October 2017 Presentation

Home , Antimatter rocket, Fusion rocket, Lagrange point, Lissajous orbit, Mass ratio, Relativistic rocket

On Becoming a Spacefaring Society

If we are to become a true spacefaring society, we must abandon chemical rockets and focus our R&D on nuclear rockets.

SAS -- 12OCT2017 1 NASA’s Three “Red-headed Step Children” of Manned Space Exploration

1) Failure to develop rocket technology beyond chemical rockets 2) Failure to compensate for zero-gee conditions in space 3) Failure to deal with high ambient radiation in space

This presentation will address the first.

2 Who is the father of rocketry?

1) Some say the Chinese who invented gunpowder, the first solid rocket fuel. 2) Some say Robert Goddard, inventor of the liquid rocket, a vast improvement over the solid rocket. 3) Can’t forget Hermann Oberth who conceived of the multistage rocket that made it possible to launch heavy payloads to the moon with chemical rockets. 4) Most iconic is Wernher von Braun who gave us the Saturn V, the workhorse of the Apollo program. 5) But I say Konstantin Tsiolkovsky whose famous equation allowed us to apply the principles of rocketry to space flight.

https://blog.sfgateway.com/index.php/the-founding-fathers-of-rocket-science/ 3 Konstantin Tsiolkovsky The Party Pooper of Space Travel (also the reason space travel is possible at all)

Tsiolkovsky’s famous rocket equation:

Delta Vmax = Ve x ln (Wet Mass / Dry Mass) where:

Delta-Vmax is the rocket’s maximum velocity,

Ve is the Exhaust Gas Velocity Wet Mass is the mass of the fueled rocket Dry Mass is the mass of the unfueled rocket Russian and Soviet rocket scientist Wet Mass / Dry Mass is called the Mass Ratio b 1857, d 1935

First, inevitably, the idea, the fantasy, the fairy tale. Then, scientific calculation. Ultimately, fulfillment crowns the dream. —Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/engines.php 4 What do we mean by Delta Vmax?

Here we have an astronaut floating in space. (He’s the rocket ship and the payload.) How fast is he going? We don’t know. We have no reference frame. Let’s assume his velocity V is zero. NOTE: velocity is a vector with speed and direction. If he doesn’t do anything, he will continue to sit at V = 0, immobile, floating forever... boring. payload He needs a rocket motor! Mass = 500 kg

With a rocket motor he can “do something!” He can change his velocity… Delta V. As long as he fires his rocket motor he will accelerate… until it runs out of fuel.

At that point he will be at Delta Vmax.

5 Here we have two sophisticated NASA rocket motors from Home Depot*. One is empty. One is full of propellant.

empty full

Mass = 500 kg Mass = 9500 kg

(Propellant is 9000 kg) * Due to Congressional budget cuts 6 What do we mean by Wet Mass?

Wet + = Mass

Wet Mass = Mass = 500 kg Mass = 9500 kg 10,000 kg

7 What do we mean by Dry Mass?

Dry + = Mass

Dry Mass = Mass = 500 kg Mass = 500 kg 1000 kg

8 What do we mean by Mass Ratio?

Wet Mass 10,000 = 1000 = 10 Dry Mass

9 What is the astronaut’s Delta Vmax?

Assume for simplicity that exhaust gas velocity Ve is 1 km/sec.

Delta Vmax = Ve x ln (Wet Mass / Dry Mass)

Delta Vmax = 1 x ln (10) = 1 x 2.3 = 2.3 km/sec

Why do we use ln (Wet Mass / Dry Mass)? Every time we pulse the rocket, we reduce the Wet Mass by shooting some propellant out the nozzle. Meanwhile, Dry Mass remains constant. Mass Ratio degrades until Wet Mass = Dry Mass. When you run out of propellant, your Mass Ratio = 1.

10 What if I want to go faster than 2.3 km/sec?

Holding Ve constant at 1.0 km/sec, I could increase the Mass Ratio by adding propellant. But this yields diminishing returns:

5.00 Mass Ratio Delta V (km/s) Ve (km/s) max 4.50 1.5 0.41 4.00

2 0.69 3.50 2.5 0.92 3.00 5 1.61 (km/s) 2.50 7.5 2.01 max 1.0 10 2.30 2.00 1.50

25 3.22 V Delta 50 3.91 1.00 75 4.32 0.50 100 4.61 0.00 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Mass Ratio

Takeaway Message: If you start at the low end of the Mass Ratio scale, you get good returns for your fuel investment. But for Mass Ratios higher than 10, the payoff diminishes rapidly.

11 What if I want to go faster than 2.3 km/sec?

Holding the Mass Ratio constant at 10 while increasing

the exhaust gas velocity Ve offers even returns:

250,000.0

V (km/s) Delta V (km/s) e max 200,000.0

1 2.3 150,000.0 10 23.0 100 230.3 100,000.0

1,000 2,302.6 Delta Vmax (km/s) Vmax Delta 10,000 23,025.9 50,000.0 100,000 230,258.5

0.0 0 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000 120,000

Exhaust Gas Velocity (Ve)

Takeaway Message: Investing in rocket engine technology

to increase Ve is worth every penny!

