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Master Thesis

Measures and Actions to Promote Sustainable Transportation in the Limmat Valley

Author(s): Olofsson, Erik

Publication Date: 2015-06

Permanent Link: https://doi.org/10.3929/ethz-b-000209786

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Measures and Actions to Promote Sustainable Transportation in the Limmat Valley

Erik Olofsson

Lead: Prof. Dr. Bernd Scholl Supervision: Dr. Ana Peric, Cecilia Braun

Master Thesis MSc Spatial Development and Infrastructure Systems June 2015

[Space for Eigenstaendigkeitserklaerung]

Measures and Actions to Promote Sustainable Transportation in the Limmat Valley ______June 2015

Acknowledgments

I want to express my gratitude to Prof. Dr. Bernd Scholl for the lead of the thesis as well as constructive criticism at the intermediate presentations.

I am grateful for the valuable feedback during the writing from my supervisors Dr. Ana Peric and Cecilia Braun. It helped me keep on track and reach the end.

I would also like to thank Kim Huebsch for proofreading and suggesting improvements for clarity and language use.

Further thanks go to my family and friends for their support and patience.

Measures and Actions to Promote Sustainable Transportation in the Limmat Valley ______June 2015

Table of Contents List of Tables ...... V List of Figures ...... VII Abbreviations ...... IX 1 Introduction: Sustainable Transportation and its Effect on Urban Development... 1 2 Sustainable Transportation: Main Concepts ...... 3 2.1 Land Use and Urban Form ...... 3 2.1.1 Density ...... 3 2.1.2 Diversity: Jobs-Housing Balance and Mixed Use Development ...... 4 2.1.3 Location, Local Accessibility, and Neighbourhood Design ...... 5 2.2 Traffic Demand Management ...... 6 2.2.1 Road Transport ...... 7 2.2.2 Parking ...... 9 2.2.3 Public Transport ...... 12 2.2.4 Cycling ...... 13 2.2.5 Pedestrian-Friendly Streetscape Design (“Walkability”)...... 15 3 Sustainable Transportation in Europe: International Experiences ...... 17 3.1 Freiburg, Germany: Policies and Low-Car Development ...... 17 3.1.1 Vauban ...... 18 3.2 Stockholm, Sweden: Congestion Charging and Transit Oriented Development.... 20 3.2.1 Congestion Charging ...... 20 3.2.2 Hammarby Sjöstad ...... 22 4 Situation Assessment and Focus Area ...... 25 4.1 Review of Concepts and Practical Examples ...... 25 4.2 Hypotheses and Research Goals ...... 26 4.2.1 Research goals ...... 27 4.2.2 Research Questions ...... 27 4.2.3 Hypothesises ...... 27 4.3 Study Area: The Limmat Valley ...... 28 5 The Limmat Valley ...... 31 5.1 Current Situation ...... 31 5.1.1 Population and Employees ...... 32 5.1.2 Land Use ...... 34 5.1.3 Traffic ...... 38 5.1.4 Road Transport ...... 40 5.1.5 Parking ...... 43 5.1.6 Public Transport ...... 46 5.1.7 Cycling ...... 51 5.1.8 Walkability ...... 53 5.2 Cantonal, Regional and Municipal Planning ...... 54

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5.2.1 Canton Zürich, Regional Planning Zürich, and Region Limmattal ...... 54 5.2.2 Canton Aargau and Regional Development Baden ...... 59 5.2.3 Agglomeration Programme Limmattal ...... 59 5.2.4 Municipal Planning ...... 61 5.2.5 Further Relevant Planning: S-Bahn...... 62 5.3 SWOT-Analysis ...... 62 5.3.1 Strengths ...... 63 5.3.2 Weaknesses ...... 63 5.3.3 Opportunities ...... 63 5.3.4 Threats ...... 64 6 Dietikon and the Limmat Valley: Proposed Measures and Actions ...... 65 6.1 Current Development and Situation in Dietikon ...... 65 6.2 Weaknesses in Dietikon ...... 70 6.2.1 Land Use ...... 70 6.2.2 Car traffic ...... 74 6.2.3 Parking ...... 76 6.2.4 Cycling ...... 76 6.2.5 Walking ...... 78 6.3 Choice of Measures ...... 78 6.3.1 Acceptance from Population ...... 78 6.3.2 Measures and Actions to be implemented ...... 80 6.4 Measures and Actions ...... 81 6.4.1 Land Use ...... 81 6.4.2 Parking ...... 86 6.4.3 Cycling ...... 88 6.4.4 Walking ...... 89 6.4.5 Summary of Proposed Measures and Actions ...... 91 6.5 Implementation ...... 93 6.5.1 Zoning Regulation ...... 93 6.5.2 Niderfeld ...... 94 6.5.3 Parking regulations ...... 95 6.5.4 Urban Transport Concept ...... 95 7 Conclusion ...... 97 8 References ...... 99

