

June 17, 1937 . . . Born - East Williston, New York

1956 ...... Diploma, Amherst Central High School, Buffalo, New York

1956-1958 ...... Petty Officer, 3rd Class, United States Naval Reserve

1960 ...... A.A.S., Alfred Agricultural and Technical College, Alfred, New York

1960-1961 ...... Plant Propagator for Jackson and Perkins, Newark, New York

1961-1963 ...... Self-Employed as a landscaper

1963-1968 ..... Sales Representative for Ferry-Morse Seed Company, Fulton, Kentucky

1969 ...... B.S.A., University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia

1971 ...... M.S., University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia

1971-1972 ..... Teaching Associate, Department of Horticulture, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1972-1973 ...... Graduate Fellowship, Department of Horticulture, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

PUBLICATIONS

"Origin and Development of Fruit Tree Varieties in America", The Harvester, October, 1969.

ili FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: Landscape Horticulture

Studies in Landscape Horticulture Professor Vincent C. Smith

Studies in Ornamental Horticulture Professor Franklin A. Pokorny

Studies in Media for Container-Grown Nursery Stock Professor Franklin A. Pokorny

Studies in Research and Evaluation in Horticultural Education Professor Kenneth W. Reisch Professor J. Robert Warmbrod

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...... ii

VITA ...... ill

FIELDS OF S T U D Y ...... iv

LIST OF T A B L E S ...... vii

Chapter

I. RATIONALE FOR UNDERTAKING RESEARCH ...... 1

Introduction The Study Summary of Chapter I

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND RELATED RESEARCH ...... 12

Education In Horticulture Testing Innovations Development of Objective Testing Evaluation of Instruction and Course Content Educational Philosophy

III. POPULATION, SAMPLING AND DESIGN OF THE S T U D Y ...... 24

Obtaining the Sample Design of the Study Other Statistics and Analyses Used in This Study Summary of Chapter III

IV. RESULTS OF THE STUDY

Course Evaluation Data Summary of Chapter IV

V. INTERPRETATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS OF THE S T U D Y ...... 56

Pretest-Posttest Interpretations Conclusions of the Lab and Lecture Testing Analysis Evaluation Interpretations Conclusions of Evaluation Analysis

v TABLE OF CONTENTS— Continued

Page APPENDIX

I ...... 63

II ...... 72

III ...... 74

IV ...... 76

BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 82

APPENDIX V ...... 84

vi LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Record of Enrollment In Horticulture ...... 2

2. Percentages of Students From Various Colleges and Ranks in the Spring Quarter Enrollment...... 26

3. Rationale for Stratified Random Sampling ...... 29

4. Pretest Results From the Total Lecture and Lab , Sections...... 33

5. Pretest Results for the Randomly Selected Lecture Students and the Currently Enrolled Lab Students . . . 34

6. Posttest Results From the TotaL Lecture and Lab Sections...... 35

7. Posttest Results for the Randomly Selected Lecture Students and the Currently Enrolled Lab Students . . . 35

8. Mean Gain Scores for the Lectures and L a b ...... 36

9. Lab Students Previously Enrolled in Lecture ...... 37

10. The Number and Percentage of Students in the Experi­ mental Groups Showing Pretest-Posttest Gains ..... 38

11. Analysis of Covariance Table for the Two Lab Groups Using the Posttest Scores as the Dependent Variable . 38

12. Adjusted Means for Table 1 1 ...... 39

13. Analysis of Covariance Table for the Currently Enrolled Lab Students and the Randomly Selected Lecture Students, Using the Posttest Score as the De­ pendent Variable...... 40

14. Adjusted Means for Table 1 3 ...... 40

vii LIST OF TABLES— Continued

Table Page

15. Analysis of Covariance Table for the Currently Enrolled Lab Students and the Randomly Selected Lecture Students Using the Final Exam as the Dependent Variable...... 41

16. Adjusted Means for Table 1 5 ...... 42

17. Student Responses for the Lab Sessions - Number Responding - 3 5 ...... 43

18. Student Responses for the 10:00 A.M. Class - Number Responding - 8 0 ...... 44

19. Student Responses for the 3:00 P.M. Class - Number Responding - 6 2 ...... 45

20. Student Responses for the 4:00 P.M. Class ...... 46

21. Results of the Objective Evaluation Subscale Responses . 49

22. Responses with Decile Scores Below Average ...... 50

23. Responses with Average Decile Scores ...... 50

24. Percentages by Class With Above Average Decile R e s p o n s e s ...... 52

25. Precipitation Data for Spring Quarter 1973, Columbus, O h i o ...... 53

26. Mean GPA for Experimental Students in Lab and Lecture Sections ...... 54

viii CHAPTER I

RATIONALE FOR UNDERTAKING RESEARCH

Introduction

In 1967 an introductory course known as Horticulture 111 was

established on The Ohio State University campus. As indicated in

Table 1, the enrollment increased steadily over the years, reaching

the annual enrollment size of over 100 students in 1970-71.

The data in Table 1 establish the fact that, starting in the

spring quarter of 1972, the course was offered every quarter. The

low enrollments in summer 1972 and winter 1973 were due to the fact

that the course was added in a late announcement and was not included with the regularly scheduled class bulletins. It is feasible that

the enrollment would have been significantly higher during these two quarters had the course been included in the master class schedules.

Enrollment in advanced undergraduate horticulture courses has

also steadily increased-showing a 55.9 per cent increase in registrants 2 in the last two years (1971 and 1972).

Basic and advanced horticulture courses are very popular on

other campuses. For example, at The University of Missouri, a

"Landscape Appreciation" course attracts about 400 students each

^Figures courtesy of the Department of Horticulture, O.S.U. TABLE 1

RECORD OF ENROLLMENT IN HORTICULTURE 1111

Enrollment Period Number of Students

Autumn 1967 32 Autumn 1968 54 Autumn 1969 53 Autumn 1970 59 Spring 1971 65 Autumn 1971 70 Spring 1972 112 Summer 1972 36 Autumn 1972 172 Winter 1973 56 Spring 1973 256

Summary: 1968-69 54 1969-70 53 1970-71 124 1971-72 215 1972-73 484

^Figures courtesy of the Registrar's Office, O.S.U. o semester and the enrollment has "increased by leaps and bounds."

at other colleges in the eastern United States.**

The interest in horticulture has paralleled the increasing con­

cern for the environment in which we live. Homeowners are spending

greater amounts of money for horticultural products with each passing

year and the government at all levels is spending billions of dollars

to improve man's environment through community planning, highway beauti­

fication and recreational area development in urban settings.

Adults engaged in non-degree education are finding that the

concepts and practices of landscape horticulture courses are suitable

for their own immediate needs. The adult continuing education courses

at Ohio State University are flourishing with high enrollment in many courses, with the landscape horticulture classes being cited as the

"most popular."^

With the popularity of practical horticulture courses continuing

to rise, it is time to begin examining some of the traditional teaching

O ^University of Nebraska, The Effective Use of Examinations in Teaching and Learning. Symposium on Instruction (Lincoln, Nebraska, June 23-26, 1968).

^Communications with the Chairman of the Dept, of Horticulture at S.U.N.Y., Alfred, N. Y.

^Agricultural Statistics 1972, USDA.

®J. Hayes, "Landscape For Living," in The Yearbook of Agriculture. 1972 (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1972), p. xxxiii.

^A. S. Hackel, Asst. Dir. of Continuing Education, O.S.U., private interview, June, 1973. 4 procedures. The author believes that most of the Interest In horti­

cultural subjects Is due to Its very tactile nature. Students find

satisfaction from and see relevancy in actuating plant material, land­ scape design, propagation, and in solving plant problems. The courses like Horticulture 111 come under what is termed "general education."

This means the material covered in such a course should have wide applicability in everyday living to all walks of life. Rice believes that general education needs to be reckoned with in higher education and cites these three common corrupting factors of higher education which he believes are the reasons for the resurgence of general edu­ cation courses:

1. Education is treated not as life, but a preparation for life.

2. Education is in an artificial environment, with its own rituals, concerns and improvement to the exclusion of the problems in the real world.

3. Courses emphasize theory, idealized models, and packages and bodies of distilled knowledge, without relating these to events, struggles, needs and crises in the larger community, the community in which the student will eventually live his life.8

These "corrupting factors" of higher education cannot be found in most landscape horticulture courses due to the very relevancy of their subject matter. This fact of life should not allow those of us in the pursuit of education in horticultural subjects to be lulled into the complacency of thinking there will be a "captive audience."

8j. G. Rice, "General Education: Has Its Time Come Again?" The Journal of Higher Education (October, 1972). 5

It is time for pedagogic approaches to come under a systematic method of research and evaluation, both objective and subjective, in order that we may be certain that we are fulfilling the needs and expecta­ tions of our students.

The Study

This study was centered around two introductory courses in the field of landscape horticulture at Ohio State University. The first was a lecture series (Horticulture 111) with enrollment as verified in Table 1, and the second was a lab series in the developmental stages which was initiated in the fall of 1972.

This research involves the development of an Instrument for measurement in order to obtain an evaluation of the two courses. The lecture series, due to large class sizes, has had to be limited to lecturing and slide presentations only, while the lab was developed to give the students an opportunity to put into practice some of the concepts discussed in the lectures.

Problem Statement

Working with two different teaching techniques, the typical lecture and the lab participation approach, the question naturally arises, "Are there differences in learning as a result of the two techniques in question?"

To go about answering this question, an instrument was developed to use as a pretest and posttest for both the lecture and lab students. 6

In addition, evaluation of both courses was of interest, using an objective and a subjective evaluation form.

Rationale for an Hypothesis

According to Van Dalen, one of the useful and common theories 9 for acquiring knowledge is through direct experience or empiricism.

The students enrolled in the lectures only should show some gain in knowledge from the standard lectures of the course. This Study is primarily concerned with whether or not the students receiving the experiences in the lab will have higher posttest scores than those students enrolled in the lectures only. In addition, the students enrolled in the lab and lecture concurrently should obtain a better average score on the final examination than those students enrolled only in the lectures. The students previously enrolled in the lecture, and currently enrolled in the lab, should score higher on the pretest, but should not show as great a gain on the posttest scores as the lecture students and the students who are concurrently enrolled in the lectures and lab.

Procedure for the Study

Beginning in the spring of 1972, when it became apparent that the lecture classes would be rather large, it was necessary to curtail certain activities, such as outdoor identification sessions. As a result, students indicated their desire to apply the concepts learned

o D. B. Van Dalen and W. T. Meyer, Understanding Educational Re­ search (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1966). 7

in the lecture course, and the basis for the lab was established.

Rather than arbitrarily deciding what would be "good" for the students to work on, the author turned the problem over to them, asking

that they make contributions to the syllabus development. Credence

for this action is supported by Menlo who states, "People tend to be attracted to, and feel more involved in activities which they see as having good chances of satisfying their own needs,"*® and by Toffler who states that "... students must be involved from the very start

. . . "** With this in mind, the students made the following suggestions:

1. That a practical lab be developed which would help to ob­

jectify the concepts discussed during lectures, and

2. When conditions would permit (the weather, finances, and

logistics), visitation to areas where some of the principles

in landscaping can be applied.

To get some assurance that the first suggestion was sincerely put forth by the students, voluntary non-credit labs were held on

Saturday mornings in the spring and summer quarters of 1972. The results were gratifying as an average of thirty per cent of the students enrolled participated on those mornings.

The second suggestion (visitation trips) appeared to work more favorably when the class sizes were small as the students felt freer to interact and participate more directly.

*®Allen Menlo, "Mental Health Within the Classroom Group," School of Education Bulletin. University of Michigan. 31 (May, 1960), 121.

**A. Toffler, Future Shock (New York: Random House, Inc., 1970). 8

The results from these two quarters of trial labs led to the submission of a proposal for the establishment of a practical lab section to Horticulture 111 to begin autumn quarter 1972. The request was granted under the group studies course number Horticulture 294.

With the labs and the classes regularly scheduled for autumn, winter and spring quarters in 1972-73, work was started on developing an instrument of measurement which became the pretests and posttests, and on some method by which the students could evaluate the classes.

The object was to gain some experience in test development and analysis.

The tests were subjected to item analysis by The Ohio State University

Office of Evaluation. The tests, because of this type of analysis, had to be objective.

The evaluation instrument used autumn and winter quarters was a five-question subjective form developed by the author.

By the beginning of spring quarter 1973, the pretest-posttest instrument had been developed and was administered to all students enrolled in the lectures and lab (see Appendix IV). The Illinois 12 Course Evaluation Questionnaire (CEQ) which had applicability, was ordered from The University of Illinois at Urbana. The lectures and labs were evaluated using the Illinois form and the subjective evalu­ ation form at the end of the quarter. The lecture classes and lab classes were given the posttest.

l^Richard e . Spencer, Copyright Form 66, Measurement and Research Division, University of Illinois, 1965. 9

Since there was an objective final exam given in the lecture classes, these data were also collected as another means of measurement.

Scope of the Study

The scope of this study included only those students enrolled at Ohio State during spring quarter 1973 in the Landscape Horticulture

111 lecture course and the Landscape Horticulture 294 lab. No data from other quarters or other horticulture courses were used in this research.

Basic Assumptions

The following statements are believed to be generally acceptable for the purposes of this study:

1. The students in the labs and lectures would as accurately

and honestly as possible respond to the pretest and posttest

questions and the evaluation questionnaires.

2. The teachers' behavior would not markedly differ from class

to class so as to affect the results of this study.

3. The differences in class meeting times, class sizes and aca­

demic mixtures warranted the sampling techniques used in

this study.

4. The methods of instrumentation, evaluation and analysis are

valid and acceptable procedures in educational research.

Limitations

Data collected in this research were applicable only to the intro­ ductory landscape horticulture lecture and lab courses as taught at 10

The Ohio State University. The results can only be generalized for the

1973 spring quarter classes and lab sessions.

While landscape horticulture courses in general are showing an

increase in enrollment at Ohio State and most land grant colleges,

the data reported and analyzed here should not be construed to be applicable to other horticulture courses, either here at Ohio State or other institutions.

Definition of Terms

1. General education - This term is used to denote those courses

which will be broadly applicable to the normal activities of

educated citizens in today's society.

2. Landscape horticulture - The area of horticulture which deals

with ornamental plant material primarily in landscaping for

beautification and function, as well as maintenance. Ex­

cluded are plants or aspects of horticulture which deal with

edible horticultural products.

3. Power test - A test with ample time limits so that all examinees

have time to respond to all items.

4. Course evaluation questionnaire - A list of questions concern­

ing the merit or value of the course taught from the stand­

point of relevancy, the teacher's ability, and the teaching

environment.

5. Objective test - A test which is scored from a list of correct

answers determined before administration of the test. 11

6. Learning - A combination of processes which stimulate a

reaction in one's mind, and, consequently, a change in one's

behavior, attitude or outlook.

Summary of Chapter I

The increased enrollment in the horticulture course taught by the author prompted this research undertaking.

The interest expressed by the students in the development of a practical lab also prompted the author to examine just how much is actually learned by the students in the labs and lectures.

As a newcomer to the teaching profession, the author devised his own course evaluation form, then later found and used one developed by The University of Illinois.

The research took place on The Ohio State University campus during the spring quarter of 1973. CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND RELATED RESEARCH

Education In Horticulture

L. H. Bailey, one of the world's most renowned horticulturists, wrote in 1910:

An educated man is not determined by the particular route through which he has come, but by the perfectness to which he has developed in breadth of view, clear reasoning, good judgment, tolerance, high ideals, sensitiveness to art and nature, and de­ votion to service.^-

The leitmotif of the lecture course, Horticulture 111, and lab course, Horticulture 294, focuses on the development of clear reason­ ing powers, good judgment, tolerance, and sensitivity to art and nature.

A good horticulture instructor should, by his training, be able to deliver an introductory course to his students in a manner so that these attributes will be a part of their learning process, resulting in a change of their behavior.

To go about such a task, the educator needs some means of measure­ ment to enable him to judge the effectiveness of his efforts.

This is usually accomplished by quizzes and exams. The effective-

Hj. A. Frazier, "Horticulture's Issues in Education, Science, Communication, Philosophy, Politics, and Human Welfare," HortScience. IV (Winter, 1969), pp. 276-284.

12 13

ness of these measurements are summarized in a Symposium on Instruction 2 concerned with examinations in teaching and learning.

A notable innovation by a Professor of Horticulture is his use

of slides to project multiple choice questions for the students to

answer on IBM sense-marking sheets.3 The answer sheets stay with the

students throughout the semester, giving them the record of their progress during the term.

There appears to be little else reported in the literature re­

lating to educational innovation in horticulture at the college level.

Warmbrod states it succinctly in his review of research in agri­

cultural education:

Programs of agricultural education of a general prevocational, or nonvocational nature are not offered widely in the United States. Research in this area of agricultural education has been scant.

Since the Horticulture 111 lecture and 294 lab courses may be considered "nonvocational" in nature, the author emphatically agrees.

Testing Innovations

The concept of testing predates the birth of Christ. Competitive exams which developed in ancient China served the purpose of placing

^University of Nebraska, The Effective Use of Examinations in Teaching and Learning. Symposium on Instruction (Lincoln, Nebraska, June 23-26, 1968).

3Ibid.

^J. Robert Warmbrod and Lloyd J. Phipps, Review and Synthesis of Research in Agricultural Education (Columbus, Ohio: The Center for Research and Leadership Development in Vocational and Technical Edu­ cation, The Ohio State University, 1966), p.35. 14

men of competence in service to the state. European universities emphasized examinations as the basis for awarding degrees and honors.'*

In America in the thirteenth century, an educational reformer by the name of Mann developed an interesting method of testing. He in­ fluenced the substitution of written for oral exams, the use of a large number of specific questions in place of a few general questions, and initiated a search for more objective standards of educational achievement.^

Development of Objective Testing

When Starch and Elliott discovered a lack of agreement among teachers grading essay tests, the impetus for using objective tests developed. By about 1930, the evidence was clear that the essay test was less reliable and less valid than a well-constructed objective test. While essay tests have not been totally eclipsed in educational measurement, they have been relegated to a degree of lesser importance in mass educational testing.

Objective testing evolved in two basic forms: the short answer items and the multiple choice items. The short answer items depend for the most part on recall on the part of the examinee. The multiple choice form depends on the examinee being able to recognize the correct or best answer. Over a long period of time, data have shown the multiple

^Chester W. Harris, Encyclopedia of Educational Research (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1960), pp. 1502-1514.

6 Ibid. 15

choice test to be generally superior, more versatile, and more convenient than other forms of testing.

In constructing a multiple choice exam, it is common practice to have four or five responses for each question. Such a range usually discourages correct selection by guessing and also points out the vary­ ing degrees of misinformation and misconceptions the examinees may possess. Providing such a range of plausible choices is often diffi­ cult for most test writers.

The essential characteristic of the "distractor" items in a multiple choice question is that it be plausible to those lacking in knowledge for which the question is testing.

The reliability of such multiple choice tests appears to be a function of both the number of item choices and the number of items comprising the test.^

To construct tests of good reliability requires continuous long­ term effort. The Educational Testing Service (ETS) cites five basic rules of test making:

1. Have the purpose of your test clearly in mind.

2. Make a careful plan for the test questions. Unless the test covers a very limited amount of work, the plan should be written.

3. If the test is mainly diagnostic in a basic skill area, at least ten questions should be prepared.

7Ibid. 16

4. If the question of mastery of a unit of study is the purpose, then the test should parallel the work in class.

5. To obtain a ranking of students on their achievements, the questions should be on critical points of learning.®

Test Usage

With the popularity of testing established as a means of achieve­ ment measurement, researchers began using this instrument to evaluate

teacher progress.

Such an achievement test was developed by Ferries in soil science.

He constructed sample soil science questions and had them authenticated

through the cooperation of some experts in the field of soil science.

He had 694 students take the test, then compared their individual

scores with their average agricultural grades and academic grades.

Using this as a basis, he concluded that the instrument he developed q was valid and reliable.

Some instructors regularly use pretests to obtain an index of the

subject matter level possessed by the students before the course is

taught. Garvin and Ralston explain four purposes pretests may serve:

1. They provide the class with an explicit preview of the kinds of questions they should be able to answer by the end of the course.

2, They disclose any points in the prospective syllabus that

^Educational Testing Service. Making The Classroom Test: A Guide For Teachers (Princeton, N. J.: 1961), p. 14.

^J. Robert Warmbrod, Summaries of Studies in Agricultural Edu­ cation. Central Region 1966-1967 (Columbus: The Ohio State University, 1967). 17

most of the class have, somehow, already learned.

3. They disclose any points in the prospective syllabus about which many of the students in the class hold the same mis­ conception.

4. They provide the instructor with an estimate of the distribution of prerequisite learnings within the class.^

Where educational experimentation is desired, but complete randomi­ zation cannot be attained, a pretest and posttest observation is a neces­ sity. In 1966, the Educational Testing Service conducted a pretest- posttest analysis for the Foreign Language Institute. Their data had limitations, however, as their pretest and posttest were different forms, and they lacked a control group.^

Evaluation of Instruction and Course Content

In a sense, the outcome on class tests is a form of instructional evaluation. However, in the context used in this study, evaluation is meant to be something other than test results. It is more of a measure of interests and attitudes on the part of the students, using various methods.

The sources from which these data can be collected are varied:

1. From the "feel" of the class, which often comes somewhat in­

tuitively with increased experience in teaching,

^Alfred D. Garvin and Nance C. Ralston, Improving the Reliability of Course Pretests. A Paper Presentation at a Meeting of the National Council on Measurement in Education, Minneapolis, Minn., 1970.

^Educational Testing Service. Pretest and Posttest Results for the 1966 NDEA Summer Foreign Language Institute (Princeton, N. J. : 1967). 18

2. From direct observation and questioning of students

during personal interviews,

3. From standardized interest inventories or attitude scales,

4. From analysis of instructor-made interest inventories,

12 opinionnaires, or attitude scales.

A pilot study on evaluation was initiated by Allport at Harvard

University. Observers were placed behind a one-way screen and used the following criteria for teacher evaluation:

1. Student grades

2. Attendance records

3. Student participation

a. The number of different students who recite, ask

questions, or otherwise participate during the hours.

b. The number of students who give visible signs of wishing

to participate.

c. The number of students who discuss intellectual issues

with the instructor after class or during office hours.

d. Ratio of participation during the first and second

halves of the class period.

4. Manifestations of students' interest

a. Occassions of inattentiveness.

b. Overall rating on interest made by observers.

^ James W. Brown and James W. Thornton, Jr., College Teaching: A Systematic Approach (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1971), pp. 201-202. 19

c. Indications of hostility.

d. Observers' summary judgment.

The experiment also sought the students' opinions by using an 13 evaluational rating sheet.

Many universities and colleges have their own student evaluation forms that are objective in nature. That is, a student is asked to read a specific statement about the teaching technique or course content.

He is then given the opportunity to react by agreeing or disagreeing to a varying degree. The answer sheets are collected, computer scored, summarized, and the results returned to the instructor, and sometimes the department chairman or college dean. Few, however, make comparative observations for appropriate norm groups. One notable exception to this is the Illinois Course Evaluation Questionnaire (CEQ), which has a form with fifty items for the students' responses. All are not weighted for a favorable response, thus giving the students a chance to agree with a negative comment (i.e., "Not much was gained by taking this course").

The results of the evaluation are compared with other instructors of the same academic rank and at the same course level who have used the CEQ throughout the United States. The course averages are compared to the 5,346 course averages obtained on the CEQ during the period of

13 Faculty Handbook. J. James McPherson, chairman (Washington, D. C.: Graduate School Press, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1967), pp. 66-68. 20

14 1966 to 1970. A system of evaluation as extensive as this would

provide a fair indication of how effective the instructor and the course

are in the opinion of the students.

A word of caution is advanced by the developers of the CEQ:

The CEQ is not completely diagnostic of teaching or instruction - no instrument can be. . . This is only one of many pieces of information which can contribute to a better learning environ­ ment.

Educational Philosophy

The basic premise of this study is that learning or education

comes about as a result of experience. Dewey is the major proponent

of this educational philosophy. He points out, however,

The belief that all genuine education comes about through experience does not mean that all experiences are genuinely or equally educative.16

Dewey began his reformative approach to education late in the nine­ teenth century. The focus of his attack was the traditional approach

to education in which the students were merely required to sit and

listen to a lecture in a classroom. This attitude of listening meant

little talking, passivity, and absorption.

The opportunity to do work which would help to impart meaning 17 and depth to the lectures was for the most part missing.

l^Lawrence m . Aleamoni, Illinois Evaluation Questionnaire (CEQ) Results Interpretation Manual. Report No. 331, 1972.

ISibid. p. 16.

^ J o h n Dewey, Experience and Education (New York: Collier Books, 1938), p. 25.

*^John Dewey, The School and The Life of the Child (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1915), p. 32. 21

While this was true in Dewey's day, it is ever as true today.

University facilities are overcrowded and the typical approach to edu­ cational objectives is the lecture presentation. Again the students are required to do little other than listen, absorb and pass written exams.

The unrest that characterized American university systems in the late 1960's was in part attributed to this passive role the students were required to play. They demanded that institutions of higher edu­ cation involve their point of view, at least to some degree, in curriculum development. Irrelevancy, boredom, imcompetence and lack of student preparation for future employment were some of the criticisms leveled against academic institutions.!®

Academicians are attempting to revise educational approaches by having students evaluate the courses in which they enroll, questioning the validity of tenure, and scrutinizing other educational sacred cows of the past. Evaluation emphasis is being placed on teaching competence, not as a means for dismissal or promotion, but ultimately as a means j ^ 19, 20 toward its improvement. ’

When a teacher avails himself to his students, communication, rapport, and competency are bound to rise. Such a relationship is

1 ft Alvin Toffler, Future Shock(New York: Random House Publishers, 1970), pp. 353-378.

1 9 Ibid. 90 E. Grant Moody and R. Merwin Deever, "Evaluating Competence of College Teachers," National Association of Colleges and Teachers of Agriculture, XVII (March, 1973), 3-4. 22

difficult to implement when classes are as large as they are in many

institutions. Some teachers remedy the large class barrier by employing

an open door policy for their students, allowing them access to their

experiences, insights, and professional training. This is an attempt

to get instruction on a more individualized basis and serves those 21 students who desire a greater input from their educational experiences.

Other educators realize the importance of laboratory instruction

to impart the relevancy of the learning process. Those labs which

operate on a problem solving or discovery basis are usually preferred

over the structured types. The laboratory then becomes a place in which

the theoretical aspects of a subject are tempered by practical experience.

Thus, lab instruction serves as an important means of emphasizing activity 22 rather than receptivity as a learning mode.

This all ties in with Dewey's proposition that if experiences are meaningful and contain a thread of continuity, desires and purposes

can be set up that will carry the individual into the future. He postulates that the principle of continuity in the realm of experiences

can go far in developing attitudes toward life. Dewey states that

educators should strive for proper attitude development in their

students:

L. Colville, "A Personal Teaching Philosophy," National Association of Colleges and Teachers of Agriculture. XVII (March, 1973), p. 17. 22 Brown and Thronton, College Teaching, pp. 97-99. 23

The most important attitude that can be formed is that of the desire to go on learning. ^

Hence, Dewey puts great stock in the continuity of educative ex­

periences and student-teacher interaction to resolve specific problems.

He believes that:

There is no discipline in the world so severe as the dis­ cipline of experience subjected to the tests of intelligent de­ velopment and direction. ^

It is Dewey's theory that is under question in this study, that knowledge is gained through empiricism. A direct comparison will be made between those students who are actively participating in the lab

sessions and those students who are enrolled in the lecture series.

It is theorized then that the students who participate in the lab

sessions will acquire greater knowledge than those students not en­ rolled in the lab. The gain in posttest scores will be used as a basis

for this determination.

It is also theorized or hypothesized that those students who had the lab experience will reflect more favorably on the post-course evaluation questionnaires.

^Dewey, Experience and Education, p.48

^Ibid. p. 90. CHAPTER III

POPULATION, SAMPLING AND DESIGN OF THE STUDY

Population and Sample

The population for this study was composed of students who en­ rolled in Horticulture 111 and Horticulture 294 for spring quarter 1973.

The experimentally accessible population was the group of students for whom complete data were obtained. Complete data included both the pretest and posttest scores in the lecture or lab sections, and a final exam score for those students concurrently enrolled in both lab and lecture courses.

The total number of students available in the experimentally accessible population was 256 in the lecture classes and 40 in the lab classes.

The lecture classes met three days each week (Monday, Wednesday and Friday). Two of the classes, the 10:00 a.m. section with 125 students and the 3:00 p.m. section with 76 students, were taught by the author. The third class which met at 4:00 p.m. was taught by Dr.

Philip Kozel, a faculty member in Landscape Horticulture of the Horti­ culture Department at Ohio State.

The lab was taught by the author and met only one day each week on Tuesday afternoons. The large enrollment necessitated dividing the

24 25 lab class into two sections, one which met from 1:00 to 3:00 p.m. and the other which met from 3:00 to 5:00 p.m.

On the first day of regularly scheduled classes, all students in the lecture sections and lab sections were given the pretest. Ample time was provided for each examinee to complete the exam, and therefore this was considered a power test. The number of students actually taking the pretest and posttest did not equal the total number of students enrolled. In the lab, 34 of the 40 enrolled students actually took the tests; in the lecture classes, 214 out of 256 had the pretest- posttest experience.

The author administered the test in all classes and lab sections to be sure of uniformity of treatment. The students were instructed to answer all the items on the test as honestly as possible. They were told to take their time, and were also informed that the results of this test would in no way affect their standing in the course. Only their uni­ versity numbers were used as a means of identification.

The answer sheets and exams were all collected from the students.

The exams were stored and the answer sheets taken to The Ohio State

University's Office of Evaluation for grading and item analysis.

The lectures and the labs then were conducted through the quarter according to the respective syllabi. The students in the lab sections were not tested at all during the quarter, nor did they receive a final exam. Their grades were determined by participation in the labs, a report, and lab manual they turned in at the quarter's end. The students in the lecture classes had three objective quizzes, a midterm exam, and 26

a final exam. The lecture classes also were responsible for turning in

a landscape drawing.

The enrollment in the lab was a composite of students from each

of the three lecture classes, as well as from previously enrolled

lecture classes. There were nine students from the 10:00 a.m. class,

nine students from the 3:00 p.m. class, and four students from the

4:00 p.m. class. The balance of the students were those enrolled in

the lecture classes from previous quarters.

The classes and lab populations showed a fair degree of hetero­ geneity in college and class ranking. Table 2 illustrates this.

TABLE 2

PERCENTAGES OF STUDENTS FROM VARIOUS COLLEGES AND RANKS IN THE SPRING QUARTER ENROLLMENT

College Rank Classes

Agr.a Non-Agr.k L.D.C U.D.d

Lab (2 Sections) 25 75 87.5 12.5

Lecture Sections

1 0 : 0 0 a.m. 42.4 57.6 62.4 37.6

3:00 p.m. 44.7 55.3 52.6 47.4

4:00 O.m. 43.6 56.4 54.5 45.5

aStudents with a declared major in the College of Agriculture and Home Economics.

^Students with either undeclared majors or from disciplines other than agriculture (nursing, art, educational psychology, arts and sciences).

cLower division students * first or second year standing.

dUpper division students - third or fourth year standing. 27

From this table it can be observed that the lab sections were mostly composed of non-agriculture students of lower division standing.

The lecture sections are not markedly different from each other, but

it is evident that slightly better than 50 per cent of the students

are of the non-agriculture standing in the lower division rank.

At the end of the quarter, students in all classes and labs were given the posttest. The instrument used was exactly the same one used

for the pretest. The students who were concurrently enrolled in the lab and lecture also received a final exam. The students in the lab only received no final exam. The students were asked to evaluate the course and lab using the author's subjective evaluation questionnaire and the objective questionnaire obtained from The University of Illinois.

The answer sheets for the posttest and the final exam were pro­ cessed by the Office of Evaluation at The Ohio State University and the objective questionnaires were sent to The University of Illinois for analysis.

Obtaining the Sample

In observing the heterogeneity of the lecture sections in Table 2, it was decided to obtain a stratified random sample. This would give greater precision than simple random sampling would allow. It would also minimize any possibility of having too large a proportion of students from any one class.^

^Deobold B. Van Dalen and William J. Meyer, Understanding Edu­ cational Research (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1966), p. 299. 28

The sample size for comparing the lecture students with the lab students was determined by setting up a proportion of the students from each of the class sections enrolled in the lab. For example,

41 per cent of the students in the lab came from the 10:00 a.m. class

(see Table 3). The question of just how large a sample to use was determined by figuring that it should be large enough for random selection to work effectively. Kerlinger cites examples of random sampling of

O about 7 per cent of a total population as giving dependable data.

A greater number was selected to assure a representative sample. The determination of the total sample size was made by multiplying the number of students in the lab from the various classes by a factor of three. This gave a total sample size of sixty-six students, which amounted to about one in every four students' data being sampled. The percentages of the students from each class making up the lab were then used to determine the actual number of students to be randomly selected from each class.

Since there were twenty-two students enrolled in the lab and lecture classes with complete data (pretest, posttest and final exam scores), it was decided that a percentage of the total number with complete data would be randomly drawn from each of the three classes.

Table 3 shows the number of students selected from each class section.

^Fred N. Kerlinger, Foundations of Behavioral Research (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1973), p. 127. 29

TABLE 3

RATIONALE FOR STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

Lecture Students with complete Per Cent with Sample Classes data in lab complete data Size

1 0 : 0 0 a.m. 9 out of 22 41 27

3:00 p.m. 9 out of 22 41 27

4:00 p.m. 4 out of 22 18 1 2

Total 1 0 0 6 6

The balance of the students in the lab with pretest and posttest scores were not compared with any of the lecture only students but with their fellow lab members also enrolled in the course that quarter.

Design of the Study

Since random selection could only be affected with the lecture 3 classes, a true experimental design was not possible. A quasi-experi- mental design widely used in educational research known as the Non- 4 equivalent Control Group Design was used. With such a design, a pre­ test is indispensable due to the lack of pre-experimental equivalence.

Represented as a code Oi X 02

O3 O4 where Oj and 02 represent observations of the experimental group rep-

3 Donald T. Campbell and Julian C. Stanley, Experimental and Quasi- Experimental Designs For Research (Chicago: Rand McNally & Co., 1966), p. 47.

4 Ibid. 30

resented by the X, and O3 and 0^ are observations of the control group.

In the case of this study, 0^ X O2 represents the lecture students who

were selected by stratified random sampling from the class sections,

while the 0 ^ and 0 ^ groups were the lab students who were self-selected,

and not manipulated by the author. The observations were the times

the pretests and posttests were given.

Since complete randomization was impossible, the data were analyzed using the Analysis of Covariance Design.The covariate in this case was the pretest scores, with the dependent variables being the posttest

scores and the final exam scores.

Other Statistics and Analyses Used in This Study

Analysis of Lab Students

The balance of the students enrolled in the lab with complete data for the pretest and posttest were compared with the students enrolled in both the lab and lecture. Since no randomization was possible, the design used here was again the Nonequivalent Control

Group Design.**

The total number of students in this analysis with complete data was thirty-four. The group was divided into two sections with twelve students in one and twenty-two students in the other. The twelve students were those previously enrolled in the lectures, but presently enrolled in the lab, while the twenty-two students were those enrolled

^Kerlinger, Foundations of Behavioral Research, p. 370.

^Campbell and Stanley, Design for Research, p 47. 31 concurrently in the lab and lecture. The data obtained was analyzed by using the analysis of covariance design.

Instrument Analysis

The pretest-posttest instrument and the final exam used in this study were analyzed by the Office of Evaluation at The Ohio State

University. The data of interest from these analyses were the reli­ ability of the tests, the mean item discrimination, the test means, the standard deviation and the percentage showing gains on the posttest.

The grade point averages of students in this study were obtained from the registrar's office, and were used as an index to the expected per­ formance level of the students.

Evaluation Questionnaires

The subjective questionnaire was summarized by the author and evaluations made on the comments submitted by the students.

The objective questionnaire was mailed to The University of Illinois for analysis.

In both cases, the objective was to attempt to measure the interests and attitudes of the students in each class and lab. All questionnaires were answered anonymously, and were administered at the end of the quarter following the final exam.

The analysis from The University of Illinois provided data relevant to the following categories:

1. General Course Attitude.

2. Method of Instruction. 32

3. Content of the Course.

4. Interest and Attention.

5. Instructor.

6 . Specific Items.

Deviate responses on the single items were also highlighted, compared among the classes and lab, and were discussed.

Summary of Chapter III

Description of the population being studied was presented, followed by a discussion of the sampling technique.

The experimental designs used in this study were also described.

