R the GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS of PANAMA

r

THE GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF PANAMA

BY LAVINIA MARY BARTON

B. S., University of Illinois, 1936

THESIS

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN GEOGRAPHY IN THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, 1938

URBANA, ILLINOIS T BIX OP OOVTKim

Chapters Page

I• The Bepiu lie of Panama ...... 1

II* The Caribbean Coastal Region ...... 14

I I I # The interior '"ighlands of Panama...... E?

IV. The Pacific Coastal Region ...... , 34

V* The Panama Canal ?one ...... 43

Bit? ? lographjr ♦...... fif Chapter 2

Tha He u b lic o f ?&na®a

Shaped like a crawling caterpillar, with its head touch* lng Coeta Klca on the north and its tail reching southward to the forested mountains of Colombia, Panama Is known to few people beyond its borders because its f me is over­ shadowed by the importance to the world of the Panama

Canal and the Canal gore. The Canal rone, however, is merely a ten-wile-wide strip across the Isthmus, while the

Republic? cov s an area equal to that of the State of mine*

Location, Panama la situated between the 6 degrees

50 minutes and 9 degrees 41 minutes north latitude and the 77 degrees 14 minutes 45 seconds and 83 degrees 32 1 minutes of west longitude* Area* The area, 99,0ff square miles, dees not Include the Panama Canal Zone* The extreme length is about 480 miles, and the breadth varies from 37 to 110 miles# The coast line on the Caribbean Sea is 477 miles, that on the paeiflo, 767 miles* Hm Republio of Paaaa* Is today ident- V leal in territorial limits with the department of panama before its separation from the Republic of Colombia* This department extended from Costa Rlea cm the west to a line drawn first nearly due south from Cape Tiburon on tp* southern limit of the rtulf of Darien, then southwesterly to

Republic of Panamas At the Xberian-Amerloan Exhibition at Sevilla, 1929, Panama Association of Co^^eroe Tourist Bureau, Panama City, a point on the Pacific coast a short distance southeast of

Punta Cooallto. This last or eastern limit of the department

of panama is almost entirely along the divide between the

Atrato Hiver and the watershed draining into the

Miguel* r Population. The population according to the 1930

census is 467,459 with an additional 40,000 living in the

Canal Zone* Panama City, the caoltal and largest city, has

74,409 Inhabitants! Colon, the chief Atlantic oort, 29,765;

David, 8,041i Chltre, 4,095; Penonome, 3,206; and 3ooas del

Tore, 1,502 • See figure 2

The racial divisions of the population excluding ths

Canal zone are as follows) flhlte 16.34^; Mixed bloods

58.14

Yellow .25i* The percentage of illiteracy is 38*82 not

counting Infant, and Indian.1. *h# °fflolal *■ Spanish; English Is generally understood.

Past History. The credit of discovery has been con­

ferred on Kodgio Galvan de Bestidas, who in 1501 reached what Is now called "The Bridge of the T^orld*1. Columbus visited the Isthmus on his fourth voyage in 1502. Vasco

Nunez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama after a jour­ ney of twenty-six days and discovered the Pacific Ocean on

September 26, 1513. In the name of the King of Spain he

^Commerclan Information Republic of Panama American Consulate, Colon, K. P. —*25 — claimed possession of the ocean and all of the lands washed by it* The city of Panama was founded In 1619* Here Plsarro

fitted out his various expeditions destined to end in the conquest of Peru* It was for many years a sort of pivot on which the power of Spain turned In Central and South America*

At th at time the only way a cross was along t r a i l s through the jungle and swamps*

In later years the Isthmus was incorporated in the

Republic of tolombia, but succeeded in effecting its ind­ ependence in 1903. Because of the increased Isthmus traffic an American Company in 1850-1865 built a railroad across at a great loss of life, due to the treacherous nature of the virgin soil*

In 1881 Ferdinand tesseps* a Frenchman, tried hie hand at constructing a canal which should unite the Atlantic and pacific and met with such disastrous effects that work was stopped in 1889* The canal was then taken over by the

United Statesi work was begun in 1904 and the canal was com­ pleted In 1914*

There are a number of legends concerning the meaning o f the word Panama, but the most commonly accep ted one Is

"Abundant fish "•

apology* The dated geological history of Panama le all of Oenosolc age and the sediments rest on an eroded surface of volcanlce * Submergence prevailed from upper

Eocene Into middle Miocene time* All the strata formed during these epochs were intruded by dikes and flows of andesltea, rhyolites , and basalts, and th# volcanic materials

cov r much of the land in tha west, with many irregular high

©ones still in evidence* In middle Miocene time, Panama was

tilted , submerging the northern part, causing the 3a tun forma -

beyond the stage of youth, a gradual subsidence began which

continued until the young valleys were aggraded and the mature

valleys of the second cycle were drowned to a depth of 375 feet

for short distances back from the northern coast, Finally, a

slight upward movement, of 6 to 30 feet, elevated the eatuarlne

Pleistocene deposits. Panama is no* devoid of volcanic activity.

Earthquakes. The entire Isthmus is in an area subject

to seismic disturbances, and the tnreat of a severe earthquake

hangs over the whole Canal gone* Distinct, but inconsequential,

earthquake shocks have b*en felt In Panama for centuries, with

the exception of one which occurred in 1621 and that of September

7, 1882* Nearly all of the local shocks appeared to originate

about 115 miles southwest of Ancon H ill in :^os Santos Province,

BIvora* Taking the Isthmus as a whole Its most

noticeable features is the maze of innumerable rivers. About

150 short rivers flow to the sea from the northern side of the

Isthmus, and over twice that number d ra in i t s P a c ific slop e*

As a rule the mountains are nearer the Atlantic than the

Pacific, so most of the longer rivers are on the southern

slope* However, the Bio Code del Korte has its source in

the province of Code, and crosses that of Colon to empty into

I Sc'hucherf. V Charles historical Geology of the Antillean- Carrlbbean Region, Hew York, John Wiley lc Sons, Inc. 1936. th# Carribbean. Th# Chagres Biver which furnishes th# water for the Cana19 Is also a northern stream#

The largest of all the rivers Is the Tuyra, or Bio del

Santa Maria as the old maps have It* From its mouth in Darien

Harbor it is navigable fifty miles inland for small steamers and schooners* Th# native dugout9 cayufeast go up it and its tributary, the Chucunaque, for fifty mll#s more.

Climat#* The climate of the Isthmus is thoroughly tropical in character except In the higher altitudes of the mountains* The temperature varies according to the altitude from 36° Centigrade on some parts of the coast to 18° Centigrade or less in the higher portions of the country, the average for the entire territory being relatively mild, fluctuating on th# Atlantic coast from 22° t o 27° and on the Pacific o * 1 coast from 18 to 26°•

The precipitation is fairly abundant* During the period from the end of December to the middle of April, the rainfall quite low, becoming even rare, and this dry season is commonly termed the summer* In reality, how ver, there is oerpetual summer* On the Atlantic coasit the average annual rainfall is about 130 inches; on the Pacific coast 70 in ch es* The mean temperature is about 80° F*

peopl# are able to endure the tronleal heat, the enervating humidity and the deadening equability, because

^ The Panama Republic, Panama Association of Commerce tourist Bureau, Panama City of daytime cloudiness, a sunlight-absorbing blanket# of moist

air, and a breesc* The average daytime cloudiness, in the

dry season, December to March, ia about 50 per cent, and

the rainy season, April to November, about 75 per cent#

In the dry season the interior and the Pacific side have

more cloudiness than the Atlantic side, even though the

Atlantic is the windward side of the Isthmus• in the rainy

season the nights are cloudy, while in the dry season the

day time oumulus clouds disappear in the evening* Although

Panama is in one of the cloudy belts of the earth, there is,

on the average, only one day a month that the sun does not

shine* Said a newly arrived army woman, 11 It looks like

Heaven, but it feels like Hell”* There are days like that

in Panama, even as elsewhere* A long rainy season from

April to December, and a correspondingly short dry season

offer the only variations in climate* The thermometer

registers 85 degrees by day throughout the year, but heat

waves, such as the United States suffers in midsummer, are unknown* Between seasons, when the wind velocity is con­

siderably decreased, convectional precipitation may take place,

producing invariably a sultry transition period* The nights are cool during a dry season with the trade winds often bringing oerfect days, with a huge blue dome overhead* In midwinter, a cool ocean current is present In the Paclfio for several weeks*