12 Some practical thoughts about Delta V

In theory, if you had a rocket that could achieve a Delta Vmax of 100 km/sec, you could actually reach a velocity of 100 km/sec. BUT then you have the problem of slowing down. Rocket ships don’t have brakes. In practice, you would use a portion of your Delta V budget to accelerate to your cruise speed, and then when you get close to your objective, you would do a flip-and-burn maneuver to slow down enough for orbit insertion. Of course, then you have the problem of returning home. And ideally, you would set aside a minimum 30% margin in your Delta V budget. So a typical round-trip mission profile would be as follows:

Total Delta V 100 (%) Outbound Acceleration 17.5 Outbound Deceleration 17.5 Return Acceleration 17.5 Return Deceleration 17.5 Margin 30 13 How do chemical rockets fare with exhaust gas velocity?

Propulsion Oxidizer/Fuel Ve Thrust (km/sec) (Mega-Newtons) Space Shuttle SRB x2 PBAN-APCP 2.6 24

Saturn-V F-1 x5 LOX/Kerosene 3.0 38.7

SpaceX Merlin 1D x9 LOX/Kerosene 2.6 7.6

Space Shuttle RS-25 x3 LOX/LH2 4.4 5.4 One newton is 0.225 pounds of thrust The above rocket engines are weight lifters, designed to overcome atmospheric drag and earth’s gravity to place heavy payloads in Low Earth Orbit.

NOTE: The highest possible Ve for chemical rockets comes from LOX/LH2.

Therefore, at Ve = 4.4 km/sec and a Mass Ratio of 10, the best Delta Vmax you can hope for with a chemical rocket is 23 km/sec. This in turn means your best outbound leg velocity is ~4 km/sec.

14 Okay, you’re stuck with a chemical rocket and you want to go to Mars anyway… That would be economy class, aka the Hohmann Transfer Orbit*. Why do we call it a ‘transfer orbit?’ —Because we start out in Earth orbit (around the Sun) and we transfer to Mars orbit (around the Sun).

Assume for simplicity that Earth and Mars orbits are circular. Mars at rendezvous Earth orbits the Sun at a distance of 1 AU at 29.79 km/sec. Mars orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.5 AU at 24.13 km/sec. (The farther from the Sun you are the slower your orbital velocity.) Pick a point opposite the Sun from Earth—that will be your rendezvous point.

Mars at launch Wait for Mars to be ahead of Earth by 44.3 degrees—that will be your launch window, happens every 26 months.

* http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/mission.php http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/mission.php#id--Hohmann_Transfer_Orbits 15 Okay, so you want to go to Mars…

Initiate your launch from LEO, about 1000 km above Earth. Your burn will be enough to give you a 2.95 km/sec Delta V. After you reach that velocity shut down your engines and cruise. This will put you in an elliptical transfer orbit that is barely big enough to nick Mars’ orbit 2.5 AU away. As you approach Mars, your velocity will gradually degrade until you are only traveling 21.5 km/sec. If you do nothing else you will continue down the backside of the ellipse picking up speed as you go until you are back at your launch point traveling 33 km/sec again. BUT Earth won’t be there. We don’t want that, so we gun the engine when we reach Mars to add an extra 2.65 km/sec to our velocity to match Mars’ orbital velocity. This is sometimes called a circularization burn.

16 Okay, so you want to go to Mars…

But we’re not quite done since we want to avoid crashing into Mars. For that we do an Orbit Insertion Burn to the tune of 3 km/sec which puts us in a stable Mars orbit at 500 km altitude. Altogether, your Hohmann transfer to Mars will cost you 9 km/sec of Delta V and will require 235 days travel time. Getting home is roughly the same except that you have to wait for planetary alignment before you light your rockets. That will be 516 days. Hopefully, you brought a book. The return leg is a little faster requiring only 191 days. Altogether, you’ll need 942 days. That’s a long time for vital equipment not to break, for crew not to get sick or injured, to not run out of essential stores (food, water, oxygen), and to not get cooked in interplanetary radiation (25 rems/year).

https://www.quora.com/Why-is-it-important-that-on-the-launching-day-of-the-Mars-rover-the-two-planets-should-be-close-to-each-other 17 What if we want to get to Mars quicker?

The Hohmann Transfer Orbit is a minimum sized ellipse that will just nick Mars’ orbit. So why not try a bigger ellipse? We initiate our elliptical transfer with a Delta V of 3.86 km/sec, but as we get close to Mars we have to do a much more aggressive braking burn of 6.23 km/sec.

18 What if we want to get to Mars even quicker still?

We could abandon elliptical transfers altogether and go for a hyperbolic transfer. This one is a 93-day round trip with 17-day stay at Mars.

110 km/sec becomes 143 km/sec with 30% margin.

Dr. Nicola Sarzi-Amade, Global Aerospace Corporation, Irwindale, CA 19 What if we want to get to Mars even quicker still?