Other statistics such as the test analysis data and the evaluation questionnaire information were characterized. CHAPTER IV

RESULTS OF THE STUDY

Pretest Results

The results from the pretests are divided into class sections and the lab. Shown in Table 4 are the numbers of students with com­ plete data on the pretest means, the standard deviation coefficient, and the reliability index.

TABLE 4

PRETEST RESULTS FROM THE TOTAL LECTURE AND LAB SECTIONS

Number of Mean Standard Students Score Deviation KR-203

Lab Sections 36 13.9 ±2.91 0.426

Lecture Sections

10:00 a.m. Class 106 1 2 . 6 ±2.83 0.372

3:00 p.m. Class 6 6 13.0 ±2.92 0.453

4:00 p.m. Class 42 12.3 ±2.74 0.360

aKR-20 is a conservative measure of the internal reliability of a test. It is known as the Kuder-Richardson scale.

The lecture sections had stratified random samples drawn from them for a total sample size of sixty-six. The lab class had the data

33 34

of twenty-two students separated and compared with the sample of sixty-

six students. The lab students were those with complete data who were

currently enrolled in the lecture series. Table 5 shows the pretest

results of these selected students.

TABLE 5

PRETEST RESULTS FOR THE RANDOMLY SELECTED LECTURE STUDENTS AND THE CURRENTLY ENROLLED LAB STUDENTS

Number of Mean Standard Students Score Deviation KR-20

Lab Sections 2 2 1 2 . 6 +2.37 0.135

Lecture Sections

10:00 a.m. Class 27 12.9 ±2.82 0.51

3:00 p.m. Class 27 13.2 ±2.80 0.412

4:00 p.m. Class 1 2 1 1 . 1 ±2.51 0.309

Posttest Results

The posttest instrument administered was exactly the same test

used for the pretest. The mean, standard deviation coefficient and

reliability measure are shown for the classes as a whole in Table 6 .

The randomly selected lecture students and currently enrolled lab

students were the same as those used in determining the pretest values.

Table 7 shows these results. 35

TABLE 6

POSTTEST RESULTS FROM THE TOTAL LECTURE AND LAB SECTIONS

Number of Mean Standard Students Score Deviation KR-20

Lab Sections 40 16.4 ±3.44 0.625

Lecture Sections

10:00 a.m. Class 99 17.5 ±2.58 0.417

3:00 p.m. Class 55 17.8 ±3.04 0.610

4:00 p.m. Class 30 15.9 ±2.83 0.503

TABLE 7

POSTTEST RESULTS FOR THE RANDOMLY SELECTED LECTURE STUDENTS AND THE CURRENTLY ENROLLED LAB STUDENTS

Number of Mean Standard Students Score Deviation KR-20

Lab Sections 22 16.9 ±3.1 0.582

Lecture Sections

10:00 a.m. Class 27 17.7 ±2.27 0.44

3:00 p.m. Class 27 17.7 ±2.70 0.444

4:00 p.m. Class 12 16.3 ±1.42 No Value 36

These data represent the following changes in the reported values, and is presented in Table 8 .

TABLE 8

MEAN GAIN SCORES FOR THE LECTURES AND LAB

Total Enroll­ Experimental Group Sections ment Group (Lab and Lectures)

Lab Sections

Number of Cases 34 2 2

Mean Gain Score 2.5 4.3

Per Cent Gain 18.0 34.1

Lecture Sections

10:00 a.m. Class

Number of Cases 99 27

Mean Gain Score 4.9 4.8

Per Cent Gain 38.9 37.2

3:00 p.m. Class

Number of Cases 55 27

Mean Gain Score 4.8 4.5

Per Cent Gain 36.9 34.1

4:00 p.m. Class

Number of Cases 30 1 2

Mean Gain Score 3.6 5.2

Per Cent Gain 29.3 46.8 37

Students previously enrolled in the lectures and currently taking the lab were administered the pretest-posttest instrument as well.

These results are shown in Table 9.

TABLE 9

LAB STUDENTS PREVIOUSLY ENROLLED IN LECTURE

Number of Mean Standard Students Score Deviation KR-20

Pretest 12 15.5 13.12 0.586

Posttest 12 17.0 ^3.03 0.544

These figures represent an average gain of 1.5 points, or a 9.6 per cent increase on the posttest.

Table 10 indicates the number and percentage of students in the experimental group (those randomly selected from the lectures and self-selected in the lab) who showed an increase in their pretest- posttest Scores.

Analysis of Test Results Comparison Among Lab Students

The twenty-two currently enrolled lab students and the twelve previously enrolled lab students had their pretest-posttest data sub­ jected to analysis of covariance. The pretest scores were used as the covariate with the posttest scores as the dependent variable. The results are shown in Table 11. 38

TABLE 10

THE NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS IN THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS SHOWING PRETEST-POSTTEST GAINS

Number Show­ Percentage Show­ ing Increase ing Increase

Lab Group Presently Enrolled in Lecture 2 1 out of 2 2 95.5

Lab Group Previously Enrolled in Lecture 8 out of 1 2 66.7

10:00 a.m. Class 25 out of 27 92.6

3:00 p.m. Class 24 out of 27 88.9

4:00 p.m. Class 1 1 out of 1 2 91.7

TABLE 11

ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE TABLE FOR THE TWO LAB GROUPS USING THE POSTTEST SCORES AS THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE

Source of Adjusted Adjusted Variation SS DF MS F

Treatment (Between) 19.8585 1 19.8585 2.885 (NS)®

Error Within 213.3605 31 6.8826

Total 32

a NS - Not statistically significant at the .05 level. The pro­ posed hypothesis is not supported. 39

TABLE 12

ADJUSTED MEANS FOR TABLE 11

Adjusted Number of Pretest Posttest Posttest Group Students Mean Mean Mean

Lab Students Previously En­ rolled in Lecture 1 2 15.5 17.0 15.8

Lab Students Currently En­ rolled in Lecture 2 2 12.5 16.9 17.6

Comparison of Lab and Lecture Students

The twenty-two currently enrolled lab students and the sixty-six randomly selected lecture students had an analysis of covariance run on their data using the pretest score as the covariate and the posttest score as the dependent variable. 40

TABLE 13

ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE TABLE FOR THE CURRENTLY ENROLLED LAB STUDENTS AND THE RANDOMLY SELECTED LECTURE STUDENTS, USING THE POSTTEST SCORE AS THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE

Source of Adjusted Adjusted Variation SS DF MS F

Treatment (Between) 4.6997 1 4.6997 0.889 (NS)®

Error Within 444.3018 85 5.2271

Total 8 6

aNS - Not statistically significant at the .05 level. The pro- posed hypothesis is not supported.

TABLE 14

ADJUSTED MEANS FOR TABLE 13

Adjusted Number of Pretest Posttest Posttest Group Students Mean Mean Mean

Currently En­ rolled Lab Students 22 12.6 16.9 16.9

Lecture Students 6 6 12.6 17.5 17.5 41

Final Exam Comparison

The twenty-two currently enrolled lab students and the randomly

selected lecture students all received the same final exam. Using the

pretest score as the covarlate and the final exam score as the de­

pendent variable, a covariance analysis was run with these data, which

appears in Table 15.

TABLE 15

ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE TABLE FOR THE CURRENTLY ENROLLED LAB STUDENTS AND THE RANDOMLY SELECTED LECTURE STUDENTS USING THE FINAL EXAM AS THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE

Source of Adjusted Adjusted Variation SS DF MS F

Treatment (Between) 25.7036 1 25.7036 2.597 (NS)a

Error Within 871.3271 85 10.2509

Total 8 6

aNS - Not statistically significant at the .05 level. The pro­ posed hypothesis is not supported. 42

TABLE 16

ADJUSTED MEANS FOR TABLE 15

Adjusted Number of Pretest Posttest Posttest Group Students Mean Mean Mean

Lab Students Currently En­ rolled in Lecture 2 2 1 2 . 6 29.7 29.7

Lecture Students 6 6 1 2 . 6 28.5 28.4

Course Evaluation Data

Subjective Analysis

The students in the lab and lecture sections were asked to fill

out a five-question subjective evaluation questionnaire at the end of

the quarter. The questionnaires were then studied and the comments

summarized. The data in Tables 17, 18, 19 and 20 represent the sum­ marized comments of the students and the percentages which responded in that category. The following were the five questions asked:

1. What do you consider the most valuable subject discussed in this course?

2. What do you consider the least valuable subject discussed in this course?

3. What could be added to make this course more valuable?

4. What weaknesses do you find in the course as it is set up and what do you suggest for eliminating these weaknesses? 43

5. How would you evaluate the instructor in terms of course presentations, assignments, testing, grading, and fairness to students (and on any other terms that seem appropriate)?

TABLE 17

STUDENT RESPONSES FOR THE LAB SESSIONS NUMBER RESPONDING - 35

Question No. Response Percentage

1. Plant Propagation, Terrarium Construction 65.7

Maintenance, Pruning, Spraying 20.0

All Valuable 14.3

2. Nothing Least Valuable 65.7

Plant Propagation, Terrarium Construction 34.3

3. Better Weather Conditions 45.7

More Discussion, More Space, Better Organization 25.7

Nothing Needed Except More Lab Meetings 28.6

4. No Weaknesses 37.5

Labs Too Large 25.7

Bad Weather Limiting Outdoor Activities 22.8

5. Instructor Evaluation Good 97.1

No Response 2.9 44

TABLE 18

STUDENT RESPONSES FOR THE 10:00 A.M. CLASS NUMBER RESPONDING - 80

Question No.a Response Percentage

1. Design Principles 31.5

Plant Selection and Use 27.7

Pruning, Planting, Construction 26.8

Everything Valuable 13.8

2. All Valuable 59.0

Pruning, Planting, Construction 37.5

Design Principles 2.5

3. Reduce Class Size 27.5

More on Landscape Principles, Examples of Good Design 15.0

Everything Satisfactory 13.8

More Information About Plants, Propagation, Ecology 11.3

Field Trips 8 . 8

Mixed 18.7

No Response 4.9

4. Class Too Large 47.5

No Weaknesses 31.5

Mixed 21.0 45

TABLE 18— Continued

Question No, Response Percentage

5. Instructor Evaluation Good 93.8

Class Too Large for Effective Instruction. Test Questions Ambiguous 6 . 2

aRefer to questions preceedlng Table 17.

TABLE 19

STUDENT RESPONSES FOR THE 3:00 P.M. CLASS NUMBER RESPONDING - 62

Question No. a Response Percentage

1. Landscaping Principles 42.0

Plant Selection and Use, Maintenance 40.3

All Valuable 17.7

2 . Non Least Valuable 50.0

Plant Use, Selection, Maintenance 43.5

Drawing, Too Many Slides 6.5

3. Lab Experience, Field Trips 54.8

No Changes 19.4

More Depth in Landscaping 6.4 46

TABLE 19— Continued

Question No. Response Percentage

3--Continued Reduce Class Size 6.4

More Reading Assignments, Make Course 5 Hours, Have Guest Lecturers 12.9

4. Class Too Large 33.8

No Weaknesses 32.2

Lab Should be Required Part of Course 9.6

Miscellaneous Responses - Make Classes More Homogeneous, More Reading, Poor Book, Went Too Fast, etc. 24.4

5. Instructor Evaluation Good 8 8 . 8

Critical of Instructor, Poor Test Questions, Uninteresting Presentations, etc. 1 1 . 2

aRefer to questions preceeding Table 17.

TABLE 20

STUDENT RESPONSES FOR THE 4:00 P.M. CLASS

a Question No. Response Percentage

1. Landscaping Principles 50.0

All Important 21.3

Plant Pruning, Maintenance 17.8

Plant Use and Selection 10.9 47

TABLE 20— Continued

Question No. Response Percentage

2. All Important 42.8

Discussion on Plants 17.8

Pruning, Maintenance 17.8

Terrariums 8.0

No Response 13.6

3. No Changes 25.0

More Time on Plants 20.0

Labs Should be Required. Make Course Five Hours 16.0

Field Trips 36.0

No Response 3.0

4. No Weaknesses 64.0

Mixed - Bad Meeting Time and Place, Poor Text, etc. 36.0

5. Instructor Evaluation Good 96.0

Critical of Instructor - Grading, Testing, etc. 4.0

aRefer to questions preceeding Table 17. 48

Objective Evaluation

The students were asked to also evaluate the course at its finish, using the fifty-question Illinois Course Evaluation Questionnaire,

Form No. 66 (see Appendix II). The lab students had four additional optional questions to answer, while the lecture students had twelve additional optional questions to answer. The results are not shown in detail, but as a subscore summary.

Table 18 shows the mean of the students' responses with the best possible being 4.00, and the overall decile*- rating with the best pos­ sible being 9. These two descriptors were chosen as they show the general trend in the responses of the students as well as a compari­ son of this course with all courses which have been evaluated using the Illinois form throughout the United States.

It should be pointed out that the lab with its course number 294 was rated as a sophomore level course, while the lectures with a course number of 1 1 1 were rated and evaluated at the freshman level.

The Illinois questionnaire also provided a profile readout on each item response. This highlights any low scores that should come to the attention of the instructor. Table 19 shows those responses with ratings below average (less than a three on the decile scale).

*-The term decile refers to the division of scores into ten equal size groups from 0 to 9. The highest ten per cent are assigned the decile of 9, the next ten per cent the decile of 8 , etc. 49

TABLE 21

RESULTS OF THE OBJECTIVE EVALUATION SUBSCALE RESPONSES

Lab 1 0 : 0 0 a.m. 3:00 p.m. 4:00 p.m.

Mean ODRa Mean ODR Mean ODR Mean ODR

General Course Attitude 3.51 9 3.47 9 3.59 9 3.61 9

Method of Instruction 3.35 9 3.17 8 3.36 9 3.27 8

Course Content 3.26 9 3.21 9 3.37 9 3.27 9

Interest and Attention 3.42 9 3.28 8 3.43 9 3.44 9

Instructor 3.45 8 3.35 7 3.44 8 3.44 8

Specific Items 3.11 8 3.12 8 3.25 9 3.18 9

aOverall Decile Rating 50

TABLE 22

RESPONSES WITH DECILE SCORES BELOW AVERAGE2

Question No. Mean Decile

Lab Sections 44 3.00 2

Lecture Sections

10:00 a.m. Class 17 2.71 2

3:00 p.m. Class 32 2.76 2

4:00 p.m. Class 17 2.74 2

^Refer to Appendix III to see item questions or statements.

Table 23 shows those individual items with average decile scores

(3 to 6 ).

TABLE 23

RESPONSES WITH AVERAGE DECILE SCORES

Question No. Mean Decile

Lab Sections 26 2.94 5 32 2.83 3 38 2.94 3 47 3.17 4 51

TABLE 23--Continued

Question No. Mean Decile

Lecture Sections

10:00 a.m. Class 1 0 3.20 6 16 2.97 6 18 3.50 4 23 3.27 6 26 2.94 5 32 2 . 8 6 3 38 3.15 6 44 3.04 3 47 3.13 3

3:00 p.m. Class 17 2.84 3 23 3.29 6 38 3.16 6 44 3.13 4 47 3.32 6

4:00 p.m. Class 1 2.93 6 1 2 3.14 6 23 3.18 5 26 3.00 5 32 2.90 3 38 3.17 6 44 3.07 3 47 3.31 6

All other responses were above average (items with a decile rating of 7 or higher) and were not itemized. Table 21 shows the percentages of the various classes and lab which had above average responses. 52

TABLE 24

PERCENTAGES BY CLASS WITH ABOVE AVERAGE DECILE RESPONSES

Number of Above Average Responses Percentage

Lab Sections 45 out of 50 90

Lecture Sections

10:00 a.m. Class 40 out of 50 80

3:00 p.m. Class 44 out of 50 8 8

4:00 p.m. Class 41 out of 50 82

Weather Data

Records were kept by the author on the incidence of rain and other atmospheric disturbances as related to scheduled lab days. Official records were obtained from the National Weather Service Office at Port

Columbus International Airport at the end of the quarter.

Table 22 shows the number of days that rain occurred, the inci­ dence of snow, and the percentage of days that a measured amount of precipitation fell for the days the lab met. 53

TABLE 25

PRECIPITATION DATA FOR SPRING QUARTER 1973, COLUMBUS, OHIO

Total Number Percentage Of Days Of Days Of Of Days Lab Days With Rain Snow Lab Met Precipitation

March 2 1 1 1 0

April 2 0 5 4 75

May 25 0 5 80

Overall, some form of precipitation occurred on 72 per cent of the days in spring quarter. During the month of April, five days of snow resulted in a total precipitation of 7.1 inches, which was more snow than had occurred in all the six preceeding months combined.

During May, a total of three tornadoes were confirmed in Franklin

County, with one reported on Tuesday, May 8 , 1973, the seventh meet­ ing day of the lab.

Grade Point Averages (GPA)

These data were of interest to determine the rating of students in their university standing. Table 23 shows the mean GPR for the students in the lab and class sections. 54

TABLE 26

MEAN GPA FOR EXPERIMENTAL STUDENTS IN LAB AND LECTURE SECTIONS

Number Mean GPA

Lab Group Presently Enrolled in Lecture 2 2 out of 34 2.891

Lab Group Previously Enrolled in Lecture 1 2 out of 34 2.508

Lecture Only Students

10:00 a.m. Class 27 out of 6 6 2.715

3:00 p.m. Class 27 out of 6 6 2.914

4:00 p.m. Class 1 2 out of 6 6 2.646

Summary of Chapter IV

This chapter reported the results of the study. Pretest and posttest scores were presented showing number of students, their mean, the KR-20 and standard deviation measure.

The gain in mean scores was presented, and the two groups of lab students were compared.

Analysis of covariance tables comparing the pretest scores with the posttest and final exam scores were also presented.

The data from the evaluation of the course using the author-de­ veloped subjective evaluation and The University of Illinois-developed

Course Evaluation Questionnaire were presented. Below average responses were highlighted. 55

Precipitation data from the National Weather Service was presented, and, lastly, the mean GPA of the experimental students was tabulated.

i CHAPTER V

INTERPRETATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS OF THE STUDY

Pretest-Posttest Interpretations

Table 8 shows the changes in the mean scores as far as actual point gain goes, and is converted to a percentage. With the experi­ mental group (those students randomly selected from the lectures and the currently enrolled lab students), the gains ranged from a high of

46.8 per cent gain (5.2 points) for the 4:00 p.m. section, to a low of

34.1 per cent gain for the lab and the 3:00 p.m. section.

Table 9 includes the data for comparing the mean pretest-posttest scores for the previously enrolled lab group. It can be seen by com­ paring the scores that this group of students did perform better on the average on the pretest than the other groups, but not any better than the other groups on the posttest.

Table 10 indicates the number and percentage of the students show­ ing gains in pretest-posttest scores. The lab group presently enrolled in the lecture showed the highest gain percentage, with 95.5. The lab group previously enrolled showed the lowest gain with 66.7 per cent.

The three classes were all clustered fairly closely, with the highest gain being 92.6 per cent, and the lowest gain being 88.9 per cent.

Tables 11, 12 and 13 show the results of the analysis of co- variance of the previously mentioned data.

56 57

Table 11 shows the results of the analysis of covariance for the

lab students previously enrolled in the lectures, and the lab students

currently enrolled in the lectures. Since the calculated F value is

smaller than that required in the F table^ at the .05 level, the null hypothesis must be accepted. There is no significant difference be­

tween the two groups on the adjusted posttest scores, However, the calculated F value (2.885) is larger than the table F value (2.87) at

the .10 level of significance. These data indicate a tendency towards

significance at the .05 level, and perhaps further research in this area will lend support to the hypothesis.

The data in Table 12 show no significant differences in test scores between the lab students currently enrolled in the lecture and the students randomly selected from the lecture classes. Significance is not even approached at the .10 level. Therefore, the hypothesis that the lab students will perform better on the posttest than the lecture students was not supported.

The data in Table 13 indicate no significance at the .05 level, o but the value approaches significance at the .10 level. While there is no difference between the adjusted posttest scores with these results, perhaps future research willshow a difference between the lab and lecture sections.

As another means of checking the differences possibly existing between the various groups, the grade point average data were obtained

^■George W. Snedecor and William G. Cochran, Statistical Methods (Ames, Iowa: The Iowa University Press, 1967), p. 567.

2 Ibid. 58

from the university registrar's office. While there is a difference

of 0.406 in the range of the grade point means, when the compared

groups are averaged, there is no significant difference between them

(currently enrolled lab students, 2.891; the three lecture classes

averaged 2.758).

Conclusions of the Lab and Lecture Testing Analysis

The results obtained in this quasi-experimental study do not generally support the theory of experience being a superior means of learning. However, many times the experiences intended for the stu­ dents are hampered by circumstances beyond the control of the in­ structor.

For example, in Table 2, it is evident that a large degree of heterogenity exists in college ranking and the areas of major interest among the students. While an instructor may be able to make himself aware of these differences, doing something about them is more difficult. What the instructor considers significant in some cases, some students may not consider significant. Communication in the lab was be demonstration on the part of the instructor, and where possible, participation by the students. Perhaps due to the large lab enroll­ ment, and the fact that there were limited facilities, and no tests the students failed to fully understand the significance of what was presented in the lab meetings. In Table 22, the frequency with which precipitation occurred during the spring quarter is presented. It appears that the spring weather of 1973 was somewhat unusual with the year's major snowfall occurring in April, three tornadoes in May, and 59

with rain occurring on more than seventy per cent of the lab meeting

days. The intent of the lab sessions was to provide actual experiences

involving plant identification, pruning, spraying, and on-site visita­

tions.

Another point should be made here. Those 12 lab students which

were previously enrolled in the lecture classes lacked the advantage

of continuity of their educational experiences. Being enrolled in the

lab during the same quarter the lecture is being taken, may have some

credence in reinforcing educational objectives. Research dealing with

this aspect of learning with this type of course would be fruitful.

The subject of the testing instrument used is also an important

one. While the six months preceding the experimentation was spent with test development, it is possible that the content validity of

the test was biased for the lecture students.^ Construction of a test which would be concomitantly valid for both a lab and lecture class may

be impossible. Perhaps the only valid measure for a lab is the number

of tactile manipulations the students can successfully perform, followed be a written test explaining the operations performed.

Further research in this area of horticultural education is

needed. Measurement instruments need extensive development, and

repitition of this experiment is needed before Dewey's theory of

learning is rejected or accepted.

^Lewis R. Aiken, Jr., Psychological and Educational Testing (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1971), pp. 68-73. 60

Perhaps with the lab attaining regular status autumn quarter

1973, with work on instrument revision, and employment of a time series study over the entire academic year, results will relate more to the expected hypothesis.

Evaluation Interpretations

Subjective

Tables 14 through 17 present the results of the teacher-constructed evaluation questionnaire. The following are noted as a result of these questionnaires:

1. With the lab group, there appears to be a clear indication of

enjoyment of what is carried on in the lab sessions, and a

request for more of the same. In spite of the fact that the

author intentionally limited the lab size, better than twenty-

five per cent still indicated the labs were too large in en­

rollment. There also appears to be a cleavage between what

the students consider most valuable and what they consider

least valuable. This is perhaps a good case for sub-lab

development.

2. The 10:00 a.m., 3:00 p.m. and 4:00 p.m. classes indicated a

clear liking for the content of the course. They also in­

dicated a desire for the labs to be made a requirement.

The 10:00 a.m. and 3:00 p.m. classes indicated a dislike for

their large class size, while the 4:00 p.m. class had no such

indication. All three classes also indicated a strong desire

for field trip experiences. Instructor evaluation was good 61

in all three classes, with the dissidents amounting to only

two or three individuals in most cases.

Objective

Generally, the objective, evaluation results were very favorable

to the way the courses were conducted. The overall decile rating was

seven or better in all cases in the subscale responses. This is de­

scribed by Aleamoni as good.^ This is especially relevant when the

results obtained are compared with 5,346 courses throughout the United

States.^

Tables 19, 20 and 21 highlight the low, average and above average

responses on individual responses. The low decile ratings are again compared to the greater than five thousand other courses. Many times

the mean response is as high as 3.00 or 3.50, but compared on a na­ tional level for the level of the course, the decile rating is low or just average.

Keeping in mind that the lab was evaluated at the sophomore level, while the lectures were evaluated at the freshman level, the lab showed a clear superiority over the classes in the number and per cent with above average decile scores. As the course level goes up, the decile mean cut-off goes higher. Therefore, all values reported for the lab would be higher had they been evaluated at the freshman level.

^Lawrence M. Aleamoni, Illinois Evaluation Questionnaire (CEQ) Results Interpretation Manual, Report No. 331, 1972, p. 14.

^Ibid, p. 31. 62 Conclusions of Evaluation Analysis

Student evaluation of instruction is valid in that it provides an index to the instructional process. The combination of subjective and objective evaluation has the advantage of giving the students an opportunity to express their likes and dislikes in their own words with the subjective form and provides a standard means of quantitative comparison with the objective form.

Further characterization of instructional techniques could be expanded by the use of a panel of educational experts unobtrusively evaluating the instructor over a long period of time, and perhaps by means of self-evaluation by the instructor.^

If the intent in any form of evaluation can be approached from the point of view of improvement or assistance, rather than criticism, greater progress in course evaluation and course improvement will be made.

Research in this area of horticulture also needs expanding. In­ structors should experiment with their own form of evaluation; use someone else's or a combination of the two. The use of video tape recordings should also not be overlooked as a means of assessing one's teaching techniques. Any form of evaluation is better than none, and improvement can be the only result.

^E. Grant Moody and R. Merwin Deever, "Evaluating Competence of College Teachers," National Association of Colleges and Teachers of Agriculture. XVII (March, 1973), 3-4. APPENDIX I 64

Final Exam Horticulture 111 Spring Quarter 1973

1. The movement of the sun at different seasons of the year in rela­ tion to the orientation of the house is important because

a. it aids in choosing the areas for outdoor living activities.

b. it aids in the selection and placement of plant material that is either shade tolerant or not.

c. both a & b

d. neither a or b

2. In solving the mystery of outdoor scale, especially with terrace or patio construction, the Reader * s Digest Text suggests which of the following procedures?

a. to accept what the homebuilder feels is the adequate size for your families needs.

b. to set up paper mock-ups, stake out the proposed area with string, and invite the number of people over you want the area to accommodate for a party.

c. to arbitrarily set the area size at 64 sq. ft. per persons in the family.

d. none of these.

3. Landscaping, like anything else involves the expenditure of money. What are some of the ways that one could cut costs in landscaping around the home?

a. plant younger trees and shrubs.

b. plant faster growing plant material.

c. hire a professional designer to help develop the plan.

d. all, a, b and c above would cut costs.

e. only a & b would cut costs. 65

4. Pruning plants is done to control plant growth. One can prune to both stimulate or inhibit growth. Generally, to stimulate growth of deciduous plants.

a. prune during the early summer months

b. prune during the early spring months (March or early April)

c. prune in the early fall.

d. none of these choices.

5. If you had obtained only a seedling variety of a tree rather than a cultivar, and you wanted a compact, spreading form, you would

a. prune to outside buds each time.

b. prune to inside buds each time.

c. prune the roots to cause the branches to spread.

d. the method of pruning is unimportant, as long as you do prune occassionally.

6 . It is advised to fertilize the lawn frequently throughout the season. The element that is in constant short supply, and is the reason for repeated fertilization is

a. Nitrogen (N) c. Potassium (K)

b. Phosphorus (P) d. Iron (Fe)

7. A range of plants that have been propagated asexually, from a single individual constitute what is known as a

a. Genus c. Family

b. Species d. Clone

8 . The importance of an F^ hybrid to the homeowner is

a. the unusual vigor in bloom & growth

b. the fact that, if they are annuals, and they self-seed, segregation will take place. 66

c. that for either seeds or plants, the cost will be greater.

d. all of the above

9. In our area trees should be planted

a. 2 " above existing grade

b. at grade level

c. 2 " below grade

d. it does not matter

10. The yellowing which often occurs to Pin Oak leaves can be best cured by

a. adding calcium to the soil

b. adding iron to the soil

c. adding iron and lowering the soil pH

d. adding iron and raising the soil pH

11. What are the best reasons for pruning?

a. to remove hazardous branches

b. to remove dead wood

c. to obtain desired form

d. to improve flowering

e. all of the above

12. What is the element that should be incorporated into the soil prior to seeding it for a lawn?

a. Nitrogen (N) c. Potassium (K)

b. Phosphorus (P) d. Iron (Fe) 67

13. Of all the physiological functions land plants carry on, the one that modifies the environment most is

a. photosynthesis c. transpiration

b. respiration d. oxidation

14. When sawdust or wood chips are added to soil one must also add which mineral element?

a. Sulfur c. Potassium

b. Phosphate d. none of the above

15. The fall colors which occur on deciduous trees in the fall are caused by

a. lower temperatures c. chlorophyll being transported to the roots b. shorter day lengths d. combination of a & b

16. You purchase 100 bare root privet hedges to plant along your property line. They are wrapped in bundles of 25. You begin the task, but are stopped half-way through by the threat of rain. With the two remaining bundles you would

a. layer c. heel-in

b. harden-off d. girdle

17. Most nutrient elements are available to plant roots in maximum amounts at a soil pH of

a. 5.0 c. 6.0

b. 5.5 d. 6.5

18. A plant that completes its life cycle in two years is called an

a. perennial c. biperennial

b. biennial d. annual 68

19. The establishment of a lawn involves many steps, properly carried out. The first step is

a. applying phosphorus c. obtain a soil test

b. establishing a fine grade d. watering properly

20. If the lawn is to be established in about 50-50 sun-shade, and have moderate use, then the best selection of seed would be

a. a mix of Ky Bluegrass; Ky 31 fescue

b. a mix of fine (Red) fescue; Ky Bluegrass

c. a mix of bentgrass; Ky Bluegrass

d. straight seeding of zoysia

21. The lawn is finally established. You and your family take a greatly deserved vacation for the month of July. However, on your return in August, you find the boy you had hired to cut the grass goofed off a little, and a lot of rain fell during the period as well. Needless to say the grass is now 12" high. In your garage you have the following.

a. a rotary mower b. a power reel mower

Which one would you use to cut this high grass most effectively?

22. A subtle reappearance of plant forms, colors & textures throughout the landscape is an example of

a. monotony c. proportion

b. sequence d. repetition

23. Plant material is placed an equal distance from the focal point, of the same variety and form. This is an example of

a. harmony c. repetition

b. balance d . sequence 69

24. Large, rounded trees placed behind the house, a small multi­ stemmed tree in front near a corner of the house, and a larger tree (35'-40') also in front, but farther away from the house is an example of

a. harmony c. monotony

b. enframement d. sequence

25. The random placement of espaliered plants along a long wall or fence is an example of breaking

a. monotony c. harmony

b. repetition d. enframement

26. The major focal point in the public area should be

a. front walk c. front door

b. driveway entrance d. picture window

27. Hedges should be pruned so that they are

a. widest at the top c. straight up and down

b. widest at the bottom d. widest at the middle

28. Two nondestructive insects that help to control the destructive ones in a garden are

a. aphids and spider mites

b. praying mantis and lady beetles

c. Japanese beetles and lady beetles

d. spider mites and lady beetles

29. A very safe insecticide to use for the control of insects is

a. Silvex c. Captan

b. Sevin d. 2, 4-D 70

30. An annual flower that does well in a shady area is

a. Phlox c. Daylily

b. Marigold d. Impatiens

31. The biggest problem with the soils in this area which results in poor plant growth and often death of plants is

a. Low pH c. poor fertility

b. poor drainage d. iron deficiency

32. When planning for the majority of permanent color sources in the landscape setting, the best source is from

a. the flowers c. the foliage

b. the fruit d. the twigs and branches

33. You depart from the campus scene in the near future, and are desirous of building your own terrarium. An important thing to remember with terrariums is

a. a possible "Greenhouse Effect" if they are placed in direct light

b. they should be small

c. they should have tinted glass

d. they should never be watered

34. You plant some petunias for their bright flower color, but notice that they are flowering poorly, when compared to your neighbors plants across the street. You probably

a. have them planted in too much shade

b. are not giving them enough fertilizer

c. probably did not pinch them when you planted them

d. possibly a & c above 71

35. You purchase some packet seeds from the garden center in the spring. Sow them directly into the soil, and in a few weeks young seedlings are well on their way. Some flower while others do not, yet they all look healthy. You probably

a. have them planted in too much shade.

b. have planted those not flowering too deeply.

c. those not flowering are probably biennials.

d. those not flowering are probably annuals.

36. Pin Oaks are sold in many nursery outlets. The problems commonly associated with them for homeowners in the Ohio areas are.

a. the development of chlorotic leaves due to lack of iron.

b. branches that may interfere with pedestrian or vehicular traffic.

c. correctable by selecting a suitable planting site, with the right pH 6c enough distance for the spreading branches

d. all, a, b, & c

Students:

Your opinion is needed. As you probably know the Reader's Digest Book is going up in price, somewhere between $10 to $12. It is obvious that this book is a good one, but do you think future students would be willing to pay this amount for a book in a course taken as an elective?

Your thoughtful response to this question would be appreciated, as future book purchases will be dependent on what you say. If you think an alternative book should be sought, say so.

Thank you APPENDIX II 73

ILLINOIS COURSE EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE — FO R M 66 Me.tHurtMiicn' ittvl Rrt.curi-h division, Office of tflilriH-tiom il Reauuriea. UNIVERSITY OK ILLINOIS c, 13v Hichurii E. Spencer, IV oS

(U • H< . * 1 S ? ■ . a or • S z 5 ? a 2 5

G R A O E < IN IN T H IS > 3 2 2 * “ 5 5 m f COURSE S i# < * % D U 2 «u o o \J o

3 e E X P E C T E D o o Si • 2 t- *> if . > 3 u * •• • . < £ i » « 2 w > 3 n . . i , , , Jjfl _ < , . O . W f t cc ■ X K a u u o * o ; i- g o 3 2 « at _ 10 * . . . . . - (En 3 °* a ? * S «j * “ • 5 s ? • i « " S i 2 2

MARK MARK YOUR 2 1 © a x c o g < X a O 3 W K »• - ■ ’ - ■> ■ ' ‘ u- < u ui w u. x =; ^ a 2 z a. a > o * ik w» ** «n o o

1 learn more v;hen other teaching methods are used. SAMPLE MARKS: ft w as a waste of ttme. O v e ra ll, the course was good. USE ’.I ' I The textbook v/as very good. P E N C IL 1 a | The instructor seemed to be interested in students as persons. o n l y „ 1 More courses should be taught this way. RESPONSE CODE: The course held my interest. 1 would have preferred anotner metncd ot teacnmg m mis course. M ARK i r rou agxfc WITK Tne item It was easy to remain attentive. M AR K ' IF YOU AS3EE MQ3EAATELV The instructor did not synthesize, integrate or summarize effectively. The "em

N ot much was gained by taking this course. M A R K -• if '-jv : 5A5»cc moderately Wi Th * - t ITEM The instructor encouraged tne development of new viewpoints and appreciations. The course "atenai see~eo worthwhile. WITh " - f "EM It -was difficult to remain attentive.

instructor 0■ a not review prc-atly and m such a way that students could understand then weaknesses. Hc~ewotk assi£"-ents were rielofu: n understanding the course. Tneie was not enough st-sent part’Cicat on tot t*iis type o' course.

The instructor ha d a thorcugn knowledge of his subject -otter. IF PART 11 OR III IS TO BE USEO The content cf trie course was good. The course increased my general knowleage.

The tyres of test questions used were gecd. COMPLETE SECTIONS BELOW ACCORDING Held ry attention throughout tne course. TO YOUR INSTRUCTOR’S DIRECTIONS:

The de-jncs of the students were not considered b y the instructor. OPTIONALOPTIONAL Uninteresting ccutse. P A R T II P A R T III ft was a very worthwhile course. ITEMS 51-75 ITEMS 76-100 Some things were not explained very well.

The way in which this course was taught results in better student learning. Tne course material was too difficult.

One of my poorest courses. Material in the course was easy to follow. The instructor seemed to consider teaching as a chore or routine activity. More outside reading is necessary. Course material was poorly organized. Course was not very helpful.______It was quite interesting. I think that tne course was taught quite well. I would prefer a different method of instruction. The pace of the course was too slow.

At times I was confused. Excellent course content. ygfgl The examinations were too difficult. f Si Generally, the course was well organized.

Ideas and concepts were developed too rapidly. The content of the course was too elementary. Some days I was not very interested in this course. It was quite boring. th e anstructor exhibited professional dignity and bearing in the classroom. Another method of instruction should nave been employed. The course was quiteuseful.

I would take another course that was taught this way.

m w IM u i k u n m o c n m * n M { . « ■ APPENDIX III 75

______College

______Rank

COURSE EVALUATION HORTICULTURE 111

Your opinion on the following questions will help in evaluating and improving this course, so please answer as completely as possible. Your answer is completely anonymous, so say what you really believe. Papers will not be read until all grades are awarded. Thank you for your cooperation.