The meteorological equator, as meaaured by pressure, wind, and precipitation (not by temperature) runs east- •V *

southeast toward th© west coast of South America, which It

meets near the Panama boundary during the northern summer

at the geographic equator southeast trade winds in the Cocos-

Malpelo-Buenaventura-Balboa region# In winter the northeast

trades blow as northerly winds over the flulf of Panama and

southward almost to the equator# When the low pressure belt

is more south of its normal seasonal position, the southeast

trades are replaced by rainy northerly to north-westerly

winds, forcing warm surface water southward*

Transportation# Communication between Panama and

the rest of t e world is extremely easy and jugular by reason of the situation of the Isthmus, as the one point in

the world to which all routes converge# Ships sail daily

from the Atlantic port of Cristobal and the Pacific port

of Balboa to all ports of the world. From 12 to 18 large

ocean vessels cross dally from one ocean to the other in both directions#

Railroads# There are three railways in the Republic,

of which the main line, the Panama Railroad, traverses the

Isthmus, parallel to the whole length of the Canal. The

Chiriqul Railroad connects the port of Pedregal and David,

the capital of that province, whence it gradually ascends

the range of hills as far as the table-lands of Boquete and

Potrerillos, reoutedly the best regions for the cultivation

of coffee# Another national line runs to Concepcion, an

important center for agriculture and cattle of the same

provlnoe# -s-

HoadSe There is no highway across the Isthmus,

although panama la included in the Inter-Continental righ-

way, a contemplated aig iwiy of 16,000 miles connecting

Alaska with Buenos Aires* The Republic, however, has been

If surveyed and has practically completed a main highway for

over 500 mllea to Consecoion, for th© most part at elevations

between 200 and 400 feet* A good road runs west from Panama

City to the city of David, a distance of about 325 miles

and th e re is a first-class ferry service across Balboa Bay*

From Panama City there I s a good road for ab o u t twenty miles*

There are no roads into th e interior leading from Colon* See

figure 1*

Airplace passengers have the thrill cf "crossing the

continent** for the sllot can show them the Pacific and in

a few minutes swing over the Atlantic side of the narrow

republic*

Forests and Vegetation* The continental divide

separates Panama Into two distinct vegetatIona1 regions,

the rain-forest area cf the Atlantic clones, and the savanna,

and savanna-forest of the Pacific side*1 These divisions

result from rainfall, amount and distribution* The evergreen

rain-foreat of the Atlantic slopes is characterized by its

exceedingly varied composition* The savanna-forest, and

Its g ra s s formations exists to the west of the Canal*

Eastward and southward the forest passes into th e h e a vy 1 \ J --- — ------* Pittler, ' * The Forests of the Isthmus of Panama, fteographleal Review, #age 7X7 -9a'

Fig. 1— Data from:— Villegas, S. A. : Mapa de la Hep pblica de Panama. 1:500,000, 1925; Long, W. Rg : Railways of Central America and the West Indies,Wash­ ington, 1925, pp. 121, 146,147; Panama American, Feb. 16, 1936, p. 8 ; reconnaissance.

Fig. 2— Data from:— Panama ^ireccion General del Censo: Censo Demografico, 1930, Vol. 2, pp. 173-262; United States Bureau of the Census; Fifteenth Census of the United States, 1930, Vol. 1, pp. 1246-1248. Fig* 3 — Data from:— Place names in Panama Direccion General del Censo: Censo Demograffico, 1930, Vol. 2, pp. 184-262; reconnaissance.

K>° 71°______7 f l yig,4 — Data from:— Sapper, W.: "Klimakunde von Mittelamerika," Koppen and Geoger Handbuch. der Klimat ologie, Vol. 2, pp. H 31, 44, 45, 58, 64; Panama Dep- artanemto de Estadistica: Annuario de Estadistica, 1934, pi 10. -a o - rain-forest of the intensely humid Pacific coast of Coloisfcla*

A thick, dar'*, primitive forest covers at least t'ree- fourths of the Isthmus, and the vegetation in countless forms fights strenously with man for possession of the soil* It is nature’s favorite trooicnl hot-house* Exoept for the beaten paths and cleared spaces constantly maintained the fungle is king in Panama* One season’s growth will cover an abandoned clearing with the luxuriant tropical vegetation*

Hone of the big animal life of Africa is found in Panama.

The tratarantula, coral snake, tiger oats, deer, and other larger, though not so dangerous animals are found, and alligators, as well as shsrks, abound in the rivers and bays.

The insect life is wonderfully varied, the birds are in infinite variety and most beautiful, while wild flowers of daszling colors are in profusion.*

Mahogany Production. The native Hcaoba" or mahogany tree grows to a larger sise, generally measuring from 40 to

50 feet in height, and from 9 to 12 feet in diameter across the base* Though mahogany trees can be felled any time of year, lumbermen generally search for these from October to

Way, during which months their appearance resembles closely the foliage of the forbits of the northern climates and is the forester’s guide. He usually climbs the tallest tree and from that angle he locates the brilliant tops of the mahogany trees in that particular region, then indicates their approximate position to the waiting choppers below,

I !Tcot€7~¥* ft..fhe' /Americans in Panama, New York, Page 63 The Statler Publishing Company, 501 Fifth Ave. 1918. •11“ who remove as much as possible cf th# urderbrush and upon reaching tho desired t m , they* carve their employer»s mark on it. This seems to be t'e only available mesns of finding those trees in tho dense Jungle. Later the branches are looped off and tho trunVs squared? the legs are finally drawn to tho nearest river whore they are rated and allowed to remain until they are floated to the port of shipment.

The mahogany production area is an area Of wet and dry forests in areas of moderate rainfall rather than of maximum rainfall or severe seasonal drought. Such distribution of forest and rainfall is consistent with the more pronounced mountain barrier west of the Canal zone and less pronounced barrier east of the Zone to separate the Pacific slope from the Caribbean.

Industries. More than one-haIf of panama is unoccupied and a nortion of the occur*led area is noorly cultivated.

There are many thousands of square miles of wild forests and dense, tropical Jungle land where tho only sounds are the calls of native blasts and birds, and dashing streams have yet to feel a propeller or paddle wheel. But If one follows tho more important trade routes radiating from coastal towns, Panamanian farms and industries will be re­ vealed. Hew railways and highways are being thrust Into the forests, whence come hardwoods for furniture makirg, and to banana plantations that grew more than 2,000,000 stems of bananas annually. Sugar plantations produce nearly •18- enough sugar for home needs; cattle ranchos* proviso sufficient meat for th# Panamanian tables, and vaat quantities of hides for export* Coffee, balata, coconuts, cacao and ivory nuts also thrive on the fertile, sun-sweet Isthmus*

The seas off Panama for many years have supported pearl, salt, sponge, end coral industries, while inland many are employed in sugar refineries, soap, tanning, candle, shoe, and hat factories, and in gathering tortoise shell for export*

Textiles, machinery, iron and steel products, lumber and building materials, gasoline and petroleum products, electrical supplies, and drugs are Imported* Except for small handicraft factories In the cities, there are no manufactures*

Minerals * Set a great deal is known concerning the mineral resources of Panama* Traces of gold, coal, and petroleum are found in many places*

Customs and Traditions* The People of panama are

Spanish in type and in their traditions* Their families are large and their home life engenders a certain restraint and poise* The men are preoccupied with politics. Urban panama speaks fluent English and adopts American customs* but it retains its own language also. Laboriously It observes birthdays, exhaustlngly It mourns its dead; and obediently it goes to church. Though birthdays are announced in the social columns, heads of families keep even stricter reminders, since failure to call on the occasion of a friend’s - 13-

birthday is « decided breach of etiquette in this country*

Exchequer and Treasury* The principal Income of

Panama It derived from the Customs duties, taxes on landed

roperty and on the consumption and manufacture of spirituous

liquors*

As a rental for the strip of land comprising the Canal

Zone, the country receives an annual sum of $250,000

together with an additional #300,000 for Interest of 6,000,000

balboas reserved by the nation to Its posterity out of the

10,000,000 received as premium against the concession for the

period of 99 years cf the said strip.

The national currency is the "Balboa*, which is the

equivalent of one gold dollar of American money, the parity

of which Is guaranteed by a deposit in gold made to the

Washington treasury.

For purposes of moro detailed and geographic study

the Republic of Panama has been divided into the following regions? (I) the Caribbean Coastal Hegion; (2) the Interior

Highlandsi (3) the Pacific Coastal Hegiont and (4) the

panama Canal Zone. See figure 5 Figure 5 The Geographic Regions of Panama

c*ff//66EAV Sff\

PACIFIC, OCEAtf

g o c

1 1 Caribbean Coastal Region

□ Interior Highlands Region CD Pacific Coastal Region FI Panama Canal Zone -14-

Ghapter XI

The Caribbean Coastal Kegion

This region Includes a narrow lowland extending from

the southern end eastern boundary of Costa Fico to the

northwestern boundary of Colombia, bordering on the Caribbean

S ea, and inland to the highlands.

Rainfall * Trie available meterorological data show

that the rainfall ofi the Atlantic seaboard, b0ti for the

year and for the rainy season, is about twice,that of the

Pacific side. See figure 4. practice* y ,1 the centers

of population on the Atlantic are seaports served by shinning

facilities and devoted to localized export trade.

During the Mdry season” the rain usually cowe in light

local showers, but heavier general rains occasionally occur

' along the Atlantic coast in connection with "northers’*.

The time o f h ea v iest r a i n f a l l , #$ a r u le , is frorr. 2 to 3 P.M.

Along the Atlantic coast nearly half of the total rainfall

ooBses at night, In November and December general rainstorms,

often aodomp&nying storms of the 'norther" type, may occur,

o c c a s io n a lly la s tin g 25 hours or lon ger and some o f them

extending over the entire Canal ; one and adjacent territory.

Kaln forests. It is as a rain forest (figure 3)

that the jungles on the Chagres might be classed among the

most remarkable of the fcorld. They are produced by a rainfall wfcueh Is, according to Hahn, nearly three times

that of Rio de Janeiro, twice that of Guatemala City, about -15-

twice that of Bangkok, or Calcutta, nearly half aa much

again as Hongkong, and considerably greater than Paramaribo,

in Butch Ouiana.^

/Irasa is certainly ’the curse of agriculture In the rainy tropica* The great forest Insists on taking back

the little clearing to Itself, and it Is one continued fight with a machete to keen It fro® doing so.