An even more aggressive hyperbolic transfer with a 64-day round trip with 12-day stay at Mars.

153 km/sec becomes 199 km/sec with 30% margin.

Dr. Nicola Sarzi-Amade, Global Aerospace Corporation, Irwindale, CA 20 What if we want to visit the moons of Saturn?

Saturn is 10 AU from the Sun. A Hohmann Transfer to Saturn normally takes 10 years. This one takes 922 days roundtrip with 92 stay time at Saturn.

Saturn orbits the Sun at 9.69 km/s

129 km/sec becomes 168 km/sec with 30% margin.

Dr. Nicola Sarzi-Amade, Global Aerospace Corporation, Irwindale, CA 21 Summarizing Total ∆V and Roundtrip Travel Times

Total ∆V (km/s) Outbound Stay Time Return Outbound Transfer (days) Return ∆V Transfer with 30% Total Time ∆V (km/s) (days) (km/s) (days) margin (days) Earth to Mars (Hohmann) 9 235 516 9 191 23.4 942 Earth to Mars (153-day) 32.6 70 13 32.6 70 84.8 153 Earth to Mars (93-day) 55 33 17 55 43 143.0 93 Earth to Mars (64-day) 82 22 12 71 30 198.9 64 Earth to Saturn (Hohmann) 9.9 1456 112 9.9 1184 25.8 2,752 Earth to Saturn (922-day) 75.4 347.8 92.2 53.8 482.5 167.9 922.4

(Assumes launching from and returning to LEO)

With the Hohmann Elliptical Transfers we need about 23 or 26 km/s, but it’s going to be a long trip. With the hyperbolic transfers we need about 200 or 168 km/s, but you can drastically shave the duration compared to ellipticals.

22 So can we get 26 km/s with a chemical rocket?

Delta Vmax by Mass Ratio

Propellant Ve (km/s) 10 20 30 50 100 LOX/LH2 4.9 11.3 14.7 16.7 19.2 22.6 LOX/RP-1 3.5 8.1 10.5 11.9 13.7 16.1

Not likely. At least not with a single stage rocket. (Yes, we send chemical rockets to Mars all the time—we just don’t bring them home.)

23 So let’s look at a multi-stage rocket—the Saturn V that was used on the Apollo mission. Saturn V Stages 1st (5 F-1s) 2nd (5 J-2s) 3rd (1 J-2) Payload Rocket LOX/RP-1 LOX/LH2 LOX/LH2 Wet Mass 2,909,200.0 496,200.0 123,000.0 118000 Dry Mass 183,600.0 40,100.0 13,500.0 Stack Total Wet Mass 3,646,400.0 737,200.0 241,000.0 Dry Mass 355,200.0 171,600.0 131,500.0 Mass Ratio 10.3 4.3 1.8 Ve (km/s) 3.5 4.9 4.9 ∆Vmax (km/s) 8.2 7.1 3.0 Total ∆V (km/s) 18.3

(The Apollo spacecraft was 118,000 kg.)

24 So let’s look at a multi-stage rocket—the Saturn V that was used on the Apollo mission. Things to keep in mind about the Apollo mission: • Apollo launched from Earth which adds an extra 10 km/s to your Delta V budget in order to get to LEO. • Carried a “fourth stage” in the Command and Service Module • Aerojet AJ10-137 engine • Aerozine 50 fuel (3201 kg) and Nitrogen tetroxide oxidizer (5118 kg) • Hypergolic, corrosive, and carcinogenic • 91 kN thrust • Roles: • Placing Apollo spacecraft into and out of lunar orbit • Mid-course corrections between Earth and Moon • Retrorocket for Earth return deorbit Wet Mass: 28,800 kg Dry Mass: 11,900 kg Mass Ratio: 2.4

Ve = 3.35 km/s

Delta Vmax = 2.93 km/s

If we add this 3 km/s to the 18 we got from the first three stages, Mars begins to look possible. 25 If chemical rockets can only take us beyond the moon slowly, what about the nuclear option?

26 Yes, that would be bomb-grade (93% enriched) fissile U-235 flying around in space.

27 I know what you’re thinking…

28 29 Actually, I was thinking about something more like this…

NASA's Nuclear Engine for Rocket Vehicle Application (NERVA) program at the Nuclear This is a nuclear thermal rocket. It Rocket Development Station (NRDS), Jackass does not have a detonator. Flats, Nevada 1962-69. No detonator, no boom. 30 NERVA and Rover were active Nuclear Thermal Rocket (NTR) Programs sponsored by NASA during the 50s and 60s.

http://what-when-how.com/space-science-and-technology/nuclear-rockets-and-ramjets/ 31 A number of solid core NTRs were developed.

32 There were plans at one time to mount a NERVA rocket to a Centaur Upper Stage. Project advanced to TRL-7 (launch-ready).

General Dynamics Centaur Upper Stage with conventional LOX/LH2 Viking and Voyageur spacecraft RL-10 engines mounted atop Centaur Upper Stages 33 Centaur cont.