What do you consider the most valuable subject discussed in this course?

What do you consider the least valuable subject discussed in this course?

What could be added to make this course more valuable?

What weaknesses do you find in the course as it is set up and what do you suggest for eliminating these weaknesses?

How would you evaluate the instructor in terms of course presentations, assignments, testing, grading, and fairness to students (and on any other terms that seem appropriate)? APPENDIX IV 77

PRETEST - POSTTEST

Instrument of Measurement

Possible Questions

1. A green plant is a

a. autotroph b. heterotroph c. symbiot d. parasite

2 . Propagation

a. seed sowing b. rooting cuttings c. reproduction d. duplication

3. The pH of the soil refers to:

a. the degree of acidity of the soil b. the construction of hydrogen ions in the soil solution c. the soil contains equal proportions of (H"*") and (0H+ ) d. the amount of calcium and sulfur the soil contains

4. Air layering is a method of

a. sexual propagation b. asexual propagation c. neither a nor b but a form different from either one d. controlling diseases on plants

5. The term periclinal chimera refers to a mutation that is found in the common house plant:

a. Calandrinia umbellata b. Sorbus aucuparia c. Sansevieria trifaciata 'Laurentii' d. Any one of the above

6 . A tree purchase for your property is made, and you planted it in the early spring while it is still dormant. The leaves unfold, and the tree appears to grow normally. In the fall you notice that it flowers (not very showy), but the fruit that is set fits the description of a single samara. The tree planted was probably

a. American Elm c. Silver Maple b. English Elm d. Chinese Elm 78

7. A few years after moving into your newly built home, you notice that some of the more mature trees are starting to show undersized and partially yellow leaves. The most likely source of the problem is:

a. too much water; not enough air in the root zone. b. compaction and backfill over the roots of the tree. c. microenvironment change due to housing construction. d. possibly all of these.

8 . The yellow fall color witnessed on some oaks and maples is due to

a. the destruction of chlorophyll due to the action of the seasonal frosts b. the increasing levels of rainfall during the period of in­ active growth, causing less air to be in the root zone. c. a triggering mechanism that stimulates the greater production of carotenes which is the yellow pigment in the leaves. d. shortening day lengths, cool nights, cessation of chlorophyll manufacture with the concomitant unmasking of the yellow pig­ ment, carotene.

9. A plant developed in the dark lacks chlorophyll and has stretched internodes. This is an example of a plant that is

a. dead b. etiolated c. necrotic d. espaliered

10. To add a supply of sulfur and calcium to the soil, but not significantly change the pH, one would add

a. dolomitic limestone b. gypsum c. calacitic limestone d. flowers of sulfur

11. Pruning plants around the home landscape is perhaps the most critical maintenance problem for the homeowner. If one can remember two "rules of thumb" for pruning, he will be on the right track most of the time.

a. "Prune when young and get it done;" "Prune till you see the sun" b. "Prune for a reason and hang the season"; "When in doubt, prune it out" c. "Wait till it flowers, then prune before too many hours"; "Prune for a reason and not necessarily the season" d. "When the frost is on the pumpkin, that's the time for pruning something"; "Prune don't shear those plants that are dear". 79

12. The "greenhouse effect" which according to some ecologists, threat ens our environment, refers to:

a. heat energy being blocked from escaping into space from an accumulation of water vapor and carbon dioxide. b. heat energy being blocked from entering the earth's surface due to an accumulation of dust particles in the upper atmosphere. c. a synergistic effect created by the factors mentioned in a and b above. d. a build up of heat over the earth's surface due to the in­ creasing industrialization pursued by mankind.

13. The seeds of a particular plant are sown, they germinate, and the plants remain vegetative the first growing season. The second growing season (the following summer) the plants produce a mass of blooms. This is a description of an

a. Hybrid b. F 2 Hybrid c. biennial d. annual

14. A landscape planting involves many principles. A planting that has masses of shrubs and evergreens packed up against the founda­ tion of a house is an example of the misuse of the present day principle of

a. proportion b. unity c. simplicity d. all of the above

15. During the growing season the homeowner is burdened with the chore of lawn mowing. He normally selects the rotary mower for this purpose. The reason he does so is because of

a. their scissors like cutting action b. their superior safety features c. their flat top cutting of the lawn and superior cutting action on poorly growing grass areas d. all of the above

16. Grass seed is composed, normally, of mixes and blends of various grasses. In the central Ohio area, for most suburban home situa­ tions, the grass seed selection that will provide most of the needs for the homeowner is

a. Kentucky 31 Fescue b. creeping bentgrass c. a blend of the bluegrass and fine fescue d. a mixture of Kentucky bluegrasses and fine fescues 80

19. You have a narrow strip of soil between your driveway and house (4'). You desire to grow some fruit-bearing trees or shrubs in such an area. What would be the best way to go about this.task from an amateurs standpoint?

a. Plant the sapling and girdle the roots with some copper wire. b. Plant the sapling and prune it into a topiaried form c. Plant the sapling and spray it with light doses of a herbicide to dwarf it. This is known as the art of bonsai. d. Plant the sapling and as the new growth emerges, pinch and prune it to the desired direction and form. More or less in two dimensions- known as espaliering.

20. In the fall a plant goes to seed and dies with the first frost. The following spring some seedling germinate in the area where this plant had existed the year before. This is a description of

a. a perennial, like tall phlox b. a woody plant that is in the wrong climatic zone c. an annual, like crabgrass d. a biennial, like Sweet William

21. Many people when landscaping their homes select plants on a very shallow basis. When approaching this task it is best to

a. plan and select your favorite plants and place them carefully around the house so they will not appear too crowded. b. plan and select the plants on the basis of size and hardiness, as well as your favorite color. c. plan the plantings, with the help of an expert if necessary, so that you will have a maximum show of flower color in the spring as well as low maintenance. d. plan with an expert if necessary keeping in mind such factors as mature size, hardiness, and a sequence of bloom or color throughout the seasons, to fit your tastes and interests.

22. You have designed the planting around your home. The home is a low profile, one story dwelling. In the front you have shrubs that get 12-15' tall, trees in back that get to be 125' tall, and a giant Colorado Blue Spruce (90' tall) in the middle of:the front lawn. This scheme sabotages which good design principles most?

a. proportion - scale b. repetition - sequence c. Contrast - unity d. balance - monotony 81

23. A contractor includes a patio 20' x 8 ' as a part of your new home. You have a family of 4, you should

a. do nothing! this is big enough for your families needs. b. cut some of it away, as it is too big for what your family will need. c. expand it to 2 0 ' x 1 0 ', and this will make it large enough. d. expand it to 201 x 14', as this will make it large enough.

24. In attempting to develop a plan, you realize that you must keep plants and buildings in scale. In measuring on your property you find that one bush is 12' away from the N.E. corner of your house. On a scale of %•" this would be equal to

a. % of an inch on the paper b. 1 inch on the paper c. 3 inches on the paper d. 2 %" on the paper

25. Green plants carry on a very important function that has a modifying effect on the microenvironment. This is

a. photosynthesis b. respiration c. transpiration d. oxidation BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aiken, Lewis R., Jr. Psychological and Educational Testing. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1971.

Aleamoni, Lawrence M. Illinois Course Evaluation Questionnaire (CEQ) Results Interpretation Manual. Report No. 331, 1972.

Brown, James W. and Thornton, James W., Jr. College Teaching: A Systematic Approach. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1971.

Campbell, Donald T. and Stanley, Julian C. Experimental and Quasi- Experimental Designs For Research. Chicago: Rand McNally and Co., 1966.

Colville, W. L. "A Personal Teaching Philosophy." National Association of Colleges and Teachers of Agriculture. XVII. (March, 1973).

Dewey, John. Experience and Education. New York: Collier Books, 1938.

______. The School and The Life of the Child. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1915.

Educational Testing Service. Making the Classroom Test: A Guide For Teachers. Princeton, 1961.

Educational Testing Service. Pretest and Posttest Results for the 1966 NDEA Summer Foreign Language Institute, Princeton, N. J., 1967.

Faculty Handbook. J. James McPherson, chairman. Washington, D. C.: Graduate School Press, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1967.

Frazier, W. A. "Horticulture's Issues in Education, Science, Com­ munication, Philosophy, Politics and Human Welfare." HortScience. IV (Winter, 1969).

Garvin, Alfred D. and Ralston, Nance C. Improving the Reliability of Course Pretests. A paper presentation at a meeting of the National Council on Measurement in Education, Minneapolis, Minn., 1970.

Harris, Chester W. Encyclopedia of Educational Research. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1960.

82 83

Hayes, J. "Landscape For Living." The Yearbook of Agriculture. 1972. Washington, D. C.: Gobernment Printing Office, 1972.

Kerlinger, Fred N. Foundations of Behavioral Research. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1973.

Menlo, Allen. "Mental Health Within the Classroom Group." School of Education Bulletin. University of Michigan, May, 1960.

Moody, E. Grand and Deever, R. Merwin. "Evaluating Competence of College Teachers." National Association of Colleges and Teachers of Agriculture. XVII, (March, 1973).

Rice, J. G. "General Education: Has Its Time Come Again?" The Journal of Higher Education. (October, 1972)

Snedecor, George W. and Cochran, William G. Statistical Methods. Ames, Iowa: The Iowa University Press, 1967.

Toffler, Alvin. Future Shock. New York: Random House Publishers, 1970.

U. S. Department of Agriculture. Yearbook of Agriculture. 1972. Wash­ ington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1972.

University of Nebraska. The Effective Use of Examinations in Teaching and Learning. Lincoln, Nebraska, 1968.

Van Dalen, Deobold B. and Meyer, William J. Understanding Educational Research. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1966.

Warmbrod, J. Robert. Summaries of Studies in Agricultural Education. Central Region 1966-1967. Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State University, 1967.

______and Phipps, Lloyd J. Review and Synthesis of Research in Agricultural Education. Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State Uni­ versity, 1966. APPENDIX V A PRACTICAL MANUAL

FOR

HOME LANDSCAPING:

TEXT AND LAB

85 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page I. THE HISTORY AND LEGENDS OF HORTICULTURE...... 92

H i s t o r y ...... 92 Some Legends About Horticulture ...... 97 The Role of Specific Plants in the History of M a n k i n d ...... 100

II. BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES OF HOME LANDSCAPING ...... 103

Site Analysis...... 104 New Site C h e c k l i s t ...... 105 Established Site Analysis Checklist ...... 106 Beginning The P l a n ...... 107

III. LANDSCAPE PRINCIPLES FOR THE PUBLIC AREA OF THE HOME . . Ill

B a l a n c e ...... 112 Sequence ...... 112 C o n t r a s t ...... 114 R e p e t i t i o n ...... 116 P r o p o r t i o n ...... 116 Putting the Elements of Design to Work in the Landscape...... 117 Some C o n c l u s i o n s ...... 121

IV. LANDSCAPE PRINCIPLES OF THE PRIVATE AND SERVICE AREAS OF THE H O M E ...... 123

Patio Development...... 123 Other Elements to Use in the Private A r e a ...... 126 L i g h t s ...... 1^6 Water ...... 126 Fe n c i n g ...... 127 Shrubs for Beauty, Privacy and Security ...... 128 The Service A r e a ...... 129 The Lawn Grass in the Back Yark ...... 129 Summary of the Preceeding C h a p t e r s ...... 130

86 TABLE OF CONTENTS— Continued

Chapter Page V. THE FUNCTIONAL USE OF LANDSCAPE P L A N T S ...... 132

The Green R e v o l u t i o n ...... 132 Plants As Architectural Elements ...... 133 Engineering Use of Plant Material ...... 134 Noise Control With Plant Material...... 135 Plants As Atmospheric Purifiers ...... 137 General Plant U s e s ...... 139 Plants Suggested for Various Functions ...... 140 Shrubs and Vines Used to Control E r o s i o n ...... 140 Shrubs and Trees With Fragrant Flowers ...... 140 Trees For W i n d b r e a k s ...... 141 Plant Material Attractive to Wildlife ...... 141

VI. UNDERSTANDING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE S O I L ...... 142

The Physical Characteristics of the S o i l ...... 143 The Nutritional Characteristics of the S o i l ...... 144 How The Homeowner Can Put This Knowledge To Work . . 146 Complete Fertilizers ...... 149 S u m m a r y ...... 150

VII. CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANT G R O W T H ...... 152

Autotrophs Versus Heterotrophs ...... 152 Further Classification of Plants ...... 153 Growth Regulators ...... 154 Deciduous Shade Trees ...... 156 Other Factors Effecting Growth ...... 158

VIII. HOME LAWN ESTABLISHMENT...... 160

Growth and Development of Some Common Turf Grasses . 160 Kentucky Bluegrass ...... 160 Red F e s c u e ...... 161 Chewings Fescue ...... 162 Ryegrasses - Annual and Perennial ...... 162 Tall F e s c u e ...... 163 The Bentgrasses...... 164 Preparing the Soil for S e e d i n g ...... 165

87 TABLE OF CONTENTS--Continued

Chapter Page IX. MANAGEMENT OF THE LANDSCAPE AROUND THE RESIDENTIAL PROPERTY...... 169

Pruning Problems ...... 169 Flowering Shrubs...... 170 H e d g e s ...... 171 Roses: Hybrid Teas, Floribundas andGrandifloras . . 171 Pruning Evergreens ...... 172 Needle-Leaf Evergreens ...... 172 Scale-Leaf Evergreens ...... 172 Broad-Leafed Evergreens ...... 172 Root Pruning ...... 174 Other Maintenance Concerns...... 175 Late Winter - Early S p r i n g ...... 175 Mid to Late S p r i n g ...... 177 Mid Summer - Early F a l l ...... 178 Mid Fall - Early W i n t e r ...... 179

X. STEPS TOWARD A BETTER ENVIRONMENT ...... 181

INTRODUCTION TO L A B S ...... 187

Lab Exercise 1. PLANT PROPAGATION BY SEED - ANNUALS, PERENNIALS AND BIENNIALS ...... 188

Introduction ...... 188 M a t e r i a l s ...... 188 P r o c e d u r e ...... 189 Some Mind T e a s e r s ...... 191

2. FORCING BULBS FOR SPRING BEAUTY ...... 192

Introduction...... 192 M a t e r i a l s ...... 193 Procedure ...... 193 Some Mind T e a s e r s ...... 194

3. TREE FERTILIZATION TECHNIQUES FOR THE HOMEOWNER .... 195

Introduction ...... 195

88 TABLE OF CONTENTS— Continued

Page Lab Exercise 3--Continued

Techniques...... 195 Method 1: Surface Applications ...... 195 Method 2: Punch Bar or Drill Hole Application . . . 195 Method 3: Feeding Needles ...... 196 Method 4: Tree Injection Cartridges ...... 196 P r o c e d u r e ...... 197 Some Mind Teasers ...... 199

4. PRACTICAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION TECHNIQUES ...... 200

Introduction...... 200 M a t e r i a l s ...... 200 I. Propagation by Cuttings ...... 200 P r o c e d u r e ...... 200 II. Propagation by Air Layering ...... 202 P r o c e d u r e ...... 202 III. Propagation by T-Budding ...... 204 P r o c e d u r e ...... 204 Some Mind T e a s e r s ...... 207

5. PRUNING PRINCIPLES FOR THE HOMEOWNER...... 208

Introduction ...... 208 M a t e r i a l s ...... 209 P r o c e d u r e ...... 209 Plant T y p e s ...... 209 A Few Words About Root Pruning ...... 211 General Rules for Pruning ...... 212 Some Mind T e a s e r s ...... 213

6 . PLANTING ORNAMENTALS...... 214

Introduction ...... 214 Materials ...... 214 P r o c e d u r e ...... 215 Some Mind Teasers ...... 220

89 TABLE OF CONTENTS— Continued

Lab Exercise Page 7. GROWING A HOME VEGETABLE G A R D E N ...... 221

Introduction...... 221 Procedures...... 222 Hydroponic or Soilless Gardening ...... 222 Organic Gardening ...... 225 Typical Backyard Vegetable Gardening ...... 226 Some Vegetables for Sequential Plantings ...... 229 Some Mind T e a s e r s ...... 230

8 . PESTICIDE USE AROUND THE HOME G R O U N D S ...... 231

Introduction...... 231 M a t e r i a l s ...... 232 P r o c e d u r e ...... 232 Insecticides ...... 232 Fungicides ...... 235 Miticides ...... 237 Herbicides...... 237 Sprayer Types ...... 238 Some Mind T e a s e r s ...... 241

9. TERRARIUM CONSTRUCTION...... 242

Introduction ...... 242 Materials ...... 243 P r o c e d u r e ...... 244 Some Mind T e a s e r s ...... 246

10. EFFECTIVE MAINTENANCE OF A HOME LA W N ...... 247

Introduction ...... 247 Materials ...... 247 P r o c e d u r e ...... 248 Grass Selections for the Northeastern United States And Their U s e ...... 253 Mowers And Their C a r e ...... 254 A Recommended Procedure for Starting, Operating and Stopping a Power Lawn M o w e r ...... ^55 Small Engine S t o rage...... 256 Some Mind T e a s e r s ...... 258

90 TABLE OF CONTENTS— Continued

Lab Exercise Page 11. THE ART OF B O N S A I ...... 259

Introduction ...... 259 Materials ...... 260 Procedure...... 260 Planting the Specimen...... 261 Plants Commonly Bonsaied ...... 263

12. ORNAMENTAL PLANT USE AND APPRECIATION...... 264

Introduction ...... 264 Hardy Shrubs for Dry Places ...... 264 Hardy Shrubs for Wet P l a c e s ...... 265 Hardy Shrubs for the Sh a d e ...... 265 Hardy Shrubs for Acid S o i l s ...... 266 Hardy Shrubs Under Four F e e t ...... 266 Trees Under 35 Feet in H e i g h t ...... 266 Trees Which Grow R a p i d l y ...... 267 Deciduous...... 267 E v e r g r e e n s ...... 267 Trees Which Thrive in Wet Soils ..... 267 Deciduous...... 267 E v e r g r e e n s ...... 267

GLOSSARY ...... 268

APPENDIX ...... 272

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 277

91 CHAPTER I

THE HISTORY AND LEGENDS OF HORTICULTURE

History:

There is little doubt that the horticultural legacy we Americans enjoy, and often take for granted, spans many previous generations.

A long time ago, for example, the Greeks, freed from the dogma of the priesthood found in other countries, developed innovative thoughts in the area of all sciences, including horticulture.

Most significant among the ancient Greeks as a horticulturist was a man known as Theophrastus (372-288 B. C.), whose greatest assets were his keen powers of observation. He hypothesized that the roots of a plant functioned by absorbing nourishment for plants. He observed the fundamental differences between the leaves of germinating seeds of wheat and the leaves of germinating seeds of beans (monocotyledons vs. dicotyledons). He described how root pruning enhanced the flower­ ing and subsequent fruiting of plants and the process of cross pollina­ tion, which is of such great importance in horticulture today.

The Greek influence declined with the rise of the Roman empire, which gave way also to different techniques in agriculture. The Romans, while holding agriculture in high esteem, were not the innovative and scientific thinkers that characterized many of the Greek writings. In­ stead, they adopted, or improved upon, some of the Greek techniques

92 93

of fanning. The use of legumes to improve poor soil, manure to improve

soil production, and cultivation to effect weed control, were employed.

The technique of post-harvest storage of fruits was developed by Varro

(116-20 B. C.). He recommended the placement of straw in a cool dry place, a cave, which gave the Romans a means of storing and having

fruits during the winter months. This step provided a means by which vitamin deficiency symptoms were greatly reduced during the winter

season.

Plant knowledge and appreciation reached its zenith during this era with the publication of an authoritative herbal by Dioscorides about 77 A. D. While the book, De Materia Medica, was not the sci­ entific work of Theophrastus, it did serve as the supreme authority

for 1500 years due to the practical nature of its contents. He de­

scribed roots, stems, leaves and sometimes flowers. For centruies, no drug plant was considered genuine unless it could be identified by

the descriptions given by Dioscorides.

Skipping through about 1700 years of history, we come across a name that is familiar to most beginning plant science students. He

is C. V. Linnaeus (1707-1778), a Swedish botanist and physician. His outstanding characteristics were his powers of description and system­ atizing. With these attributes, he set about to establish an accredited method of classifying plants by clear and succinct descriptions. The establishment of these descriptions, binomial nomenclature, has stood the test of time, as plant explorers and taxonomists today classify plants in the same manner. 94

Moving to early America now, we find a family that was responsible

for the establishment of what was probably the first commercial nursery

in the United States. The Prince family, headed by Robert Prince, es­

tablished the Prince Nursery at Flushing, Long Island in about 1730.

Under his son, William Prince, the nursery expanded rapidly until the Amer­

ican Revolution. After the Revolution, in 1794, a catalog put out by the nursery contained a long list of cultivars, including apricots and nectarines. While the fruit trees were necessary for stocking the country during a period of growth, eventually ornamentals became a significant part of the business. In 1784, the Lombardy poplar was

introduced into America, and by 1798, the Prince nursery was advertising ten thousand of these trees for sale. They became the emblem of a democracy, and were, during the post-Revolutionary era, the most popular trees in America.

Two other botanists - Charles R. Darwin (1809-1882) and Gregor

T. Mendel (1822-1884) - are well worth discussing at this point. In his well-known work On The Origin of Species Darwin concluded that

"favorable variations would tend to be preserved and unfavorable ones to be destroyed. The result of this would be the formation of a new species." Where others had tried and failed, Darwin was the first to present a scientifically sound explanation of how evolution took place.

He also wrote another important, although less well-known book, The

Power of Movement in Plants (1880), Here he referred to the ability of plants to respond to the effects of light and gravity. This was a fundamental recognition of phototropism and geotropism, or the re- 95

sponsive growth of plants to light and gravity.

The work of Gregor Mendel laid the foundations for the science of

genetics. At the age of 21, he entered the Augustinian Monastery in

Moravia, where he spent the rest of his life carrying out painstaking

research with plants and animals. In his classical work with garden peas, Mendel observed seven pairs of contrasting characters which be­

came the first step towards analyzing inheritance. The next step was to cross the individuals which differed in regard to those specific characters. He then crossed the resulting hybrids and observed the segregation that had taken place. As an example, a tall pea and a short pea parental line were crossed. From the seed formed (F, or first filial generation), he observed that all of the progeny (F, hybrids) were tall. His next step was very important. He crossed two of these hybrid tall plants and found that segregation took place with the re­ sulting progeny or F£ generation. There was a distinct ratio of three tall plants to one dwarf plant, illustrating the characteristics of dominant and recessive genes. The irony of it all is that Mendel died an unappreciated man, with regard to his outstanding discoveries.

It was not until 34 years after his death that three European botanists

"rediscovered" Mendel's earlier work while searching through the literature.

The mere presence or abundance of trees and shrubs do not auto­ matically make an attractive landscape. So, with the interest in land­ scape gardening continuing to develop, it was only logical that some great men should also appear on the American scene to help mold and 96

direct it. Andrew J. Downing (1815-1852) was the first great American landscape gardener. His primary influence was on developing the simple, natural, and permanent in the landscape, as opposed to the complex, artificial, and ephemeral that had been promoted by the Italian, Dutch and French artificial schools. He authored several books which affected landscape gardening, and also one that had a great impact on the field of pomology.

But perhaps the greatest influence this man had on the development of American landscape gardening was his ability to inspire his pupils.

One of his most renouned proteges was Frederick Law Olmstead (1822-1903), now considered to be the "Father" of landscape architecture. He picked up Downing's concepts exceedingly well and became the primary Landscape

Architect for Central Park in New York and other parks in Buffalo,

Chicago and Detroit, to name only a few. In the true sense of the word,

Olmstead was a "revolutionary." His developments were bold, sweeping and imaginative. The natural, restful settings of his finished projects belied the political turmoil and frustrations that filled his personal life. He died a thwarted and bitter man, but his efforts were not in vain. His ideas have carried through to the present day, and are more important than ever as mankind makes an ever greater encroachment on his environment.

Modern day horticulturists do not take a back seat to the great men of the past. One such man, Liberty H. Bailey (1858-1954), is perhaps the Twentieth Century's analogue to the ancient plantsman, Dioscorides.

Bailey's many books are often quoted as the standard authority on plant 97

nomenclature, taxonomy, pruning, etc. It is hard to believe that one man could contribute so much to a particular profession in just one lifetime, yet his credits are valid. Three of his most popular books with students of horticulture are Manual of Cultivated Plants, Hortus

Second and How Plants Get Their Names. He established the Bailey

Hortum at Ithaca, New York during the last years of his life.

The listing of men whose accomplishments are significant to the horticultural profession could easily be developed into a book in itself.

This manual is not intended for that purpose, but is aimed at giving the novice or newcomer to horticulture a thumbnail perspective of how and why the profession is what it is today. Suffice it to say that the

United States Department of Agriculture deemed it important enough to designate their 1972 Yearbook of Agriculture "Landscape for Living.11

Horticulture will continue to be a part of most American's lives indefinitely. Why this will be true is because of the durability and adaptability of most of its principles. Teachers, architects, engineers and space scientists are all realizing in greater number that plants must play an integral role in the livelihood of mankind.

Some Legends About Horticulture:

Primitive man, the nomad, was concerned with hunting game for his family and tribe. It was the female species of man, however, who must 98

be credited with employing some of the first principles of agriculture and homemaking. In the true meaning of the word, the women of that era were the first plant explorers. They collected the edible grains, wild fruit and tubers. Some of this, of course, they consumed immedi­ ately as the men were not always successful in their hunting expeditions.

What was not consumed was planted and allowed to grow in the first primitive gardens providing foodstuff for the tribes at a later date.

Perhaps the ancient culture that had the most significant effect on the world at that time, as far as agriculture and technology went, was the ancient Egyptian culture. Here, man's rendezvous with civili­ zation began. The Egyptians actually venerated trees due to their extreme scarcity throughout the land. The various pagan dieties and temples each had their own sacred tree and would cultivate it to the exclusion of all others.

The Egyptians were one of the first people to establish formal gardens. These gardens were used not only for escapes from the hard­ ships and realities of the work day, but to provide medicinal aid as well. Spices, herbs and drugs were all grown and extracted from the

Egyptian gardens.

The cultivation of figs, bananas, lemons and grapes were among some of the early fruits cultivated by the Egyptians. Pools surrounded by gardens, topiary and roses also were initiated in the ancient Egyptian culture.

From this beginning, all other cultures have either copied, im­ proved upon, or discovered agricultural and horticultural techniques 99

that have continued to feed and shelter mankind. When a particular

empire would begin collapsing, it would also be paralleled by a de­

cline in their agricultural capabilities. However, the road to superior

agricultural techniques cannot trace a smooth and progressively steeper

line. For example, the knowledge of sex in plants, which was so clearly

explained by the writings of Theophrastus, was lost for hundreds of years, and the world remained in ignorance of this concept until 1694.

At that time, a botanist by the name of Camerarius, with the aid of

the recently invented microscope, described essentially what Theophrastus had discovered much earlier. However, the writings of Camerarius went against current popular thought. The mere mention of sexuality in plants was considered the height of vulgarity! He and his proteges' ideas were so bitterly opposed that another 162 years had to pass before the dissidents (led by Mattias Jakob Schleiden, an embryologist) would retract their beliefs. They refused to believe what their eyes told them and reported what they wanted it to be, reality or not. It is perhaps fitting to insert at this point a little-heard quotation that may serve as a monitor for those who may be swayed by experts' words.

Hugo von Mohl, a plant anatomist, wrote in 1863 after all the contro­ versy of sex in plants had finally been settled,

Now that we know Schleiden's doctrine to have been an illusion, it is instructive, although sad, to look back to the past and see how readily the false was accepted for the true; how some, re­ nouncing all observation of their own, dressed up the phantom in theoretical principles; how others, with microscope in hand, but blinded by their preconceptions. believed they saw what they could not have seen and sought to establish the correctness of Schleiden's notions with the aid of hundreds of figures which had anything but truth to recommend them; and how an academy by re­ 100

warding such work gave fresh proof of the well-known experience that prize essays are little adapted to contribute to the solution of a doubtful question in science. (Italics mine.)^

The Role of Specific Plants in the History of Mankind:

Through all the tribulations of mankind's history, plants have unwittingly played their part.

The Flowering Dogwood, a tree nearly everyone today admires for its esthetic qualities, was found to be quite functional by the

American Indians. They used the roots of the Dogwood to extract a scarlet dye, the twigs as tooth brushes which, when flayed, and used on a regular basis, cleared up gum problems.

The beautiful Dogwood is also associated with another legend.

At the time of the Crucifixion, the Dogwood was the size of the oaks and other large forest trees. So strong was the wood of the Dogwood that it was chosen as the timber for the cross. To be used for such a cruel purpose greatly distressed the tree and Jesus, nailed upon it, sensed this and in his gentle pity for all sorrow and suffering, said to it,

Because of your regret and pity for my suffering, never again shall the Dogwood tree grow large enough to be used for a cross. Henceforth, it shall be slender and bent and twisted and its blossoms shall be in the form of a cross . . . two long and two short petals. And in the center of the outer edge of each petal there will be nail prints, brown with rust and

^Maheshwari, P., An Introduction to the Embryology of Angio- sperms (New York: MaGraw-Hill, 1950), pp. 8-9. 101

stained with red, and in the center of the flower ^ill be a crown of thorns, and all who see it will remember.

If one were to examine the open bracts of the Dogwood, and use

their imagination somewhat, these characteristics could be noted.

Other trees that played an integral role in the historical de­

velopment of mankind are:

1. The White Pine - the needles, when boiled in water, yielded

the daily requirements of vitamin C for the American Indians

and the first settlers in this country. The cones and the

bark of this tree species were useful also as they were rich

sources of vitamins A and C.

2. The leaves of the Sweet Gum, when boiled in water, produced

a tonic that cured many of an early American's sore throat.

3. The spike of the Staghorn Sumac, when crushed, with sugar

and water made a refreshing lemonade-like drink.

4. The acorns of the Black Oaks were ground into flour, while

the acorns of the White Oaks were roasted and eaten directly

because of their sweet meat.

5. The weeds that most Americans spend countless dollars on every

year to eradicate were, at one time, valuable sources of nourish­

ment. The seeds of the lambsquarters were ground up for a

nutritious flour; purslane and chickweed are both rich in

vitamin C and iron; dandelions were perhaps the most useful

9 Nelson Jones, "The Legend of the Dogwood," postcard published in Lakewood, Ohio. 102

of all the weeds as their charred roots made an excellent brew similar to the present-day coffee, the leaves were high in vitamin C and iron, and the flowers were used for making good wine. CHAPTER II

BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES OF HOME LANDSCAPING

The purpose of these next three chapters is to introduce you to

some of the basic landscape design principles which you may use around your property. Mastering the material in these chapters will not make you a design expert, nor will it be a substitute for hiring a

competent landscape architect or landscape horticulturist to assist you in some of the more difficult phases of your landscape scheme.

Let us begin this chapter by defining terms. First of all, what is the difference between a landscape architect and a landscape horticulturist? Obviously, they are both concerned with landscaping, so how can they be distinguished? A landscape architect is what one may

think of as a design engineer. He is thoroughly trained in design concepts and in working with building material as well as plant material. A landscape horticulturist is more of a plantsman, with some training in design concepts. He has had in-depth training in the plant sciences and plant identification. Both areas, of course,

Include much more than what is described, but the difference is clear.

If your need is more design oriented, then you would be better off to hire a landscape architect; if your need is primarily of a plant selection or plant use nature, then a landscape horticulturist would be the better choice. Actually, the best results in landscape development may be achieved when the landscape architect and the land-

103 104

scape horticulturist can work together.

Site Analysis;

Let us assume that you have just moved into a new home. This

could be a home with several previous owners, or one with you being

the first owner. In either case, the first item to tackle is to get

together with your spouse and walk around the property with a sketch

pad and pencil.

As you walk around the area outside your home, try to be as

honest with yourself as you can. Ask yourself the following questions:

Does my family really enjoy working around the yard? Are we going to be pursuing active forms of recreation? Do I feel that my property

is too open and exposed to my neighbors? Are there views either on or off of the property that I wish to screen? Do I need shade to protect us from the sun's early morning or late afternoon rays? What theme does

the architecture of the house project, and do I want to enhance it or mask it? And lastly, what are the needs and interests of all the members of my family (pets included)?

While you are moving through your home site and pondering these as well as other questions, try to imagine the outdoor area in some­ what the same fashion as you would the rooms in your house. It is not difficult for one to see the living room, for instance, as a cube of living space with the floor, walls and ceiling defining that space.

But when we move outdoors, this visualization becomes more difficult for people to see. Think of the ground or sod as the floor, the sky or canopy formed by existing trees as the ceiling, and the bushes, 105

hedges or property lines as the walls of this space. Any pleasant

views off the property should be thought of as an opening or ,,wi n d o w ,,

in the real or Imaginary boundries of your property.

Once this concept is clear in your mind, begin making a list of what you have to work with. To simplify this, two lists follow which may be an aid to the homeowner who has just moved into a new home with

little or no prior landscaping, or moved into an older home where the

landscaping has matured.

New Site Checklist

1. Is there topsoil on the property, or has the contractor left only

the subsoil?

2. If the grade has changed on the property, are there slopes which

may be difficult to mow?

3. Are there quite a few large stones on the property that would be

too difficult or expensive for you to remove?

4. Have you checked the soil close to the house to see if plaster

or other building debris would interfere with normal plant growth?

5. Are there any drainage problems, such as places where water stands

for a day or two after it rains?

6 . Is the existing plant material worth saving, or should you replace

it?

7. Is there, or will there be, sufficient shade provided by the trees

on the property? 106

8 . Are there any special climatic factors that need consideration

(wind direction, drifting snow, sun exposure, etc.)?

9. Are there any unusual topographic features which may be an asset

or liability?

a. Example of an asset: Is there a grade change that is sufficient

to aid in providing enclosure for the property?

b. Example of a liability: Is there a depressed area where you

intend to have a garden that would be susceptible to water

accumulation and late spring or early fall frosts?

10. Will the space your property has be sufficient to use plant material

for the privacy you desire?

Established Site Analysis Checklist

1. Will the existing plant material serve the purposes you have in

mind for the property?

2. Is the lawn a complement to the property?

3. Would ground cover plant material or mulch be a better substitute

in some areas of the lawn?

4. Are there large evergreen trees which provide too much shade,

especially in the winter months?

5. Will the large trees you wish to keep on your property require

professional care from an arborist?

6 . Have any of the shrubs planted on the property become overgrown

to the point where they spoil the esthetics of the house or impair

the movement of pedestrian and vehicular traffic? 107

7. Do any of the structural features of the property need changing

(i.e., a sagging porch removed,an old fence torn down, a side­

walk relocated, driveway widened)?

8. Does the soil structure and pH present a problem for the plant

material you intend to grow?

9. Will the utility lines or poles pose a problem for the landscaping

you have in mind?

10. Is the patio (assuming there is one) big enough to serve all the

members of the family adequately?

These lists are not meant to be exhaustive, but to simply get your

mind working in the right analytical direction. Before any landscaping

is carried out on the property, either new or established, a soil test

should be obtained (see appendix).

Beginning The Plan:

With the liabilities and assets of the property listed now, it

would be a good idea to obtain some grid or plan paper from a local

art supply store. Try to get the size paper (usually 18" X 24")

which will allow you to work comfortably with a scale of 1/8" or

1/4". This is important as drawing the house and plant material to

scale will greatly aid in locating the planting sites of the various

plants, and will give you a perspective of how much space the mature

forms of the plants will require.

A brief explanation of what drawing to scale means is warranted

here, as many people have not been exposed to this concept before.

Take out a ruler and note its divisions. The largest unit of division 108

is one inch. The next is a half inch, then one quarter inch, down to

one eighth of an inch, then to one sixteenth of an inch. Now, what is meant when we say a drawing is rendered in an eighth of an inch scale

is that one eighth of an inch on the ruler is equal to one foot in

the actual outdoor setting. If your scale was at one quarter of an

inch being equal to one foot, then the drawing which was rendered

would take up twice as much room on the paper as the one eighth inch

scale drawing. Remember this if it will help - drawn to a one eighth

inch scale, one inch on a drawing would equal eight feet in the outdoor

setting, while a one quarter inch scale would only equal four feet in

the actual setting.

Fig. 1 % inch on the drawing paper equals 1 foot in the landscape. 109

Equally Important is to locate the compass direction on the plan.