Agriculture* The whole coast, as well as the numerous

islands of iandlnga Bay and farther east, are lined with extensive cocoanut-pal® groves, of a variety remarkable for

the superior quality and shane of the nuts* Vast areas of

the forests are covered with the native Ivory-nut palm, and

the larger growth abound In balata or bully-trees*

The cocoanuts, Ivory-nuts, and balata are the main

sources of wealth of these natives, among whom money is never

scarce and poverty Is an unknown thing* The staple crops

for local consumption are raised In small clearings scattered

through the forests of the interior and reached by water from the coast; besides most of the usual fruits of trooical America,

these Include plantains, corn, rice, cassava, yame; and son*

c a c a o .

The land belongs undivide* to the community, so that

any encroachment Is considered as a tmbllc damage. Annual

crops are seldom produced several years In succession on the

same piece of ground, but once this is cleared and t i l l e d I t

I------Fairchild, David, Jungles of Panama, National fJeograohlo, Feb, 1922, Page 137* belongs to th# individual or family who have

It returns to the public domain through voluntary abandonment* Any cacao, orange, or other fruit-tree planted by hand becomes an hereditary possession, transmitted through the female line*

Religion* The natives do not seem to have any religious system but there are indications of their holding to the notion of a superior being, the author of all things snd the embodiment of goodness, and also of a bad spirit, governing all evil, whom they fear and revere more than the former.

Town of Booas del Toro* Here the houses, mostly of wood and badly in ne#d of paint, straggled along the sandy spit of land, with here and there moth-eaten palms and a few trees rising above the roofs * Bustards and mangy dogs take the place of street-cleaners*

BOOas del Toro Is the artrepot of an extensive district, and a good trade is carried on in tortoise-shell, dye woods and medicinal plants, hides, and innumberable other articles#

The Inhabitants are nearly all British West Indian negroes, and English is the universal language * The reasons for this are (I) the inhabitants are 6«»t Indians, who work or have worked upon the vast banana plantations on the neighbouring mainland; (2) first settled by British buccaneers, and their descendants, of mixed blood, of course, they held tenaciously to the language of their buccaneer forbears and considered them­ selves "Englishmen**

Colon Province Is rich In historical interest* Columbus -17- vlsited the coast on hia last voyage In ISOS* The name

Puerto Bello, end what Is now called Colon Harbor, he christened Navy Bey* Hot far from the present city of Colon he attempted to found a colony*

The Province of Panama with long coast lines on both oceans, is the eastern extreme of the Republic* Most of it is undeveloped, but there is considerable cattle-raising.

Tranaportat Ion * The vessels of the United Fruit Corroany wake weekly trips between Colon and Bocas del Toro* The rest of the transit and coastal traffic on this aide of the ocean

Is carried out by an innumerable flotilla of gasoline-driven lighters and motor sailing bests of from 200 to 500 pounds carrying capacity, as well as by another still more numerous flotilla of single masted craft and Small sailing vessels of other types, of which many are employed In fishing.

Minerals. Mineral resources Include deposits of gold, silver, Iron, Conner, coal, and petroleum. The most Important deposits a r e located nesr the Colombian b o rd e rs in the territory 1 of the San Bias or P-arlen Indians* These aborigines are particularly hostile to white me: , and forbid them to penetrate the region. Coal has been found In the upper reaches of the

Flo Indies near the w e s te rn shores of ftatun Lake but so far as is known at present, it has no commercial value. There are manganese deposits at Manginga Bay in the San Bias ^ulf, and in the Be ueron Valley near tfombre de M o s . The latter deposit

1 Carlson, Fred, Geography of Latin America, Page 436, Kew York, Prentice Hall, Inc. 1926* -1 8 - deposit is claimed to be one of the largest surface deposits

discovered u p to 1922. San Bias Indians. In the years 1501 to 1503, when Rodrigo de Bast Idas and Christopher Columbus visited the northern coast of the Isthmus, they found it densely populated.

To judge by the few villages visited by Henry Pittier a few years ago the San Bias who also call themselves Tuel, aggregate eight to ten thousand on the stretch of coast between Punta Kscribano and Cape Tiburon. Stature. The San Bias with their marked Mongolian features, do not average five feet in height. Their bodies are long in proportion to their legs; their chests are usually;: finely developed. They are splendid tree-climbers and expert swimmers, while their skill with the the canoe is marvelous.

History. According to historical records the Ouna- Cuna or aan Bias extended formerly as far as the valleys of the eastern reaches of the Chagres River and covered both sides of the continental divide between the present Canal Zone and the bays of San Miguel and Atrate. In the course of the conquest they offered a steady and stubborn resistance, and, though they have been gradually deprived of a large part of their former territory, it is certain that to this day they have never been really subjugated. During the piratical warfare of the buccaneers, or free­ booters, the CunaBCuna were their constant allies against the Spaniards, because they well understood that while the latter -19- had come to s t a y , th # fa rm e r Had no Idea of securing a permanent foothold In th e Isthm us *

They ati l l have a warm feeling for tho Scotch and tho

British, They have looked upon tho Americans in th e Canal

Z o n e, as a now and formidable conqueror, more dangerous to thOir race than the Spaniards of old.

The Panamanian government, appointed as supreme authority on the whole coast Charlie Fobinson, a native of Hargana who, as a child and a young man, had spent many years in the United

S ta te d and fu lfilled perhaps better than any other one the deaired conditions for the office, but who, in the eyes of tho

Indians had no right to it. This resulted in i splitting of the oorraunlty, tha more conservative part of which, from

Playa Grande eastward, continued under Inapaqulna and tho

Colombian flag, while tho Ending* Bay natives indifferently accepted the rule of Fobinson. Thus inopportune intervention has resulted mainly in the awakening among the m alorlty of tho

San Bias Indians of a warm feeling in favor of Colombia.

Agriculture* These Indians go to the mainland daily to cultivate their farms, to get wood and water, to hunt, and to work their secret gold mines. They have inherited consider­ able gold from their ancestors or they have a way of obtainlog tho precious metal s till, for the women wear gold ornaments and many of the men own quantities of gold which they w ill not part with.

Houses. There seems to be much variation as to the siae of the Cuna houses, but they a ll have the naked beaten ground ms * floor anil a high gable roef* Th® two islands

at Bargana are literally ceirered with large dwellings about

160 feet l©ng by SO feet bread, the long ridge ef the palm-

cev-ired reef being 30 t® 40 feet from the ground* Directly

under this ridge is a large alley, running between two ranges

©f high pillars, which support the middle part ef the structure#

On each side ether upright posts divide the space inte square

compartments, each ef which is occupied apparently by a

separate family* There are only two lew d©ors at each end ©f

the building and the sidewalls are made ©f sticks tied together

with mountain vines, as are all parts ef the building. These

houses are packed s© clos* together that there is ne space

left between thesis. Each shelters from 16 to 80 families.

Clothing. They are beginning to shew' many modifi­

cations in thoir aboriginal customs produced, by contact with

the whites* This is seen chiefly in their dress, which now

often consists of cotton cloth of English manufacture, while

the mon, especially when visiting Colon ©r Panama, go clad in

complete suits ©f clothes. The women still woar the short

skirt and colored chemise, appliqued in curious designs, which was their custom tw© hundred years age. Most of the woman wear gold n©ee-rings, and they adorn themselves with many necklaces ef beads and metal coins* Their needlework

shows exceptional skill, and they make a kind ef tap-3try*

They are also fond ©f making figured cloth out ef cotton

fabrics bought from the traders, and they buy different

col©red cloths, dyeing them with their own pigments. They -Si­

des lgn ornamental oleoma very skillfully, much of their work

having been shipped to Gormany before the war.

Aloofness. It is said that they nave an iron-clad

rule that no stranger shall remain in their territory after

sundown. Soaie white men who tried the trip were never hoard

fro?!! again.

Picture writing Is still known and practised by the

Cuna Indians. The Cunas believe that all plants are medicinal,

and attach a magical significance to their colors especially

when used as protective medicines.

helatlon to Proaent Government. In 1915 the Panama government established a customs house on one of the Islands

of the San Bias, where all trading boats must clear. The

Hopublic now has a resident official In their capital, with a physician and a staff, and is beginning to promote tho assimilation of the tribe# - 2 2 -

Chapter III

The Interior Highlands of F«nini

The Interior Highlands, the largest region of Panama,

eonslets of the highlands and its lower slopes throughout the

oentral part of the Isthmus, excluding, of oourse, the Canal

Zone. Since the available material for this region was so

scattered only a few regions such as the highlands of Chiriqui,

the Llanos del Volcan, and Boquete were chosen for discussion.

Throughout the entire year the Caidera Valley and the entire district surrounding the foot of the Volcano of Chiriqui

is visited almost daily by the "dry rains” celled "Bajareques".

They are a mistllke rain that begin about mid-afternoon and

last for the remainder of the day until the foliage of the trees is dripping with moisture. As early as 7 or 8 o'clock

in the morning a small fleeoy cloud appears about half way up the side of the Chiriqui Volcano. This gradually increases until at noon the entire mountain is obsoured by the smokelike clouds that float lazily in the breese. At about 3 o'clock they have descended to less than 200 feet from the ground, and then this steady mistllke rain begins. It drenches everything and penetrates the heaviest clothing, until after an hour or two one is wet to the skin.

These bajareques are what makes the Caidera Valley the fertile and productive spot that it is. Without them it would be dry almost half the year. It would make impossible such things as strawberries, grapefruit, and various garden vegetables the year round. - 23-

The Caidera Valley Is one of the beat sections of the

Hepublic. The climate is like that of the Intermediate sone,

and the year round it is necessary to sleep under blankets.

Even In midday the heat is not oppressive, beeause of the

altitude and the cooling breezes that blow through the valley

from the mountains.