The Centaur has been a real workhorse with 242 launches as of April 2017. Most of them end up in graveyard orbits when they’re done. 34 Centaur cont.

Centaur was the first upper stage to use LOX/LH2 • Twin RL-10 engines

• Ve = 4.4 km/s (same for all LOX/LH2 engines) • Mass Fraction = 9.46*

• Delta Vmax = 9.9 km/s

* Subject to payload mass

9.9 km/s is pretty good given that you are already in LEO when you light it off. RL-10 Engine

35 Centaur: Chemical vs. Nuclear Option

Chemical Rockets (Twin RL-10s) Nuclear Rocket (single Pewee-class)

For the chemical Centaur (calculated) For the nuclear Centaur (calculated) LOX: 17,821 kg (86%) LOX: 0 kg LH2: 3,009 kg (14%) LH2: 20,830 kg (100% propellant) Total LOX/LH2: 20,830 kg Total LH2: 20,830 kg

Wet Mass of Centaur: 23,292 kg Wet Mass of Centaur: 25,978 kg Dry Mass of Centaur: 2,462 kg Dry Mass of Centaur: 5,148 kg Mass Ratio: 9.4 Mass Ratio: 5.0

Ve of RL-10: 4.4 km/s Ve of Pewee: 9.2 km/s

Dry mass of 2 RL-10s: 554 kg Dry mass of Pewee: 3,240 kg

Thrust (2x): 110,000 N Thrust (1x): 111,200 N

Delta Vmax: 9.9 km/s Delta Vmax: 14.9 km/s

36 Let’s take a look under the hood of a Nuclear Thermal Rocket

For starters, all NERVA program rockets were solid core based on fission. In principle, they work pretty much like nuclear reactors in power plants.

They use uranium enriched to a higher percentage of 235U than 238U than is found in nature. • Natural uranium has 0.72% 235U. • Commercial reactors use 3-4% 235U. • Weapons grade is anything over 80%. • Solid core NTRs use 93%. • Nuclear subs use up to 96%.

Solid core fuel elements in a submarine are embedded in metal-zirconium alloy. They sit in a water bath and undergo fission when in close contact with one another. Control rods are lowered to provide separation, stopping fission.

37 Now let’s compare a nuclear rocket

NOTE: It has a substantial LH2 propellant tank, but no LOX oxidizer tank.

38 Nuclear rocket engine details…

39 Nuclear rocket engine details…

Here the Fission Core is contained within the core cage where the fuel rods are separated by control material to prevent fission.

40 Nuclear rocket engine details…

Here the Fission Core is extended beyond the core cage where the fuel rods can undergo fission. When they get hot (~2750 K), LH2 propellant is passed through the rocket chamber where it becomes superheated from contact with the fuel rods. This makes it exhaust out the nozzle at high Ve (~9 km/s). Max Ve is limited by core temperature.

41 Nuclear rocket take-away messages

Nuclear rockets use bomb-grade uranium but they have no detonators, hence they are not bombs. The Navy uses even more enriched Uranium fuel than proposed for nuclear rockets and they’ve never had a nuclear accident. "We have never had an accident or release of radioactivity which has had an adverse effect on human health or the environment," —Lukas McMichael, Public Affairs Officer for Naval Reactors

42 Nixon cancelled the NERVA program in 1972. He also cancelled the last three Apollo missions: • Apollo 18 — Copernicus Crater (Feb 1972) • Apollo 19 — Hadley Rille (Jul 1972) • Apollo 20 — Tycho Crater (Dec 1972) Ostensibly, this was to pay for Vietnam.

What Nixon did to the space program was his second most egregious sin. His worst sin was lowering the national speed limit to 55 mph in 1974, the year I got my brand new Pontiac Firebird Formula 400.

43 If Nixon hadn’t cancelled NERVA, where might our research have led?

The following propulsion concepts were all sponsored by NASA, typically under the NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts (NIAC) program from 1998-2007 and NASA’s Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Project (1996-2002) at NASA Glenn Research Center.

As such, they are all considered plausible advanced concepts, and hence fair game for writers of hard SciFi (that would be me) and board game designers of the same persuasion (e.g., John Butterfield, designer of the SpaceCorp, GMT Games due out 2017).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakthrough_Propulsion_Physics_Program https://boardgamegeek.com/boardgame/214029/spacecorp 44 More advanced nuclear propulsion concepts

NERVA and Rover produced solid core nuclear rockets limited to Ve of 9.2 km/s and a Delta Vmax of 14.9 km/s (on our Centaur testbed).

There are also liquid core NTRs. • Nominal core temperature 5250 K vs 2750 K for a solid core

• Ve 16 km/s • Delta Vmax 25.75 km/s • Work by bubbling LH2 through a molten fissionable core, e.g., tungsten, osmium, rhenium, tantalum. • Problems: • Keeping the liquid contained inside the rocket chamber • Start-up and shut-down complicated

http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/enginelist.php#ntrliquid 45 More advanced concepts

NERVA and Rover produced solid core nuclear rockets limited to Ve of 9.2 km/s and a Delta Vmax of 14.9 km/s (on our Centaur testbed).