The various facings of the house will have different microclimates and will therefore support different forms of plant life. This requires knowing more than which side of the house faces north. It also is important that you understand the sun's movement across the sky with the changing seasons of the year. In the winter months, the sun travels low in the sky, rising and setting south of the east-west axis. The summer season has the sun moving across the sky slightly north of the east-west axis. The further north of the equator one goes, the greater the variation in day length with the changing seasons. The closer one is to the equator, the more equal the day lengths are from season to season. All of this is important as some plants are susceptible to winter drying when exposed to the bright winter sun, while others are photoperiodic and their survival may be dependent on the length of time they receive sunlight.

With the scale and compass direction now determined, look over the list of plants you had in mind to set on your property. Are they hardy for the zone you live in? Generally, the area on a line running east of Illinois through to Connecticut is in Zones 5 and 6, with the lower number comprising the northern half of the states. What this means is that for the most part, plants grown and sold in this area will normally be hardy in the home landscape. Plants grown too far south of this area

(i.e., the Crape Myrtle which is common in Norfolk, Virginia) will not survive in this area unless special protection is provided for them.

Likewise, plants that survive in the cold regions of Zones 2 and

3 (Canada) may not survive in the milder regions due to the fact that 110 the cold temperatures are not low enough or the photoperiods not long enough for the plants to break dormancy.

With the above considerations in mind, you are ready to begin the drawing. First define the property limits, then draw the house in its proper location and sketch in any plants you intend to leave on the property. Indicate the location of the driveway, walkways and patio.

Next, outline the public, private and service areas. Roughly sketch in where you want to place plant material to serve a particular purpose.

Indicate problem areas such as noise from a side street, poor drainage, shade requirements and privacy requirements. Once this is complete, you are ready to get specific about the plant selections and design con­ cepts desired.

Before going with the specifics, however, let your ideas and sketches mellow for a few days. Then dig them out and review them again. Make sure you see the same things the second time that you saw the first time. Do not be surprised if you make a couple of changes and be glad you can make them now. It is much easier to turn the pencil over and erase then to go out and dig. CHAPTER III

LANDSCAPE PRINCIPLES FOR THE PUBLIC AREA OF THE HOME

Whether you have a home with large front yard or one which has a

small yard, the development of a pleasing and purposeful landscape is possible.

In order to begin this undertaking, one must first understand some basic design concepts.

First, the term "Landscaping" has a broad meaning to most people, with their definitions involving the use of plant material. This is, of course, correct, but landscaping involves virtually all of the elements in our environment. Proper landscaping involves keen perception on the part of the landscaper. Perception in areas of recognizing the architectural features of the house, the desires and purposes of the occupants, and perception in that area which surrounds the property to be landscaped must be considered. The landscaper must also be a good coordinator in areas of seasonal changes, plant forms and colors, blending the man-made structure of the house with the

surrounding plant material, and in coordinating the individual property harmoniously with the others in the neighborhood. Landscaping, with all of its abstractions, realities and personal involvement, requires an artist, a plantsman and a psychologist all rolled together. Landscaping must also embrace the field of ecology, as it is through the adaptation of

sound landscaping principles that environmental quality is improved.

Ill 112

With these concepts in mind, how does one go about the task of beginning the landscaping in the front yard or public area? As in most good designs, there exists a focal point or center of interest.

The focal point in the public area is the front door, and the landscape elements are arranged or organized in a pleasing manner leading to or away from this point.

To accomplish what is desired in this as well as other areas of the property, one must first understand some basic landscape design terms.

Balance:

This concept is most easily visualized in viewing a formal garden.

Here, a statue, a body of water, or some other object is the focal point. Plant materials and other landscape elements are arranged architecturally around this point, with the patterns of arrangement being the same on both sides, creating a symmetrical design.

This form of design is many times attempted around the front door using pyramidal evergreens on either side, and a row of spreading evergreens leading away from this point. This requires very little imagination and planning and is also uninteresting and unnatural.

A sense of balance can also be achieved by using asymmetrical design.

Here, the units of mass, color, texture and size are combined and varied to satisfy one's sense of balance. Asymmetrical balance gives direction to the planting, leading the eye to or away from a particular focal point. 113

Usually, an appealing asymmetrical design will have plants of varying

masses of textures, sizes and colors placed in an informal or natural

manner, not to the point of destroying unity, but enough so that it is

interesting to view. The curving and sweeping lines of an asymmetrical

design should be in harmony with a natural setting and in the long run,

easier to maintain.

Sequence:

This term refers to a couple of design elements. First, it refers

to a logical order in the placement of plants based on their mature

size and their rate of growth. The latter is emphasized as this is a

factor often overlooked. For example, suppose in your plans you wish

to have a Washington Hawthorn planted about six feet from a front

corner of the house with Gray Dogwoods surrounding it. In checking the

mature sizes of these two species, it is found that the Hawthorn reaches

a mature height of about thirty feet, while the Gray Dogwood gets to

fifteen feet. So a planting of the Dogwoods in the foreground and the

Hawthorn behind them would appear to be the proper sequence. However,

the growth rate of the Gray Dogwood is greater than the Hawthorn and,

consequently, unless a continuous pruning regime is followed on the

Dogwoods, they will probably bury the Hawthorn from view. This is where

advice from a professional landscaper is important as he should be

able to guide you away from such a problem. Generally, the placement

of low plants in the foreground (or close to the front door), followed

by medium sized plants in the mid-foreground, to taller plants in the

background is a good example of logical sequence. Problems in growth

can be controlled by making cultivar (see glossary) selections wherever 114 possible.

The second concept of sequence to try and develop on the property

is the sequence of seasonal changes in plant colors and forms. Whether you live in the south or near the Canadian border, woody plants will

follow a sequence of bloom and opening of foliage. For example in the central Ohio area, a sequence of blooming occurs in this order: In the early spring, the Cornelian Cherry Dogwoods bloom first, followed by

Forsythia. Then in the late spring, the Goldenchain Trees come into

bloom, and in the summer the Goldenrain Trees, followed by the Common

Witch Hazel in the fall.

With a design containing plant material such as this, it is easy to see the theme the individual has in mind. Yellow flowering plants are one of the themes he is attempting to work with and has succeeded in perpetuating this throughout all three of the growing seasons. Hence, the sequence of bloom.

Contrast:

Contrast is desired to break what otherwise might be considered monotonous. It is attained by using plants of different sizes, colors and with different foliage characteristics. However, care must be ex­ ercised in using too many contrasting forms and colors or else the scene will appear like a multicolored circus with too many elements vying for attention.

Contrast in plant forms should be gradual and subtle. Contrast in plant colors should be few and far between. A tree like the 115

Sunburst: Locust is ideal for calling attention to a particular land­ scape element, or as a focal point itself, in an area other than the front yard.

The most common source for contrasting colors is from flowers on the shrubs and trees. However, the relatively short period of time the flowers appear in the setting limit their use for attaining contrasts of any permanence. Fruits also offer a source of contrast in many cases in a more subtle way. However, the fruits like the June Serviceberry may be highly desired by the wildlife in the area and may not last much longer than the flowers.

The foliage, twigs and bark are better and more harmonious sources of contrast in the landscape. Consider the red twig character of the

Redosier Dogwood after a fresh snowfall; the white exfoliating bark of the Paper Birch as a background for a planting of Grape Hyacinths; or the gray-green color of the foliage of the Russian Olive against the dark green foliage of the Shingle Oak. Leaf size is also important for contrast purposes. The Oakleaf Hydranga and Leather Leaf Viburnum are good examples of plant material with coarse foliage texture due to the large leaf size which is in direct contrast to the fine foliage of the Garland Spirea.

Contrast can be obtained by using other landscape elements besides plant material. Fencing, a building, a pool of water, some boulders, white marble chips, or bark nuggets are just some of the other elements that can afford the design some contrast. 116

Repetition:

Think of repetition as a form of rhythm or reappearance of the same

plant form throughout the landscape setting. This concept must be

dealt with carefully or repetition crosses over into monotony.

The master of good repetition is also a master of subtlety,

and this is perhaps a skill at which the Japanese landscapers are most

adept. They very cleverly dramatize nature in perfect scale, line and

form, and relate it all to the human element. They vary and repeat

shapes, colors and textures in an appealing and inviting way. By

their splended examples, Americans are coming to desire more and more of the Oriental influence in their landscaping schemes.

Proportion:

This is probably the landscape principle that Americans have mis­ understood the most in developing their landscape. Trees or shrubs are often planted on a property that is way too small for them. The example cited earlier of the planting of the Hawthorn and Gray Dog­ woods are an example of a planting that could grow out of proportion to the rest of the setting. The innocent looking neatly sheared four-foot

Blue Spruce which people always seem to plant eventually grow all out of proportion for most residential properties.

Proportion or scale is a relative term. It involves the artistic sense that one has been able to develop over the years, in many cases with deliberate practice or training. Again, the Japanese have created landscape scenes that are models of keeping all of the elements of the setting in proportion or scale with each other. 117

Putting the Elements of Design to Work in the Landscape

If one can tackle a problem with a clear-cut purpose in mind, and

the attainment of that purpose solves the problem which existed before,

then the finished product will be satisfying. The same is true of

landscaping the home grounds. What are the purposes for landscaping?

Basically, the placement of plants are intended to soften the strong architectural lines of the house; to blend it into the surrounding

setting. The enframement of the house with trees in both the public and private areas accomplish this quite effectively. Too many plants are just as undesirable as too few. So do not fall into the trap of overplanting the front of your home.

Assuming the house is existing on the property, let us begin by establishing the planting beds in the public area. Here, I would like to introduce you to the "free curve" concept. On the ground, this curve is laid out best by using a flexible garden hose. Roll it out, encompassing the area you intend to develop. Then, walking along

the perimeter, form the hose into a curve and stand back to view the effect. Will this form bring maximum interest and beauty to the planting you intend? If not, try manipulating the hose again until you have the form that pleases both you and your spouse. On your drawing paper mimic the free flowing curve with a pencil and loose arm. This will give the setting in the public area the uniqueness each one desires, aB each person has their own interpretation of what represents a free curve. 118

While you have this free form outlined, and before you begin

digging, look again with a practical purpose in mind. Are the curves

graceful enough to make mowing easy? Have you created any difficult-

to-maintain areas? If so, then changes should be made before any

planting begins.

Now go to the point where the entry walk and the driveway inter­

sect. Will what you have laid out in plants and other landscape

elements say "Welcome" to the visitor? Is the walk unsightly or too

narrow, and does it cut this section of the yard into difficult-to- maintain angles? If problems exist, change them. For instance, a lamp

at or near the entryway walk and driveway would not only say "Welcome"

in the evening hours, but it would be a safety factor as well. When

the visitor gets out of his car, does he step on the grass or some

shrubbery? If so, then perhaps a brick or flagstone "landing strip"

is in order. When two people stroll side by side on the entrywalk, does one of them have to step off the paved surface? If so, then widening strips on either side made of two rows of brick may be in order.

When placing plants in this entryway garden of the public area, place

them in groups of two or three and underplant with some living ground cover. This will give an attractive massed, but not overcrowded effect.

Use lower growing plants close to the walkway and door and taller plant material at the corners of the house. Try to organize the plants and other elements so that design unity is attained. Vary the plant material

so that the planting will have a sustaining interest, but avoid the use of strongly pyramidal plants (Arborvitae, Greek Junipers, Blue 119

Spruce, etc.) in this area. Use open, spreading and vase-shaped plants

as these selections will better accomplish the purpose and be easier

to maintain.

Trees used in the public area can serve many purposes (see

Chapter V), but for now the use of trees will be considered from the

standpoint of enframing the house and property. The number and size

of the trees to use in the public area is many times a moot point.

This depends on the size and design of the house, the lot size and the

setting of the property.

Generally, smaller trees (twenty to twenty-five feet) with multi­

stems can be used close to the house (Hawthorns, Redbuds, etc.), while

larger trees can be used further away from the dwelling. The larger

the house is, the larger the trees can be. Remember the house is the

reason why the cost of your property is what it is, so it would be

foolish to plant trees that would eventually overpower or block out the house altogether. Generally, trees that attain a mature height of

fifty to sixty feet (Red Oaks, Red Maples, Norway Maples, London Plane

Trees, etc.) are suitable for most residential properties, as their mature height will be in scale with all but the smallest homes.

Avoid the use of the giants (Tulip Trees, Horse Chestnut, Lombardy

Poplars, etc.) close to the house as maintenance (broken limbs, annoy­

ing fruit, surface roots, etc.) and design problems would eventually

result.

In addition to the mature height of the trees, try to find out what their mature spread will be as well. If this is not possible, 120

you could figure that the spread of many deciduous trees will be from

one half to two thirds their mature height. Many cultivar selections

are exceptions to this, of course, and when they are, the grower or

nurseryman will inform you of their mature spread. This is the point

to remember in rendering the surface drawing to scale. A tree which will have an ultimate height of sixty feet and a spread of forty feet will have a spread of five inches on the paper, using the one-eighth inch

scale. Many first-time sketchers of a landscape plan overlook this factor,

then wonder why in ten years they have an overcrowded landscape setting.

Trees used in the public area may also serve other purposes be­ sides enframing. They provide a mature appearance and setting for the area and may screen a view from the street (Shingle Oaks are good

for this). Trees may also be used to soften or hide architectural mistakes (Thornless Honeylocust cultivars), and, most importantly, cast some shade on the house and property.

Last, but certainly not the least important to add to the land­ scape setting, is the development of an attractive, well-cared-for lawn. This is considered to be so important that one entire chapter

(Chapter VIII) is devoted to the development of the home lawn. Suffice it to say here that the entire landscape scene can be completely negated by a poorly maintained lawn. Generally, the Kentucky Bluegrass varieties used in conjunction with the fine-leafed fescues will provide the most attractive lawn grass for most residences in the north central and eastern United States.

Where it is not feasible to establish a lawn which will not 121

complement the landscape setting (because of too much shade or other

factors), do not attempt it. Many small homeowners in urban areas

are acquiescing to the use of landscape elements other than lawn grass

such as rock gardens, ground covers and mulch.

Some Conclusions

By this time, you have probably realized there is no cook book method for landscaping the home grounds. While one could be developed

in this text, the author believes it would be a mistake to do so. Land­

scaping one's home should be an expression of individual taste, utiliz­

ing design concepts found in any good work of art, and serving the

functional purpose and budget of the owner.

Trees, shrubs and vines should be selected for landscaping the home grounds based on their hardiness, maintenance requirements, design relationship to the setting, and their utility.

Remember that in America each of us has the freedom to seek our own place in which to live, but this ownership implies the acceptance of responsibility. Laws will probably (and hopefully) never be written which will require a homeowner to mow his lawn once a week. Neighbors, however, have the persuasive powers of collective action to get the errant homeowner into maintaining his property a little better (like putting up solid stockade fences or hedge rows of shrubs along his property).

In essence, what is being said is what each one of us does on our particular property has some effect on the entire neighborhood. This 122

concept makes the private piece of property you own a part of the whole system. If the entire neighborhood is to be pleasing to visitors and residents, then all parts (individuals) need to cooperate with each other. Ask yourself if that fence you intend to put up on the property line will meet the zoning regulations, or be offensive to your neighbor.

He may retaliate by planting a screen of Russian Olives which may in turn cast too much shade on your rose bushes. If you have ideas about tree or fence placement which may ultimately affect your neighbor's property, talk it over with him first. He may be willing to cooperate by splitting the cost of a fence or hedgerow planting with you.

Cooperation among homeowners in a neighborhood will lend to more peaceful and harmonious living. CHAPTER IV

LANDSCAPE PRINCIPLES OF THE PRIVATE AND SERVICE AREAS OF THE HOME

Landscaping in the private and service areas of the home are usually for entirely different purposes than those discussed in the public area. Here there is usually no central focal point, freeing the homeowner to develop one or several of them if he chooses to do so.

The primary consideration in the back yard or private area is to decide what interests you and your family have, as far as recreational activities are concerned. Does everyone in the family enjoy gardening?

If so, then perhaps an area for vegetable gardening is in order. Or are the interests of the family diverse? Perhaps dad enjoys putting a golf ball, mom enjoys growing roses, and the children enjoy yard games such as croquet or badminton. If this is the case, then sections of the back yard should be set aside for the interests of each member of the family.

Formal gardens, informal gardens, Japanese gardens, or a combination of all three can be developed in the private area. As long as there is no elimination of good design principles, anything can be developed according to the interests and likes of the owner.

Patio Development:

It is also in the private area of the home that most people choose to develop a patio for relaxation or recreation. Considering many con-

123 124

ditions such as the family size, the age of the children, and the topographic features of the yard, the style and size of the patio may be chosen.

If the topography is too uneven, perhaps a raised wooden deck is the best answer. If the land has a natural '’dish" shape to it, then perhaps a low stone wall surrounding the patio area is needed. If there are no children in the family, perhaps your patio needs may differ than if there were children to consider.

Again, the garden hose can play a useful role here. Lay the hose out in a pattern and to the size that you want. If you have it, bring out the furniture that will be used on the patio for the maximum number of people you intend to serve. Move about in this area and see whether or not there is adequate room. You will probably find that you will have to about double the area of the inside living room, or allow about 50 to 60 square feet for each member of the family to move about comfortably.

Most home contractors typically build a patio directly behind the rear entryway of the home, which is often neither esthetically pleasing or adequate in size.

Once the area and shape have been determined, the homeowner faces the problem of choosing the building materials. The materials most often used are brick, flagstone, garden blocks or concrete. All have their advantages and disadvantages. For example, concrete is the quickest and most economical material to use, but it is also un­ interesting, usually lacking color, (it can be tinted), and imparts an artificial feeling over the setting. Brick is probably the most 125 popular material because it is readily available and can be used to create interesting patterns and designs, such as basketweave and herringbone. The disadvantages of brick are the unevenness which develops with time and the fact that all red bricks are not of the same color tone.

Whichever material you choose, be sure that you slope it gradually away from the house (about one quarter inch slope per linear foot) for good drainage. Do not attempt to get the patio surface perfectly level as this will only cause water to collect and freezing during the winter months will cause some cracking of the surface.

With the author's experience in working with bricks, the most satis­ factory results were obtained when:

1 . more than enough bricks were purchased for the job, allowing

for breakage and replacement;

2 . a frame was placed around the edge of the area to be developed

to keep the bricks from spreading with time (1" X 6 " treated

lumber);

3. the soil is excavated to a minimum depth of 6 ", the area

leveled, drainage provided and 4" of sand is firmed into place;

4. a mix of sand and cement was swept between the joints of the

bricks after they had all been laid. The entire area was then

misted with water lightly to get everything settled firmly;

5. one stays with a simple design pattern. The fewer bricks that

need cutting, the quicker and more satisfactorily the job will

be done.

When properly planned and developed, the patio can serve to comple­ ment the overall setting of the house and provide more enjoyable living space. 126

Other Elements to Use In the Private Area

Lights:

Many homeowners find they get maximum use out of the private area of their homes in the summertime evening hours after a day's work.

While the twilight hours are long during this season, many times the evening does not cool sufficiently until the sun sets. Once set, a need for effective lighting is in order.

Rather than a harsh spotlight directed at a single object or bush, indirect or reflected light can be far more effective and restful to the viewer. Avoid placing the lights where the light source itself can be perceived by the viewer. If a shield is necessary to cut out the direct glare of a spotlight, do not hesitate to use one.

Generally, if the lights are reflected off of large objects (trees, groups of bushes, a fence), the resulting shadow/light play will be satisfactory and yet dramatic in its effect.

Water:

The sound of flowing water is very cleverly used by architects in many downtown areas (Pittsburgh, for example) to mask the sound of unpleasant noises. Homeowners today are picking up this idea for their own property designs. The sound of flowing water, aside from masking unwanted noises, is in itself very relaxing to most people.

The charm of this sound is obtained through the use of pools or fountains constructed of plastic, steel or free-form masonry. Sub­ merged electric pumps circulate the water over artificial waterfalls 127 to allow the water to remain at a constant temperature for any fish or plant life you may wish to add. An unbeatable combination is, of course, an artificial waterfall set in an attractive garden develop­ ment, and highlighted in the evening hours with some clever lighting.

Such a lovely scene would be hard to resist while relaxing after a day's work or entertaining guests at a party.

Fencing:

When installing a fence, make sure of two items first; that the fence type will be acceptable to zoning regulations, and that it will be on your property. This may require some survey work. The primary use of fencing material is, of course, for privacy and security. In spite of this very utilitarian purpose, fencing material also provides a good background for attractive plantings.

The highly functional chain link fence can be transformed into a thing of beauty by a planting of climbing roses, a Clematis vine, or an espaliered Pyracantha.

A sturdy, weathered stockade fence creates a new microclimate -- good in some cases, bad in others. For example, if the plants are placed close to the fence with a southeast exposure, the sun's morning rays would be radiated back to the soil and plant material, creating a warm microclimate in that area. The plants would also be protected from wind turbulence in such a position. However, if the plant material is placed too far into the yard, the reradiating effect from the sun will be negated, and damage from wind turbulence may result (winds have a tendency to roll over solid structures with an increase in turbulence). 128

Keep two thoughts in mind when you are thinking about fencing in your back yard: 1) the effect it will have on the overall setting in your neighborhood, and 2) the effect it will have on your adjacent neighbors' property. In talking your plans over with them, you may find that they are willing to share in the cost of erecting a "Good

Neighbor" fence such as a board-on-board or basketweave style.

Shrubs for Beauty, Privacy and Security:

Enclosure by plants as opposed to fence structures has some unique advantages. First of all, plant material is living and, therefore, dynamic, changing along with the seasons. This aliveness can be en­ hanced by mixing species, sizes and shapes. Such an intermixture of plant material offers interest when swept by a gentle breeze, is a boon to the wildlife, and can be changed seasonally according to the interests of the owner. In direct contrast to fencing material, plant material will be better climate modifiers (Chapter V), absorbing the impact of falling rain, slowing air movement and moderating temperatures.

In selecting the plants for your back yard, be sure to keep the design principles of scale, harmony, repetition and balance in mind.

Also, select those which are suitable for your particular micro-eco­ system.

The panorama of colors offered by the flowers, fruit and leaves of living plant material cannot be equated with any fencing material.

However, while plants have greater esthetic and ecological appeal, fencing will provide maximum security.

Inescapable wherever plants are used is the periodic maintenance regime required to keep them in good order. Good cultivar selections, however, can minimize this chore. 129

The Service Area

The overlooked or hastily constructed service area of a new home often evokes whispers or suspicious looks from the neighbors. These often neglected areas of the home are being progressively deemphasized as our technology continues to develop. Electric clothes driers, garbage disposals and ordinances against burning trash in many areas have all but eliminated the unsightly clothes lines, bulky garbage cans and in­ cinerators from most neighborhoods.

Tools, lawn mowers and other equipment are often neatly stored in an attractive pre-fabricated shed which is easily screened from view with fencing or plant material. The size of this shed is dependent upon the interests of the owner. If he is not a "do-it-yourselfer" then a small one will suffice. If the family enjoys many hobbies, such as gardening, then this shed should be large enough to use as a work area for potting, repairing lawn mowers, etc. Some families attach this shed to the corner of their house and then attach a small green­ house to the shed.

The Lawn Grass in the Back Yard

Many times the grass used in the public area is continued into the back yard as well. This is acceptable as long as conditions warrant it.

However, many times the activities that take place in the back yard are too strenuous for the same grass used in the front of the house. By

Altering the proportions of the grass seed mix, one can often meet the changed conditions without sacrificing beauty. For example, bluegrass 130

blends and mixtures are used predominantly In the northeast for the

public area lawn. By increasing the proportion of the fine leafed

fescues (Red and the varieties Chewings, Pennlawn and Illabee) in the mixture, one can meet the changed conditions of possibly poor drainage

and increased shade. More detail can be found on grass selection in

Chapter VIII.

Summary of the Preceeding Chapters

It should be obvious to those people interested in attractive

landscaping around the home that our actions today are strongly influ­ enced by many factors - our past, primarily the European culture; out­

standing individuals like 0 1 mstead; and by the newly emerged technology- ecology interaction.

Americans are typically very responsive and innovative people; responsive to ideas from outside sources, and innovative in developing

their own ideas for their particular situations.

The factors which govern good landscaping also for the most part

govern the principles of any good work of art. Where there is a theme or purpose intended in the landscape, the principles of good art

should be carried through. Plants can be considered architectural,

sculptural or natural; they offer shade, shadow and shelter. They provide form, mass, color and texture. An attractive planting also offers beautiful blooms, changing leaves and colorful fruit.

Plants need not be placed against a structure as was so often done

fifty years ago, bur apart from it, to give the entire setting dimension. 131

Plantings can modulate space by their form and size. Plants that reach a height of about eight feet are used for a screen and physical barrier. Plants that reach three to four feet in height are used as psychological barriers or for edging a bed of larger plants. Keep in mind that new plantings are ever changing. They take one form when they are young and growing vigorously, another form as they mature, and yet another fora as they grow older. Plant selection should be based on their hardiness, mature size and spread, their form through stages of growth, their rate of growth, their arrangement or organization in the landscape setting, and the maintenance regime the owner is willing to apply.

There are no blueprints or recipes for any particular treatment or situation. It is more a matter of each landscaper using good design principles, sound judgment and good taste to develop his own property into beautiful and useful space in which to live. CHAPTER V

THE FUNCTIONAL USE OF LANDSCAPE PLANTS

A plant, no matter how large or small, is a part of the total environment. It is acted upon by the environment and acts upon the environment. When plants are considered for their beauty only, their full potential is not being realized.

Initially, plants were appreciated for the very necessary functions of providing food, fiber and shelter for mankind. Today, they still serve these critical and essential purposes, but this aspect of plant use is being handled by less than three percent of this country's population. This chapter will point out some of the more important functions that plants can serve, and how they can help to increase the value and comfort of the immediate environment.

The Green Revolution;

It is hard to say just how the historians will classify the turbulent decade of the 1960's. It was earmarked, however, by a greater awareness on the part of most Americans that they were being crowded, and that their lands and waters were not as clean as they used to be.

Many programs were started which were geared toward cleaning up the environment. The highway beautification planting programs started

132 133

in the 1960's were the beginning of a conscientious effort to improve environmental quality. Initially, plants were selected for their highway traffic guidance and esthetic values, while today they are chosen for their functional values in controlling air pollution, noise pollution and soil erosion.

Plants As Architectural Elements:

Living plants are unique as architectural elements in that they are changing with each season and passing year. They can be used to form canopies, floors or walls with their varying heights, textures and densities. A planting of trees and shrubs may serve the purpose of providing privacy and some degree of security, or by clever design, be arranged to gradually reveal a pleasant view off the property.

A plant will have one architectural character when it is young, another at maturity, and still another while declining. A Sweet Gum tree is a good example. While young, it is vigorous, upright and pyramidal. At maturity, it is a broad-headed spreading tree requiring plenty of room. While young (usually for about 10 years), it may serve to complement an architectural feature, but at maturity, it may hide it.

Plants can also create architectural effects by the shadows they cast, or the varying textures they possess with the changing seasons.

The thornless and fruitless Honeylocusts are good examples of this phenome­ non. In the summer they have a light feathery appearance and cast a light filtered shade. In the winter, the angular character of their branches create an entirely different effect. They appear to be coarse and 134 heavy and cast a sharply contrasting shadow on a building or on the ground.

Keep in mind that the neatly sheared specimens you purchase for your property will have one effect at the time of planting and an entirely different effect five to ten years later.

Engineering Use of Plant Material:

Controlling wind and water erosion has long perplexed farmers and engineers. Studies and experience have shown that the intelligent use of plant material can overcome or greatly control these destructive forces.

Soil erosion by wind and water are influenced by many factors; type of vegetation present and its density, topography (length as well as degree of slope), and the soil type. Where plant material can develop dense roots and provide an equally dense aerial cover of vege­ tation, both wind and water erosion will be minimized.

The homeowner may be faced with water erosion problems most criti­ cally during the final stages of building his house or while he is waiting for the new plantings to mature. This can be solved by using generous amounts of mulch material. Peat moss overlaid with bark nuggets will do well in cutting down on erosion. The intent is to reduce the impact of the falling raindrops. If the force of the raindrops can be broken before hitting the soil, erosion will be minimal. The organic mulch and the vegetation serve that purpose.

Wind erosion is a problem out in open areas where the larger deciduous and evergreen trees have been removed for building or farming. 135

A planting of trees at right angles to the prevailing winds will have a narcotic effect on the leeward side of the planting up to ten times the height of the trees. Of course, the planting of young trees will have little effect initially, but will increase with each passing year. Be sure to select plants that are suitable as windbreaks.

Keep in mind that this narcotic effect created by the trees will also cause the windstream to deposit its particulate matter among and immediately on the leeward side of the planting. This serves the pur­ pose of having cleaner air on that side, and in the winter, will cause the snow to form drifts. Hence, the plantings should not be too close to a walkway or driveway.

Noise Control With Plant Material:

Modern man is surrounded by a cacophony of sounds as a result of a myriad of his technological products. Transportation, construction, population density, industrial activity and increased use of mechanical equipment by the homeowner all make their contributions to the steadily rising din. Needless to say, the quality of life is adversely affected.

Tempers run short, concentration wanes, and relaxation is next to im­ possible to achieve. While many technological innovations themselves can curb unwanted noise, the use of plant material may also play a significant role in reducing sound intensity in our environment.

First, to better understand the problem, let's examine what noise is, how it travels, and what factors affect it.

Noise is simply unwanted sound. It may be from any source - truck tires interacting with the road surface, building construction equipment, jet aircraft, or a teenager's stereo. Whatever its source, 136 it becomes annoying when it reaches a certain intensity. Sound traveling in waves, which vary according to its pitch and intensity, is measured in decibels (dB). The decibel scale ranges from zero to 130. "One” on the scale is the lowest threshold of human hearing, while 130 decibels is the threshold of pain. Our normal range of hearing perception falls somewhere between 40 and 80 decibels. If the decibels are reduced by ten percent, the human ear recognizes it as a 50% reduction in loudness.

Many factors influence how we perceive sound. The greatest factor is, of course, the distance one is from the sound source. Another is the relative elevation one is from the unwanted sound. The greater the distance one is from the noise, and the lower one is in relation to the sound source, the less intense it will be. Climatological factors also influence sound movement, with humidity, wind direction and tempera­ ture being the most obvious ones. The surface that sound waves travel over has a very strong influence on how intense the sound will be. A grassy bank along a superhighway will reduce sound effects by 50% in comparison to a hard surface (cement or blacktop). A planting of trees and shrubs close to the sound source with a depth of thirty-five to seventy-five feet will also reduce the sound effect by 50%.

The plant material is effective as a sound barrier because of its physical characteristics. The leaves, flowers, fruits, branches and bark all offer a diverse surface to break up or disperse the sound.

Where space cannot permit a dense planting, a greater proportion of the plant material should be made up of needle evergreens like Hemlock 137

or Pine. The planting should generally start out with low or ground

cover material, building up gradually to where the tallest material is

near the point of reception. This is to help carry the waves of noise

up over the head of the receiver.

Keep in mind that it is during the summer months when people spend

more time outdoors that unwanted sounds become annoying. Greater activity,

open windows and favorable climatological conditions all contribute to

making the sound more intense.

Remember also that plants themselves are sources of sound. In this

case the sounds are considered pleasant ones by most people. The rustling

of leaves in the wind and the birds, squirrels and chipmunks which

associate themselves with live plant material, all make pleasant re­

laxing sounds which help to mask the unpleasant ones.

Plants As Atmospheric Purifiers:

The world was thought to be an anaerobic planet until phyto­

planktons evolved which could fix the carbon dioxide and water in a

chloroplast and evolve oxygen as a by-product. This process gave rise

to the widely diverse plant and animal life which we see today. Ter­

restrial as well as aquatic plant life continue to give off oxygen as a

free element into our atmosphere, and in areas where green plants are

concentrated, the process known as oxygenation is carried out. This

is where pollutant-laden air passes through a green canopy to have the

ratio of clean air to polluted air greatly increased.

The process of contaminated air passing through and around trees

also causes a dilution effect, not only with gaseous pollutants, but with air-borne particulates as well. The pubescent surfaces of the 138 leaves and stems, along with the rough surface of the bark, all help to catch, hold and percipitate the particulate matter.

Transpiration, an important function that plants carry on, is the process which has the greatest modifying effect on the environment. A mature orchard transpires as much as 600 tons of water vapor per acre per day. This tremendous volume of water vapor in the air modifies temperature extremes and is an important step in the hydrologic cycle.

The temperature modifications created by the water vapor can be effective in minimizing plant damage due to extreme temperature fluctuations. The tendency for early frost damage to desirable plants under or near large tree canopies is reduced when compared to plants planted in open or urban areas lacking in a sufficient density of woody plants. Many times when a few woody plants themselves are used as street specimens, heat damage can result during a hot summer’s day. With the combination of direct heat from the sun and radiated heat from the paved surfaces, without the buffering effect of water vapor in the air, leaves often dry and turn brown, producing an unsightly effect, if not serious damage.

A function which is related to the esthetics of a plant involves the flowers that it produces. While planting lilacs, for instance, may serve the property in an esthetic manner, they may also serve as air reodorizers. The flowers of the common lilac and other plants temporarily give off fragrant odors, which, when planted close to the source of an unpleasant odor, will mask it. 139

General Plant Usee;

With the energy crisis looming as a reality, developers, politicians, power company executives and others are beginning to look at the total environment in an attempt to conserve our very limited resources. Land- scapers have their suggestions to make as well. For example, a planting of deciduous trees around the house will have a cooling effect in the summer months, cutting down on the power demands of the air conditioner.

In winter, these trees will allow the sunlight to reach the house and warm it, thus reducing the fuel consumption for heat.

Plants may also form barriers on one's property. A psychological barrier is formed by plant material which gets about three feet tall and has a spread of about six feet. Plants that would form actual physical or visual barriers would be those over five feet in height with a six to ten-foot spread.

Developers of recreational areas, industrial parks and suburban communities are finding that plants are effective in controlling both primary and secondary glare. Primary glare originates from the sun, street lamps and automobile head lamps, while secondary glare is simply the glare that results from a reflecting surface. Bodies of water, park­ ing lots and surfaces of buildings are all sources of secondary glare.

The proper placement of plant material to intercept or reduce both forms of glare needs careful consideration as the positions of the glare source change with the time of day and seasons of the year. The plants should not be placed to hide a pleasant view, but in such a way so that the glare intensity is reduced. Try to locate the plants relative to the light source, either between the source and the re­ flector, or the reflector and the viewer. 140

Plants Suggested for Various Functions:

The best way to end this chapter is to perhaps list some common

plants which are suited for some specific functions. The author as well as his peers are usually asked to mention some when lecturing on

this subject, and the memory usually falls short of the listing pro­

vided here. Not all plants listed have desirable ornamental qualities,

so check with your nurseryman or extension service agent before planting.

Shrubs and Vines Used to Control Erosion

Berberis thunbergii Cotoneaster horizontalis Euonymus fortunei cultivars Hedera helix cultivars Jasminum species Juniperus horizontalis and cultivars Lonicera japonica 'Halliana' (rough areas) Pachysandra terminalis

Shrubs and Trees With Fragrant Flowers

Shrubs Trees

Abelia grandiflora Acer ginnala Calycanthus floridus Albizia julibrissin rosea Daphne species Malus species Lonicera species Oxydendrum arboreum Magnolia virginiana Prunus species Philadelphus species Tilia species Syringa vulgaris Viburnum species Viburnum burkwoodii Viburnum carlcephalum Viburnum carlesii Viburnum farreri Clethra alnifolia Trees For Windbreaks

Acer species (except saccharinum) Celtis species Crataegus phaenopyrum Fagus species Fraxinus americana Picea abies Pinus nigra Pinus resinosa Pseudotsuga menziesii Quercus imbricaria

Shrubs For Windbreaks

Cornus mas Elaeagnus angustifolia Rhamnus frangula 'Columnaris' Viburnum lantana Viburnum rhytidophyllum Viburnum sieboldii

Plant Material Attractive to Wildlife

Amelanchier species Aronia arbutifolia Asimina triloba Cornus florida Cornus mas Cotoneaster apiculata Crataegus species Diospyros virginiana Ilex verticillata Ligustrum obtusifolium regelianum Ligustrum vulgare Lonicera species Malus species Morus alba Prunus species Pyracantha species Quercus species Symphoricarpos albus laevigatus Vaccinium species Viburnum species (most) CHAPTER VI

UNDERSTANDING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SOIL

Soil is that portion of the earth's crust which has undergone weathering and fragmentation which has the capacity (to varying degrees) to support plant life. It is formed by physical and chemical action on the inorganic matter portion (rocks and other mineral matter) and by chemical and biological action on the organic matter portion (dead plant and animal tissue).

Many people think of the soil as being an inert and lifeless media, serving only to provide physical support for plant life, and to act as a passive storehouse for the plant's nutrients and water. Of course, nothing could be further from the truth, for the soil layer of our earth is teeming with life, undergoing gradual but continual changes.