Forests of high altitudes. In the western part of the

Republic of Panama the evergreen oak becomes dominant above

8,000 f^et, from which elovatlor. it forma extensive groves up

to the limit cf the timber line.

Rivers. Skirting the Llanos del Volcan to the north, is

the Pie Chiriqui VieJo, one of the largest In the Province,

more than 00 miles long. Ita drainage basin comprises 625,000

to 750,000 acres, and Its source is hidden in a mountain gulch

several miles to the northeast of the slopes of El Baru. The

stream follows a course generally westward, and bordera the

northern edge of the volcanic plain for som IS milea, whence

it makes an abrupt deviation to the southward and rumbles

onward toward the Pacific through a canyon 500 feet deep* It

is not navigable oven for tho native dugout (oayuga) in the

upland, where the foaming torrent no where subsides to calm

water. It descends to sea level from an elevation of 8,000

feet in slightly more than 60 miles. The roar of the river

Is not only echoed through the canyon, but resounds over the

currounding mountain and is faintly audible even at a great

• distance. *2 4 -

FKCSIOHS

Going north In tho direction of tho Chiriqui Peak, one is struck by tho peculiar range of low hill* running, as It seems, between the plain* m d tho mountain# and parallel to the sea-ooaat« The road winds between these, and mostly following the Dolega Fiver, ascends gradually toward El

Boquete* The general Incline is oo insersible that one travels learly iS relies before reaching tho foot of tho volcano, at an altitude of about 3,000 feet* The ride is

•ainly across savannas or through what is generally a parklike landscape*

During the dry season the long stretches, bare of arboreous vegetation are constantly swept by the northeast trade wind, which at aIns its major Intensity between 9 o'clock A.M. and

3 o'clock P*M« and is often of such violence that even the horses find it difficult to stand and to proceed on their way*

Every detail of the surrounding landscape bears the impress of the wind* In the most exposed places the surface of the soil

Is submitted to an active aerial erosion, the minute particles of the ground being removed the moment they become loose*

The meager sod consists not of a continuous carpet of grasses, as in most savannas, but of isolated sedges and small plants distinguished by the unusual development of their root system*

Sculptured Rocks. The characters in Chiriqui are, incised on large stones, the surface of which has not previously undergone any smoothing process* The incised - 2 5 - stones ooeur In a district of Veraguas which li now thinly inhabited, but whioh, judging fro® the numerous tombs, was onee densely peopled by a nation which became known to

Columbus in his fourth voyage of discovery, manufactured some elegantly-shaped pottery, wore ornaments made of godd of a low standard, called quanin and buried their dead In stone cists, oimaments, pottery, and other household articles*

grave-opening* The government of Chiriqui has put a stop to grave-opening* Centuries ago the higher civilisation of the Aztecs and other Indians to the northwest spread into the Chiriqui region* When these early residents died they were buried with pottery, gold ornaments and other objects*

Discovery that the graves held gold came comparatively recently, and in one place resulted in a gold rush on an old cemetery that covered 12 acres* It has been estimated that a million and a quarter dollars* worth of gold has been taken from the graves•

Although their accomplishments are little kr.own, the ancient Chiriqui Indians were experts In metal working* Hot only did they cast gold, but they also alloyed gold with copper, made brorse with copper and tin, and covered base metal Images with a gold wash, a process not accomplished by electroplating. How they covered objects with a film of gold is still an unsolved archeological mystery.

Flatlands or Llanos del Yolcan. West of El Baru and spreading from Its base lie the flatlands, or Llanos del

Volean, an extension of some 16,000 acres. This is a veritable -26-

tableland, th® natural handiwork of the mannter voice no

during its long period of activity* This plateau, mt one

ti^e t>art of a luxuriant valley was destroyed by continuous

hot eruptions or rook and ash and at last completely fille d to

an alros* perfect: level*

In recent generations, the llanos del Vol«nn have given

pasturage to herds of oattle and horses and were a portion of a

greet ranch known as *>otreros del Volcan , an extensive land

grant to an enterprising fam ily of pioneers* Cattle raising

was given up and wild homes and cattle descendants of the firs t

Introduced s t ill ro?dm the ranch*

C h ir iq u i V o lc a n o , s t i l l known b y i t s In d ia n name *

Saru", has an altitude of 8,000 feet* To climb to i t s

sum-It is s straight and exhausting task, rendered d ifficu lt

a t t i^ e s \y$ the unsteadiness of the loose so il, the Intricate

thickets, rnd even in the upper belt, b y h ig h , tangled g r a s s -

fields* Rocks, all of volcanic origin, are seen only in

deep gorges, or near the topj and, though s till called a

volearo, the Chiriqui Peak is a dtead one, in which only 1 obsolete traces of fo rm e r plutonlc action are to be seen*

T0ge her with its oounterpart and accessory susnits, namely

Cerro ?audo and rico Bovalo, this inmense crater peak forms

very definitely the continent A divide of this region and

1 Ittier, Henry, kittle nown Parts of Panama, National Geographic Hagesine, Vol* 25, Ju ly, 1912, *>age 2 7 - is the nucleus from which spring many of the streams flowing to the Pacific and Atlantic littorals#

The Ascent# The trail to the top leads first through savannas and beautiful oak forests, Mixed with sweet cedars and other subtropical trees, and as it goes higher and higher, always straight toward the top without any superfluous wind­ ings, the attention of the traveler is distracted from his toilsome physical exertion by the successive appearance, in the middle of a strange vegetation, of many fam iliar-looting plants, like trailing bramble vines loaded with luscious blackberries, less welcome nettles, alders and the like.

A formal investigation of the flora of the tipper mountain belt would show, in fact, that it is a mixture o^ a reduced endemic element with representatives of the flora of our northern countries and of the South American Andes#

ters of elevation there are whole forests of a Persea tree, which is a very near relative to the alligator pear# It grows below and above the frostline, and is acclimated#

At the bottom of a large rorthera crater the temperature goes every night near or below the freesing point, and the cold Is very intense to people accustomed to the heat of the lower plains#

The crater is a circular plain about 2,000 feet in diameter, surrounded by a more or less broken ridge that is densely covered with a forest of myrtles, oaks, and less familiar trees• The culminating peak is distant only about \ \ . \ \

-2 8 -

two hours* climb, and as one approaches it th# arbo-real A • vegetation becomes more and wore stunted and dwarfed, until

the summit is reached* to the south the vast expanse of

the pacific and the beautiful lowlands of Chiriqui, all

interlaced forests and savannas j to the north, a labyrinth

of unexplored valleys, covered totally by virgin forest ex­

tending down to the Caribbean Sea; westward, the Costa Mean

mountains* and to the east, a lofty peak of no despicable

prominence and as yet devoid of any influence of white man* i ' I / Families ©f Horth American and European nationals have t !f j I of late years started coffee plantation in the territory

adjoining the Llanos del Volcan and are also successfully

growing fruit and garden truck of the intermediate and sub- | tropical 2ones. In spite of the wet and dry seasons, the

unusual fertility of the soil and the many brooks and streams * make possible several crops a year. An area of over 100,000

acres of excellent coffee land, also adaptable to the pro­

duction of vegetables, but not in a state of virgin forest, is

available for future development. • / ' t The upland districts drained by the Bio Chiriqui Viejo 1 i : a:* it traverses the Volcan region are locally known to the east

as "Kaisan” and to the west as ’’Kabo Clallo,* extending to

Costa Klca.

Today these territories are practically uninhabited with

the exception of a dozen Isolated families of squatters and a I • few roving groups of gypsy-like Indians* Host of these sneak hi . a crude Spanish but are pure-blooded descendants of Indian •29*

forefathers* Apparently they have inherited the custom of

a certain muteness and aloofness toward strangers* They

never divulge any of the secrets of their ancestry, and

regard a traveler with a tinge of strange distrust,

scrutinizing askance his manner and every motion* They

maintain themselves as independently as did their ancestors,

out of reach of officials, squatting and planting wherever

fancy takes them. Proudly they claim their own distinct

Chlricano nationality, and are sometimes offended if one

refers to them casually as Panamanians*

Once or twice a year these primitive folk descend from

their mountain homes to celebrate the annual fiestas In

distant villages. Usually such celebrations last from three

to six days, and most of the time is occupied in dancing,

feasting and drinking.

Boquete* Boquete is the tiny hill town which Is the

Simla— mountain resort— of the Panama Hepublle. Boquete

Is connected with David by a narrow-gauge railroad. Boquete,

nestling in the mountains of Chiriqui Province at 4,000 feet,

Is like a kite at the end of the railroad*s string*

Near Boquete the road leaves the savannas to penetrate

Into the upoer Oaldera Valley* This Is the favorite summer

resort of the Panamanians and of many Canal Zone Americans,

and also the only coffee-growing section of the whole

Republic. On account of the prohibitive tariff, the latter

Is one of the best paying products of native agriculture, and

several foreigners have established here prosperous plantations*

El Boquere, half In the windy, semi-arid zone and half In *30— that of continued rains, has a very limited producing

capacity, and is far from equable of supplying th# rapidly

increasing demand for coffee la the larger centers*

Cocle ^ountftln* These mountains served »e the former home of one of the few tribes that resisted the Spanish oonquistadores* Here, for 2,000 years, the tribe panned gold from the stream and made It up into ornaments* An explorer, william by name, made a hasty trip to Code during a few weeks in the middle of the dry season* A sacred J mountain, the too of which is carved out by hand to form an underground teranle, was discovered* The slopes of the mountain contain countiess tombs of ancient warriors, each skeleton resting on gold plates and surrounded by gold orn­ aments * Aside from the value of the precious metal that is * recovered the tottery objects are of high archaeological value«

The ^uaymles* *?p In the forbidding mountains end valleys that form a background to the landscape for the traveler on the steamers plying between Panama and David dwell the mass of the oresent Ouaymies, about 5,000 In number, in their homes scattered through savannas and forests*1 From the time of the conquest to the beginning of the past century, they hnve been more or less under the Influence of Catholic missionaries, but have since been left to go back to most of their ancient customs and w ys of living.