There are also gas core NTRs, e.g., the nuclear lightbulb, a closed cycle concept. • Closed cycle means the nuclear fuel (Uranium hexafluoride or hex) remains contained in the rocket body. • Nominal core temperature 8333 K

• Ve 30 km/s • Delta Vmax 48.3 km/s

A cluster of seven nuclear lightbulbs on a Liberty Ship. Works like a light bulb in a closed chamber. Nuclear fuel is contained in a quartz ‘lightbulb.’ LH2 is passed around it, becomes superheated and exits the nozzle. 46 http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/enginelist.php#id--Nuclear_Thermal--Gas_Core--Closed_Cycle More advanced concepts

NERVA and Rover produced solid core nuclear rockets limited to Ve of 9.2 km/s and a Delta Vmax of 14.9 km/s (on our Centaur testbed).

There are also gas core NTRs, e.g., an open cycle concept. • Open cycle means the nuclear fuel, uranium hexafluoride or hex, is allowed to escape out the nozzle with the LH2—very radioactive. • Nominal core temperature 55,000 K

• Ve 98 km/s • Delta Vmax 157.7 km/s

http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/enginelist.php#id--Nuclear_Thermal--Gas_Core--Open_Cycle 47 Gamma radiation is a problem with all nuclear thermal rockets. Radioactive fuel is only a problem with open cycle rockets.

We protect against gamma radiation with shadow shields. In Space Propulsion Analysis and Design they give the specs on a typical shadow shield. Starting at the atomic engine, the gamma rays and neutrons first encounter 18 centimeters of beryllium (which acts as a neutron reflector), followed by 2 centimeters of tungsten (mainly a gamma-ray shield but also does a good job on neutrons), and finally 5 centimeters of lithium hydroxide (To stop the remaining neutrons. Hydrogen slows down the neutrons and lithium absorbs them.). This attenuates the gamma flux to a value of 0.00105, and neutron flux to 4.0e- 9. This has a mass of 3,500 kilograms per square meter of shadow shield (ouch!). The thing about gamma radiation is that, being a photon, once it pops out the nozzle it’s gone at the speed of light. From Nuclear Space Propulsion by Holmes F. Crouch

http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/radiation.php 48 Launch etiquette is the best way to protect against hex.

EML1 is the location of CisLuna’s colony of 12 space stations. Interplanetary rocket construction is done there. Launching is done after the space ships are towed into place at EML2, 110,000 km away. Even then the tugboats start the launch by getting the ship underway at maybe 2 km/s. A day of coasting at that speed would put you about 300,000 km away from EML1. At that point you could start your closed cycle lightbulbs to boost your Delta V to 20 km/s. A day or so of that speed will get you a couple of million km from EML1. By then it should be safe to fire the gas core open cycles bringing you up to your interplanetary intercept cruise speed of up to 40 km/s.

http://hopsblog-hop.blogspot.com/search?updated-max=2015-06-08T21:34:00-07:00&max-results=7&start=21&by-date=false 49 EML1 and EML2 support orbiting space stations in a Lissajous orbit.

https://space.stackexchange.com/questions/4050/is-there-a-lot-of-space-trash-at-the-earth-moon-lagrange-points 50 Technology beyond Nuclear Thermal Rockets Chemical based rockets do convert mass to energy but at such low rates it does not even register. Best Ve is 4.4 km/s. Fission based rockets convert mass to energy at about 1%.

• Best Ve is 9.2 km/s for solid core, • Best Ve is 16 km/s for liquid core, • Best Ve is 30 km/s for gas core closed cycle, and • Best Ve is 98 km/s for gas core open cycle. Fusion based rockets convert mass to energy at about 3%. 3 • Best Ve is 7,840 km/s using He-D • 49 kN thrust in pure fusion mode

• Most practical/complete design to date is Discovery II with Ve = 347 km/s • Capable of 223 km/s Delta Vmax • (BTW: 223 km/s is 0.07% of c) Antimatter based rockets convert mass to energy at 100%.

• Best Ve is 100,000 km/s. • 10,000 MN thrust

• Capable of 0.5 c Delta Vmax (minimum velocity for interstellar voyages)

http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/enginelist.php#he3dfusion http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/realdesignsfusion.php#discovery2 51 Let’s check out the Discovery II fusion rocket

http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/enginelist.php#he3dfusion http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/realdesignsfusion.php#discovery2 52 Discovery II fusion rocket They even thought about artificial gravity! • 17-meter radius at 3.25 rpm yields 0.2 gee • Getting close to Coriolis problems • Only the habitat pods rotate around a slip-ring.