Man's past ignorance of the soil has cost him dearly, while his con­ tinuous questioning and gradual understanding of it are now paying him bountiful dividends.

How may knowledge about the soil help the homeowner? It will give him insight into the watering regime, pH, and fertilizer requirements of the plants he intends to grow. It will also provide him with a basis for understanding why he sees differences in the growth of plants of the same species. And in general it will give him an understanding of some of the characteristics of the soil which will provide him with a property that will support more attractive looking plants which are

142 143 easier to maintain and which will allow them to serve the homeowner's

intended purpose better.

The Physical Characteristics of the Soil:

All soils have particle size, bulk density and surface area which relate to their physical characteristics. Defining the parameters of a particular soil in reference to these characteristics would give a soil physicist a pretty good idea of what he could expect from that

soil with reference to water retention, nutrient availability and air porosity.

These characteristics all combine into a soil system consisting of three phases: the solid phase, consisting of soil particles; the liquid phase, consisting of soil water; and the gaseous phase, which consists of the soil air. The soil phases all interact strongly with one another, influencing the arrangement or organization of the particles in the system.

The primary particles which make up a given soil may differ widely

in size. The coarse particles usually found in a sandy soil are large enough to be seen with the naked eye, while the particles found in a clayey soil are colloidal in size and can only be seen under a power­ ful microscope. These particle sizes are what constitute the textur­ al classification of a particular soil. Most growers make fairly ac­ curate classifications of the soil they are working with by rolling a handful of it between their fingers. According to the way it feels to them, either light or heavy or coarse or smooth, they know fairly well how that soil will handle the cultivation practices they 144

have in mind. The terms "light soil" and "heavy soil" are common parlance used to describe the characteristics of different soils.

The light soils are considered to be loose-grained, well aerated and easy to cultivate. The heavy soils are those which are fine-grained or smooth, tend to absorb and hold more water, and, when dry, are tight and compact. A soil is classed on the relative proportions of the various sizes of particles making it up. The classifications are known as sand, silt, or clay in their extremes, and terms like sandy loam, silty clay loam and silty or sandy clay, characterize soils be­ tween these extremes.

The soil texture and specific surface area of a given soil stay more or less the same. The soil structure, however, which is the mutual arrangement, orientation and organization of the particles in the soil is subject to great change in response to changes in natural conditions, biological activity and soil management practices. The structure of the soil is of great importance in determining how plants will grow. Soil structure influences tillage, irrigation, drainage, seed germination and seedling establishment, root growth and how air, water and heat will move through the soil profile.

The Nutritional Characteristics of the Soil:

Everyone is aware of the fact that different soils have different fertility levels. These natural fertility levels are dependent upon what state the particular soil is in as a result of interaction with the biosphere. If the land or soil has not been closely managed, but allowed by man to carry out its own cycles of life and death, then 145 diversification of organisms will exist and the nutrient status of the soil will remain fairly stable indefinately.

Where problems arise with soil fertility is when man makes great demands on it without intelligent replenishment for record crop produc­ tion, a uniformly green lawn, or a bed of everblooming roses.

Let's try to understand just what it is that soils supply to plants then see how we may improve them. The nutrients that the plants require for normal growth are removed mostly from the soil solution by the plant's root system. The one exception is carbon, which is primarily taken into the plant through the stomatal openings as the gas, carbon dioxide. This simple gas complexes into carbohydrate skeltons via the process of photo­ synthesis. Nutrients like nitrogen, chlorine, and water (hydrogen and oxygen) are cycled to the plants through the atmosphere, the soil, and the soil water. Other elements like phosphorus, potassium, and magne­ sium are not capable of atmospheric transport, and are not available to the plants unless they are in solution. In studying ecology, one may wonder why some plants are present in certain locations and not in others.

While many factors are involved, the root system that a plant develops is an important one. If a plant species which has begun growth in a parti­ cular soil can develop a sufficient root system to remove the necessary nutrients and water from the soil, it will survive. Hence, one reason why cacti are able to survive desert conditions where other plants can­ not.

As was stated earlier, the soil has three phases. The solid phase releases mineral elements into solution by the solubization of mineral matter, organic matter and by ion exchange. The clay particles and 146 organic matter of the soil bear negative charges, therefore acting as exchange sites for the cationic elements. The important cations held by this fraction of the soil are calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium,

iron, aluminum and hydrogen.

Their proportions would vary, of course, with the soil type.

Anions are also of importance in the soil solution, and among those, most important are the nitrate, sulfate and phosphate ions.

The presence of these ions or the lack of them all have a bearing on the relative acidity or alkalinity of the soil, measured in terms known as pH. The pH of the soil is a reflection of nutrient availability and is characterized on a scale ranging from zero to fourteen. At a low pH reading, there is an abundance of hydrogen ions present, making the soil acidic in reaction. At a high pH, there are relatively few hydro­ gen ions, but a high proportion of hydroxyl ions, giving the soil an al­ kaline reaction. Neutrality (pH 7) is when there is an equal quantity of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions present in the soil solution. The pH readings are conveniently divided into a logarithmic scale which means that the hydrogen ion concentration at a pH of 6.0 (slightly acid) is ten times less than that at a pH of 5.0. Most plants grow well in a soil solution of a slightly acid (6.5 to 6 .8 ) pH. Certain plants like Pin Oaks,

Azaleas, and Mountain Laurel, require a soil that is more acid for suc­ cessful growth, usually with a pH of about 4.5 to 5.5.

How The Homeowner Can Put This Knowledge To Work:

This brief survey of soil properties can be turned into useful knowledge by the homegardener. 147

Knowing the pH of the soil and what it means will give him an

approximate fertility index of that soil in that location. The do-

it-yourselfer should be cautioned, however, about one item: take a

good sample. Pulling a plug of soil out of the center of your yard

and sending it to the university soil analysis lab is not a good samp­

ling technique. Instead, several samples should be taken from the area

you intend to develop with specific plant material. For example, if

the bed in front of your house is going to contain rhododendrons or

azaleas, then sample that area. If the front yard is intended for a

bluegrass lawn, then sample that area as well.

If the homeowner has soil that is either too clayey or sandy for

good growth, he would want to change its structure to improve its drain­

age characteristics. The addition of organic matter to either soil type will markedly affect the soil structure. Organic matter which decom­

poses rapidly (corn cobs, sedge and hypnum peat) will result in the

soil particles aggregating into granuals which will allow for better

air and water movement throughout the soil profile. However, because of

the rapid decomposition which takes place, this source of organic mate­

rial must be added frequently. Sphagnum peat which is high in lignin,

resists decomposition and consequently does not bring about granulation.

Instead, its effect is one of dilution. Sandy soils diluted with gen­

erous amounts of sphagnum peat increase water holding capacity, while

clay soils diluted with sphagnum peat have their particles spread apart,

allowing for greater air circulation, and reduction of water holding

capacity. 148

The addition of peat moss (especially sphagnum peat) will reduce the pH of the soil if it is initially alkaline or neutral. In doing so, it causes chelation of some heavy metal ions (notably iron) and accel­ erates the chemical weathering of the mineral fraction of the soil.

The chelation effect of the metal ions is important as this will make them available for uptake by plants. Pin Oaks and plants in the Erica­ ceae family (Rhododendrons) show iron deficiency symptoms at pH readings close to neutral. In analyzing the soil, sufficient iron is often found, but it is not available to the plants. With the lowering of the pH, the iron is reduced from the ferric form to the ferrous form, and when as­ similated by the plant, can be used in important metabolic processes.

The result is that iron chlorosis (deficiency) is eliminated.

Liming is another practice homeowners employ to improve the nutrient and physical conditions of the soil. This results in an increase in soil pH; therefore, lime material should not be automatically applied every year, but only when a soil test warrants it.

If you happen to live in a region where soil acidity is a problem

(i.e., the metal ions of aluminum and iron may be available to plants to the point of toxicity), then the addition of a liming material may be justified. There are two forms of limestone usually available to the homeowner. Calcitic limestone is predominantly a carbonate form of calcium, and is the most widely used form to correct soil acidity.

Dolomitic limestone contains a high percentage of magnesium in addition to the calcium. Either one is effective in correcting an acid condi­ tion in the soil. The rate of correction is increased proportionally with the fineness of the material because of its low water solubility. 149

A product on the market that will supply the essential nutrients of calcium and sulfur is gypsum. It is the most soluble mineral form of calcium available. It does not result in a change of soil acidity, and here lies its value in many cases. Many times plants growing at either pH extreme will manifest deficiency symptoms of either calcium

(lower pH) or sulfur (higher pH). The addition of gypsum will supply these needed elements, but will not alter the pH significantly. It also causes flocculation of the finer soil particles, which results in better air and water movement.

A fertilizing material which contains gypsum is superphosphate.

Unlike gypsum, however, addition of superphosphate will tend to reduce soil acidity. Superphosphate is rich in the essential element, phos­ phorus, along with calcium, sulfur and other elements usually contained as impurities.

The organic and mineral materials mentioned earlier should be in­ corporated as uniformly into the soil profile as is possible before planting. All of the mineral elements mentioned with the exception of sulfur and nitrogen are relatively immobile in the soil. Therefore, working them into the root zone of the planting area is of utmost im­ portance. It is far better to take the time to correct soil problems before planting than it is afterward.

Complete Fertilizers:

Nurseries and garden centers often sell what are termed "Complete

Fertilizers." This is, in reality, a misnomer, as a truly complete fertilizer would have to contain all the elements essential for plant growth. 150

Generally, the complete fertilizers that are marketed to the public contain nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in varying amounts and forms.

It pays to read the analysis on the bag before a fertilizer purchase is made. For example, the nitrogen can be in an ammoniated form, nitrate form or urea form. The ammoniated form of nitrogen is utilized most quickly by plants during low temperature periods, but volatilizes at higher temperatures and may cause foliage burn. The nitrate form is also readily taken up by the plant, but is not as effective in cool weather. It is the form most subject to leaching. The urea form may be a slow release nitrogen source, depending on the proportion in which it is combined with formaldehyde, if at all. Many quality fertilizers contain some of each of these forms.

The phosphorus in the fertilizer mix is usually expressed as a percentage of the total phosphoric acid available, and the potassium as the element itself. Thus, a quality fertilizer might have an an­ alysis of 23-7-7 (N, P2 O5 , K) with nitrogen from various sources to give both immediate and long-range release. The balance of the material in the bag is simply an inert carrier.

Where specific nutrient requirements are needed, especially with the metalic ions, a sequestering agent is usually needed to hold the element in an available state for uptake by the plants.

Summary

This brief discussion was not meant to be an expose on soil or its nutrient status. It attempted to highlight some of the principles 151

of what makes a soil what it is, and how the homeowner may go about ameliorating any shortcomings it may have.

The pH is probably the single most important characteristic of the soil the homeowner will become familiar with, but remember it will not give the complete picture of the physical or nutritional state of the soil.

If changes in the condition of the soil are desired, it must be understood that such changes cannot be brought about rapidly without doing harm to existing plant material.

The nutritional and physical status of the soil play an important role in the hardiness of the plant material it supports. If there is a good balance of the major elements available to the plants (especially phosphorus, potassium and sulfur), there will be less likelihood of cold weather damage.

Through continued exploration of the soil and soil fertility, man will be able to continually provide a better way of living. CHAPTER VII

CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANT GROWTH

To fully understand plant growth, one would have to undertake a program consisting of years of study In plant nutrition, plant genetics, plant biochemistry, plant anatomy, plant physiology and horticulture.

This chapter will not attempt to bridge the depths of knowledge inherent in the above disciplines, but will explore some of the more common aspects of plant growth from a practical viewpoint.

Autotrophs Versus Heterotrophs:

Within the plant kingdom there exist two basic forms of plant life: those which have evolved to contain chloroplasts and can therefore convert the sun*s energy into chemical energy, and those lacking in chlorophyll formation which obtain their energy from organic sources.

The plants which contain the chloroplasts are self-sufficient

(autotrophs) and use only inorganic material as a source of energy.

They constitute the major land and aquatic plants which carry on the important process of photosynthesis, which keeps all of us (heterotrophs) alive.

The process of photosynthesis involves the utilization of carbon dioxide and the splitting of water molecules in the presence of the chloroplast to form organic compounds. This carbon dioxide which has normal concentrations in our atmosphere of about three hundred parts

152 153 per million (.03%) is the source of the carbon skeletons that are formed during the metabolic processes of the plant's life. Without this funda­ mental process being carried on by green plants, no animal life could exist.

Further Classification of Plants;

Since the emphasis of this manual is landscape plants, the context in the rest of this chapter will be in reference to the autotrophic plants.

These plants are further classified as either angiosperms (dicots and monocots), or gymnosperms. Within these two broad classes are vir­ tually all of the land plants of the world. The angiosperms make up the largest classification, with a multitude of families. They are generally considered the flowering plants and are the prime sources for food and fiber. The pines, spruces and firs which are gymnosperms, are used primarily for shelter purposes.

The subclasses are distinctly different in their manner of growth.

The monocots increase in length from a growing region known as the inter­ calary meristem. The turf grasses are good examples of monocots that are familiar to all homeowners. The elongation of the internode occurs as a result of division of the intercalary meristem. When a homeowner cuts his lawn at the proper height, he is not removing the intercalary meri­ stem, but simply the upper leaf tissue which has elongated from it. If the cutting height is too low, and the meristematic tissue removed or damaged, then growth will stop for a period of time until a new meristem is formed. 154

The dicots compose the largest selections of plant genera the home­ owner will use. Plants like the dandelion, the forsythia and the oaks are all dicots. The unique characteristic of dicots when compared to monocots is the manner in which they increase in size. Elongation in dicots takes place in a region behind the apical meristem, while increase in thickness (caliper) of the stem occurs as a result of division taking place in the cambium. This secondary growth is the important difference between monocots and dicots, as it is this growth which results in the development of secondary xylem tissue, which lends supporting strength to the apical meristem. Without the development of this secondary tissue, trees and shrubs would not be able to attain their great heights.

The gymnosperms are found throughout the temperate regions of the world. They are comprised mostly of evergreens with needle- or scale­ like foliage. They are different in that they do not bear true flowers in the commonly accepted sense. They do possess the same meristematic regions as the angiosperms, however, as they are polycotyledonous, and a good comparison can be made between the three classes if one were to sow a corn seed (monocot), a bean seed (dicot) and a Spruce seed (poly­ cot). This would show the one, two and many cotyledons which were a part of the developing embryo.

Growth Regulators;

With the proper environmental setting, a seed begins to germinate and the resulting plant grows to maturity. As the plant goes through this growing process, even the casual observer is aware of changes taking place. In the spring, seeds germinate, leaves unfold, flowers 155

and fruit develop. In the fall, different colors appear on the foliage

and the leaves of deciduous plants eventually drop to the ground.

During this period of change, various plant hormones are in dif­

fering concentrations to help effect these causes. Gibberellins and

cytokinins released by the embryo provide the triggering mechanism to

induce germination in many seeds. When the buds begin to open in the

spring, the level of gibberellin is increasing in proportion to the dor­

mancy hormone, abscisic acid. The resulting new growth observed in the

plant is the result of the action of auxins and cytokinins. When the

leaves change color and drop in the fall of the year, the abscisic

acid level is in higher proportion throughout the plant than the other hormones.

These hormones do not act independently, but are links in a long

chain of factors that control plant growth. Water, light (duration

and quality), and temperature play a significant role in plant growth cycles.

For example, light waves of the red quality will promote germina­ tion in lettuce seeds, while darkness will inhibit germination even under optimum moisture and temperature requirements. While this works for many seeds, it does not work for all of them. California poppy seeds will not germinate under any lighting regime, but readily do so

in total darkness.

Photoperiod (length of the light period) also effects growth.

European Beech trees, in the spring, will not end dormancy until day­ light reaches a particular length. In this way, the plant will not come out of dormancy should a premature warm spell occur in the spring. 156

In the fall, the opposite process takes place. As the days become

shorter in length and the nights cooler, dormancy is induced in the

woody and herbaceous plants. On many woody species, this induction can

be noted by a beautiful display of fall color. This coloration is due

to various pigments (carotenes, xanthophylls, anthocyanin) that are

being unmasked as the chlorophyll production ceases. As a point of

information, the reason there are better autumn colors some years than

there are other years, is because those good years have fall days that

are warm and bright, and the night temperatures drop below 45°F. This

low night temperature prevents the carbohydrates from being carried into

the root system and the excess accumulation results in brilliant color­

ation.

Water is also an important growth regulator. The heavy rains that

occur in the spring help to leach the dormancy hormones out of the plants

and seeds so that fresh growth may begin. By the same token, the cessa­

tion of the rainy season is a triggering mechanism in the tropics for

the plants to go into protective dormancy to survive the extended drought.

An abundance of rain for a particular year will result in more growth than

in a normal or dry year. It is not the water acting independently, but in

conjunction with the growth-promoting hormones (auxins and cytokinins)

that are maintaining active cell division and elongation.

Changes occur in plants in the temperate zone, sometime during the

growing season, which are steps that prepare the plants for the coming winter months. The actual induction for winter dormancy begins with the

short days and leaf drop that occur in the autumn. Temperature, however, 157 does play a role in the growth regulation of plants. Many annual seeds will germinate and grow in soil temperatures ranging from 55 to 80°F.

Impatiens seed will show virtually no germination, however, unless the soil temperature is above a 70°F minimum. Often the seeds of many plants will not germinate under ideal temperature conditions until they have first received a specific period of cold temperature, in many cases several months in duration. The cold temperature require­ ment is a condition which protects those seeds shed in the summer of fall, as they would not have sufficient time to become established before the onset of the long winter months.

A period of low temperature is also necessary for certain plants to produce flowers. Biennial plants like the Sweet William are good exam­ ples. Sown in one growing season, they remain vegetative as a rosette.

Following the cold winter months, the rosette elongates and produces an abundance of flowers. Without the cold treatment, the biennial will grow vegetatively for years, but with it, the life cycle is completed in two years. Many experienced gardeners shorten the vegetative cycle of some biennials by using gibberellins in place of a cold treatment. Ap­ parently the cold treatment received by these plants is translated, in part at least, to activate the synthesis of the gibberellins. Other gardeners will eliminate the long summer season of vegetative growth by sowing biennial seeds in the early fall, with satisfactory flowering the following season. This process of cold treatment to promote flow­ ering is called "vernalization'' and is required of such bulbs as nar­ cissus, lilies, tulips and hyacinths, and of such woody plants as azaleas, forsythia, dogwood and lilac, to name only a few. 158

Other Factors Affecting Growth:

With his continual technological progress, man is creating envi­

ronmental changes on a local scale. These local changes in the micro­

climate affect how plants will grow. For example, a Japanese Pagoda

tree on The Ohio State University campus is located right next to a

street lamp. The Pagoda tree normally flowers in the middle of July

and most of this tree does just that. A few of the branches on the

side closest to the light bloom a little later. Those same branches

also hold their leaves a little longer in the fall.

Much concern exists today for the effects of pollution on plant

growth. A great deal of the pollutants are harmful to plant life

(ozone, PAN, copper mining effluents), but some can be used to enhance

plant growth. The soil scientists at Penn State University and in

Israel have both found that sewage that has gone through a secondary

treatment facility is rich in nutrients and will help in maintaining

plant growth. The plants, as well as the soil, act as living filter

systems so that many of the impurities are removed or reduced to a

tolerable level by the time the sewage water reaches the water table.

Researchers have recently found that plant leaves can utilize

ammonia (NH3 ) directly from the air, which might satisfy as much as

ten percent of the plants' total nitrogen requirements. Concentra­

tions as high as 20 ppm of NH3 did not result in plant damage. Some

plants can exude a material that would be inhibitory to plant growth

in the area. The Black Walnut (Juglans nigra) has a root exudate known

as Juglone which will kill many species of woody plants where the roots happen to be in close proximity. 159

The factors affecting plant growth are varied and complex. Man may inadvertently create a microclimate which may or may not be favor able to plant growth. Why a plant will not grow often escapes detec­ tion by even the trained eye. Greater understanding will result through experience and continued effort in the study of plant growth. CHAPTER VIII

HOME LAWN ESTABLISHMENT

An attractive looking lawn is as much a part of the land­

scape setting as the trees, shrubs and vines.

An entire chapter has been devoted to a discussion on lawns as it

has been the author's experience that the homeowner is concerned and

needs help with establishing an attractive lawn.

A lawn is a demanding, yet rewarding, taskmaster. It is the area

of the property where the homeowner will make his largest investment

in time and money, outside of the house itself. It will provide

beauty and attractiveness for human activities, and has numerous

functional and ecological purposes which will be discussed later on

in this chapter.

Growth and Development of Some Common Turf Grasses

Kentucky Bluegrass (Poa pratensis);

Kentucky bluegrass is the most important and widely used of the

cool season grasses. It forms a turf of high quality, medium texture, moderate wear and moderate disease resistance. It can recover quickly

from extended drought, exhibits good low temperature hardiness, greens

up quickly in the spring, and is usually green going into the late

fall months.

160 161

Kentucky bluegrass is used effectively as a blend (with other bluegrass cultivars) or as a mixture with the fine-leafed fescues.

It thrives best under full sunlight conditions or in the south, where

the conditions are warmer, under partial shade. The fertilization re­ quirements range from one half to a little more than one pound of nitrogen per one thousand square feet, per growing month. There are

thirty cultivars of Kentucky bluegrass with differing attributes: A-20,

Delta, Flyking, Merion, Newport, Windsor, Victa and Pennstar are among ones to select from. These and the other cultivars offer better disease resistance, shade adaptation, and better tolerance to close mowing.

Bluegrasses should be mowed between one and two inches in height.

Red Fescue (Festuca rubra):

Red fescue is another cool season grass that is widely distributed throughout the northeastern region. It Is a fine-textured, high quality grass that is superior to Kentucky bluegrass in shade adaptation. It is more drought tolerant, but slightly less wear tolerant than Kentucky bluegrass. Seldom used alone, it is found most commonly in seed mixtures with Kentucky bluegrass. It becomes established more quickly than Kentucky bluegrass from seed, but will not compete with it. Usu­ ally the bluegrass is more aggressive in the sunny areas as it develops and will, therefore, predominate. In shady areas, the red fescue will predominate. Its coloration is quite good in the spring and fall seasons.

Red fescue does not require the intense maintenance that Kentucky 162

bluegrass does. Nitrogen requirements are about one fourth to one

half pound per one thousand square feet per growing month. Mowing

height is normally between one to two inches, but the frequency need

not be as often in shady areas. There are over ten cultivars of red

fescue available to the homeowners, with Boreal, C-26 and Pennlawn

being the ones most commonly used.

Chewings Fescue (Festuca rubra var. commutata):

Chewings fescue is similar in many ways to red fescue, except that

its habit of growth is more tufted and erect in contrast to the creep­

ing habit of red fescue. It is sold in seed mixtures with Kentucky

bluegrass for general purpose lawns. The cultural requirements are about

the same as with red fescue. It is, however, not as tolerant of

temperature extremes, nor does it have as good a low temperature color

as does the red fescue cultivars.

Ryegrasses - Annual and Perennial (Lolium multiflorum and Lolium perenne):

The ryegrasses are cool season grasses which can be used for grass

seed mixtures as a nurse crop for the slower establishing bluegrasses.

Both the annual and perennial ryegrasses are coarse-bladed, erect

growing, and wear resistant varieties. One can usually identify a

patch of ryegrass in their lawn by the difficulty they will have in mowing it. The tough, fibrous, vascular bundles in the leaf often

shred when cut, leaving an unattractive appearance to the lawn. The

homeowner often finds he has moved into his new home at an inconvenient

time for turf establishment from seed. Here is where annual ryegrass 163

can best serve a purpose. It can be effectively used as a quick- cover grass, then plowed under as a green manure crop In the fall when the more desirable grasses can be established.

The future looks better for ryegrass use in home lawns than the past, as new cultivars are being introduced which will make them compatible with Kentucky bluegrass. Manhattan, NK-100, and Pennfine are three of the more outstanding new introductions.

The ryegrasses have some inherent advantages to them, hence the interest in developing acceptable cultivars. They have moderate fertility requirements, high wear resistance and no thatch problems.

Until further improvements are made in this genera, the seed should not be used in mixtures where a top-quality turf is desired.

Tall Fescue (Festuca arundinacea):

Sold under the cultivar names Alta and Kentucky 31, this grass is often confused with the fine-leaf fescues. Nothing could be more incorrect. The tall fescues, unlike the fine-leafed genera, do not mix well with Kentucky bluegrass. When done so, it usually segregates into vigorous, coarse-textured, upright-growing clumps, which lend little to good turf quality. Once established, no selective herbicide will remove it. Only by painstaking digging can it be eliminated.

The good attributes of the tall fescue cultivars are their high wear resistance, drought tolerance, disease resistance and low fertility requirements. Hence, the reasons for its wide use on roadsides and athletic fields. Homeowners should be cautioned in using tall fescue as a quality lawn, especially when it is a part of a seed mixture.

Where a relatively large lawn area does exist, and low main- 164

tenan.ce is desired, a heavy seeding of one of the tall fescue cultivars

will suffice. Mowing should be high - no shorter than one and a half

inches, and up to two and a half inches. While drought tolerant, it

will respond to a good irrigation regime. If the front yard is a

Kentucky bluegrass blend, it should be fertilized about four times a

year. If the back yard is a tall fescue, fertilize only half as much.

The Bentgrasses (Agrostis species):

Many people consider creeping bentgrass to be the ultimate in

turf quality, but few are willing to go to the effort or expense of

attaining it. Creeping bentgrass, when mowed closely (one quarter

inch) will develop a fine-textured turf, with excellent density, uni­

formity and general turf quality. It is a vigorous, rapidly spreading

(by fast growing stolons) grass that will crowd out other less vigorous

grasses. Creeping bentgrass has high fertility requirements, needs

frequent mowing with a special greens mower at about one quarter inch,

repeated irrigation, and a constant vigil against disease problems.

Creeping bentgrass is propagated both from seed and vegetatively.

More uniformity of the lawn can be obtained from the vegetatively

propagated cultivars.

Colonial bentgrass is a bentgrass species the homeowner is more

apt to use. While the cultural requirements are basically the same

as for creeping bentgrass, slight deviations from the regime are more

tolerable for this species. Two cultivars of colonial bentgrass

which are commonly used are Astoria and Highland. With all bentgrass,

verti-cutting is occasionally necessary to open the turf to air, water

and nutrients as well as to remove excess thatch. 165

While other grasses like zoysla and bermudagrass are occasionally used In the northern areas, their use will not be discussed in this

text. Generally, these six genera and their cultivars will provide the northern homeowner will all the selection in grasses he needs.

Preparing the Soil for Seeding

The first step in preparing the seedbed is to till it with a rototiller or plow and establish a rough grade. At this time, if there is a need to correct for poor drainage, do so. If subsurface drainage appears necessary, consider the installation of tiles. Make sure there is an adequate outlet for the removal of the water. This may be in the form of a dry well in a corner of the yard, or a tile to the storm sewer or drainage ditch. The size of the main tilesmay be four to six inches in diameter, and the lateral drain lines three inches in diameter or less. Their arrangement is normally in a herringbone pattern.

An option that works well in heavy clay soils that are characterized by poor drainage is to use slit trenches. They are two to three inches wide and two to four feet deep. A vertical column of gravel or crushed stone is poured into the open trenches up to the soil surface. With time, the turf grows and covers these trenches leaving little or no evidence of their presence.

Once the grade and drainage have been determined, the soil should then be tested. If there is need for pH adjustment with the addition of lime, add no more than fifty to eighty pounds per one thousand square feet per year until the recommendations from the test have been completed. Superphosphate should also be added at this time, based on the recommendations from the test - usually thirty to forty pounds 166

per one thousand square feet. These materials should be worked'into

the root zone as uniformly as possible while the finished grade is

being established. After the finished grade is established, and before

the seed is applied, a complete fertilizer should be spread uniformly

over the surface. One with an analysis of about 10-6-4 should be used.

Whatever analysis you use, be sure the rate of application is about

one pound per one thousand square feet of actual nitrogen. In other

words, ten pounds of 10-6-4 should be used for every thousand square

feet of soil area.

At this time, the seed should be sown. A hopper type spreader

is best for this purpose as its metering rate is the most uniform and

accurate. Apply the seed in two directions, half one way, the other

half at right angles to the first application. Next, lightly rake

the seed and fertilizer into the soil to a depth no greater than one

quarter of an inch.

An oat straw or marsh hay should be spread over the area at an

approximate rate of one bale per one thousand square feet. Try to get

the mulch as uniform as possible, avoiding clumps or piles in one spot, and little or nothing in other spots.

The entire area should be watered frequently but lightly. Re­ peat as often as necessary (three to four times a day) to keep con­ ditions moist, but not soggy. Keep in mind that these mulch materials are flamable, so cigarette smoking and mulch application should not be attempted at the same time. 167

Be patient. Kentucky bluegrass takes twenty-one to twenty-eight days to germinate under good conditions, while ryegrass and red fescue will appear in three to seven days, depending on conditions. Once germination has taken place, change the watering schedule to one good soaking a week, unless natural rainfall provides adequate moisture.

Expect weeds to come up also, especially if the lawn is established in the spring. Hence, the fall season is a better time to establish a lawn in the north. Sometime in the early part of September is a good time to begin. Normal mowing will eliminate many of the weeds.

Mowing should be started as soon as the grass appears to need it.

Where coarse-textured grasses are used, a rotary mower will suffice.

Where fine-textured grasses are used, a reel mower is better. In either case, mow one-quarter to one-half inch higher than normal at first to leave as much leaf area behind as possible, but do mow regularly as it encourages tillering and the thickening of the turf with stolon and rhizome development.

If the mulch material is still there at the time of mowing, let it remain. Do not try to mow a Kentucky bluegrass lawn at the same height as a bentgrass lawn. The result would be a patchy and weedy sod. Mowing is the most continuous maintenance chore you will per­ form on your property. Be sure you get a good mower, one that is at least adequate for the job. Mow when the lawn needs it, not just every Saturday morning. Keep the mower blades sharp, or else a ragged appearance will result when the job is finished.

Picking up clippings, annual vigorous raking of the lawn with a 168

broom rake, and occasional topdressing with good topsoil will minimize

the build-up of thatch. If thatch should become a problem, renting a

verticutter in the spring or fall will rectify the problem (best in

fall).

Lawns are an asset to one’s property, and not just from an orna­ mental viewpoint. The grasses are oxygen producers, with twenty-five

square feet releasing enough to sustain one person. They cool the en­ vironment by interrupting radiation and transpiring water vapor to the

air. They serve as excellent filters, for not only the falling rain, but for the particulate pollutants as well.

Every homeowner can take pride in the fact that the turf around his home is not only adding to the ornamental value of his property, but is making a positive contribution to overall environmental quality. CHAPTER IX

MANAGEMENT OF THE LANDSCAPE AROUND THE RESIDENTIAL PROPERTY

Once the landscaping is complete, the homeowner must then settle down to an effective management routine. Many people opt to have the routine work taken care of by experts (the lawn care services) which, in most cases, is a good investment. Also, the larger trees on the property are better off left to the care of one of the expert tree service companies. In both cases, be sure the firm you are intend­ ing to contract with checks out favorably with the Better Business

Bureau, and, if possible, ask them for some references from previous jobs they've done.

The scope of this chapter will be directed toward the premise that the homeowner has chosen to undertake some of the maintenance tasks himself. It is not intended to be all inclusive, but to touch on some of the more conspicuous problems the homeowners are faced with.

Pruning Problems:

Many initially attractive landscape plants have been ruined by improper pruning. Many pruning problems would not exist if the proper cultivars had been selected in the first place.

The guidelines outlined here are for plant materials which need rejuvenation as well as an occasional trim.

169 170

Pruning is done for many reasons, but should be done when:

1. a bush or tree presents a visual or physical hazard to

passersby,

2. There is evidence of disease or an insect population de­

bilitating a particular plant,

3. There are any damaged or broken limbs or branches,

4. there is need to improve chances of survival during trans­

planting,

5. there is need to alter the habit of growth of a particular

plant, and

6 . improvement in flowering and fruiting are desired.

There are times when pruning is more ideal for plants than at other times, but pruning when necessary should not wait for a particular season.

To avoid going into detail on which particular plants to prune and when to do it, principles will be stressed with some examples given for clarification.

Flowering Shrubs:

Generally, the best time to prune flowering shrubs is right after they have finished flowering. If just simple shaping is needed, cut back to a side branch or bud, preferably one on the outside. If major renovation is needed, cut the old thick canes down as close to the base of the shrub as possible. Plants like the common lilac (which may be grafted), forsythia and mock orange will send up new sucker growth from the base which can then be shaped by hand pruners or by pinching. 171

Never wait until the end of the summer to prune plants like lilac or

azaleas as doing so will only remove the flower buds that have formed

for next spring.

Hedges;

Most hedge material can be pruned at the convenience of the home­

owner, as most are not grown for flowering. Therefore, limb removal

will not destroy any outstanding esthetic features. Hedges should be

pruned so that their base is wider than the top. Hedges like privet

and buckthorn can be cut to size in the late winter months, and the

resulting new growth shaped to the desire of the homeowner. If the

privet hedge on the property is bare and open at the base, cut the

entire hedge back to the ground in late winter and shape the new growth

to be wider at the base. With Winged Euonymus or Viburnum as a hedge,

the cutting back should take place over a period of two years. Remove

about half the branches to the ground the first year, then the balance

of the old branches the second year.

Roses; Hybrid Teas. Floribundas and Grandifloras;

Better flowering results can be obtained with tea, floribunda and

grandiflora roses when they are cut back in the spring rather than the

fall. Many times the rose canes are killed back to the mulch line in

the winter, so cutting should be in wood that is alive and healthy.

When removing blooms, cut, if possible, back to a five-leaflet

leaf about a quarter of an inch above the node. Only the sharpest pruner should be used on rose canes as they are subject to easy bruising. 172

If bare root roses are purchased In the spring, the shoots and roots should be cut back about a quarter to a third of their overall length.

Pruning Evergreens

Needle-Leaf Evergreens:

The pines are genera which produce candle-like growth in the spring. This new growth may be cut back at about half their length before it completely hardens. Shear young Mugho and Swiss Stone pines for a few years, then selectively pinch back new growth to keep the plants compact but not symmetrical.

Taxus species may be pruned any time, but best results are ob­ tained when they are pruned in the early spring before new growth emerges. The ensuing new growth will hide the pruning cuts. Taxus are commonly topiaried, indicating that severe pruning can be done if necessary.

Scale-Leaf Evergreens:

The arborvitaes and chamaecyparis comprise the major genera which are in this classification. Both can be pruned any time during the summer, but care should be taken to be sure that where cuts are made, some foliage remains. Never cut back to bare wood, since the result will be unsightly.

Broad-Leafed Evergreens:

Rhododendrons, azaleas and hollies pose no problems in pruning. 173

Just remember that the rhododendrons and azaleas are noted for their

outstanding flowers which form during the summer months for the follow­

ing season's show. If pruning is carried out too late in the summer,

it will remove some flower buds. Therefore, pruning these specimens

as the flowers fade is the best policy.

If any of these plants need rejuvenation pruning, do so by cutting

the oldest branches back in the late winter to nodes. New growth will emerge at the base from latent buds. Hand pinching of this soft

growth will encourage further bud break and develop a more compact bush.

Deciduous Shade Trees:

The homeowner is again reminded that pruning which involves tree climbing should only be attempted by expert arborists.

Perhaps the strongest point to emphasize here is the necessity of pruning bare root trees sufficiently prior to planting. Many home­ owners, it is observed, only nip out the tips of some branches. In reality, they should be cut back at least a third of their length.

This means that if a branch is eighteen inches long, it should be cut back about six inches to a quarter of an inch above a bud, leaving

the other twelve inches on the tree. With trees that have developed a good central leader, the terminal branch should not be cut. The roots, too, should be cut back about the same length.

The homeowner can be on the lookout for potential problems with his developing tree. If there appears to be any crossing branches, remove one. If there are weak crotches (V-shaped) starting to de­ velop, remove the lesser of the two branches. For the first two to three years, it is best to leave as much leaf

area on the tree as possible, noting which branches need pruning at

the end of that time. This is to allow the tree to get sufficiently

established and increase in caliper.

If large low limbs need removal, be sure to cut them in three

steps. The first cut is an undercut about one foot from the trunk.

Cut into the branch about a third of the way. The next cut is on the

upper side of the branch, but about two inches closer to the trunk.

As the cut is being made on the upper surface, the weight of the

branch will cause a fissuring between the two cuts and the break will

be a clean one. Then the stump can be removed flush to the trunk.

Paint all cuts or wounds with tree paint (not house paint) to mini­ mize disease and insect troubles.