Their dwellings are located either in the midst of the

l Popular Mechanic, m § r>e0em\ieVp 1 9 2 2 . -51- forests of the lower belt, in solitary clearings far apart, or in th© high savannas. In the first instance they are always at some distance fro® the sea, as the ffuaymies, forced back into the mountains by the Spanish Invaders, have long since lost the art of navigation.

These for vst dwellers are of a quieter and wore submissive disposition, though their daily contact with the stealthy and hidden animal life of the woods has made them more cunning and distrustful than their brothers of the savannas. These, living amidst rugged h ills . In a relatively cold climate, ard enjoying day after day the magnificent panorama of the surrounding mount a ins and plains, framed in @ray clouds and blue waters , are mergetic and proud of their undisputed Independence.

They feel that isolation Is their best policy, and it would not be safe for anybody to penetrate into their forests with­ out a strong escort and continuous watchfulness. Many Instances of murder, some confirmed and others only suspected, are on record, and even the natives of the San Bias coast are not a little afraid of their brothers of the mountains*

The typical dwelling is the round housp, about eight meters

In diameter, with a conical thatch roof. The bare ground constitutes the floor, and the fireplace Is either in the middle or at the side* Thes houses are not always walled, then they are they have no windows, hut two doors nlacod at the opposite ends of a secant to the circumference of ths structure. The walls are mads of erect sticks brought close together and tied with vines. On the north side nlaster made -3 2 - of cow dung and clay is sometimes applied 90 a3 to afford a protectIon ngalnst the wind#

Benches along the walla are used as beds g although at

high altitudes, where the temperature Is often very low at

night, the restirg place la on a light floor Just under the

roof* Large net#, hanging from the beam#, are used in lien

of wardrobe# and closets, and the tillin g , fishing, and hunting

Implements, a ll of a prim itive type except the gun#, complete

the house furnishings# nowadays the kitchen crockery Is most­

ly Imported ware, the only exception being the large earthern

jars used to keep the ehloha, or corn-beer, and the calabashes,

of universal use In the tropic#*

w e a lth * Among the ^uaymies the number of wives is th e

standard of wealth. The wives constitute the working capital

of the fam ily, and their way of courting the preference of their

master is not through love, but to il.

^hlte Indians. Discovery of white Indians was made by

a scientific expedition, under &r. B. 0. Marsh,1 who worked up

the Chucanaque Fiver to the Darien region and the Atlantic coast*

These white Indians, owing to the h o stility of the others have

been forced to take refuge In the mountains and secluded

valleys. The tribe is said to number two thousand. Later Mr.

Marsh returned to Hew York with three white Indian children

and had them supericially examined by anthrotologists end medical mar, who agreed that the children are not albinos,

and that they really are Indians. They have tawny flaxen hair and blue eyes, with features said to resemble those o f T Geographic Jo u r n a l, Vol. ©4, August, 1924, p. 190 *►53*

Cro-Magnon man.

Chiriqui la th© greatest tourist attraction in the

F e m b lic and thous nds o f people from the hot, lowlands of b o t t th e C anal 7, one a d the Republic flock yearly to the

Chirlqulan mountaine in aearoh of their favorable c11m;to and natural beauty*

Families look forward fco the advent of the dry season which they call surfer at which time the schools *re closed and a general exodus to country homes takes place. Here, for months, they ride, swim ?*nd nlay out-of-ioor games. C h ap ter IV

Th® P a c ific Coast Region

The Pacific Ceast Region includes the lowlands south of the Interior Highlands and & number of islands included in

the numerous bays along the ?’eif Ic oean. The Pacific coast*

line of the isthmus of ?ana?na is about one-third greater in

length than that of the Caribbean* There are many islands

along both coasts, but those on the Pacific are more numerous

and larger.

Pacific slopes# In all these areas the cornfields,

pastures and email houses, and, in their respective d istricts,

coffee and other special croos, are essentially the same as in regions where the land is completely oocupled. But the

field pattern is irregularly broken generally by steep and rocky slopes, canyon wall below or lava flows above, wooded

in some cases, barren in others*

Geology. The Central highlands of Los Santos province, a complex of acid to basic igneeus rocks, together with t i l t e d

Eocene bads, was the scene of volcanic and mountain-building a c t iv it y , probably about the close of the Oligocane period* Humerout v o lc a n ic vents can be seen on the Islands of the G ulf of Panama, the most perfect In form toeing at the is la n d * o f Otoque and Bona# An outer and inner cone are s till visible, the remaining parts show a smaller proportion of ash and a larger proportion of flo w s than is the case at El Valle, and the waves find their attack more stoutly resisted for this reason# Several vents In various states of preservation may be seen In the islands along the coast and in San Kftguel Bay -341-

partioularly cm th© ?©arl Island* Tha farther ©ast on© goes

the more Advanced is the stage of erosion, while westward th e

more perfect become the structural volcanic forma.

Hivers. A great river, the Atrato, flows in a deep

gor^e northward into the Gulf of ITraba or Darien, and separates

the "Occidental Cordillera” of Colombia from the outlying

parallel coast range*

The lower reacaes of the Sambu are flanked by high

mangrove forests which gradually give way to a varied growth

of hardwoods as the bants rise slightly higher* As on the

other rivers drain ng the Pacific slope of eastern Panama, th©

great rise and fa ll of the tide is felt many miles Inland and

really controls possible navigation* The average tidal rang*

for consecutive tides is about 12*5 feet, the maximum spring

rang© occasionally exceeding 20 feet*

From Sabalo mouth across the upper reaches of Flo Jesus

is a long arduous tramp through dark, stiflin g , and very boggy & r fo r e s t *

Minerals. Near the Columbian border, In the vicinity

of the headwaters of the Tuyra Elver, are the properties of

the Darien ftoldMining Company*

In the Progre*so-Puerto Armeulles lowlands, the banana is

queen of a large domain. Here the Chiriqui and Company, a

subsidiary of the United Fruit Company, has spent m illions in developing their great banana plantations where one of th©

finest quality fruit is grown.

In the Chorcha section, which is much visited because - 3 6 - of the beautiful w aterfall, a fine quality of oooo beans Is grown, though unfortunately not in large commercial quantities.

Forests. The Paoific coast is dependent for rain on the south wind, blowing irregularly from May to November, with generally gry weather during the remainder of the year. The savanna-forest type exists on the Pacific slopes west of the panama Canal. Eastward and southward the forest changes into the heavy rainforest of the intensely humid Paolfio coast of

C olom bia.

Transportation. There Is a fa irly good wagon road from

David to the little village of Boquete Bajo in the Caidera

Valley, where some of the finest coffee in the world is grown.

In the sugar-cane country In the Province of Code there was b u ilt, a wagon road from Puerto Aguadulce to Penonome, the caoltal of the Province.

Railroads. The Chiriqui Kailro&d begins at Pedregsl, and at David it divides into two branches, one extending west and making its terminus at t»a Concepcion, the other line extends in a general northwesterly direction with Boquete Bnjo as its terminus. At Dolega, 12 miles north of David, there Is a seven mile bratoch which taps the cattle and sugar-cane county in the

Potrerillos district near the foot h ills of the famous Vole n de Chiriqui.

One of the very striking features of the road Is that In a distance of about 53 miles it rises from sea level to an altitude of about 4,500 feet, from which it climbs down to about 4,100 feet in order to enter the Caidera Valley and reach -3 ? -

the torslnus at Boquete 8* Jo* The configuration of the country is such that from the ocean to the mountain a there is a gradual slope upward, which the railway must climb to reach the beat part of the entire Province* '"his gradual slope la no doubt the result of the lava streams with which the now extinct Chiriqui volcano In the many ye-irs of it# activity inundated the country* This is shown by the large .mount of volcanic rock ,.-hic 1 is to be found throughout the section* To this may also be attributed the rich soil in the Caidera Valley#

lrways* Chiriqui is blessed with the main terminal of the Pan-Asierlaan Airways, whose planes serve the Province twice a week, and is also visited periodically by the national Oclabert a irw a y s *

rcanary* A Journey from ^adregal either to oqu^te or to IM Concepcion is over the laros, which during the wet season stretch for seemingly ne riding miles of lush green grass with here and there a clump of trees of darker green# There is nothing of a tropical nature to meet the eye# Indeed the com­ plete absence of tropical verdue, such as Is seen in the vicin ity of the Canal one, Is striking to the stranger who expects to see dense tropical growth In a tropical country#

If the Journey la made during the wet season the heavy* almost d aily downpour practically obscures the surrounding scene­ ry every afternoon# Then, too, early it the morning the rain clouds begin to gather about the Chiriqui Volcano, which is by noon invisible behind this screen.

The Llano country, which practically surrounds David, Is

Incapable of being used for any ether purpose than raising cattle •558** and horses • The sol' Is a hr,rd red clay that grow? nothing but grass and scrub timber. The -round Is very stony, the top so il being not, more than a few Inches deer. It Is not expected th a t t h is 3actIon w ill produce any great revenue for the new railway. r'he dry season learns the country dry and oarehedt and almost without s vestige of green. Even the scrub tlnber turns brown and sere*

Say of Panama. This bay is one of the world’s host deep-sea fishing grounds. mhe Bay of panada is one of the most romantic havens of the great Pacific coast of trorieal America.