My preference would be: • 250-meter radius at 1.89 rpm for a full gee • Coriolis not a problem • Keep the slip-ring • Save mass by using only two larger habitat pods.

http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/enginelist.php#he3dfusion http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/realdesignsfusion.php#discovery2 53 Discovery II fusion rocket

http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/enginelist.php#he3dfusion http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/realdesignsfusion.php#discovery2 54 Discovery II fusion rocket

The business end of the fusion rocket Note the open matrix nozzle. It’s a magnetic nozzle, necessary because the exhaust gas temperature is too hot for a normal nozzle.

http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/enginelist.php#he3dfusion http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/realdesignsfusion.php#discovery2 55 Discovery II fusion rocket

Note: Core Temperature of 252 eV is 2,924,340 K!

http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/enginelist.php#he3dfusion http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/realdesignsfusion.php#discovery2 56 Discovery II fusion rocket

http://hdl.handle.net/2060/20050160960 Realizing “2001: A Space Odyssey”: Piloted Spherical Torus Nuclear Fusion Propulsion, Craig H. Williams et al. March 2005. Goal was to produce a practical fusion-powered spacecraft based on the Discovery from the movie, 2001: A Space Odyssey. Engine Mass: 316,000 kg 3He-D Fuel Mass: 11,000 kg LH2 Propellant Mass: 861,000 kg Exhaust Velocity: 347 km/s Mass Ratio: 1.9 Applying Tsiolkovsky’s equation we get:

Delta Vmax = 223 km/s Or doubling the Mass Ratio to 3.8 we get:

Delta Vmax = 463 km/s Or increasing the Mass Ratio to 10.0 we get:

Delta Vmax = 798 km/s NOTE: This rocket is designed for a continuous burn for the duration of the mission. You don’t burn to accelerate to cruise velocity, shut down and coast, then burn to decelerate for orbit insertion.

http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/enginelist.php#he3dfusion http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/realdesignsfusion.php#discovery2 57 Discovery II fusion rocket

(9.6 AUs)

Alternatively, onboard fuel (11,000 kg) and propellant (1 AU) (861,000 kg) could be increased, sufficient to cover the trip back to Earth.

“The normally thought of conics of minimum energy trajectories 212-Day Saturn Rendezvous Mission followed by today’s chemical It would be constructed, launched, and recovered in LEO using 7 systems degenerate into nearly heavy-lift launch vehicles. (3 Assembly; 4 Propellant) 6-person straight line, radial transfers at crew arrives by shuttle. Propellant flow-rate is reduced to 0.045 these high acceleration levels with continuous thrust.” kg/s to cover the longer transit time. Gas Core Open Cycle fission rocket would need 347 days for the outbound leg.

http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/enginelist.php#he3dfusion http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/realdesignsfusion.php#discovery2 58 Discovery II fusion rocket

Fusion power is the future of space travel within the Solar System!

59 The Limits of Fusion Rocketry

Alpha Centauri, our nearest star, is 4.3 ly away, or 276,174 AUs. Neptune is 30 AUs away, making AC 9205 times farther away than Neptune. Getting to Neptune in a reasonable amount of time, does not equate to getting to AC in a reasonable amount of time. For the sake of the argument, I define a reasonable transit time to AC as 1 year of acceleration, 8 years of coasting, and 1 year of deceleration. Hence, a starship capable of 0.5 c is called for. Discovery II (even if augmented to a Mass Ratio of 10) would need over 9000 years to reach AC. A

Fusion Max drive (Ve = 7840 km/s, Max Delta V = 3159 km/s or ~1% c) would require over 400 years. Antimatter is the minimum technology capable of reaching 0.5 c.

Air & Space Magazine 60 Technology beyond Nuclear Thermal Rockets

Chemical based rockets do convert mass to energy but at such low rates it does not even register. Best Ve is 4.4 km/s. Fission based rockets convert mass to energy at about 1%.

• Best Ve is 100,000 km/s. • 10,000 MN thrust

• Capable of 0.5 c Delta Vmax (minimum velocity for interstellar voyages)

http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/enginelist.php#ambeam https://web.archive.org/web/20060601234257/http://www.aiaa.org/Participate/Uploads/2003-4676.pdf 61 Let’s check out the Frisbee Beamed Core Antimatter Starship.

First introduced by physicist and SciFi writer Robert L. Forward in “Antiproton Annihilation Propulsion” in September 1985 as a final report for the Air Force Rocket Propulsion Lab.

The concept was later expanded by Robert H. Frisbee of JPL in his 2003 paper “How to Build an Antimatter Rocket for Interstellar Missions.”

The Frisbee variant was good for Ve = 0.333 c which in turn yielded a Delta Vmax of 0.25 c.

Roman L. Keane and Wei-Ming Zhang in 2012 expanded on Frisbee’s concept with some simulation research on the magnetic nozzle design. The result was Ve = 0.69 c which in turn yielded a Delta Vmax of 0.48 c.

‘c’ is the speed of light, 299,792,458 m/s.

http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/enginelist.php#ambeam https://web.archive.org/web/20060601234257/http://www.aiaa.org/Participate/Uploads/2003-4676.pdf https://arxiv.org/pdf/1205.2281 62 Frisbee Beamed Core Antimatter Starship

Note: Overall length is 700 km due to ginormous gamma radiation and the need for 500 km of heat radiators!!!

http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/enginelist.php#ambeam https://web.archive.org/web/20060601234257/http://www.aiaa.org/Participate/Uploads/2003-4676.pdf 64 When we start measuring Ve in c, we need a new rocket equation.