Generally, the deciduous shade trees should be pruned in the mid­

winter months, with the possible exception of the maples. If pruned

late in the winter, excessive sap flow may occur. The maples would be

better pruned in the late fall or early winter (after leaf fall).

Root Pruning;

This is carried out when bare root planting is being done. It is also carried on when a girdling root (common on Maples, Oaks) is apparent

on mature trees. Here, the destructive root is removed, either by

using a pruning saw, heavy loppers or by hammer and chisel. Whatever

tool is used, be sure the cut is clean and that it is covered with

some tree wound paint. 175

While top pruning is usually carried out to remove excessive

growth, root pruning can be carried out to inhibit excessive growth.

Root pruning is often done a season or two before transplanting takes

place. This is best accomplished by trenching around the tree, going

down about one and a half feet. The old roots are severed and the

trench back-filled with humus or peat moss. This will allow for a

more compact root system to develop and greatly insures survival at

transplanting. This is especially recommended for such fleshy rooted

trees as dogwoods, sweetgum, sourgum and evergreens. Root pruning also

is used to bring a plant into better flowering or fruiting. Plants like

wisteria or crabapples will flower and fruit profusely when a spade

is driven into the ground two to three feet from the trunk, severing some of the roots.

Other Maintenance Concerns

With the pruning principles laid aside, let's take a "typical"

residential property, go through the seasons of the year, and high­

light some of the more conspicuous problems one might find.

Late Winter - Early Spring:

The crocuses are about to open and the tulips are pushing through

the soil surface, but no leaves have unfolded. Take a bright, sunny

day and walk around your property looking at the leafless trees and

shrubs. Look for egg masses on the branch tips. Try and recall whether

or not you noticed any destruction from insects on the plants the

previous season. On fruit trees, the egg masses to be suspicious 176

of belong to the tent caterpillar. This is usually a black, rough and crusty mass, usually surrounding the branches near the tips. Appli­ cation of dormant oil spray before leaves undold will effectively con­ trol these insects. One advantage of dormant oil spray is that it is not toxic, as death is caused by suffocation and not poisoning. Be sure to cover the branches thoroughly as well as the trunk and any cracks or crevices in the bark.

Another common pest to be on the lookout for is the bagworm cocoon. They will be easy to find during this time of the year oh evergreens and deciduous shrubs. Remove any you see with a knife or scissors and destroy.

As the spring weather begins to thaw out the environment, some­ where between March 15th and April 1st, you should remove the mulch from your roses and cut them back as described earlier. If the mulch is organic, this procedure is not necessary.

When you can walk across your lawn and not leave a soggy foot­ print, get a good broom rake and give the lawn a vigorous raking.

This will remove the litter, grass clippings and stones which may mar what might otherwise be an attractive lawn. Rolling the lawn every spring is quite the procedure of the past. More problems usually arise from rolling than not, as the soil is compacted, resulting in less air and water movement in the root zone.

One of the last items to consider during this season is applying a pre-emergence crabgrass killer. This may be applied with the fertilizer.

Many are on the market, with more being added every year. This will 177

kill the crabgrass seedlings as they germinate. But beware! Many

pre-emergence herbicides have a two-week waiting period before seeding with desirable grasses can take place. Tupersan is the only one that

can have desirable grass seed sown at the same time the herbicide is

applied.

Mid to Late Spring:

Fertilize the lawn, rose bushes and shrubs with a complete fertil­

izer. As the blossoms on the pyracantha (May 15th in Columbus) and crabapples start to fade, spray them with a fungicide like Fhaltan and repeat in two weeks. This will help to prevent discoloration and lesions

from developing on the fruits, and scab from forming on the leaves.

Fertilize and mulch plants like azaleas, rhododendrons, pieris, etc. Do not vigorously work the soil with a hoe around these bushes as they are shallow-rooted and damage will only result.

Where the trees were disfigured by galls the previous year, spray them this year with Sevin as the leaves are beginning to unfold. These galls appear as small round nipples on the underside of oak, maple and elm species. They are usually caused by a small louse which lays its eggs in the unfolding leaves. The eggs hatch and the emerged larva begin to feed while secreting a growth-stimulating substance which is the gall. Left unchecked, they will badly disfigure a tree, but seldom kill it.

One important item on the checklist for midspring (About April 15th) would be to roll back one square foot of sod and check for grubs. Do 178

this in a couple of places in the lawn, carefully replacing the sod each time. If there is any evidence of grub activity (white-bodied larva with brown heads), take measures to destroy them. Use whatever commercially available lawn insecticide is available in your area. If this is neglected, these larva will emerge from the soil as adult beetles (Japanese or June Beetles usually) which will skeletonize the ornamentals on your property and lay egg masses to repeat the cycle once again.

Sometime in the latter part of May, if broadleaf weeds are a problem in the lawn, apply an herbicide to eliminate them. Weeds like dandelion and plantain are easily controlled by any number of herbicides on the market. They usually have 2,4-D as their base, so be sure the application is made on windless days so that none of it drifts onto the ornamentals.

Mid Summer - Early Fall:

Normally a cessation of natural irrigation requires the homeowner to add this to his list of chores.

The lawn will require the greatest use of water. It is best to

f use a soaking sprinkler where the equivalent of one inch of rainfall can be put over the area in one to one and a half hours. This rate of delivery is dependent on water pressure and hose diameter. A fifty- foot five-eighths inch hose is the best one to use for this purpose.

Contrary to popular belief, watering in the sunlight will not burn the foliage. However, the evaporation and transpiration taking place in 179

hot summer sunlight will waste too much water. Watering in the evening

appears to be logical, but this provides an ideal setting for disease

problems. Actually, the best time to water is in the early morning

so the foliage will have a chance to dry before evening.

The lawn should also be fertilized at this time (between July 1st

and July 15th), but few people will go to the effort if their lawn

appears to be of satisfactory color. Continuous fertilization and proper

mowing will aid greatly in the reduction of the weed population.

Spray immediately any plants that show evidence of destructive insect

activity. Roses should be under a fairly regular regime of spraying with

a fungicide to prevent black spot from running rampant.

Routine work like hand weeding, pinching new growth, and occasional mulching should not be neglected during this time.

Hid Fall - Early Winter;

Remove any faded or frostbitten annuals from your flower beds.

Put a protective screen around those plants subject to winter desiccation.

Keep the leaves from accumulating on the lawn and keep the lawn mowed to its normal height.

Hill up around the rose bushes with a loamy soil or organic mulch.

Do not cut them back at this time.

Be sure that all plant material has adequate moisture around the

roots, especially evergreens.

Where evergreens may be subject to salt spray from the road, a

spray with an antidesiccant like Wilt-Pruf is in order. 180

If your area is subject to heavy snows, tie the branches of such milti-stemmed plants as arborvitae and upright English oak together with strips of cloth.

With all of the chores now out of the way, sit back and enjoy those winter week-ends by planning what changes or additions you will make to your property, and to further enrich your life by becoming involved in living it. CHAPTER X

STEPS TOWARD A BETTER ENVIRONMENT

The "good old days" so often longed for by many young people who

were not around to live them, were filled with plenty of shortcomings.

The average wages were under $300 per year, the work week consisted of more than seventy-two hours, and the life expectancy was a little over

fifty years.

While there were very few internal combustion engines around to pollute the atmosphere, the major means of transportation at that time,

the horse, had his pollution problems also. Travel abroad in those days was unheard of except for a very special elite, while today it is not uncommon to hear a group of adolescents talking of their experiences while touring Europe during their summer vacation.

What has caused the rebellion, then, against what appears to be

a much better way of life? Basically, we are a nation of surfeit in­ dividuals who have acquired material success,raised our children to not want for anything, and it is they who are the most vociferous in

criticizing the way this nation lives.

Are their criticisms justified? In some cases, yes. In others, especially where a total abdication of everything created for a better way of life in the twentieth century is advocated, the criticism is not justified. The problem is not a new one. Every generation of

181 182

young people criticize their elders for the mess they have made of the world, and the present generation is no different. One of the nice things about modern living is that most of us will live to be grand­ parents and we will be in the unique position of hearing the criticism which will be leveled at our present generation.

I will come to the defense of my generation and say that we did those things that needed doing most first. We have solved, for the most part, the problems of food, clothing, shelter, transportation and em­ ployment. Now that these very necessary primaries are out of the way, we can get on with the job of better living.

We complain about the destruction of the wilderness, yet we all clamor to live in cities and developed suburbs in ever-increasing numbers.

Is there a contradiction here? On the surface, it appears as if there is, but close examination will reveal differently. Anthropologists have shown how man has evolved from a tree dwelling animal, to a ter­ restrial animal, to a domestic dweller. He opts for high comfort and convenience, but occasionally longs for a brief but intimate contact with nature. The umbilical cord is always attached to what modern technology has to offer.

Those who decry man's materialistic attitude and his concern for comfort are those who have not yet had the opportunity to enjoy them.

Never had I met anyone who has "made it" who would choose to live at the same level as before his success. With the passage of time, and normal effort in the work-a-day world, most will be enjoying the com- 7 S3

forts of modern living.

Let me point out some of the positive actions of man that are an ecological plus. London was grossly polluted for years, yet dramatic changes for the better followed shortly after implementation of clean air and water acts. More sunshine reaches the streets of London now than at the turn of the century. New York City offers another example of a step forward for ecological principles. Jamaica Bay was used for years as a dump and eventually a number of artificial islands were created. A planting of trees, shrubs and grasses by the Parks Depart­ ment followed, and before long, nature took over providing a bird habitat.

Not all that man does is ecologically sound, of course, but work is progressing on the problems. Automobiles are getting stricter emission controls, the sewage water in many cities is receiving tertiary treatment before being discharged back into the surface streams, and more biodegradable products are being manufactured and marketed. With continued effort, man will soon be enjoying technological advantages without environmental havoc.

All of the innovations of technology will be negated, however, if individual attitudes do not change. Americans unfortunately have been letting an "I don't give a damn" attitude permeate their everyday living.

Pride in good workmanship had decreased sharply, pride in personal appearance waned, and pride in personal morals diminished. These are just three of the areas where Americans have taken a turn for the worse. 184

An Improvement will result if some changes can be made, and not in the realm of negotiating stronger contracts with higher pay and more fringe benefits either. There must be recognition from both sides of the fence, and it can start with the job. Employers should begin taking a more humanistic approach toward their employees. This should not be construed to mean he should give in to their whimsical demands, but to recognize their attributes as individuals and let their advance­ ments or promotions be based on merit, not longevity. The employer should realize that his company, no matter what its product, is an organization of human beings, all of whom are individuals, and need to be treated as such.

The employees must give some, too. Their understanding should stem from the fact that no one is holding a gun to their heads and forcing them to work. The employer has problems and he has bills to pay. He must operate at a profit or his business folds. If the price of his product is forced up due to operational costs, he stands to suffer a loss due to competition from others in the business.

Why pick on working for a living as a means of improvement? It is because the manner in which one goes about earning his livelihood will determine his attitude toward the other facets in his life. It is not what one does, but how he does it, and what his attitude is that matters. A physician or lawyer with a negative attitude toward his profession must take a back seat, morally,speaking, to an immigrant laborer who enjoys the freedom he found in this country and loves his work because it is something he truly enjoys doing. What an 185

Individual does best may not be the best thing for him to pursue for a living. In other words, do not play games with your life. It is far too short to do so, and often the psyche will not allow itself to be sabotaged without rebelling in some way.

When man can start being more honest with himself, he can then be more honest with those around him. Where openness and honesty prevail among people, more fruitful work will be accomplished. This is where the young people level their strongest criticism, contending that the older generation is not always honest about their true feelings.

They have seen their parents do some things because it was their duty to do so, and then try to fool themselves into thinking this is what they would have done anyway.

Man's relationship with his work and his neighbor also ties in to his relationship with nature. It is a necessary axiom in man's character that he control the forces of nature to the best of his ability, but not where it leads to the total destruction of an eco­ system. Man's design for living is becoming more harmonious with nature and the resources we have. Cluster housing units which more efficiently utilize space are being developed along the congested east coast. This means that we are going to find ourselves living closer to our neighbors than before. Such a setting can be an open and enjoyable community where camaraderie and hospitality prevail. I say it can be, not will be, for again, it depends on the attitudes of the individuals who make up the community. If people perceive their neighbors as people to be jealous of, or to fear, then the area will be a ghetto of hostile people. 186

What each one of us does, counts, whether we are being watched,

graded or we think no one else will know. Do you discard trash at an

amusement park on the ground because everyone else does? Your little

wrapper won't make any difference, will it? Have you ever visited

either of the Disney Worlds, King's Island or Six Flags Over Georgia?

If you have, you had to be impressed with the lack of litter. How

would you feel about throwing a wrapper away in such a setting?

Differently, I'm sure.

Mutual respect for property (remember, this planet is the only place for us to live), each other's rights and interests, can only

serve to better the world we live in. With knowledge, common sense and proper values, technological man can maintain the tradition of creative

stewardship which he began several millenia ago, and which is progressively humanizing our earth.

The value of knowledge lies in what changes it can effect in the knower. Hopefully, this manual will result in some changes in the manner in which you approach your landscaping problems, as well as our environmental problems. LAB EXERCISES

INTRODUCTION;

The sequence of these labs in this section is set up to begin

in spring quarter in the Central Ohio area.

Where the individual homeowner may be attempting these procedures,

adherence to this schedule is not necessary, or even advised. There

are wide variations in microclimates within the state, so the proce­ dures outlined here should be maneuvered to coincide with local climatic conditions.

Hay the experiences you encounter as a result of this lab out­

line be pleasant ones. If you become inspired as a result of working with plants, make it contagious. If you become discouraged as a result of a failure, do not give up, but try to understand why you had such a failure. Learning and insight create a change in one's behavior as a result of some experience, whether it be successful or not.

R. C. Smith

187 LAB EXERCISE NO. 1

Plant Propagation by Seed - Annuals. Perennials and Biennials

Introduction:

Most gardeners will go to the unnecessary expense of attaining sum­

mer flowers by purchasing seedlings from the local retail nursery out­

let. This gives them the "instant" effect of a garden, a mode of life

many Americans are opting for in today's fast-changing society.

Their reasons for this action is that they attach some sort of

"mystique" to growing plants from seed. This is probably because they

at some time tried and failed to successfully grow something from seed.

It is the objective of this lab to destroy such a mystique and in­

still you in the thrill and satisfaction of growing plants initially

from seed.

Materials:

A selection of seeds from the suggested list below, market trays,

perlite, vermiculite, Redi-Earth, labels, aluminum foil and polyethy­

lene wrap (or old dry cleaner bags).

PLANT SEED LIST

Annuals Perennials Biennials

Sweet Alyssum Petunias Allyssum saxatile Centerbury Bells Ageratum Phlox drummondi Astible Forget-Me-Nots Bachelor Buttons Salvia Baby's Breath Foxglove Balsom Snapdragon Candytuft Pansy Cockscomb (Plumy) Flowering Tobacco Coralbells Sweet William Coleus Zinnia Coreopsis Cosmos Dahlias Delphinium Marigolds Phlox Shasta Daisy 188 189

Lab No. 1 — Continued

Procedure:

Select the seeds you are going to sow and the media you are going to sow them in. Next, fill the market tray about two thirds full of the media and moisten. With the larger seeds (Marigolds, Zinnias, etc.), sprinkle the seeds evenly over the pre-moistened media and then cover lightly (% inch) with some of the same media. Moisten again. Then cover the tray with a piece of poly-wrap and secure with a rubber band.

With fine seed (Petunia, Flowering Tobacco, etc.), sprinkle on the surface of the pre-moistened Redi-Earth. Do not cover the seed with any media, but instead cover with aluminum foil.

Both market trays can be kept at room temperature, out of direct sunlight. Place the label with the name of what you planted on the top of the market pack. Check in three days and again in one week. When germination is apparent, remove the cover completely and syringe the plants thoroughly but infrequently. When the first "true" leaves appear, prick them off and transplant into another market tray or flat containing a sterlized growing mix made up of peat-perlite-soil

(1 :1: 1 by volume) or peat-vermiculite-soil, or peat-sand-soil.

The plants can be kept in these containers with regular watering and infrequent liquid fertilization. A gradual hardening-off (ex­ posure to outdoor temperatures, reducing the watering frequency, etc.) should precede setting the plants in the garden by about two weeks.

Should a late frost threaten the newly set plants, two procedures are recommended:

1. Keep the plants under a fine mist of water through the night. Lab No. 1 -- Continued

2. A better way is to make some "tents" over the plants for the

night with water-soaked newspaper, or simply cover with Hot-

Kaps if available.

Do not be afraid to pinch plants like Coleus, Petunias, Zinnias and Snapdragons when transplanting them outside. No. 1 — Continued

Some Mind Teasers

Of what value are the cotyledons to the newly emerging seedling?

What is the disease known as "damping off?" How can it be controlled?

Some home gardeners typically plant seeds directly into their garden with varied degrees of success. List some reasons why seeds sown too deeply would prove unsuccessful. LAB EXERCISE NO. 2

Forcing Bulbs for Spring Beauty

Introduction:

Every spring, from the Easter holiday through Mother's Day, the

florist and garden center shops are replete with potted tulips, daffo­

dils and hyacinths. The homeowner usually buys these beautiful plants with little thought as to what goes into having them ready for sale by the holidays.

It is the purpose of this exercise to go through the process of

forcing bulbs that have already been cooled so that you may understand

and appreciate just how the commercial grower must plan ahead.

Cooling, to explain briefly, is a process which occurs with the bulbs naturally in the outdoor setting in the northern section of the

United States. The cold winter weather is sufficient to cause certain physical and chemical changes to take place within the bulb, to result

in attractive flowers the following spring. The grower, however, can­ not trust his success to the vicissitudes of nature. Instead, as a result of extensive research, he stores his bulbs at specific low tem­ peratures for certain periods of time, to assure optimal plant and flower development.

The purpose is two-fold, however, for if you are witness to the development of attractive flowers in this fashion, chances are you may find a permanent use for them in your home landscape.

192 193

Lab No. 2 -- Continued

Materials:

Bulbs: Tulips, Muscari (Grape Hyacinths), Crocus, Hyacinths,

Iris, Lilies and Narcissus.

Pots, and a well-drained soil mix.

Procedure:

This is an exercise that requires some thinking ahead, For

specific bulb variety requirements, check an appropriate reference.

Generally, the bulbs arrive in October and are in need of a cool­

ing period. This can be accomplished by placing them outside or by placing them in refrigerated storage conditions. (For details on

particular cultivars, see "Commercial Flower Forcing" by Kiplinger,

Nelson and Laurie, or "The Ball Red Book" - 12th Edition). Once the

cooling period is over, the bulbs are potted into sterilized pots

using a sterilized media which is well drained. If new clay pots are

ever used, soak them in water before potting. Never use any manure

as a part of the potting media.

Keep in mind that different bulbs have varying flowering dates,

so if you are seeking a massed bloom effect, try to coordinate the

cultivars with the same periods of maturation. When the bulbs are

placed in the pots, make sure that the tip is protruding above the

surface. 194

Lab No. 2 -- Continued

Some Mind Teasers

1. With Tulips, why is it they usually decline in vigor and bloom quality after they are in the ground for several seasons?

2. Why should manure never be used when planting bulbs?

3. Some Crocuses that were planted along the edge of a flower bed on an open south exposure bloomed in early March. The same varieties of Crocuses that were planted under the canopy of a stand of pines did not bloom until early April. Why? LAB EXERCISE NO. 3

Tree Fertilization Techniques for the Homeowner

Introduction:

With the continued urbanization of our environment, and the in­

terruption of the ecological cycle (leaf litter) by man, the trees that

enhance our ecosystem are many times lacking the essential nutrients

for normal growth.

There are some classical approaches to fertilizing trees around

one's property, and some new variations on this theme. It is the pur­ pose of this lab to outline some of the approaches the homeowner may

take and let him make up his mind as to which approach would be feasi­ ble to his particular situation.

Techniques:

Method 1: Surface Applications

Either a cyclone spreader or a hopper spreader will suffice.

This is good for trees growing in open ground. However, the

only elements really being supplied to the tree are nitrogen

and potassium because of their ready mobility in the soil.

Generally not a recommended procedure for continued benefit

to the tree.

Method 2: Punch Bar or Drill Hole Application

The punch bar method is a common practice employed frequently

by "old timers." They typically use a crowbar to make the

195 196

Lab No. 3 -- Continued

holes about 18" ddep and about 2* apart. This method has

its limitations, in that it compresses the soil, keeps the

nutrients confined, and requires a great deal of tiring

labor. A better version of this principle is the use of

a power soil auger. Here compaction of the soil does not

occur, the fertilizer is not confined, the work is easier,

with air and water movement into the root zone being improved.

Once the soil opened, the fertilizer is place and watered in,

the holes are usually filled with peat moss, sand, or crushed

stone.

Method 3: Feeding Needles

For the homeowner market, the Ross Root Feeder is readily

available. Here, a plant nutrient cartridge is placed in

a chamber at the top of the apparatus, the garden hose at­

tached, and the needle inserted into the soil to the proper

depth ( 6 to 18 inches). When the water passes through the

chamber, it carries nutrients and water into the root zone.

Probably the easiest and most convenient method of tree

fertilization for the homeowner to use. Also an ideal tool

for deep root watering.

Method 4: Tree Injection Cartridges

This is a modern day adaptation of the old "drive a nail

into the tree" technique. It is today far more effective

and scientific in its approach than the old technique. It

is specific as well, being at the present time allowable 197

Lab No. 3 -- Continued

for correcting only iron deficiency in trees. The problem

of chlorosis is not taken lightly by homeowners in the mid­

west with Pin Oaks, Sweet Gums or Bald Cypress on their

properties that require an acid soil for satisfactory growth.

The only tools needed are a drill bit (provided by the manu­

facturer), a drill, and a hammer for seating the cartridges.

They are sold under the commercial name Medicaps and are

recommended for use in early spring.

Procedure:

For Methods 3 and 4, follow the manufacturer's directions. For

Methods 1 and 2, proceed in the following manner:

Method 1: Surface Application

This is the fastest method for the homeowner to employ.

It is best used under tree canopies where there is no

ground vegetation. Apply the fertilizer (10-6-4, or some

other similar formulation) at a rule of thumb rate of 5 lbs.

actual nitrogen per 1 0 0 0 square feet of soil surface under

the branch spread. This is calculated by taking the dis­

tance from the trunk of the tree to the edge of the branch

spread (radius), squaring it and multiplying by 3.14.

Surface Area = X 3.14

If a tree had an area approximately equal to 1000 square feet

under its branches, then one 50 lb. bag of 10-6-4 would be

spread under the tree to give the equivalent of 5 lbs. actual

nitrogen per 1000 square feet. With this process, it is best 198

Lab No. 3 -- Continued

to apply this rate in two or three separate applications

to prevent excessive runoff and possible foliage burn on

any vegetation growing under the tree. Water each appli­

cation in thoroughly.

Method 2: Punch Bar or Drill Hole Application

This technique is most effective if a soil auger is used,

preferably a power one, to reduce the labor involved. A

dual purpose is attained here, with improved circulation

of air and water into the root zone, as well as getting

some essential elements into the soil. Generally, the

rate is the same as for the surface application (5 lbs.

actual nitrogen per 1 0 0 0 square feet), with the holes be­

ing augered out to a depth of 1 2 to 18 inches and as far

apart. The first holes should be 2 feet from the trunk

and to out in concentric circles to about one foot beyond

the drip line of the tree. Once the fertilizer has been

distributed among the drilled holes, it should be watered in

thoroughly and the holes filled with peat moss, sand or

crushed stone. 199

Lab No. 3 — Continued

Some Mind Teasers

1. Neighbor "A" decided to fertilize his trees with the power soil auger. He obtained some 10-6-4 fertilizer, calculated his re­ quirements and proceeded with the job, doing everything correctly. Neighbor "B" seeing Neighbor "A" go through this process, was not about to be outdone. However, after he augered the holes around the tree, the area was beset with a heavy rainfall lasting several days. So Neighbor "B" gave up the idea of fertilizing his trees. The two trees were of the same species, with about the same degree of malady, yet both responded equally well. How can this be ex­ plained?

2. Why is it necessary for the fertilizer application to start 2 feet from the trunk of the tree?

3. Outline and sketch the process used in fertilizing the trees using Methods 3 and 4. LAB EXERCISE NO. 4

Practical Vegetative Propagation Techniques

Introduction:

The homeowner is many times confronted with the frustration of his favorite pot plant getting too large for the room it is in, or has the desire to reproduce this plant and pass it on to loved ones or neighbors.

The methods of propagation employed with this lab will aid the home­ owner in solving some of these problems. Air layering, budding and pro­ pagation by cuttings are all within the realm of the average person.

Through this, the practical art of plant propagation, skills, confidence and a greater understanding of plant growth will be attained.

Materials:

I. Propagation by Cuttings:

Coleus plants, geranium plants, Currant cuttings, Sanse-

vieria, Dawn Redwood cuttings, Juniper cuttings, Forsythis

cuttings, or any other plant material available that is fair­

ly easy to root, pruning knives (see sketch), rooting media

(sand, peat/perlite, or vermiculite), containers, polyethylene

wrap and rooting powder.

Procedure:

The Coleus and geranium plants usually are propa­

gated by softwood cuttings. Select a healthy shoot

and remove it very carefully from the plant with the

200 201

Lab No. 4 -- Continued

pruning knife, cutting it as long as possible ( 1 2 to

16 inches). Next, cut the shoot into sections 3 or 4

inches in length and insert each piece into the moistened

rooting media. Spray with a fine mist and cover with

polyethylene. Secure at the base of the container.

Keep the poly wrap from touching the cuttings to reduce

disease development (see Fig. 2).

A variation of this technique would be to take

leaf-bud cuttings, if there is a limit on the propagation

material. This consists of taking a leaf, a petiole,

and bud (see Fig. 3) from an herbaceous plant (Coleus,

rose, geranium), inserting it into a moist media and

following the procedure described above.

Leaf cuttings may be successfully rooted on such

plants as the common Sansevieria, Begonias, rubber plants,

or Peperomias. Sansevieria are cut into sections about

4 inches long and inserted into the media with the basal

end down. Begonias, rubber plants or Peperomias can be

rooted in the following ways:

1. Begonias - Simply cut the thick veins on the leaf

in several places. Then lay the leaf flat on the

rooting media, keeping the leaf/media contact close

with the help of hair pins.

2. Peperomias and rubber plants - Remove the leaf at

the base of the petiole and insert into the media 202

Lab No. 4 -- Continued

up to 1/3 the length of the leaf blade.

II. Propagation by Air Layering;

Pruning knife, sphagnum moss, twist ties, polyethylene

wrap and plant material. (Indoor plants - rubber plants,

Citrus, Crotons, Norfolk Island Pines, Philodendron. Out­

door plants - just about any woody plant.)

Procedure:

Select a healthy vigorous shoot to air layer.

Start about 9 to 12 inches from the branch tip and make

either one of two cuts as follows:

(a) A shallow slanting cut about 1% to 2 inches long

through about 1/3 of the branch (see sketch).

Place a small sliver of wood into this cut area

to keep it open. If it is a woody plant, dusting

with a rooting powder may enhance root development.

Next, pick up a handfull of sphagnum moss that has

been thoroughly soaked in water and squeeze it as

tightly as possible to remove excess water. Wrap

this sphagnum moss around the branch completely

covering the wound. With a sheet of poly wrap 203

Lab No. 4 -- Continued

about 12" X 12" square, wrap the sphagnum moss ball

in such a way that the material overlaps. Using

the twist ties, secure the ends of this wrapping

tightly. If the plants are outdoor ornamentals,

wait one growing season before checking and removing

the wrap. If roots have formed, they will usually

be visible under the poly wrap. If it is an indoor

plant, the roots have been known to form sufficiently

in just three weeks (rubber plants) and 8 to 1 2 weeks

with citrus.

(b) This next method, known as the girdling technique, is

the preferred one by the author as it has been found

that fewer cut fingers result and the students are

not as apt to cut all the way through the branch.

Start again about 9 to 12 inches back on a healthy

branch, but this time make a complete girdle cut

around the stem just into the xylem tissue. About

1 % to 2 inches below that cut make another one

completely girdling the branch. Next, slit the

bark tissue between the two girdle cuts, insert

the knife blade and peel the bark tissue off.

(See skitch steps.) 204

Lab No. 4 — Continued n

Step #1 showing two Step #2 showing the girdle cuts on the knife blade being in­ stem. serted into the slit between the girdle cuts.

Step #3 showing the bark tissue removed, scraped and ready to be wrapped in sphagnum moss.

Once the bark is peeled off, the area should be

thoroughly but gently scraped to make sure no

cambial tissue remains. Them proceed in the same

fashion as described for the previous method.

Note: Some plants such as pines, spruce, fir, red­ bud, and ginkgo are so difficult to root by cuttings, that is is not recommended to even attempt this technique with these varieties.

III. Propagation by T-Budding:

Budding knife, rubber budding strip, scionwood (or bud

stick) and rootstock plants.

Procedure:

This technique is especially useful to the home 205

Lab No. 4 — Continued

orchardist who desires to topwork young trees with dif­

ferent fruit varieties, or for simply propagating desired

species on hardier rootstocks (roses).

A budstick or scionwood is obtained from the desired

species of the current season's growth. The leaf is cut

off, but about 1/3 of the leaf petiole is left secured

to the scion. Then, about a half inch below the bud,

begin the cut with a recently sharpened knife, cutting

smoothly and slightly into the wood, beneath the bud,

then back up again about a half inch above the bud.

A T-cut is then made, preferable on the north side

of a rootstock plant, about three inches above ground

level. First a vertical cut (about 1 to 1% inches) is

made. Then a horizontal cut is made across the top of

the vertical cut, thus forming the T-cut. Gently, with

the tip of the knife, spread the bark and insert the bud

shield into the cut area, using the leaf petiole stump

as a handle to facilitate handling. Push the bud

gently into place beneath the spread bark flaps. If

any of the shield extends above the T-cut, simply cut it

off evenly so there is a uniform fit of the bud shield

into the T-cut.

Next, wrap the bud firmly with a rubber budding strip,

making sure the entire area (except the bud per se) is

securely wrapped. Start below the bud, wrapping up to and 206

Lab No. 4 — Continued

above the bud, slipping the free end under the last

turn to hold it securely. The finished wrapping should

be smooth and without knots.

If healing is going to take place, it should be

apparent in three to four weeks. Normally, this is

into the early part of the summer and the budding rubbers

may have begun to deteriorate. If not, then they should

be cut off. At this time, once the rubbers are completely

off, and it is apparent that healing has taken place,

then the rootstock may be cut back to about % inch above

the bud union to force the inserted bud to break dormancy

and grow. If this technique was carried out in the late

summer, then it is best to let the bud stay dormant until

the following spring. In other words, do not cut the

rootstock back until the following spring. 207

Lab No. 4 — Continued

Some Mind Teasers

1. There is a grafting technique that may be of use to homeowners with valuable trees that have been damaged. It is known as bridge graft­ ing. Sketch and describe the conditions under which you would use this technique.

2. Your in-laws have heard that you know something about plant propa­ gation. They bring a varegated Sansevieria to you to propagate. You take some leaf cuttings, place them in the proper media, but the new plants have lost their varegated character. You have in­ curred the wrath of your in-laws. What went wrong?

3. You purchase a dwarf flowering tree which has red flowers in the spring. After a few years in the landscape, you notice a vigorous shoot arising from the base of the tree, but it does not flower. What is the possible origin of this shoot and of what significance will it be to the tree if it is not removed? LAB EXERCISE NO. 5

Pruning Principles for the Homeowner

Introduction:

Pruning is just one aspect of plant maintenance. There are many reasons why pruning is carried on: to remove diseased or dead limbs, to restrict or promote growth, to encourage or improve blooming, to develop larger blooms, or to develop certain forms of growth.

Many people go all out for a pruning program, buying expensive and exotic pruning clippers, lopping shears, saws, and in some cases, chemical pruning agents. Pruning is a task that has no specific season. Rather, it is a continuous process, with the gardener working to enhance the ornamental value and purpose of his plantings. The first pruning shears that mankind discovered were the nails of his thumb and forefinger. Many Westerners exclaim at the simple beauty of Japanese gardens, but fail to discover the secret of the striking plant forms they envy. Japanese gardeners give close attention to detail and fine plant maintenance. They are continually using the

"thumb and fingernail pruners" to keep that well-cared-for look so often missing in America.

The concepts presented in this lab exercise are intended to guide the homeowner to a greater understanding of pruning techniques. The underlying theme will be obvious, which is to prune with the natural form of the plant, and not against it. The concept of shearing plants

208 209

Lab No. 5 — Continued into "green ice cream cones" for home landscape plantings should be­ come a thing of the past.

Materials:

Plant material in need of pruning, pruning clippers (anvil and scissors types), lopping shears, pruning saw, and tree paint.

Procedure:

An outline will be developed for pruning various types of plants.

For specifics, consult a detailed text on pruning. Generally, one can prune almost any flowering plant immediately after it flowers. A con­ spicuous exception to this might be the Pyracantha species. Here, the fruits are as showy as the flowers, and longer lasting. If the drying flowers are removed, no fruit will follow. Although flowers for next year are produced on last season's growth, pinching or cutting new growth back on small plants may affect the flowering for next season. Where this bush has become overgrown, it is best to cut back in mid- or late winter.

Plant Types:

1. Deciduous Hedges (Privet, Tallhedge)

Trim so that the form is wider at the base than at top, or

into an "A" shape. Best done in early spring when dormant.

2. Deciduous Specimen Shrubs (Common Lilac, Mockorange, Spirea)

Remove all old canes back to the base of the plant (do not

leave a stub) right after they have flowered. Timing on this

would be in early or late spring, depending on the blooming

period. DO NOT PRUNE THESE SHRUBS IN LATE SUMMER, OR THE

FOLLOWING SEASON'S FLOWERS WILL BE LOST. 210

Lab No. 5 — Continued

3. Needle Evergreens

Trim freely in early spring before new growth begins (Taxus,

Junipers). The resulting growth will cover the cuts. With

Fines, Firs and Spruce, wait until the "candles'* (new growth)

have elongated, and before it hardens, trim to about half

its length. Always trim any needle evergreen into an area

where needle growth exists. Pines and Firs have been irre-

placably disfigured due to neglect of this fact. Evergreens

like Yews and Hemlocks are the most prune-worthy species.

They tolerate light pruning into formal hedges (early spring

before new growth appears), and can tolerate frequent shearing

throughout the season to maintain the desired shape.

4. Broadleaf Evergreens

Many, like the Hollies and Azaleas, can be pruned anywhere

along a healthy branch due to the existance of latent buds.

Generally, with the exception of the female species of Ameri­

can Holly and Pyracantha, these plants can be pruned to remove

the dead flowers. This action will assure bud breaking,

denser growth, and more flowers the following year. Rhodo­

dendrons and Azaleas should not be pruned in late summer as

the following season's flower buds have already formed in

the terminal buds.

5. Shade Trees (Maples, Oaks)

Generally pruned throughout late fall into early winter. If

the homeowner cannot reach the branches with both feet on the Lab No. 5 — Continued

ground, he should seek the help of a professional arborist.

Avoid unnecessary pruning in summer as this may restrict

growth.

A Few Words About Root Pruning:

This technique of pruning has two important functions: (1) To

control excessive vegetative growth on espaliered bushes and vines and

promote flowering, and (2) To prepare a plant for transplanting. Many

people have access to wooded areas and desire to move such understory

trees as the Flowering Dogwood closer to their homes. It is best to

begin this process in the spring of the year by taking a spade and

driving it into the ground about two feet away from the trunk of the

sapling. This will sever the roots and, leaving the tree in its lo­

cation for one more year, will allow a cluster of fine roots to develop which will facilitate moving and survival. With larger deciduous trees,

follow the same procedure as for the Dogwood, allowing one foot in ball

size for every inch in trunk caliper (circumference) as measured six

inches above the soil line.

It is best, especially with fleshy rooted trees like the Dogwood,

to move the tree with a ball of earth. If this is not possible, then

the next best alternative is to make up a muddy soup, dip the roots

into this, then wrap them in wet burlap. Pruning the limb structure

back about 1/3 of its length will also aid in increasing survival after

transplanting. 212

Lab No. 5 — Continued

General Rules for Pruning:

1. Use only sharp and proper tools for the job. A carpenter's

saw is good for carpentry work, but unsuitable for tree

trimming.

2. Prune back to an existing bud (about % inch above it), or

to a side branch. Never leave a stub.

3. Cut larger limbs in three steps:

a. Make an undercut on the limb 9 to 12 inches from the main

trunk, cutting into about 1/3 of the limb's diameter.

b. Go back about an inch or two from the undercut and begin

cutting into the top of the limb. As the saw cuts into

the wood, the weight of the limb will cause fissuring

to take place between these two cuts, and the limb will fall.

c. With the stump that remains, cut it off flush with the main

trunk. Once the final cut is made, cover the cut area with

tree paint, not house paint.