Its tr ’itlenfl breathe memories of the Spanish adventurers, of Vasco Wun--? nc "albo*?, who, on Mlahaeliras ’Day of 1513, from the peafc in Darien first beheld the Pacific. TiraV® also beheld the great sel from the Mountains, and prayed that he might sail

It in an English ship.

Pearl fishing* The mother of oearl from the shells w<*.'»niwM»«ii»a>iii m i iwWwi pays a snail interest on the eapital and the real nearIs are

clear profit. There are ships equipped with diving apparatus,

which operate at the islands and up and down th e c o n s t, but the

majority of tha diving Is lone by the natives of the Pe^rl

Islands. They are enslaved to the comosnies by debt and are

viciously exploited#

So abundant were these ’’marine diamonds* that Balboa

wrote to his Catholic Majesty recounting that even the lowest

oast of the Indian inhabiting the Pearl Islands would decorate

the prows of their small vessels and blades of their oars with

pearis# Prom that remote neriod onward the archipelago of pearl -39 - has proved a source of profit to all that engage in diving.

Taboga. The population of tha is la n d c f '~nboge con­ sists o f alm ost pure natives who have acquired little of tv,e frill* o f th e invading civlli3 ation--they are a qurir.t sort of people who live ^uat as their ancestors before the® did. Their wants are few— the pearl fishing provides the way of comfortably meeting them. The small farms supply their owners with the n e ce ssa ry vegetables and chickens, then there ar$ proves of orange*, plantations o f bananas and pineapples.

I t is most interesting when the fishermen return from their trips and their boats are laden with sea-food, for the fishermen announce their presence y blowing a hu*?© conch. Then the housewives with baskets on th eir he ids aand the men with their ponies carrying various fru its and vegetables indigenous to the county come leisurely down the little trails through the thick woods to the beach. They either exchange their goods for others or else sell them.

The Cnocoes. The dhoooea live nearest to nature end truet people, ignore the most elementary w ile s of so-called civilization.

There are several hundred in number and their dwellings are scattered along the meandering Sambu and i t s main tributaries, always at short distance, but never near enough to each other to form real villages. Like their houses, their small plantations are close to the river, but mostly far enough to escnoc the eye of the casual passer-by.

Dugouts drawn up on the beach and a narrow tra il breaking the reed wall at the o d ^ e of tho b nV are the only visible sign# •40-

o f human presence, except at the morning hours and near sunset,

when a crowd of women and children w i l l be seen relaying in the

water, and the men, armed with their bows and long harpooned

arrows, scrutinizing th® deeper places for fish or locking for

inguanas and crab# hidden In the holes along the banka,

Physically the Chocoes are a fine and h e a lth y race*

They are tall, as compared with the Cuna-Cuna, well proportioned,

and with a graceful bearing* The men have wiry limbs and faces

th a t are a t once kind and energetic, while as a rule the girls

are plump, fat and full of mischief. The grown women preserve

their good looks and attractiveness much longer than is generally

the case in primitive people®, in which their sex bears the heaviest a hare of every day* a work.

Both m l * and female have unusually f in e white teet , whleh they sometimes dye black by chewing the shoots of one of

the numerous w ild peppers growing in the f o r e s t s . The skin is

o f a r i c h olive-brown color, and, as usual, a little lighter in women and children. Though going almost naked, they look fairer than the San Bias Cunas, and some of th* women would compare advantageously In this respect with certain Mediterranean types o f the white race. The hair, except in a few cases, Is left to grow to its natural length. I t is course and has a reddish hue. -

Houses, The houses of the Chocoes are built on a batter p la n , as f a r as hygiene and comfort are concerned, than those o f e it h e r the Cunr-Cuna o • the Huaymles. P la ce d high up on the river and seldom visible to the passing canoes, their s tr u c tu e is almost uniform alth o u g h the dimensions vary. - 4 1 *

The floor Is raised eight feet from the ground and supported on each long side by n row of four palm posts, which extend through it and bear the weight of the roof * Trunks of the Iriarte\ palm, split open and flattened, form the flooring*

Th© roof is palm-thatched and with four sheds, two of which correspond to the lon^ sides of the houses and join at the. top

In a gable twelve foet long, while the two remaining ones at th# ends of the building are triangular. There are no walls*

Access to the floor is by means of a notched pole which is turned over when the dogs are not wanted around, or to indicate the absence of th© family# The kitchen hearth is built at the corner least exposed to th© orevailing wind, and consists of a square frame filled with clay, with a few loose stones on which to set tne pots* Such a house has an ideal ventilation and affords at the same time a good shelter against rain and the excessive dampness of the soil.

At night the floor, which is kept scrupulously clean, is turned into a family bad. Long sticks are inserted between the slats and made to reach the ground belo^, and on these are hung mosquito netting. Bark mats form the bedding* The largest soaoe is the parental noo , occupied ulso by the babies, while the elder girls and boys each have their own sleeping corner.

The Chocoes are very industrious. During the dry spoils their life, of course is an out-of-door one, planting* and watching their crops, minting, fishing, and canoeing, I?ut when the heavy rains come they stay at home, weaving baskets of all kinds— a work in which the y omen are efficient— making rones it and hanr-.ocke, carving dishes, mortars, stools and oth©r objects out of tree trunks.

Proves of banana olanfca surround all their dwelling places anl ?row w ith solendid luxuriance# A little maize and a little uoland rice are cultivated? but, in general, bananas * boiled or roasted and always cooked green together with ga^e and especially fish for??! their staole food# Figure 6

ICA A d*I Toro Cl Nornlnf de L w w / / ? 7 GULF, NewPorloBello>LC.C.Quarry /C.CSa icfPA Pt-Cocal / Buenaventura ls>\ nieruivenh.ir'aCQ} S axim oM

SAMA C e r ro B ru ja

Naranjos I.* Muerto I.er)

• M in as

IPt.Tort

N a ra njitos >ta.RitaMt. FortPt.Tortu£uilla Lorcnzofftw/a,

GAT UN, AND LOCKSDAM S a n Ju a n . \ jtTrancft sam pan;

>0£..p a n a m a ZONE ••CafeaLarga

f/exArea +85 of Gatun ft. 163.38SqM Lake at ^/PaloGraii.de imboa Bridge ’*. o\ B as Obis pq r-vA, '

[roGrande rc*

1QRANOE IPEDRO MfbofTL OCR Old Par %r— MuafboT.f-sL. "VmjTLMESh v CficofitL. tP litilia THE PANAMA CANAL

h^MAP SHOWING ^aloSeco jjCulebr

ISTHMUS WITH COMPLETED CANAL \ ”^'vJpt.Bruja *v <3Venado I ^ ' S C A L E & Miles fortola L ! ? ------'Pt.Vacamonte K ilo m e tre s «*>

‘j0M6nu0t^_

Panama Canal Commission, Washington, D* C

V -44- O h a p t e r V

The Panama C anal ton#

Th# Psim u m Canal I one is the best known of a ll Panamanian r e g io n s . >f th# 440 square m ile s o f one t e r r i t o r y , 73 are held in private owner-ship.

C1 imate. At the Canal one the Isttmus la scarcely usora than forty miles wide. The continental divide at this location Is low, rislrg to an elevation not more than three hundred feet above »e love 1• inds, therefore, blow across the entire Isthnus almost unobstructed. ’nder the tropical sun the evaporation from the two oceans is ranid. The high temper^ t’ire of the tropical ol mate is therefore accentuated by high humidity, Wiiiah is enervating to a marked decree to those a- oeustomed to a tamper -te clfm ate. See figure 6

"'he temperature at Colon seldom rises above 90° F . , 1though it occasionally re&c os 98 degrees or even a little higher. The usual maximum monthly temperature varies from bc< t r» o 85 to fifcout 91 *. The minimum m onthly tem perature v a r ie s C o from about 60 to 76 F. , the mean minimum monthly temperature being, hut little under 70 degrees ? .