The world as we know it—time, length, mass, etc.—changes as velocity approaches c. These changes are reflected in the Lorentz Factor, γ.

• Frisbee’s rocket had a Ve of 0.333 c, giving it a Lorentz Factor of about 1.06—not very significant. 0.333 0.69 • Keane & Zhang’s rocket had a Ve of 0.69 c, giving it a Lorentz Factor of about 1.4— significant.

Lorentz Factors as a function of c At 0.69 c we are starting to hit the knee in the Gamma Curve.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsiolkovsky_rocket_equation#Special_relativity https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorentz_factor 65 When we start measuring Ve in c, we need a new rocket equation.

Classical Rocket Equation Relativistic Rocket Equation

Frisbee Keane & Zhang

Ve (c) 0.33 0.69 Mass Ratio 2.15 2.15 LN(MR) 0.77 0.77

Classical Vmax (c) 0.26 0.53 γ 1.06 1.40 Relativistic Vmax (c) 0.25 0.48

‘tanh’ is the hyperbolic tangent. It’s on your iPhone scientific calculator.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsiolkovsky_rocket_equation#Special_relativity https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorentz_factor 66 Conclusion

You may have heard of the Kardashev Scale used to measure an alien society’s level of technological advancement. It’s based on energy utilization: Type I—Uses all the energy available on the planet, e.g., fossil fuels, nuclear, solar and wind renewables, etc. Type II—Uses all the energy available from the host star, e.g., a Ringworld or Dyson Sphere Type III—Uses all the energy available from the host galaxy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kardashev_scale

67 Conclusion

Larry Niven’s Ringworld (a partial Dyson Sphere) Freeman Dyson’s Sphere

Looking at Type II civilizations only, e.g., a Ringworld or Dyson Sphere • KIC 8462852, aka Tabby’s Star (named for Astronomer Tabetha Boyajian) is speculated to be an example of a Dyson Sphere. • But given that the average lifetime of a civilization is only about 350 years, I would suggest that it is unlikely that a civilization could survive long enough to create something as sophisticated as a Ringworld or a Dyson Sphere. Hence, the Kardashev Scale may not be practical.

http://www.dailygalaxy.com/my_weblog/2015/03/astronomers-debate-how-long-can-a-technology-based- 68 civilization-last-weekend-feature.html Conclusion I propose the Propulsion Scale as a more practical measure of a society’s technological advancement: Type 0—Has yet to make it to space Type 1—Chemical Propulsion—Uses chemical rockets; routine travel inside local stellar system using Hohmann Elliptical Transfers Type 2—Fission Propulsion—Uses fission rockets; routine travel inside local stellar system using hyperbolic transfers Type 3—Fusion Propulsion—Uses fusion rockets; routine travel beyond local stellar system, e.g., Kuiper Belt, Oort Cloud, using hyperbolic transfers Type 4—Antimatter Propulsion—Uses antimatter rockets; routine travel to nearby stars; have begun initial migration to stars within 100 ly Type 5—Faster Than Light Propulsion—Uses technology similar to the Alcubierre Warp Drive (Harold ‘Sonny’ White) to achieve speeds up to 10c; migration beyond 100 ly Types 2, 3, and 4 all put out intermittent gamma ray signatures—these civilizations might actually be detectable!

69 A bit about me and my books…

70 1) Ten years as a tech writer at NASA Ames Research Center. 2) Helped scientists write proposals for space missions. 3) Began writing The Galactican Series about five years ago in an attempt to craft a series of SciFi novels showing the technological evolution necessary for mankind to become a true spacefaring society. 4) All books are Hard SciFi – everything in each book is scientifically and technologically plausible. 5) If you read the entire series, assuming I live long enough to write it, you will have conquered the problems of zero-gee and space radiation, you’ll have met some interesting critters, you will travel within the Solar System using advanced nuclear propulsion, you will travel between stars using antimatter propulsion, and you will have begun to colonize the nearby stars starting with α-Centauri. 6) But you won’t be human anymore!

71 Books I, II, and III of The Galactican Series

GENESIS

Foreword by Pascal Lee SETI Scientist and Director of the Mars Institute

Book III

Amazon Jan 2017 $19.25 Amazon Jul 2017 $17.50 Amazon Dec 2018 2069-72 2085 2101-02 SpaceCorp occupies LEO with SpaceCorp occupies Earth- SpaceCorp launches the 1-km ring-shaped space Moon Lagrange Points plus SIS Pascal Lee to Mars. stations. surface colonies. Gas Core Open Cycle Solid Core Nuclear Thermal Gas Core Closed Cycle NTRs NTRs Rockets (NTRs) “Lightbulbs”

https://www.amazon.com/s/ref=nb_sb_noss?url=search-alias%3Daps&field-keywords=the+galactican+series 72 Books IV through Last of The Galactican Series