4. Pruning in the summer months results in a greater dwarfing of

trees than pruning in the late winter months.

5. Buy and plant trees and shrubs that have the characteristics,

mature size and shape you want. Do not count on pruning to

keep tall plants short and spreading plants narrow. 213

Lab No. 5 -- Continued

Some Mind Teasers

1. Why are soft wooded or easily broken trees like the Silver Maples, Poplars and Tulip trees more of a pruning problem than other hard wood species?

2. What are girdling roots, and on what types of trees do they commonly occur? When are the problems caused by girdling roots most liable to manifest themselves? How do you eliminate a girdling root?

3. You have purchased a hardy Wisteria vine for its attractive lilac colored flowers. Years go by, the plant grows and grows, but no flowers. What pruning technique would you employ to possibly bring on flowering? LAB EXERCISE NO. 6

Planting Ornamentals

Introduction:

The proper planting of ornamentals on one's property is perhaps

the single most important cultural operation made in getting a land­

scaped setting developed around the home.

Proper plant selection and planting design concepts can all be negated by employing improper planting techniques.

Placement of plants in a setting depends on a number of factors, among which are:

a. Solar exposure

b. Soil type (pH, clay or sand)

c. Hardiness

d. Drainage

e. Topographic features

f. The purpose intended for the planting.

This lab has, as its intention, the purpose of elucidating some of the considerations and techniques used in planting trees, shrubs, and vines around the home environment.

Materials:

Plant material ready for planting, spade, shovel, pickaxe, sphagnum peat, superphosphate fertilizer, stakes, tree wrapping paper, cloth webbing and a fungicide.

214 Lab No. 6 -- Continued

Procedure:

1. Bare Root Plants (Deciduous)

No matter what the species, this operation is best done in the

early spring while the plants are still dormant. From the home­

owner's point of view, this is probably the most inexpensive form

of plant material to use, without necessarily sacrificing quality.

First, determine the natural spread of the root system. Then

begin digging the hole so there will be at least 4 to 6 inches of

space between the spread of the roots and the sides and bottom

of the hole.

Once this is accomplished, the next step is to check the

drainage. Take a 2 to 3 gallon bucket of water and dump it into

the hole. If the water stands for an hour or more, then provi­

sions should be made for improving the drainage before planting.

Placing gravel or sand in the bottom of the hole as is often

recommended will be of little use during heavy rain periods.

Drainage away from the hole to another area using 3-inch agri­

cultural tile is needed. This makes for more work during the

planting, but may save digging the plant out in a few years and

replanting again, doing it correctly.

Assuming drainage is not a problem, begin placing a little

backfill soil into the hole that has about a third of its volume

consisting of sphagnum peat and a couple of handfuls of super­

phosphate mixed in. When about a 4 inch crown has been built

up in the hole, place the plant in and note where it will be 216

Lab No. 6 -- Continued

setting when planted. There is usually a fairly distinct soil

line where the tree or shrub was planted at the nursery. If your

soil is a good loam or topsoil, then plant it at the same depth

planted at the nursery. If the soil tends to be loose and sandy,

then plant it about one inch deeper. If the soil is heavy and

clayey, then plant it about one inch higher.

At this point, if the plant is a tree 2 inches or under in

caliper (ideal size for the homeowner to handle), then it should

be staked with a 2" X 2” stake about 8 feet long. It is situated

between the roots close to the trunk and usually on the windward

side (prevailing wind direction). Drive it firmly into the ground,

then continue with the backfill operation. When the tree roots

are covered and the hole about half full, add a couple of gallons

of water and continue backfilling. When filled with soil, shape

out a slight saucer depression and water again, using a couple of

gallons of water. If any settling takes place, add more soil and

water again. Do not commence with the time-honored but incorrect

technique of stomping the soil around the roots with your footI

If extra firming is needed, use the flat side of the shovel.

Next, mulch the area with 2 to 3 inches of whatever suitable

material is available (peat moss, bark chips, shredded sugar cane,

etc.). Where the plant is a tree, prepare a fungicide solution

(Bordeaux mixture or Phaltan) and paint it over the trunk and

lower limb area that is going to be wrapped. Next, starting near

the lower branches, begin wrapping the tree down to the soil line 217

Lab No. 6 -- Continued

with a stretchable tree wrapping paper overlapping slightly,

and hold in place by tying with some cotton twine.

Finally, the tree is braced with a flexible tree tape

which is wrapped around the trunk in a couple of places with the

loose ends nailed to the 2" X 2n stake.

Water the plant deeply and frequently throughout the first

season, but do not overdo it. Once a week during the normal summer

heat is sufficient, unless the equivalent of one inch of rainfall

occurs during that period.

Some top pruning is recommended to get the branch system

into balance with the root system. Bare root plants should have

their branches cut back one third to one half their original

length.

2. Balled and Burlapped (B & B) Container Grown Plants

Plant material in this form at a nursery can be planted by

the homeowner any time the soil can be worked.

The procedure for specimen material is exactly as it is

described for bare root material. However, one point should be

made. The plants the homeowner might purchase may be of the

Ericaceae family (Rhododendrons, Azaleas, Pieris, etc.) which

require soils with a pH at 5.0 or below, and excellent drainage,

for good growth. Where the soil is not naturally acid, instead

of digging single holes for these plants, excavate the entire area

in which the plants are to be placed to a depth of about two feet.

Then separate the fertile topsoil from the subsoil, replacing the 218

Lab No. 6 — Continued

subsoil removed with topsoil that has about a third of its volume

made up of sphagnum peat moss. Once the plants are in place,

mulch the area generously with more peat moss. Sphagnum peat

has a pH reaction of about 3.5 and adding it to the overall

volume of backfill soil in the proportion suggested will not only

provide an ideal pH for normal plant growth, but improve the

structure of the soil as well.

Growing plants in soil of either pH exteme presents some

problems of which the gardener should be aware. In the lower

pH ranges, where the Rhododendrons thrive best, the three major

elements begin to decrease in availability (N, P, K), but another

important major element, calcium, often becomes acutely deficient

when the pH is about 5.0 or lower. Most gardeners know that

calcium is usually added to the soil in the form of calicitic or

dolomitic (Ca and Mg) limestone, but doing so only increases the

pH. A source of calcium (and sulfur also) that many people are St unaware of which does not significantly change the pH reaction

is gypsum. It is widely used by agriculturists where either of

the important elements of calcium and sulfur are needed by a

crop with no change in the pH of the soil.

A few words of warning in planting container grown plants -

and it is only mentioned because the oversight has been observed

many times - (1) Do not forget to remove non-decomposable con­

tainers before planting! (2) When the plants have been removed

from the container and before planting, observe the pattern of 219

Lab No. 6 — Continued

root growth. If the roots have begun growing around the outside

of the soil following the shape of the container (commonly called

"pot-bound"), then these roots must be cut with either a knife

or hand pruners. If this is neglected, these encircling or

"suicide" roots will eventually kill the plant.

With balled and burlapped plants, leave the burlap on, but

make sure the twine that is usually tied around the base of the

trunk and the root ball is removed from the trunk only. Many

times gardeners and landscape crews overlook this detail in their

haste to plant and a girdled dying tree is the result.

3. Processed Balls

These are becoming available to a greater extent with each

passing season. They are plants which are field dug in the usual

manner (deciduous plants), then the roots are packed in moistened

peat moss which has a slow release fertilizer, Osmocote, added

to it. The plants appear to be attractive in the retail outlets

throughout the entire season and have the advantages of compactness

and neatness that are found with container grown plants without

the chore of removing a tight container. They are planted in

the same manner as described for balled and burlapped plants. 220

Lab No. 6 — Continued

Some Mind Teasers

1. A tree (Zelkova) was planted on your property several years ago. At first the tree appeared normal, but as the first couple of years went by, you noticed that the leaves were getting smaller, little new growth was put on, and the tree was showing earlier and earlier fall color. What might be a problem here, and how would you go about checking it out?

2. You finished planting a bed of Rhododendrons last spring, which seem to have come through the winter in good shape. Noticing some weeds starting to grow in the area where the Rhododendrons were planted, you get out the hoe and give them (the weeds) a good working over. Task accomplished, you sit back to enjoy the planting, but notice with the passing of the season that the plants have lost some of their vigor. No insects or diseases are apparent. What could be wrong?

3. A problem comes up where a sidewalk must be installed in mid-summer, and it would involve moving a medium sized tree, or cutting it down. Realizing the value of trees, you opt to have it saved. What would be the steps an arborist might go through to successfully move this tree? LAB EXERCISE NO. 7

Growing A Home Vegetable Garden

Introduction:

Almost any property has a location where a selection of vegetables may be grown. Home vegetable gardening reached its zenith during the war years with the "Victory Gardens." Then it was a genuine necessity for

Americans to grow some of their own food due to the rationing system in existence. Like it or not, many found they could grow good tasting pro­ duce and the natural American competitive spirit gave impetus to receiving the seasonal "tomato king" or "sweet corn king" award in many neighbor­ hoods across the country.

With the passage of the war, more disposable income became avail­ able and many Americans turned their leisure time to other hobbies be­ sides gardening. Now the post-war babies are filling colleges and are becoming today's homeowners. Inspired by the ecological movement, many are seeking some sort of communion with nature. They are seeking the challenge and thrill of growing their own plants, many through organic gardening, hydroponic gardening, window sill gardening, or just plain old fashioned back yard gardening.

This lab will make an exploratory exposition of some of these tech­ niques for the homeowner to use, with the hope that the renewed interest in vegetable gardening will continue for many generations to come.

221 Lab No. 7 -- Continued

Procedures;

1. Hydroponic or Soilless Gardening

This form of gardening is applicable where ideal soil

or space is at a premium. It is also the most challenging

form of gardening as the individual pursuing it must know

what is required of each crop he is growing.

The gardener must first decide on what medium to use

for supporting the plant. Usually sand, vermiculite, perlite

or washed gravel is the supporting medium. He uses these

materials because they are essentially inert, with one ex­

ception, contributing no nutrients of any significance which

may be used by the plants.

The exception is vermiculite. This lightweight micaceous

material is rich enough in magnesium and potassium to supply

the requirements of most plants. Using this material as the

supporting medium has the following advantages:

1. It contains the two essential nutrients mentioned above,

2. It has an excellent buffering capacity (which simply means

the pH will not change easily),

3. It is capable of absorbing large quantities of water,

4. It has a good cation exchange capacity (which means it

absorbs nutrient ions and holds them for later release -

less of a leaching loss), and

5. It is sterile, containing no noxious organisms. 223

Lab No. 7 -- Continued

Its outstanding disadvantage is its tendency to compact

with continued long range use. It is best to replace after

each crop is finished.

The other materials, specifically sand and fine gravel,

can also be purchased in a sterilized condition. They do not

have any buffering capacity, no significant cation exchange

capacity, and no nutrient supply to speak of. These two are

frequently used because of the excellent water and air move­

ment that can be attained with them, leading to superior root

development. The only disadvantage is the weight involved

in handling containers filled with such media.

Perlite, by contrast, is very light in weight, as well

as color (white). It, like vermiculite, is a sterile product

by virtue of its processing technique, and has a neutral

reaction and high water holding capacity as vermiculite does.

But unlike vermiculite, its buffering capacity is poor, has

no cation exchange capacity, and no mineral nutrients. It

will, however, resist compaction with continued use.

One of the essential concerns with any of these media

should be maintaining the proper moisture content. The home­

owner is probably not going to be able to maintain a con­

tinuous water and air flow as is done experimentally or

commercially, so he must be careful not to overwater or let

the medium get dry. The former would drive the air out, while

the latter would result in desiccation. 224

Lab No. 7 — Continued

The seeds may be germinated in a fashion similar to that

described in Lab No. 1. Plants which would lend themselves

to this type of culture quite easily would be tomatoes (es­

pecially the atom or cherry sizes), peppers, chives, lettuce

(especially the leaf types like black seeded simpson), and

parsley.

The fertilizer used should be dependent on the crop grown,

and the medium used. Generally, a complete fertilizer (which

contains N, P, K) that is water soluble is used. To this,

a chelated form of iron is added about once every two weeks.

This supplies the nitrate and phosphate anions, as well as the

potassium and ferrous cations. Two other elements, calcium

and sulfur, are essential if one is to have successful plant

growth. This may be applied as gypsum, usually in a powder

form. The best procedure here is to add about one level tea­

spoonful per six inch potful of media intended for use before

planting. This will supply the cation calcium and sulfate

anion. Getting these materials into the medium will provide

the plants with normal growth for one season. This requires

experimentation by the gardener and a willingness to persevere,

but the results can be satisfying.

If one does not want to go the culture route, but growing

in pots, these plants suggested here will do fine. The critical

fertilizer control is not essential, with infrequent appli­

cations (once every 2 to 3 weeks) of a water soluble N,P,K type. 225

Lab No. 7 -- Continued

2. Organic Gardening

This form of gardening is attracting greater numbers of

adherents every day. For them, the food tastes better and

supposedly has higher nutrient content when grown with the

"natural elements." It is not the purpose here to discredit

or support organic gardening, but to give some information

to those who may wish to pursue it.

The first thing needed for organic gardening is a good

inexpensive supply of organic matter. No better source can

be obtained than from a well-developed compost pile. To

develop one, select a space 4' X 8 ' to begin the pile. Some

people prefer to have the area defined as a bin, by using

cinder blocks or boards for the sides. Just about anything

can be used - leaf litter, grass clippings, weeds, kitchen

garbage, etc. If pH correction is needed in areas where the

soil is very acid, generous amounts of steamed bone meal may

be added to the pile as it is being built up. Always leave

a slight depression in the center to help catch rainwater, and

be sure to sprinkle during dry periods. Once the pile gets

to the size desired, a covering of topsoil is added and the

pile allowed to sit for about six weeks. The pile is then

turned over, moistened, and another layer of soil added, and

then the pile should stay as is until all the material is well

decomposed to a humus (see glossary). Length of time depends

on the climate and the type of material used, but one should 226

Lab No. 7 -- Continued

figure on about six months for decomposition to occur.

This composted material is then added to the soil where

a garden is planned, working it into the upper 4 to 6 inches.

Seeds or plants can then be planted, and once germination

takes place, a generous mulch should be put around the plants

to retain moisture and hold down the incidence of weeds.

If one sees garden pests beginning to destroy the plants,

then biological control (using Lady Beetles or Mantis) may

be employed. If none are immediately available, then some

"natural" insecticides are in order. Pyrethrins and rotenone

are both plant extracts that are effective as knock-down

insecticides with no long range residual effects.

If the garden is located in a sunny spot (at least six

hours of sunlight per day), is well drained, not overwatered,

and the plants well spaced, very little trouble should result

from the typical garden pests due to good air and water move­

ment and maximum sunlight penetration.

3. Typical Backyard Vegetable Gardening

Here the family selects the size of the site and type

of vegetables to suit their interests and tastes.

Generally most vegetables require at least six hours or

more of sunlight for good development. A few of the cool

season crops like leaf lettuce may be grown on an eastern

exposure where there will not be a significant heat build-up.

The plot should be fairly level, well drained, and the soil 227

Lab No. 7 — Continued

should be of good tilth. Organic matter in the form of compost

may be added to improve the structural characteristics of the

soil.

The garden is first planned on paper. Are all the vege­

tables going to be annual? Or are there going to be some

perennial plantings like asparagus and rhubarb? If the latter,

then they should be placed in a spot in the garden where they

will not interfere with normal annual cultivation. How about

tall growing crops like corn? They should be located in such

a way that no shade will be cast on other crops. How about

crop succession? Early crops like lettuce or peas can be

replaced by beans, beets or cabbage. In essence, to have a

successful vegetable garden takes more than a haphazzard

sowing of your favorite seeds.

Begin the garden as early in the spring as the soil can be

worked. The best general procedure is to spread any organic

matter and commercial fertilizer you intend to add over the

plot before working the soil. If a garden tiller is going to

be used, do not overdo it. If a shovel is the tool, turn the

soil only 90°, not 180°. A good general fertilizer to use at

this point is 5-10-5. Rake the plot so that only pea-sized

soil remains at the surface. Remove any stones or large

chunks of organic matter. Clean out any "wild" grass that

remains as it will only get worse as the garden grows.

For direct sown crops (beans, corn, peas, beets, etc.), 228

Lab No. 7 -- Continued

etch the rows with the corner on the blade of the hoe. Do

not go too deep. Follow the directions on the packet. The

reputable seed firms know what they are talking about.

For transplants (pepper, tomato, etc.), set them deep

enough. Tomato plants especially. They can have a couple of

inches of their main stem buried. This buried area will pro­

liferate with roots helping to establish a stronger plant and

a greater root system for water and nutrient absorption.

For vines (cucumber, pumpkin, squash), give them room!

These are usually planted in "hills11 2% to 3 feet apart (2 to

3 plants per hill). This may look ridiculous while they are

young, but will easily cover that area when mature.

Select the plants for the right season (see list), and

do not hesitate to mulch around such plants as tomato, egg­

plant, squash, etc. to hold down weeds, conserve moisture and

prevent fruit rot. Dried straw or grass clippings serve this

purpose quite well. Tomatoes grow best staked. Larger and

greater numbers of fruit will result.

Watch out for pests - insects, of course, but also

neighbors' dogs, cats, and children who are not disciplined

to stay out of freshly turned soil. It can be quite discourag­

ing to put in a good weekend of work spading and planting the

garden to come home on Monday evening to find the above-

mentioned have mistaken your plot for a giant sandbox.

Weeds are controlled by regular shallow hoeing or mulching. 229

Lab No. 7 - Continued

Some Vegetables for Sequential Plantings:

Early Spring Mid-Spring Summer Fall

Peas Beans (bush Beans (Second Lettuce and pole) crop) Lettuce Corn Corn (Late crop) Peas

Radish Swiss Chard Cabbage Collards

Spinach Cucumbers Carrots Kohlrabi

Onions Tomatoes Parsley Spinach

Broccoli Peppers Mustard

Beets Squash

Cauliflower Melons 230

Lab No. 7 -- Continued

Some Mind Teasers

1. You are an apartment dweller and wish to grow a couple of tomato plants to liven up the summer salads. You get a couple of good name variety plants and grow them in 8 inch pots in a protected but sunny area of your patio. The summer wears on, the plants grow, but very little fruit is set. A neighbor of yours has done the same thing with the same variety, but has placed the plants in more of an open exposed area. His plants are bearing quite heavily. What could be the cause for the difference?

2. You sow some leaf lettuce seed in late May and the seedlings grow quite to your satisfaction. However, when the leaves begin to reach harvesting size, you notice that some of the plants begin to produce a stem that comes into flower. Undaunted, you harvest some leaves anyway, but find their taste quite bitter and disagreeable. What went wrong?

3. You wish to grow some sweet corn in your small garden plot. You plant a single row 30 feet long of a good hybrid variety. The plants grow, tassel out, form silk, but only runty ears develop in just about every case. What caused this? LAB EXERCISE NO. 8

Pesticide Use Around the Home Grounds

Introduction:

Since the publication of the book "Silent Spring," a great deal of

controversy has surrounded the use of various pesticides. The term

"pesticide" is all inclusive, simply meaning to get rid of that which

is undesirable or inimical to the pursuits of mankind. The term can be

broken down to specifics: insecticides - to eliminate unwanted insects;

herbicide - to eradicate unwanted vegetation; fungicide - to check the

spread of a debilitating fungus on a crop; and miticides - toxins that

are specific for mites. Other "cides" exist for controlling rabbits, mice and other animals that may prove a threat to a particular crop mankind is interested in developing.

Properly used, pesticides can help lay the groundwork for a health­

ful and satisfying lifetime for mankind. Used indiscriminately and un­ necessarily, they can be the source of many problems.

People have a tendency to operate at emotional levels and give vent

to the subtlest fears within them when they are confronted with subjects

they know little about. They are quick to react to a doomsday soothsayer who, with little or no qualification to say so, will predict the demise, disfigurement or displacement of the human race because of the use of poisons in the environment. They extol the virtues of living in "harmony with nature" only to show their complete ignorance of the immutable laws

231 232

Lab No. 8 — Continued of nature that would harm man if he did not use his mind to harness them.

I can say little here that will change the minds of those already committed to thinking in this vein. The intention, rather, is to reach those who are "fence straddling" the subject of pesticide use. I ask you to think within a conceptual frame of mind: a poison is a certain substance that kills based on its dose and the body weight of the animal in question. Keeping that in mind, ask yourself how many aspirins it would take to kill, or how much table salt? In other words, there are plenty of household products that have the ability to poison, if their dose were sufficiently large.

This lab will acquaint you with some of the more common pesticides which may find use around the home and provide a rationale for their use.

Materials:

A selection of pesticides: insecticides, fungicides, miticides and herbicides. A number of sprayers, either of the garden hose type or the knapsack type. Do not mix containers and pesticides. Some can create a highly toxic substance, while others cancel each other out.

Procedure:

1. Insecticides:

Insecticides come in various mixtures to control mining,

boring, chewing and sucking insects. Generally, the knock-down

insecticides like pyrethrins, malathion, sevin and rotenone are

good for sucking and chewing insects like aphids and beetles.

Another insecticide, methoxychlor, is used as a substitute for 233

Lab No. 8 -- Continued

D.D.T. and is especially used to control the spread of Elm

bark beetles.

The immature stages of leaf miners and borers are not

significantly affected by these insecticides. Therefore,

another class of insecticide is used, known as the systemics.

These materials like Cygon and Metasystox R are applied to

the plant and are carried throughout its root and branching

system. They are commonly used in conjunction with contact

insecticides like sevin. Their effect is thus; if the borer,

leaf miner or sucking insect is missed by the knock-down

spray, the systemic insecticide will get them when they begin

to feed on the foliage. Insecticides containing sevin should

not be used where bee activity is desired.

Another insecticide that is quite potent and should be

handled with special caution is lindane. For borer control

on dogwoods, plums and birch, it is best to paint a solution

of this material on the trunk and lower scaffold branches of

these trees. The painting is recommended to confine the

material to the specimen and to get maximum coverage. Doing

this in the early spring before the larvae begin to crawl

is the most effective time.

Normally, apply the insecticides with a good sprayer on

calm days. Spray on top and under the foliage. Spray in the

morning hours before the temperature gets too high. Do not

spray when it is 85°F or above, or else plant damage may result. 234

Lab No. 8 -- Continued

Spray when evidence of insect damage first occurs, not before.

Use the material that is effective enough for the job. Mala-

thion and pyrethrin will usually do the job and prove to be

relatively innocuous to warm blooded animals. The applications

should be staggered every 1 0 to 14 days to get effective kill

on emerging generations of insects. Parathion or lindane,

two very potent insecticides, should not be used by the home­

owner unless the situation calls for it.

All insecticides should be used with protective clothing

and gloves. Never smoke while using insecticides and after use,

wash thoroughly all exposed skin. Systemics should never be

used on plants that are intended for human or wildlife con­

sumption. Always read the label and follow the directions;

never formulate your own concoction. Be careful of drift.

A Few Words About Dormant Oil Sprays - Used at the right

time, they can be one of the most effective insecticides avail­

able to man. They kill by suffocation, not poison, and will

effectively destroy mite eggs, scale insects, tent caterpillar

eggs and aphid eggs. Apply in the early spring while the plant

material is still dormant, especially covering branch tips,

crotches and areas where the bark is exfoliating. Air temper­

ature should be above 45°F for 24 to 48 hours during and after

application. Avoid using on the following species because of

possible damage: Beech, Black Walnut, Japanese Maple, Hickory,

and Sugar Maple. Evergreens such as Douglas Fir, Abies (true 235

Lab No. 8 — Continued

Fir), Junipers and Yews may also show damage from dormant

oil. Some recent research has found a lightweight oil that

can be used on these oil-susceptible species. Be sure of

what you are using. Lime sulfur, a commonly recommended

fungicide, is also an excellent dormant season insecticide

and can be used on the oil-susceptible species mentioned

above.

Understanding the LD5 0 Term - LD5 0 is a term used by

scientists to describe the killing power of the insecticide

in question. It literally means the Lethal Dost (LD) re­

quired to kill 50% (LD5 0 ) of a group of laboratory test

animals. It is the amount of the pure pesticide in miligrams

(mg) required per 1 0 0 0 grams (g) of animal body weight to kill

half of the test population. This is done so that the scientists

can be relatively certain that death is due to the poison and

not some physiological or genetic weakness. In other words,

the lower the LD5 0 number, the more toxic the material. An

insecticide with an LD^q of 1 0 0 0 is not as toxic as an in­

secticide with an LD5 0 of 10. It takes one hundred times

more of the former to effect a kill equal to the latter.

2. Fungicides:

These materials will not kill or eradicate a fungus

once it has started, but they will keep it in check. They

should be applied before rainy periods to keep the fungus

spores from geminating. 236

Lab No. 8 -- Continued

There are a few old standbys such as Bordeaux Mixture

and Lime Sulfur that modern homeowners should not pass up.

They serve the dual purpose of controlling the fungus and in

many cases some insects.

Phaltan is probably the most commonly used fungicide of

the "new breed" of products on the market today. Its range

of usefulness is broad - roses, fruit trees, woody ornamentals,

and annuals.

Benlate, another new fungicide, is unique in that its

range goes from controlling certain blights on turf to powdery

mildew on ornamentals. It is reported to show some systemic

action.

Other fungicides are quite specific. Botran controls

Botrytis on ornamentals; Zineb is for Anthracnose on plane

trees. Whatever the market contains today, it will have much

more to offer in the future, as plenty of research is being

carried on in this important plant protection area.

Many times fungicides and insecticides are applied as

a spray mixture, with a greater effect for both, than if they

were applied separately. Many manufacturers' recommendations

will tell you what chemicals are compatible. Do not guess; be

sure. For example, Malathion is compatible with wettable sulfur,

but not lime sulfur.

Apply fungicides in the same manner you would apply

insecticides. Remember that plants are growing all season 237

Lab No. 8 — Continued

long, so be sure to hit the new growth that has elongated

since the last spraying.

3. Miticides:

Two outstanding ones are on the market, with more sure to

follow. Kelthane and Tedion can be used without harming the

foliage. Usually mite control can be effected by using a

combination insecticide/miticide, on a regular basis.

Severe infestations are apparent by a brown to grayish speckl­

ing on the underside of the foliage.

Dormant oil sprays and lime sulfur during the late winter

season are effective in destroying the overwintering egg masses.

4. Herbicides:

Weed control is a vexing problem for most homeowners. The

most commonly seen broadleaf weed in most lawn areas is the

dandelion. Its very bright yellow flowers in early spring

make its presence glaringly obvious to the conscientious

homeowner.

The problem is easily corrected with a dependable herbi­

cide known as 2,4-D. Apply it at a time when the weeds are

actively growing after they have flowered in the spring.

Apply as a fine spray on a calm day. Avoid drifting on

desirable flowers and ornamentals. Reduce the recommended

rate of application by half when working in bentgrass lawn

areas. Be aware of the formulation you use. It comes as an

amine and an ester. Use only the amine form as it is not as Lab No. 8 — Continued

volatile and not as apt to damage desirable foliage. Avoid

using it also on freshly seeded areas.

2,4-D is not a cure-all. It will control dandelions,

plantains, cocklebur, henbit, jimsonweed, peppergrass, ragweed,

morning glory, and lamb's quarters, to name only a few.

Silvex and dicamba are two other very commonly used

herbicides, which give excellent control over clover, chickweed,

ground ivy, red and wood sorrel, plus many others.

All of the above herbicides are postemergence weed

killers. There is one grass-like weed that will plague poor

lawn areas and unkempt flower beds that is not touched by any

of the above herbicides; it is crabgrass. Here a preemergence

herbicide is in order. Materials like bandane, betasan and

tupersan are all effective at controlling crabgrass and should

be applied in March before the seeds germinate. Tupersan is

the only one that can be safely used while seeding with de­

sirable lawn grasses.

Handle all herbicides with the respect due any toxin and

use no more than necessary. Keep and mark a sprayer for ex­

clusive use for herbicides.

Sprayer Types - A few words should be devoted to sprayers to help the homeowner make a decision based on his needs.

There are three basic types available to the homeowner; the aerosol can, the knapsack and the garden hose.

1. Aerosol Sprayers: 239

Lab No. 8 — Continued

These usually are filled with pyrethrins or some other

low-toxicity insecticide. They are most often effective as

a contact killer for flying insects. Avoid spraying directly

on foliage at close range or plant tissue damage may result

from the carrier that is mixed with the insecticide under

pressure.

2. Knapsack Sprayers:

One, three and five gallon capacity knapsacks are usually

sold. Pressure is supplied by hand pumping. Most types have

adjustable nozzles to vary the spray pattern desired. This

sprayer type offers maximum maneuverability for the difficult

or far-to-reach places on the property. However, the metal

parts are subject to corrosion from the pesticide.

3. Garden Hose Sprayers:

These are currently the most popular types of sprayers

with homeowners. The pesticide is mixed in a container

(either a one quart or one pint size), water is added, the

sprayer is attached to the hose, and the water pressure is

turned on. The siphoning action created by the water pressure

meters out the approximate amount of pesticide in the right

proportion. Up to six gallons of spray mix can be carried in

a one quart container. This sprayer type is good for small to

medium sized properties, but can be a nuisance if too much

hose has to be dragged around the yard.

Note: When spraying ornamentals with insecticides, use 240

Lab No. 8 -- Continued

the attachment that breaks the spray into a fine mist. The

coarse sprayer attachment is for fertilizer applications and

applying drench insecticides to lawn areas. 241

Lab No. 8 -- Continued

Some Mind Teasers

1. You notice a high incidence of aphids on your dwarf apple trees in the early spring as the flowers are opening,, You have some sevin on hand and so apply some at the recommended rate. You get satisfactory control, yet there is a light fruit set that year. Did you wait too long to spray, letting the aphids do too much damage to the trees? If not, then what?

2. You see ads in the paper to purchase some lawn fertilizer and herbicide combined. "Feed the grass while you kill the weeds," the ad says, so you buy a bag in late March and apply it. You notice the grass responds well, but then, so do the weeds! They are growing better than ever. What went wrong? Why the failure at controlling the weeds?

3. You own a beautiful home - well landscaped, nice lawn, attractive shade trees. A developer begins construction on the lot next door and, being a conscientious fellow, he applies a herbicide to control the weeds that are growing while he is working on construction. He does it on a calm hot day during the middle of the summer. You appreciate his thoughtful action, but notice a few days later that some of your favorite ornamentals are looking unusual - leaves are odd sizes, and many are twisted and drooping. What could have caused this reaction? LAB EXERCISE NO. 9

Terrarium Construction

Introduction:

A terrarium, according to Webster, is HA glass container enclosing a garden of small plants." The word itself actually means "little earch," and as such, provides a self-contained ecosystem which is quite interest­ ing to observe.

The history of tarrariums goes back to Nathaniel B. Ward (1791-

1868), an English botanist, who created a portable glass box (which became known as the Wardian Case) in which he planted small moisture- requiring plants. Plant propagators since Ward have used this type of container to provide a moist environment in which to root cuttings and aid in the healing of plant', grafts.

There are many types of containers which can be used for a ter­ rarium - brandy snifters, bubbles, bottles, jugs, and many plastic containers in a variety of shapes and sizes. The only requirements are that it be clean and clear for maximun light infiltration, and thoroughly dry.

A well-planned terrarium adds decorative interest to almost any room of a home or apartment, and has become very popular iwth the young people of today.

With the variety of containers, plant material and other decorative elements (bark, stones, colored pebbles, a piece of broken mirror,

242 243

Lab No. 9 -- Continued figurines, etc.) which can be used, an individual is allowed an almost unlimited range of artistic expression in creating a terrarium.

Materials:

1. Container - Any clear glass or plastic container will do.

The most common type, and probably the easiest to work with,

is the brandy snifter. A cover may or may not be necessary,

depending on the size of the opening of the container. If one

is used, it should also be of clear glass or plastic, or it

can simply be a piece of kitchen-type polyethylene wrap.

2. Tools - The container opening will determine the kinds of

tools you will need. If you use a narrow-necked container,

you may need such tools as a wire coat hanger, bamboo sticks

(used like chopsticks), a stick with a button or cork at the

end of it for tamping down soil, a funnel, long-handled spoons

and doweling. For containers with wider openings, no tools

may be necessary.

3. Activated Charcoal - About a half inch on the botton will do

for drainage.

4. Moss.

5. Soil Mix - One part sand, one part sphagnum peat moss and one

part loam is recommended.

6 . Fertilizer - One level teaspoon of a common garden fertilizer

such as 5-10-5 per one six inch potful of soil mix is suggested.

7. Plant Material - The following is just a partial list of the

plants which can possible be used: 244

Lab No. 9 — Continued

maidenhair fern aluminum plant asparagus fern artillery plant bird's nest fern prayer plant autumn fern golddust plant mother fern peperomia grape ivy baby tears English ivy wandering Jew oakleaved ivy croton needlepoint ivy boxwood Pteris native mosses or lichens from woodlands and along stream beds Hemlock, Juniper, Pine and Yew seedlings

Procedure:

To be certain that the container is free from dust or chemical residues, wash in a warm saltwater solution, rinse thoroughly and dry

completely inside and out so that no charcoal dust will cling to the

surface.

Next, carefully sprinkle about a half inch of the activated char­

coal into the container and spread evenly across the bottom. On top of the charcoal, place the moss with the green sides facing outward against the interior of the container. Then add the fertilizer to the

soil mix (one teaspoon fertilizer per one six inch potful of soil mix), moisten slightly and place about 3/4 of it into the terrarium.

The potting mix can be sloped for.visual interest, if desired.

Now we are ready to place the plants. Make holes or depressions in the soil and place the plants into them very carefully (do not disturb the charcoal). Be sure that they are not crowded or touching

the sides of the container. Add the remaining soil mix around the plants mounding them slightly.

The terrarium is now ready for any of the decorative elements 245

Lab No. 9 -- Continued you might wish to incorporate in the planting - colored pebbles, a piece of broken mirror for a watery effect, a little bridge, plastic animals, or nothing but the plants.

The final, and probably most crucial step, is the watering process. Using a mist or bulb sprayer, lightly spray the inside walls of the container so that the water runs down the sides and into the soil.

The soil should be wet, but not soggy. Cover the terrarium and observe it carefully for the next few days. If beads of moisture collect on the inside walls, you have watered perfectly. If the interior fogs up, there is too much water in it and it must be uncovered and allowed to dry for a day or two. If no moisture shows, remove the cover and respray. Once the terrarium has exactly the right amount of moisture in it, spraying will not be necessary again for several weeks, or even a few months.

Place the terrarium where it will receive diffused, not direct, sunlight. Check frequently for any molds developing on the plant stems. If any appear, remove the cover until they disappear.

Pinching, thinning and replacing plants keeps terrarium gardens healthy and vigorous. The soil may need to be replaced after about a year and a half.

You have now created an independent ecosystem which should bring you much pleasure. Observe the true autotrophic nature of plants by the way moisture passes through the leaves as water vapor, condenses on the inside surface of the container and drips back onto the soil to be taken up by the roots again. No animal influence is needed for the survival of the plant kingdom. 246

Lab No. 9 — Continued

Some Mind Teasers

1. As an avid amateur horticulturist, list the various ways you can use the terrarium concept to aid in plant management.

2. You rearrange the furnitue in the interior of the house and set the terrarium on a table near a south window. The summer passes and winter comes on. A clear, bright, sunny day arrives and you open the curtains to let inas much light as possible. Late in the afternoon you go past the terrarium and you notice the sides are fogged up and the plants wilted. What happened? LAB EXERCISE NO. 10

Effective Maintenance of a Home Lawn

Introduction;

The best plant materials placed carefully by the most competent of

landscapers can have their effects negated by a poorly maintained lawn.

Many people start out correctly with lawn development as outlined in

the text of this manual, but fail to follow through. With a little

extra effort, the initial investment can be made to pay off with a dense,

dark green, weed-free lawn.

Many people opt to have their lawns taken care of by the lawn experts. With a reputable firm, this is well worth the investment.

However, other homeowners with to accept this responsibility them­

selves and only need a little guidance along the way.

It is the intention of this lab to lay down some guidelines which

the homeowner can follow to have an attractive lawn.

Materials;

Mowing equipment (rotary and/or reel mower), broom rake, spraying

apparatus, herbicides, hopper-type spreader, dethatching tool (either hand or power), fertilizer, chlordane (or other lawn insecticide), and

an aerator (power or foot type).

247 248

Lab No. 10 -- Continued

Procedure:

Most people get the "bug11 during the spring season to do something about their lawn. There is quite a bit that is done during this season

(both right and wrong), but the seasons of summer and fall are equally important for lawn maintenance.