The rain fall at Bohlo on ugust 7 f 1908 was the he viest for one show r recorded on the 1st us since the American occupation. Between 830 and &i%0 in tha afternoon 7.6*2 inches fe ll, and the total for the storm, which began about noon and lasted almost continuously until 9s4© P.M. was

1 Canal Record. Vol. 1. Ancon, Canal one. Aug. 12, 1908. P. 393. I The maximum for ten minutes was 1:15 Inches, 8*82 inches* end the mixiwum for one hour was 4iSO inches# At Porto

Bello the total fa ll was 4*56 inches; at Cristobal 2.128 Inches*

■ Tooo.gr *.phy* The maximum e le v a t lo r in th e C an al zone is only 1,225 feet, and the average elevation less than half this*

The country is exceedingly uneven of surface (figure 6), and the traveller find* at the fbot of every h ill another h ill to ascend, save for an occasions! strip of stream bottom and the smoother savannas of the Pacific side®* From Colon to Oatun there is an allu vial plain bordered by the h ills of the Hindi and Quebracho range of which the summits rise about 200 feet above tide, with low foot h ills about 50 feet In elevation* At Bohio the valley sharply contracts, and opens out into the elaln of Taverailla, which gradually rises and forms a sort of glacis to the continental divide*

At Obispo the continental divide is encountered, terminating at the end of the Culebra cut# The route then follows down the valley of the Bio Srande*

Tides* Though little more than thirty miles apart as the crow flie s, the Pacific and Atlantic entrances of the

Panama Canal have totally different tides* At the Atlantic

Ocean entrance the tide has an average rise and tm11 of lest than a fo o t, with a maximum of less than three feet, and generally there is but one high and one low water in a day* At the Pacific

g Canal Record Vol. I* Ancon, Canal Zone, Aug# 12, 1908, Page 393 * Bennet, Hugh H* Agriculture in Central America# Anr>aX» of the association of American Geographers* Vol* 16, 1926* • 4 6

Oeena entrance there are fcwo high ana two low waters during a day, the average rise find fa ll being over 12 feet, and at

times over 20 feet*

Transportation* During the Spanish occupation f the

Isthmus of panama, when it was tie * or test overland route for the transportation of the vast quantities of gold and silver that the Spanish conquerors a eat back house for the o offers of the ICings of Spain, there was constructed one of the best high­ ways ever built in the vestern hemisphere, the Camino ileal, or

Royal Road. This road began at the Casa Keat, or Royal Treas­ ury, in the old city of Panama, which later was destroyed by

Morgan1s t ucanneers, extended through the village of Cruces, at the head of navigation in the Rio Cnagres, and ended at

Porto Bello, on the Atlantic ace^n, whence the treasure ships sailed for Spain*

With the construction of the Panama Bailway, which began operations in 1850, the G^ine Foal wa« nractlc&lly abandoned and now only small portions that have not been obliterated by the fa st- g ro w in g ju n g le may be seen*

Panama fia llro a d * The f i r s t IS m ile s , b eg in n in g a t

Navy Bay, was through a deep worass, covered with dense Jungle, reeking with m alaria, and a ounding with almost every species of wild beasts, noxious reptiles and veromous insects known in the tropics* farther on a greater part of the line is through a rugged country, alor.g teep hillsides, over wild chasms, spanning turbulent rivers and furious mountain torrents, • ' - ...... - .. - ...

- 4 « - u n tll the summit ridge was reached , when It descended. abruptly to the shores of t e pacific Ocean* Tha entire length was 49 m ile s* The whole Isthmus , though covered with luxuriant vegetative r . ^ mm growth t^ofastassed little or no timber sufficiently d*iraMe to be of use in construction of a permanent work. The native non- ulation ccmocs*d of mongrel race of Spaniards, Indiana, and

ICegroes, were to o in d o le n t * nd unaccustomed to labor to be demented on to any great extent.

In the Canal Zone great basaltic c liffs, firm and comp* aet. but easily dislodged, have been extensively used in the ballasting of the road.1 tt is one of the few known examples in ■ ] th e world where the natural porpendieu\ar basaltic formations have bean s o bent and displaced. The whole region gives un­ mistakable evidence that great and comparatively recent volcanic forces have been instrumental in its formation. Th*re 18 n0 continuity of the mountain ranges, conical peaks rise on every aides perfect marine shells and coral are found on their very jSusmlts, and the strata of the rocks exposed by the cuttings of the railroad are all volcanic* •' • i • The Panama Railroad is conducted m taetlcally as an

Am erican r a ilr o a d c o rp o ra tio n , altho ugh i t Is owned by the new panama Canal Company. Thi& company does not confine Its e lf wholly to railroad business, but owns and conducts the line of steamer® running between the norts of Hew York and Colon under

^ O tis , F . Um Isthmus of Panama. U*w Tork, Harper and Brothers, Prsnklin Square. MVf ?*ge 21. HIS'

the name of th® Panawa Railroad -Steamship Company*

Population And Employment* The population of t£» Canal Zono .is divided sharply into three rigid classes* 10,0000

Whit© Aaarlaan professional soldiers, end 20,000 negroes,

nearly a ll British sut^leota from the ?.®n Indies*

Socially and Industrially the whites ssnd negroes

single hut slightly. The Negroes relieve the whites of virtually a ll unskilled labor m l proviiSe a ^onerous mr>p-ly o f domes Mo serv- r » *. *" 1 m rl ~egroea in the Canal organisation is legalised on the basis of their being

aliens, although the andful of Negroes with American citizen-

ship suffer practically ,11 the disadv ntages of the liens.

Unemployment* Whan the Canal was constructed thousands

of Vest Indians as well as numerous Europeans and orientals

came s upon the completion of the construction work the nnited

States offered repatriation to a ll discharged, emnV yees * or £ former employees • Many d id not a c c e p t r e p a t r ia t io n , and many

who vent home returned later to the Isthmus. In the meantime

the extension of highways from the capital to the interior has

resulted in a movement f ron the country to the c it y , r a t h e r

than froia the city to the land.* sim ilarly the American population

in the Canal Zone has increased, nd many young men and women

s .oketfc, Everett • • Survey Oraphlo. Vol. 26* 470# ^ug. 1936. Kiddletowning Peripheryvilie•

8rhite *>#ti lemont In the anama Canal Zone. Oeog. Hevl* Vol. £5*3. 1055. p.3. of fam ilies employed by the 0aml organization are approaching m aturity without employment.

In the Canal 2one the division between the white working

and the business classes is slight*, Whet distinction exists is

d i m to divergencies of leisure time interests# There is truth

In the statment that th© Canal Z one Is a pi umbo re * plutocracy*

the wow! ‘gold means American or white employees, and

’’silver* meaae black or cat Indian employees. Th® members of

the Isthmian Canal Commission Introduced these terms on the

Isthmus* It is generally felt that the Canal Slone represents

the Southern States of American The whole area is permeated

wit the color prejudice of the- South, the white man gets about

three times as muc* as the colored man fo r doing similar work*

Children of the gold employees can enter high school or trade

sch o o l when they a re through with the primary school; the c h i l ­ dren of the s liv e r employees have none o f these privileges. The whole social and economic condition of the colored workar

in the Canal one is one of Inferiority*

Cities# Paaama City, the first c i t y founded by

Europeans on the American continent*Is row the capital and larg est c it y of the Bepublic of Panama* The c it y was founded in 1619 by a Spaniard., Pedro rie s de a Vila* Since then i t has been rich, powerful, poor, and Inslgnifleant. In 1671 i t was burned, and It s treasures were c a r r ie d away by the buccaneer, enry organ; within a few years i t was rebuilt on its present ♦ site. Until the end of the eighteenth century It remained the chief Pacific port for a ll Spanish trade* In 1685 a railroad, -50- built and operated by Americans , was opened from Manama to

the Island of Kansanllloj tha new town founded on this terminal was called Colon* Since that time, Panama has been an im p o rta n t center for reshipning cargoes of *11 kinds. Today Fan »ma owes

its importance to the Canal. This importance is due to the trade which passes through it* The harbor is shallow, but the

American-built doc^s at Balboa, three miles away, furnish ex­ cellent facilities for shipping*

Sfardl Oras comes in F ebru ary in Panama C i t y , and i s a vivid exhibition of the Spanish temperaments at r>lay. For four days the natives abandon themselves to the festive ties and business reach#* a standstill* A queen Is elected by popular vote and receives the homage of a ll the Panamanian officials as well as the higher American dignitaries*

Colon, formerly called Aspinwall but later changed by stature to Colon in memory of Christopher Columbus, is a sea­ p o r t and C a rib b ea n term in u s o f th e Panama C a n a l* tin matters of sanitation and quarantine Colon is under the Jurisdiction of the

TTnited States but for all other government purposes, it is a part of toe republic* According to its original franchise fro~

Colombia, the Panama Kailroad owns most of the land in the city.

When the United States acquired the railroad, It thereby became owner of the land, but does not have the right to sell it*

!-'ext to Colon and almost a part of that city is Cristobal, an

American town, the Atlantic terminal headquarters for the great canal enterprise of the United States* The slops of tha rail­ road and a great cold-storage plant of the Isthmian Canal Commission are located In Cristobal*

Th* prevailing winds at Colon are the trade winds , that blow fross the wast or north ftni continue for* mere tv an nine vontHt of the year, these prevalltng «India do not produce a sea destructive to s ipning, but they male* a rough harbor9 s t i r up the soft bottom of Mmon Bay and, create currents, with the result that thwrw is a large amount of silting in the Channel through the bay* the canal is at ae -level frost the Atlantic to 0atuni It then goes up * flight of three steps to latun r,ake and continues at that level for 3£ miles* Then down one step at Pedro Miguel to Wiraflores Licks, and the canal frore there to the Pacific Is at see level again# House Types> Panama C ity's oldest residential section is also her snopring district# It surrounds Cathedral Plaaa where areas of shade trees and shrubs contrast with solidly built streets* The lower floors are shops, offices, and banks? th e upoer floors are residences with high ceilings, large rowy» and overhanging balconies*

Suburban hoses are detached, modernistic in desgln, built of rough stone or concrete, with tile roofs* §WMWt#MMI there is ■ j; ' an open roof garden or a Spanish torre (tower-roo®> with a i - view of the ocean# ,ower floors and cottages are protected from

intruders by ornate wrought-iron doors and windows* Tronic*! I flo w e rs and flowering trews surround these hoists# Rarely are

1 ------~ ------S lb e rt, W* t»* The Panama Canil, national Geographic Magazine* Vol 24, 1915* Page 155* -552-

these houses screened, nor is emphasis placed on pore es, though

both screens and porches **re considered essential by Americans In the near-by Canal lone*

The older and hotter established country hones of Canal

%one are some distance fro« Panama City* They a re usually located

on an elevated site where there is a good breeze and a f in e p ro s ­

pect f or they overlook « river which provides bathing

Typical houses are built on posts—one story high off tfee ground—to permit air circulation (a drying factor) and to dls- 1 courage visits fro® small animals, Benosth the louse the ground

may be tile d , and here lammock* are swung invitingly between the

p o s ts .