ENCELADUS MAINBELT α-CENTAURI KUIPERBELT ORT LOUD Foreword by O C Jonathan Lunine Director, Cornell Center for Astrophysics and Planetary Science PI of proposed Enceladus Life Finder (ELF) New Frontiers-class mission (2024 launch if it wins)

Book IV Books V, VI, and VII Book Last

Amazon Late 2020 Amazon 2021-25 Amazon ~2026 c 2175 c 2200-2300 c 2400 SpaceCorp launches the SpaceCorp establishes SpaceCorp’s first voyage SIS Jonathan Lunine on a permanent colony in the to Alpha Centauri on the mission to Saturn’s moon Main Belt Asteroids, and SpaceCorp Starship Enceladus. launches missions into the Robert L. Forward. Fusion Power Rockets Kuiper Belt and Oort Cloud. Beamed Core Fusion Power Rockets Antimatter Drive

73 Books I and II are on sale tonight.

SpaceCorp develops giant ringed space SpaceCorp has developed a sizeable colony at stations to combat space junk from the the lunar Lagrange Point 1. All is well until a Kessler Syndrome from destroying vital serial killer who thinks he’s a vampire begins instruments. The concept works well until preying on young women. Detective Roy Stone a 3rd World Nation looking to make a name is dispatched to the SSS Einstein in a race to for itself shoots down a derelict Centaur. catch him before he kills again.

Price for the pair is $30 (cash, check, or PayPal). (The pair would cost $46.89 if you order from Amazon.) I’ll personally sign each copy. If you read and review each of them on Amazon by 15Nov2017, I’ll refund your $30! 74 Back-up Slides

75 How do we get Helium-3?

On Earth…

Because it is so rare, we don’t mine 3He directly. 3He is commercially produced by radioactive decay of tritium (12.5-year half-life). Tritium is produced by bombarding Lithium-6 with neutrons in a nuclear reactor. The only U.S. reactor set up for this is Watts Bar, but the process could be scaled to meet demand. Watts Bar Nuclear Power Plant Lithium-6 is key to Helium-3! Spring City, TN Naturally occurring lithium occurs in two stable Discovery II would need isotopes: 6Li (7.6%) and 7Li (92.4%). about 6.6 tonnes of 3He Chile, China, Argentina, and Australia are for a single one-way the big producers of Lithium-6. mission.

http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/fusionfuel.php# http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/mining.php# https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium-3#Industrial_production 76 http://www.businessinsider.com/world-consumption-of-lithium-2015-8 How do we get Helium 3? On the Moon…

The Fiction

The Reality Lunar regolith may contain 1.4 to 15 ppb of helium-3 in sunlit areas and up to 50 ppb in the shadowed regions. Mining equipment would need to process over 150 million tonnes of regolith to extract a single tonne of helium-3.

http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/fusionfuel.php# http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/mining.php# http://orcutt.net/weblog/2015/02/05/helium-3-alternative-energy-the-china-problem/ 77 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium-3#Extraction_from_extraterrestrial_sources How do we get Helium 3?

Harvesting the Gas Giants… The Scoopship and Tanker concept calls for a scoopship to skim the outer atmosphere of a gas giant filtering H3 as it goes. Then it zooms back to space where it rendezvous with a tanker that transports the H3 back to Earth. Obviously, the ∆Vs required would make for a logistical nightmare. Radiation, especially at Jupiter, would require 100% robotic operations. Magnetic field strength is an indication of ambient radiation levels.

Distance Atmospheric Scoopship Tanker to Earth Magnetic Field Planet from Sun Concentration of Orbital ∆V Hohmann ∆V Strength relative (AUs) H3 by volume % (km/sec) (km/sec) to Earth Jupiter 5 0.001 43 24 20,000x Saturn 10 0.00033 26 18 600x Uranus 20 0.00152 15 15 50x Neptune 30 0.0019 17 15 25x

http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/fusionfuel.php# http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/mining.php# http://orcutt.net/weblog/2015/02/05/helium-3-alternative-energy-the-china-problem/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium-3#Extraction_from_extraterrestrial_sources http://anstd.ans.org/2014/05/21/space-radiation-interplanetary-radiation-belts/ 78 How do we get Helium 3?

The takeaway message on H3… For the short term, ramp up H3 production on Earth using Watts Bar type reactors and Lithium-6. Meanwhile, try to stay on good terms with Chile and Australia. Lunar regolith mining of H3 sounds like it will cost way more than it produces. However, there may be concentrated pockets of H3 in permanently shadowed regions—worth exploring. Harvesting gas giants might be a good long term solution, especially at Uranus and Neptune. Setting up the robotic infrastructure would be costly and time-consuming but once the flow gets going you would be in good shape for centuries. Long shot would be to scout the lunar surface, main belt asteroids, and gas giant moons for concentrated deposits of Lithium-6.

http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/fusionfuel.php# http://www.projectrho.com/public_html/rocket/mining.php# http://orcutt.net/weblog/2015/02/05/helium-3-alternative-energy-the-china-problem/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium-3#Extraction_from_extraterrestrial_sources http://anstd.ans.org/2014/05/21/space-radiation-interplanetary-radiation-belts/ 79