Let's begin with the spring season and see what can be done to get the lawn into decent shape.

Start out by being inquisitive - get down on all fours and examine the turf closely. Are there any spotted or damaged grass blades? Does an area appear to be turning yellow? Cut a piece of the sod (about 12 inches by 12 inches square) and carefully peel it back. What do the roots look like? Are they white and growing deeply? Are there one or two little white grubs in the soil? Do you have to go through quite a bit of thatch (accumulated organic matter) to get to the soil line?

What kind of grass is predominantly in your lawn?

Now that this basic probing is over, let's start to answer some of the questions that were raised.

1. Spots on the grass blades - These are most likely the beginning

stages of one of the most common lawn diseases in the northeast

known simply as leaf spot. Be suspicious of any area that seems

to be limp with a water-soaked appearance. Following this, the area

turns brown, then white. If left unchecked, as much as 80% of

the lawn could be thinned out. These symptoms will normally show

up during the cool and rainy spring season. Control the further

spread of this disease with any of a number of lawn grass fungicides Lab No. 10 — Continued

available on the market. Do not give in to the temptation to fertil­

ize the lawn with high analysis fertilizers in the spring. Such

application to already vigorously growing grass only invites trouble,

expecially if the lawn is predominantly common Kentucky bluegrass.

2. Areas of gradually yellowing or withering grass - If the lawn was

recently established, a number of things' could be turning the area

yellow: dog urine, shallow rocks, or grubs. The only way to find

out is to get down and peel that patch of sod back. If no rocks

or other objects are apparent, but plump white grubs laying in a

"C" fashion in the soil, then they are the cause of the discoloration.

The philosophy of "letting them live, too" may cause you much grief

and financial loss later on. A drench of chlordane insecticide over

the entire lawn will give protection against grubs for several years.

Left unchecked, the adult insect emerges as a beetle which feeds

voraciously on ornamental foliage, is more difficult to control,

and will lay egg masses in the lawn again that season.

3. Appearance of roots - If the roots are white, deep (about 6 inches),

and not brittle, shallow and brown, thenno problem exists. If the

roots are brittle, shallow and brown, a number of things should be

checked. First, see if the soil shows evidence of compaction or

hardpan development. If this is the case, then a new maintenance

regime is needed. Begin by renting an aerator which will pull out

plugs of soil. This operation should be carried on while the ground

is soft from the spring rains. These pulled plugs can be pulverized

by using a verticutter (rented), or by pulling a steel mesh over the 250

Lab No. 10 — Continued

area. Properly done, the plugs can be up to 3 inches long, help­

ing to break up the compacted soil. Avoid rolling the lawn. This

is a time-honored practice, but is overdone and unnecessary in most

cases. During the summer months, if at least one inch of rainfall

has not failen in a one week to ten day period, then water the l a m

area thoroughly. Carry out the watering regime to establish deep

root development. The question then arises, "What is the proper way

to water?" To clear the air about the benefits of sprinkling a lawn

with a hand-held nozzle, forget it! This method of watering will

result in a shallow root system, and proliferation of weed growth.

Obtain a good quality oscillating sprinkler and a quality 5/8 inch

hose (50 foot length). This combination will deliver an inch of

water to the lawn area in about one hour and 20 minutes. Smaller

hoses (commonly a half inch) take longer, and larger hoses (3/4

inch) will deliver it quicker. The watering rate should be based

on the soil type; sandy soils can allow for a higher rate of appli­

cation due to their porosity, while the clay soils can hold a greater

quantity of water, they are slower to absorb it, and should not have

it applied at as fast a rate. Do not waste water! It does your

lawn no good if half the water delivered at the sprinkler head is

washing down the gutter. The best time to water is in the early

morning. However, most people will probably do their watering in

the evening hours after work. If mildew or other fungal diseases

are a problem, water early enough in the day so that the foliage has

a chance to dry out before nightfall. When one has the problem of 251

Lab No. 10 -- Continued

having sod laid over subsoil or very compacted clay, the situation

needs a slightly different approach. If the sod has a poor

appearance, tolerate it through the summer, let it grow tall going

into the winter, then the following spring plow or rototill it under.

This sounds drastic, but many times it is really the best solution.

By doing this, you break up the impervious subsoil layer and add

valuable organic matter (green manure) to the soil. Have a soil

test taken to determine the pH and nutrient requirements, then add

dolomltic limestone, gypsum or sulfur, based on the soil test

recommendations you had taken. Other less drastic measures can be

used. Rent a power aerator as described above, that will pull a

plug of soil out of the ground. Run it in two directions that are

perpendicular to each other. If the soil is too dry, soak it first

to soften, then go over it with the aerator. To the treated area,

add generous amounts of organic matter (the bagged barnyard manures,

humus, or waterever is available and inexpensive), a complete fertil­

izer (N-P-K, 12-6-4, etc.), and water in. Thereafter the addition

of organic matter on a yearly basis is imperative.

4. Thatch problem - This malady usually represents an accumulation of

many maintenance shortcomings with the lawn. To prevent it from

ever becoming a problem in a typical bluegrass-fescue lawn, follow

this regime:

a. Each spring, when the conditions allow it, take a broomrake

and vigorously go over the lawn, removing all accumulated

debris (sticks, stones, cigarette butts, dead grass clippings Lab No. 10 -- Continued

and leaves).

b. Fertilize normally - most bluegrass lawns will grow well with

three to five pounds of nitrogen-containing fertilizer per

1000 square feet applied annually. Overdoing it only results

in excessive and unnecessary growth, contributing to the thatch

problem.

c. Mow correctly - bluegrass-fescue lawns should be mowed to a

height of 1% to 2 inches and should not be allowed to get any

higher than 3 inches before mowing. This may require a couple

of mowings a week. Have a grass catcher attached to the mower,

or go over the lawn with a sweeper. Never leave windrows of

cut grass laying on the lawn. Merion bluegrass should be de­

thatched every 3 to 5 years due to its manner of growth.

When this routine is followed, thatch should not be a problem. If

you have just moved onto property where the lawn has a heavy thatch

build-up, then a dethatching is necessary with either a rented power

dethatching machine, or if the lawn is not too large, a hand one

will do. This operation is usually undertaken in the early spring

or early fall, with fall being the best time. 253

Lab No. 10 -- Continued

Grass Selections for the Northeastern United States

And Their Use

1. Kentucky Bluegrass (Common and Improved)

Usually planted as a blend (same genera combined) or a mix (dif­

ferent genera) with the fine fescues. Makes a quality lawn that

will look good all during the growing season with proper care. In

the open sun, the bluegrass thrives; in the shade, the fescue is

predominant.

2. Tall Fescue

By itself, a turf that has a coarse texture. Wear resistant.

Will do well in areas too far south for good bluegrass lawns and

too far north for good Bermuda lawns. Recommended for large lots

(requires less fertilizing and watering than bluegrass), and areas

used for recreation. Never purchase this included in a bluegrass

mix. Do not use where a quality turf is desired.

3. Bentgrasses - Colonial and Creeping

A beautiful, fine-textured lawn is the result of a well maintained

lawn grass of this type. There's the catch - maintenance; mowing

with a nine-bladed reel mower two or three times a week, frequent

fertilizations, frequent fungicide applications, frequent waterings,

and low wear tolerance.

4. Ryegrasses

Many times the fine-bladed varieties are used as cover crops during

the winter months in milder sections. Also used as a green manure

crop in poor soil situations. Presently not recommended as a grass 254

Lab No. 10 — Continued

for a quality lawn, but continued research will probably bring forth

ryegrass varieties that will compete with the bluegrass market in

the near future.

Mowers and Their Care

The homeowner today has the option of two power mower types to use in keeping his lawn cut. The reel mower cuts with a scissors­ like action, and when properly adjusted, can give an attractive uni­ form cut to a densely growing lawn. Its chief disadvantages are its slower speed, inability to cut high grass and weeds, and difficulty in mowing close to trees, fences, etc.

The rotary mower is currently the more popular model. Here the cutting action is by a high speed blade that spins to speeds up to

200 miles per hour. With new designs in the housing, a suction is created over the grass causing it to be pulled upright and mowed off evenly. This type will be more effective in thin grass stands, such as under the shade of trees, where a reel mower will do poorly. It has a greater maneuverability than the reel mower, allowing the operator to get closer to objects in the lawn, reducing trimming time.

The primary disadvantage with the rotary mower is its high rate of cutting speed, which has resulted in injury to many a careless oper­ ator. The high speed which has rotary cutting action also gives the homeowner an advantage over the reel type as It has the ability to go through high grass and weeds. Also, height adjustment is easier on the modern rotary mower.

When buying a new rotary mower, look for the Outdoor Power Equip- Lab No. 10 -- Continued ment Institute (OPEI) safety seal or tag. This indicates that the particular mower meets certain safety standards which have been set up by the power mower industry.

The following is a procedure outline one should follow when start­ ing, operating, stopping and storing a power mower:

A RECOMMENDED PROCEDURE FOR

STARTING. OPERATING AND STOPPING A POWER LAWN MOWER

A. Things to do before starting the engine:

1. Obtain the engine manual and read it! 2. Secure the engine mounting and tighten looseparts (for this course, remove hazardous parts). 3. Service the engine's a. air cleaner d. cooling system b. lubricating system e. gear reduction box c. fuel system f. battery 4. Become familiar with the engine controls. 5. Provide ventilation in the room. 6 . Check spark plug for loose wire, damage, etc. 7. Be sure stop switch is away from plug. 8 . Check to be sure clutch is disengaged. 9. Check to be sure that there is nothing in the way of operating parts. 10. Open fuel line valve. 11. Set throttle at the desired setting. 12. Set choke at the desired setting. 13. Turn ignition "on". 14. Be sure nobody is immediately behind operator when cranking engine with a rope. 15. Become familiar with all engine controls. 16. Be sure to wear proper clothing. 17. Be sure you know how to stop the engine.

B. Things to do during starting and operating the engine:

1. Move engine to a clean, well ventilated place. 2. Level or balance the engine. 3. Apply brakes if equipment has such. 4. Disengage clutch on power driven equipment. 5. Crank the engine. 6 . Adjust choke for smooth operation. 256

Lab No. 10 — Continued

7. If instruments are present, check to see if they are function' ing in the proper range. 8. Select proper speed range. 9. Apply load. 10. Correct the following conditions if present: a. Excess vibration e. Fuel and oil leaks b. Rough operation f. Loose parts c. Improper governor operation g. Excessive heat d. Excessive smoke h. Lugging

C. Things to do in stopping the engine.

1. Remove the load. 2. Operate the engine for 3 to 5 minutes without load at fast idle speed. 3. Turn "off" ignition switch. 4. Cut off fuel supply.

SMALL ENGINE STORAGE

A. Preparing the small air-cooled engine for storage:

1. Clean the engine. 2. Service the carburetor's air cleaner. 3. Operate the engine until it is warm. 4. Drain and refill the crankcase while engine is warm. 5. Drain the fuel tank, carburetor and fuelstrainer. 6 . Operate the engine to empty the carburator of fuel. 7. Remove carburetor bowl, clean and replace. 8 . Remove the spark plug, clean and regap. 9. Place 1 tablespoon of motor oil in the cylinder through the spark plug hole. Replace the spark plug, but do not connect wire. 10. Turn engine over by hand to distribute motor oil. 11. Place piston in top position on compression stroke. 12. Close all external openings. 13. Cover unpainted surfaces with oil to reduce corrosion.

B. Storing the small air-cooled engine:

1. Place the engine in a dry building. 2. Protect the engine from possible physical damage. 3. Cover engine with plastic sheet, canvas or blanket to protect it from dust, trash, insects and birds. 257

Lab No. 10 — Continued

C. Removing the small air-cooled engine from storage:

1. Uncover all openings that were covered in the preparation for storage. 2. Drain the crankcase and refill with proper motor oil. 3. Check fuel tank for condensations and rust. Clean. 4. Prepare engine for starting. 258

Lab No. 10 — Continued

Some Mind Teasers

1. A purchase is made of an inexpensive bluegrass seed mixture. Your intention is to overseed an already thinly established lawn that is a mixture of grasses. You remember from an introductory horti­ culture course that Tall Fescue should never be included in a blue­ grass mixture and you note that this variety is missing from the list of grasses included, which are: Common Kentucky Bluegrass, 33%; fine leaf Fescue, 25%; Creeping Bentgrass, 25%; Annual Rey- grass, 15%; and 2% weed seed and inert matter. Will any problems result from using a mixture like this? If so, what? And what can you do about it?

2. Being a novice homegardener, you run your rotary mower over the edge of a grassy bank and "scalp" the grass off of a sizable area. Weeks go by and you notice that some new seedlings are starting to develop. The growth characteristics are unlike the rest of the grass, so you take a sample to a local nurseryman who positively identifies it as crabgrass. Not wanting to pay the "high prices" at the garden center, you visit one of the area discount houses and get an end-of-the-spring-season sale on a preemergence crab­ grass herbicide you have heard so much about. You take it home and apply it generously to the area where the seedlings are growing and you overseed with a Kentucky bluegrass mix you purchased at the discount house. What will the effects be?

3. Your grandfather used to roll his lawn every year with a 250 lb. roller when you would visit him in New Jersey for Easter vacation. A homeowner yourself now in the Columbus, Ohio area, you decide to pursue the same practice on your own lawn. You notice the mowing is easier and the ground nice and firm. When the summer drought arrives, you begin your normal watering regime, but note the grass is turning brown anyway and weeds are beginning to become apparent. What is causing this, and what steps would you take to remedy it? LAB EXERCISE NO. 11

The Art of Bonsai

Introduction;

Oriental culture has long been making inroads into the American

way of life. Japanese cars, cameras and electronic equipment are quite

commonplace today.

The Orientals, and especially the Japanese, have long been reputed

to be master gardeners. They are people who come from a country that

is small, and so it is really no surprise that the Japanese develop

their gardens and plants on a smaller scale than is typically seen

in the west.

The original interest in bonsai plants began as long as 500 years

ago when the people of Japan began collecting plants which were naturally dwarfed, stunted or otherwise distorted by the forces of nature. This collection process required some rugged individuals as the plants were often sighted in some nearly inaccessible places.

Today, bonsai culture is employed using many gimmicks. Bonsai- wise customers visit local nurseries and try to talk the nurseryman

out of some of the distorted plants he was intending to throw away.

Others collect seedlings from the woods and immediately begin stunting

their growth by confining them to small containers. Still others sow

seeds of certain varieties and as they grow, begin the deliberate process of distorting the shape of the plant by pruning, wires, weights

259 260

Lab No. 11 -- Continued and chemicals.

Whatever the approach, bonsai gardening is here to stay. It gives those with limited space an opportunity to mimic nature while testing their patience.

Materials:

Seedling trees or shrubs, distorted container-grown plant material, rooted cuttings (Juniper, Cotoneaster), shallow trays or containers wires, wire coat hangers, good potting soil and a mist sprayer.

Procedure:

For those purists who desire to do everything from scratch, in­ cluding making their own ontainers, the following steps may be employed:

1. Visit an art supply store and inquire about the various types of

clays available.

2. Once thedesired type of clay is obtained, determine on paper or

cardboard what size and shape containter you want.

3. Using a piece of taut wire, cut of a moist piece of clay (in the

same manner some cheese are cut) and

A. Roll out flat on a canvas-covered table top. Once all pieces

have been rolled, shape them with a potter's knife.

5. Join the pieces together using slip (a watery solution of clay),

and add the decorative patterns you want on the sides of the con­

tainer. If the container is to have drainage holes, bore them

out now. A pencil can be used for these last two steps. Make 261

Lab No. 11 -- Continued

sure the container is larger than what you want at this stage as

it will shrink about twenty per cent with firing.

6 . Dry the pot thoroughtly for a couple of days, and then handling

it very carefully, take it to a professional (or university art

department) for kiln firing.

Planting the Specimen;

It is best to plant the specimen to be bonsaied while it is

dormant. If there are a large tangle of roots, trim them back liberally

to get them into the container. Trim out the branches at this time to

begin building the basic shape you desire. Always keep the roots moistened while working with the plant at this stage.

Next, take the container and run some lightweight florist's wire

up through the drainage holes. Place a small mesh screen over the

holes to prevent soil loss and cover the base of the container with a

potting soil that will allow for decent drainage. Any number of media

are available, or you can formulate your own. Go with whatever works.

Place the plant in the container and spread the roots out, trimming

any that are still too long. With the wire ends sticking up through

the holes in the pot, wrap them snugly around the roots, twisting the ends together. They serve as an additional anchor in such a shallow

container.

Cover the roots with the soil, add stones, moss or miniature

buildings for the effect you are trying to create, and mist the soil 262

Lab No. 11 — Continued

and plant thoroughly. It would also be best at this time to fertilize

with a diluted house plant fertilizer solution.

Any wiring that is desired to get the "wild" shape you want can be

started at this time. Usually copper wire (from an electrical or hard­

ware store) will do the job. Get the wire weight for the task it is

to accomplish. On trunks, a No. 8 wire is best, while on branches,

No. 14 or No. 16 wire is used.

Place the plant in the outdoor environment where it can receive

morning sun, but not the hot, baking afternoon sun. Remember the soil

volume is very limited, so frequent syringing may be needed.

In the fall, when the plant has gone dormant, remove it from the

bonsai pot and place it in a larger "holding" pot. Sink it into the

ground in a protected area near the house and mulch generously. The

following spring, while still dormant, replace into the bonsai pot

once again.

If all of this sounds like it is beyond your capabilities, try

some inexpensive plants first (Juniper, Cotoneaster, Firethorn, etc.)

and if you fail, try to understand why - learn from it. Seek out others

involved in this art - people interested in this are free with their

ideas and experiences. You ca gain quite a bit of insight by inter­

acting with them. Do not be afraid to admit failure. Everyone at

one time or ther experiences a setback when working with plants.

Patience and persistence are the two main ingredients to success with bonsai! 263

Lab No. 11 -- Continued

Plants Commonly Bonsaied

Junipers (cuttings) Cotoneaster (cuttings)

Pines (seeds) Elms (seeds)

Hornbeam (seeds) Pyracantha (cuttings)

Flowering Cherry (cuttings) Azaleas (cuttings)

Herbs (seeds) Firethorn (cuttings) LAB EXERCISE NO. 12

Ornamental Plant Use and Appreciation

Introduction:

Homeowners are frequently asking horticulturists such questions as, "What are some flowering shrubs that I may grow in the shade?"

Or, "Can you tell me the names of at least six different shrubs that

I can use which will stay under three and a half or four feet in height?"

This lab will be made up of selections of plant material broken down into categories that the homeowners seem most inquisitive about.

The instructor will, on days when the weather permits, take you outside to observe the local plant material. As he makes comments about the plants, note their characteristics and decide whether or not you have a use for them in your landscape scheme.

Hardy Shrubs for Dry Places

Acanthopanax sieboldianus (Fiveleaf Aralia) Berberis thunbergi (Japanese Barberry) Caragana arborescens (Siberian Peashrub) Elaeagnus angustifolia (Russian-olive) Lingustrum cultivars (Privet) Lonicera morrowi (Morrow Honeysuckle) Potentilla fruticosa (Shrubby Cinquefoil) Rhamus frangula 'Tallhedge" - Tallhedge Buckthorn Ribes alpinum - Alpine Currant Rhodotypos scandens (Jetbead) Rhus canadensis (Fragrant Sumac) Symphoricarpos vulgaris (Coralberry) Viburnum lantana (Wayfaring-tree)

264 265

Lab No. 12 -- Continued

Hardy Shrubs for Wet Places

Aesculus parviflora (Bottlebrush Buckeye) Amelanchier candensis (Downy Shadblow) Aronia arbutifolia (Red Chokeberry) Cornus alba sibirica (Siberian Dogwood) Cornus sanguinea (Bloodtwig Dogwood) Cornus stolonifera (Red-osier Dogwood) Hypericum densiflorum ( Bushy St. Johnswort) Ilex glabra (Inkberry) Ilex verticillata (Winterberry) Ligustrum vulgare (European Privet) Lindera benzoin (Spicebush) Magnolia virginiana (Sweetbay Magnolia) Myrica pensylvanica (Northern Bayberry) Salix cultivars (Willow) Viburnum cassinoidea (Withe-rod) Viburnum dentatum (Arrowwood) Viburnum lentago (Nannyberry) Viburnum pubescens canbyi (Canby Downy Viburnum)

Hardy Shrubs for the Shade

Abelia grandflora (Glossy Abelia) Aesculus parviflora (Bottlebrush Buckeye Amelanchier species (Shadblow) Aronia cultivars (Chokeberry) Azalea cultivars (Azalea) Berberis thunbergi (Japanese Barberry) Cornus florida (Flowering Dogwood) Cornus mas (Cornelian-cherry) Euonymus radicans varieties (Wintercreeper) Forsythia cultivars (Goldenbells) Hamamelis vernalis (Witch-hazel) Hydrangea quercifolia (Oakleaf H.) Hypericum cultivars (St. Johnswort) Ilex crenata (Japanese Holly) cultivars Ilex glabra 'Compacta1 (Compact Inkberry) Kalmia latifolia (Mountain-laurel) Leucothoe fontanesiana (Drooping Leucothoe) Lonicera morrowi (Morrow Honeysuckle) Lonicera tatarica (Tatarian Honeysuckle) Mahonia aquifolium (Oregon Hollygrape) Pieris floribunda (Mountain Andromeda) Rhododendron cultivars (Rhododendrons) Ribes alpinum (Mountain Currant) Symphoricarpos racemosus (Snowberry) Symphoricarpos vulgaris (Coralberry) Viburnum - most types 266

Lab No. 12 — Continued

Hardy Shrubs for Acid Soils (pH 5.5 or below)

Azalea cultivars - Azalea Calluna vulgaris - Heather Enkianthus campanulata - Redvein Enkianthus Kalmia latifolia - Mountain-laurel Kalmiz Leucothoe fontanesiana (Drooping Leucothoe) Pieris japonica - Japanese Pieris Rhododendron species - Rhododendron Vaccinium corymbosum - Highbush Blueberry

Hardy Shrubs Under Four Feet

Abelia grandiflora (Glossy Abelia) Berberis thunbergi - 'Crimson Pigmy' (Crimson Pigmy Barberry) Cotoneaster adpressa (Creeping Cotoneaster) Cotoneaster apiculata (Cranberry Cotoneaster) Cotoneaster dammeri (Bearberry Cotoneaster) Hypericum patalum - 'Henryi' (Henry St. Johnswort) Potentilla fruticosa (Bush Cinquefoil) Rhododendron mollis (Chinese Azalea) Ribes alpinum (Alpine Currant) Spiraea nipponica - 'Snow Mound' (Snow Mound Spirea) Symphoricarpos orbiculatus (Indian Currant Coralberry)

Trees Under 35 Feet in Height

Acer Buergerianum (Trident Maple) Acer campestre (Hedge Maple) Acer ginnala (Amur Maple) Acer palmatum (Japanese Maple) Acer tataricum (Tatarian Maple) Carpinus betulus - 'Globosa' (European Hornbeam) Carpinus caroliniana (American Hornbeam) Cornus mas (Cornelian Cherry Dogwood) Crataegus species (Hawthorn) Halesia Carolina (Carolina Silverbell) Koelreuteria paniculata (Golden Raintree) Ulmus parvifolia (Chinese Elm) 267

Lab No. 12 — Continued

Trees Which Grow Rapidly

Deciduous

Acer rubrum (Red Maples) Fraxinus americana (White Ash) Gleditsia triacanthos inermis cultivars (Thornless-Seedless Honey Locust) Larix decidua (European Larch) Platanus acerifolia - 1Bloodgood' (London Planetree) Pyrus calleryana (Callery Pear) Quercus rubra maxima (Eastern Red Oak) Syringa amurensis japonica (Japanese Tree Lilac) Ulmus procera (English Elm) Zelkova serrata (Japanese Zelkova)

Evergreens

Abies concolor (White Fir) Picea abies (Norway Spruce) Pinus resinosa (Red Pine) Pinus nigra (Austrian Pine) Pinus strobus (White Pine)

Trees Which Thrive in Wet Soils

Deciduous

Acer rubrum (Red Maple) Betula nigra (River Birch) Carpinus caroliniana (American Hornbeam) Liquidambar styraciflua (American Sweetgum) Nyssa sylvatica (Black Tupelo) Platanus acerifolia (London Planetree) Quercus palustris (Pin Oak) Quercus phellos (Willow Oak) Taxodium distichum (Bald Cypress)

Evergreens

Chamaecyparis obtusa (Hinoki False Cypress) Thuja species (Arborvitae) GLOSSARY

Aggregation - A clustering of the elements in a media.

Anthocyanins - A pigment found in flowers and leaves responsible for red or blue coloration.

Apomixis - A form of asexual propagation from seed, where the sexual process is incomplete. A common means of propagating Kentucky bluegrass.

Carotenes - An orange-red pigment found associated with the chloroplasts in plant material. Converted to vitamin A in the body. Found in high concentration in edible vegetables.

Chelate - An organic compound which reacts with metal ions to give a water-soluble product, allowing the ions to be metabolized in plant processes.

Chlorosis - Reduced development of chlorophyll due to nutrient deficiency. With iron chlorosis, the deficiency is manifested by an inter- veinal yellowing of new growth. Nitrogen chlorosis shows up as a general yellowing of older foliage.

Clone - Plant material classed as a cultivar which has been propagated by asexual means from a single individual.

Cross Pollination - Where the pollen from one flower is transferred to a flower on a different plant of the same genera.

Cultivar - A contraction of the term "cultivated variety." It refers to a group of plants within a particular cultivated species that have distinguishing features. A cultivar may be clonal material.

Desiccation - The removal of water from plant tissue due to excess salt concentration or excessive transpiration, especially during winter months. Water is unable to be replaced in the tissue, causing it to dry.

Dicotyledon - Plants that are characterized by having two seed leaves, or cotyledons, at the time of germination.

268 269

Dormancy - A period when a plant or plant part is not undergoing active growth. The plant or part is said to be at rest. Quiescence is a term used to refer to plant or seed dormancy when proper environmental conditions are lacking.

Espaliering - The pruning and subsequent growth of a plant in two dimensions, height and width, but not depth. Usually formal or informal patterns are developed on a wall or fence.

Fi Hybrid - The first generation of a cross between two plants differing Tn genetic makeup.

Flocculation - The beginning stages of aggregation, usually occurring in the soil solution with the colloidal elements.

Geotropism - The growth movement in response to the force of gravity. In plants, the stem usually shows a negative geotropism, while the root shows a positive geotropism.

Hardening Off - A process whereby plants are prepared for less favorable conditions for growth. Usually accomplished by gradual with­ holding of water or lowering of temperature.

Heeling In - A term used to describe the temporary holding of plant material (usually bare root). Accomplished by trenching, placing the roots in the trench at about a 45° angle and back­ filling over the roots with the soil that was removed from the trench.

Herbal - A book about plants used often by the ancients as a reference, especially for medical properties the plants may possess.

Humus - Organic matter from plant and animal sources, decomposed to such a state that component parts cannot be recognized.

Leeward - The side away from the direction of the prevailing winds. An area where relative calm exists in reference to wind currents.

Metabolism - Chemical activity which takes place in all living organ­ isms. It involves the breakdown (catabolism) of substances into constituent parts, and the building up (anabolism) of substances into tissue.

Monocotyledon - Plant material which has only one seed leaf at germi­ nation.

Node - A point on the stem from which a leaf or leaves arise. The junction of two internodes. 270

Perlite - A very lightweight medium used in plant propagation or potting mixes. It is expanded volcanic lava that is sterile (free from disease organisms) and has good water and air holding capacities.

£S - Written properly, as seen here, it refers to the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.

Phototropism - The growth response of plants to light. Most dramatically demonstrated when a single beam of light can be directed toward the growing tip.

Pleached Pruning - A form of pruning which has the limbs of the plants intertwined so they form a tight wall or arbor.

Pollarding - A form of pruning in which the branches are first de­ horned (sawed back leaving stubs) and then allowed to grow into a formal or unnatural shape. Common in European gardens in Victorian times. Still practiced today in some places.

Postemergence Herbicide - An herbicide which is applied to control undesirable vegetation after the seeds have germinated and begun growth.

Preemergence Herbicide - An herbicide used to control undesirable vegetation before germination takes place.

Prick Off - A term used in transplanting seedlings from the original site of sowing to a more spaceous and permanent location.

Psychological Barrier - A barrier created by its mass and not necessarily its height. Plantings from two to four feet high are good phychological barriers. That is, they discourage people from crossing them without actually preventing them.

Pubescent - An area of the leaf or stem which is covered with soft, short hairs.

Rhizome - A stem which usually grows horizontally under the soil surface. Distinguished from lateral roots by the presence of nodes and internodes.

Scion - A portion of the shoot used in grafting or budding.

Sequester - As used in this text, a compound (chelating agent) which has the power to isolate a metalic ion for metabolic uptake by the plant. 271

Stolon - A shoot that originates from the plant in a horizontal manner, staying above the soil surface, but often rooting intermittently where it comes into contact with the soil. Often called a runner.

Systemic Action - Refers to the translocation of a pesticide from one part of the organism to another, affecting the toxic action throughout the organism's system.

Thatch - Accumulated organic matter between the soil line and surface of the turf. It can develop such a tight impervious layer to air and water movement so as to inhibit good sod development. Controlled best by good maintenance techniques.

Tillering - Is the development of lateral shoots from the main stem of a grass plant. Tillering is stimulated by regular mowing.

Topiary - The art of pruning plant material into geometric forms.

Vermiculite - A lightweight medium formed from micaceous rock which is sterile, highly water absorbent, has a high cation exchange capacity, and contains enough magnesium and potassium to supply most plants.

Xanthophylls - Pigmentation found in plant tissue responsible for yellow to orange colors. APPENDIX I TABLE OF CONVERSION FACTORS

With the coming of the metric system in this country, it is appropriate to include in this manual a means of converting the present system to the one of the future.

To Change To Multiply :

Inches Centimeters 2.54

Feet Meters .305

Miles Kilometers 1.609

Meters Inches 39.37

Kilometers Miles .621

Square Inches Square Centimeters 6.452

Square Yards Square Meters .836

Square Centimeters Square Inches .155

Square Meters Square Yards 1.196

Quarts Liters .946

Ounces Grams 28.35

Founds Kilograms .454

273 APPENDIX II 275

Keep.vjbis Sheet Sample No. 21516

THE O HIO STATE UNIVERSITY

SOIL TESTING LABORATORY • COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE

16B5 NEIL AVENUE - COLUMBUS. OHIO 43210

TELEPHONE (614) 422-5742

LAWN OR GARDEN SOIL TEST

Your Samole Letter or Number- Date Sample Submitted: L o c a tio n

Bi

Somple each oreo with a different soil or crop os follows and use o seporote mailer for eoch somple tested:

1. Somple the top 3 inches (6 inches, if tilled) of soil at 10 or more random locations.

2. Mix oil soil well, completely oir dry soil, and mix it agoin.

3. Fill plostic soil bog ond insert it in cloth bag.

4* Complete sample information sheet; enclose information sheet ond $2.00 check in attached envelope'; and mail to the OSU Soil Testing Laboratory (or take to your County Extension O ffic e ) .

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

Each sample w ill be analysed for available phosphorus, exchangeable potossium, soil pH, lime requirement and soluble salts ,

A report listing the soil analyses and lime and fertilizer recommendations w ill be returned to you in about two weeks. Any correspondence concerning this sample should be directed to the Soil Test* ing Laboratory and indicate the preprinted (red) number and date submitted . 276

Return This SheefjJn" Attached .‘Envelope* Sample No. 21516

LAWN OR GARDEN SOIL TEST

Name:

Street or Route:.

Citv: County Ohio Z ip Code

Write Apprdpriote'-Numbeirs^ih Boxes-ct Left s

□ YOUR SAMPLE LETTER OR NUMBER:

□ STATUS: 1. Planted 2. To be Planted m LAST LIMED: 19______m AMOUNT OF LIME APPLIED (Ibs'lOOO sq. ft.): m CROP (Select Only One): 01. Common Kentucky Bluegross, 02. Improved Kentucky Bluegross, e.g. Windsor, Pennstar ond Fylking, 03. Fineleof Fescue, 04. Tall Feseue, 05. Bentgross, 06. Shade Trees, 07. Narrow Leaf Evergreens, 08. Broadleaf Evergreens, 09. Deciduous Shrubs, 10. Perennial Flowers, 11. Annual Flowers, 12. Roses, 13. Bulbs, 14. General Vegetables, 15. Sweet Corn, 16. Tomatoes, 17. Potatoes, 18 . Melons, 19 . General Tree Fruits, 20. atone Fruits, 21. Apples or Pears, 22. Gropes, 23. Raspberries or Blackberries, 24. Strawberries, 25. Other Type or V a rie ty - — _ ____

PLEASE ENCLOSE IN ATTACHED ENVELOPE A S2J00 CHECK MADE OUT TO THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY

Return This SheetTn Attached Envele’jie BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bailey, L. H. How Plants Get Their Names. New York: Dover Publi­ cations, Inc., 1963.

Ball, Vic, ed. The Ball Red Book. 12th ed. George J. Ball, Inc., 1972.

Baumgardt, John Philip. How To Prune Almost Everything. New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1968.

Beard, James B. Turfgrass: Science and Culture. Englewood Cliffs, N. J . : Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1973.

Brockman, C. Frank. Trees of North America. Edited by Herbert S. Zim. New York: Golden Press, 1968.

Bush-Brown, James and Louise. America*s Garden Book. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1965.

Collings, Gilbeart H. Commercial Fertilizers. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1955.

Conover, H. S. Ground Maintenance Handbook. 2nd ed. New York: F. W. Dodge Corp., 1958.

Eckbo, Garrett. The Art of Home Landscaping. New York: McGraw- Hill Book Company, 1956.

Epstein, Emanuel. Mineral Nutrition of Plants: Principles and Per­ spectives. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1972.

Fahn, A. Plant Anatomy. New York: Pergamon Press, 1967.

Gentile, Arthur C. Plant Growth. Garden City, N. Y.: The Natural History Press, 1971.

Hartmann, Hudson T. and Kester, Dale E. Plant Propagation: Principles and Practices. 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, N. J . : Prentice- Hall, Inc., 1968.

Headstrom, Richard. Nature in Miniature. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1968.

277 278

Hillel, Daniel. Soil and Water: Physical Principles and Processes. New York: Academic Press, 1971.

Hutchinson, G. L.; Millington, R. J.; and Peters, D. B. "Atmospheric Ammonia: Absorption by Plant Leaves," Science (February 18, 1972).

Janick, Jules. Horticultural Science. 2nd ed. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Company, 1972.

Laurie, Alex; Kiplinger, D. C.; and Nelson, Kennard S. Commercial Flower Forcing. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1958.

Maheshwari, P. An Introduction to the Embryology of Angiosperms. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1950.

Mandel, Siegfried. Dictionary of Science. New York: Dell Publishing Company, Inc., 1969.

Musser, H. Burton. Turf Management. New York: McGraw-Hill Company, Inc., 1962.

Oparin, S. I. Origin of Life. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1965.

Pirone, Pascal P. Diseases and Pests of Ornamental Plants. 4th ed. New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1970.

. Tree Maintenance. 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1972.

Plant Agriculture. Readings from Scientific American. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Company, 1970.

Porter, L. K.; Viets, F. G., Jr.; and Hutchinson, G. L. "Air Contain­ ing Nitrogen-15 Ammonia: Foliar Absorption by Corn Seedlings," Science.(February 18, 1972).

Ray, Peter Martin. The Living Plant. 2nd ed. New York: Holt, Rine­ hart and Winston, Inc., 1972.

Reader'8 Digest Association, Inc. Reader's Digest Practical Guide to Home Landscaping. New York: Reader's Digest Association, Inc., 1972.

Robinette, Gary 0. Plants, People and Environmental Quality. Washing­ ton, D. C.: U. S. Department of Interior, National Parks Service, 1972.

Scotts Technical Institute. Scotts 1973 Lawn and Product Information Manual. Marysville, Ohio: Scotts Technical Institute, 1973. 279

Tisdale, Samuel L., and Nelson, Werner L. Soil Fertility and Fertilizers. 2nd ed. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1966.

U. S. Department of Agriculture. Yearbook of Agriculture. 1972. Washing­ ton, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1972.

University of Massachusettes, Amherst. A Symposium on Trees and Forests in an Urbanizing Environment. Amherst, Mass.: Cooperative Extension Service. August 18-21, 1970.

Utzinger, James D.; Trierweiler, John; Janson, Blair; Miller, Richard L.; Saddam, Alma; and Crean, David E. Let's Take A Look At Organic Gardening. Bulletin 555. Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State University, 1973.

Wyman, Donald. Shrubs and Vines for American Gardens. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1969.

. Trees for American Gardens. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1965.

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