The houses b u ilt by the American Government show that

they are well suited to the peculiar conditions prevailing there*

Projecting roofs give shelter fro® rain and sun. flood drainage

is important, even the side walks being constructed in the form

of flat troughs to facilitate runoff, horn pillars raise the

houses a few feet above the damp ground .and orovide more complete

ventilation. Level building sites are avoided; the h ill sides

afford better drainage as well as freer air circulation. Screens

are usei on a ll doors, windows, and the wide oore.es characteristic

of warm climates. Copper wire only can bo employed in the screens.

Interior fittings must bo made of b ror.se or brass. Since wood

rots so rapidlT concrete buildings are more economical. Ants,

too, destroy the wootwofek. A frame house w ill last only from ten to twenty yeara ar best* The wooden structures w ill stand

X f ■vansV'K. £,*... panama Panorama, Country L'ife. Vol. 72, pp. 43-46 O ct. 1937 -53-

©arth«ruair© shocks better but concrete reinforced with sta©l has proved sufficiently pliable for tho usually light ’tremors* fe lt at Panama*

The Canal* I» speaking of tha panama Canal r,ord Byroe

said: It is the greatest liberty mart has ever taken with : ■?.' • :, ’ \ i _ A nat, r© * Geographical conditions determined th© most suitable

place for building the Panama Canal, Americans took over the

canal only after they felt the imperative need of the c a n a l and

were sure of their financial and engineering ab ility to complete

it, The geographic tl position of the United State* made it

strategically imperative that we, and not any other power, build ] : and control the canal*

Th© Panama Canal is the most important single factor in

the Inter-transportation of western South America and the United

States* It has fostered a close geographical relationship

between our country and the western lands of our southern

neighbors* It is an illustration of what white men can accomplish

in th© tropics under a rigid practice of sanitation and with

the us© c f ssodern machinery* See figure 9*

Th© 1 ports are considerably» since something Him half

of what is consumed in th© Isthmus, together with what is re­ exported or sold to the tourist®, is to a large extent of foreign production* this rra.de balance is a^ply covered by

th© profits accruing from th© transit trade*

1 noographlo K v ie w , Vol. 4* 1017, Page 486. The Adaptation to Environment in building the C ities of !th© Canal iione* ; |i : ' ' fe ' i i ’’ n %. i 1 II A si.-. ;■ i* I: I i \i r >■ i ND. 3-40-20 DIETZGEN GRAPH PAPER EUGENE DIETZGEN CD. 20 X 20 P E R I N C H * PRINTED IN U. S. A.

I -5 5 - A review of the business of the canal (flgureV) shows that a third of the cargo la composed of United States lntercoaatal tra d e * lore then two#thirds of the cargo passes through the c a n a l from west to east* The reason for this eastward movement of oargo ia that there la a predominance of heavy raw m a te ria ls from South American *nd western United Statea. The return cargoes, prim arily, of manufactured goods are much lighter. Petroleum, minerals, lumber, wheat, ore t, n itrates, sugar, ?md canned goods are among the chief commodities passing eastward through the canal, while the

Pacific bound cargoes consist prim arily of manufactures of iron and steel, mineral o ils , phosphates, cotton, tin plate, cement, paper, sulphur, and machinery. For Canal tolls consult figure 8.

Summary

this thesis many sources of

ation were consulted. Since the material was so s

f- ■ th*> regions Perfectly lo c a te d * A thorough field study would bo required for such acc omolishm^nt•

The Caribbean Coastal Begior with its rain forest, its lim it­ ed population composed mostly of ^an Bias Indians *nd British West

Indian negroes has not made much progress due partly to its lim it­ ed transportation facilities. The Interior highlands, including the continental divide, the source of the numerous rivers that flew into the pacific or Caribbean, is a large area that in the opinion o f *mny is the richest province of panama. Boquete, a favorite summer resort of the Interior Highlands, bids for the leisure r ;w: o f r> T - r whose limited vacation prevents them from **6 4**

leaving the Isthmus. By far the "best means of transportation are foudd

in the Pacific Coastal Region. Pearl fishing in Panama Bay has proved

profitable from early times. Man’s achievement in completing a lock

type canal connecting the prots of Colon and Panama City atteacted world attention in the summer of 1914, Under the guidance of the United

States government the Canal Zone is today a healthful place in which to live. FIG. orite of unknown age, ?Miocene mostly; 3, andesite; 4, rhyolite; 5, meta-breccia; 6, basalt. Bedded rocks; ?Eocene: 1, Bas Obispo volcanic bredcia; 2, Las Gascadas agglomerate. Cligocene: 3, Bohio cong­ lomerate; 4, Culebra formation; 5, Cucuracha formation; 6, -Smperador lime­ stone; 7, Caimito formation. Miocene: 8, Panama formation; 9, ’j'atun formation* Pliocene: 10, toro limestone. Pleistocene, 11. •57

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Journal o f

Living Age: Percyra, Carlos. An Krror In Kc nor^lc aeofc:- raphjr* Vol. 332: P*ge 771-7757 lay" 1", i9fc7. 62

39. Hanfchesifcer n e o g ra p h ica i S o c ie t y : Panama C anal lo n e . V o l . 26. Page 18. 1910. ------

40. Modem Panama t lehoe* From Chiriqui. Page 28-30. June# 198^ 41. Ilation: Gastrin t w* A * "Gold“ and "Silver in Panama. Vol. 126: Page tf^gg?.~Iay 7^7'f§M. ------

Beal# , Carleton. Revolt in Panama• Vol. 141: Page 99-101.

42. National fteogranhiei Burr, I* Extent Of the resent Kepublie. Vol. 15? Page ST'ZggZ 1TO4. m **' -m mmt mim O olb y, C . M. The Panama C ^ n a l* V o l. 16: Page 447. October, 1906.

Improve r^ent a In The R e p u b lic Of panama. Vol. 16. i '*|i»wip'■«' «wi 'n*i UM . *»-■ r-rrnu i -rr -‘-nr n" rnw»ij» 441 2 * ?5# T>ts #> uife# j* f X390&4

lo e t h iils , (J. B . The Panama C a n a l. V o l. SO: rag. 338-383. 1975ST

Shlraa, fl.org*. K»tur.'a Trar.aformatlon At Panama. Vol. 28: Pag. lfi»-l''B. uguafc, l&ife. — ——.

Hood, ,T. B. Flying Tho World*. Longeat A ir-tell Route. Vol. ~W$ p— ZTin— ?aroF7T^;-T57"----- >' Fairchild, David* The JUngles of Panama. Vol.41* Page 13?*144# February # ISfei.

Pittier, Henry* kittle Known Parts of panama. Vol. 25: Page 62^W 7 "TGIT* V t i , ------Chapman, Frank 1* Who Treads Our T railst Vol.52* Page 551. September, \V27Z

Dargue, H* A. How t»atin America Looks From The Air* Vol. . Page H 5 T .~ 5 5 Fo --- '— ------

43* Nature: lDi*aon# K* The Cyclone Bar lea in the Caribbean Sea. Vol*140. Page IFS^* October,' 1&3157

44. national fleogmphic: fast le tt, tv* w* yavmirg n the lathes Of Panama. Vol. 17: Page April, u m r .------

45* republic Of Panama: The Panama Kepub11c. Iberian- msrlean Exhibition -1 oeviria’.’ "" 'Page. 192P.

46. Popular Mechanic: Golden flravea of Code* Vol* 88: Page 954-947* 'December,' iT O . -63-

47* Revlew of ‘aviews ? Drlggs , Katherine# Ianama-Gateway to the Past. Vol. 82: Page 124-188. 0818ber, TWO. —

Hi Is cher, H# F, 'Panama Travel, Vol. 86: Pago 61-62. September, 193#. i- 48* Scientific Monthly: Frost* S* W, Collecting Leaf-Miners on Burro Colorado Island* Panama, V o O lT f e W r w r r w o * : ------~ ------*------* II 49. Scottish Geographical $mg*zimt Fullerton, Robert, The Panama C n a l# V o l, 43: Page 215-218. 1927. --- Pe Lessens, Ferdinand. The Panama Canal, Vol. 2 : Pa&e 641-642. 1886*

50. Scientific Monthlys B la n c h a rd , .)# The Panama Gatew ay. Vol. 46 j 494-602. 1937. ------

51. Scholastic: Morley, Christopher, Oolng Through the Panama ■ '( • Canal. Vol. 88j cage 10. April 4, £$5%,

68 • Scientific American j Randolph, K, 3, More later For the Panama C^mal. Vol. 1491 Page 206-208.WovewbVr,“T9337“ / i 53, Scribners Hagasine: >aide, Frank. The C a n a l, V o l. 88: Page 503-6ii?. le iK iir, 1930.

54. Survey Graphicj Sackett, K, Midc! let owning Peripheryvl lie . Vol, SB. Page 470-473, Augu aTTTOSB. ------

55# Times The Inter-American highway. Vol. ,;8. PfiFe 44, July,A 57T^«. jwway ^ WMl*’ ijwu'iiwii' jiw «,»pwtw > IMH * mm,. miMo.MiHnntin ttmum mum ..

56, Travel? Detouring America By Water, Vol, 66: Pa/are 44. March, 19337^ -- R ~ ------* ------

St. V or Id Book. Vol. 13. W. F# suarrio & Co# Chicago. 1933. / / j i