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List of Tables Table 1 Transportation Impacts on Sustainability ...... 1 Table 2 Optimal Densities ...... 4 Table 3 Traffic Demand Management Interventions ...... 7 Table 4 Elements of Public Transport ...... 12 Table 5 Positive and Negative influence on Cycling Routes ...... 14 Table 6 Vauban in Numbers ...... 18 Table 7 Hammarby Sjöstad in Numbers...... 22 Table 8 Quantifiable Parameters of Land Use and Urban Form ...... 25 Table 9 Analysis of Current Situation ...... 32 Table 10 Population in the Limmat Valley and Average Annual Growth ...... 33 Table 11 Employed in the Limmat Valley and Average Annual Change ...... 34 Table 12 Population Densities 2013 in the Limmat Valley ...... 35 Table 13 Jobs to Housing Ratio in the Limmat Valley ...... 37 Table 14 Land-Use Zone Mix in the Limmat Valley ...... 38 Table 15 Comparison of Travel Time between Main Centres with Car and Public Transport ...... 39 Table 16 Car Ownership and Carsharing Availability ...... 42 Table 17 Residential Car Parking Requirements ...... 44 Table 18 Residential Night-Time Pricing for Parking on Street or Public Ground .....45 Table 19 Park-and-Ride Parking in the Limmat Valley ...... 46 Table 20 Access to Public Transport for Inhabitants ...... 50 Table 21 Access to Public Transport for Employees ...... 50 Table 22 Restricted Zones ...... 53 Table 23 Proposed Density Levels in Zürich Agglomeration ...... 55 Table 24 Residential (W) and Commercial (Z) Land-Use Zones in Dietikon ...... 68 Table 25 Estimated Population & Population Density in Residential and Commercial Land-Use Zones ...... 72 Table 26 Public Transport Accessibility and Land-use zones in Dietikon ...... 74 Table 27 Zoning Regulations in Dietikon and Walking ...... 78 Table 28 Possible Residential Land-Use Zones and Population Density ...... 81 Table 29 Changes to Commercial Land-Use Zones ...... 82 Table 30 Residential Land-use zones and Population Density ...... 84 Table 31 Reduction of Parking Places for Residents and Employees in Dietikon .....87

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Table 32 Requirements for Non-Residential Cycling Parking ...... 88

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List of Figures Figure 1 Suburban Sprawl Versus Traditional Development ...... 6 Figure 2 Vauban ...... 19 Figure 3 Support for Congestion Charges ...... 21 Figure 4 Hammarby Sjöstad ...... 23 Figure 5 Perimeter of the Limmat Valley and Other Relevant Areas ...... 29 Figure 6 Population Density 2013 in the Limmat Valley ...... 36 Figure 7 Road Infrastructure in the Limmat Valley ...... 41 Figure 8 Public Transport Frequency in the Limmat Valley ...... 47 Figure 9 Accessibility to Public Transport in the Limmat Valley ...... 49 Figure 10 Cycle Routes in the Limmat Valley ...... 52 Figure 11 The Limmattal Line...... 55 Figure 12 The Limmattal Line and New Bus Lines ...... 57 Figure 13 Cycle Routes ...... 58 Figure 14 Overall Picture of the Vision of the Agglomeration Programme ...... 60 Figure 15 Limmatfeld in Dietikon ...... 66 Figure 16 Land-Use Zones and Current Planning and Development in Dietikon ...... 67 Figure 17 Examples of Recent Projects in Dietikon ...... 69 Figure 18 Population Density and Land-Use Zones in Dietikon ...... 71 Figure 19 Public Transport Accessibility and Land-Use Zones in Dietikon ...... 73 Figure 20 Traffic Load in Dietikon ...... 75 Figure 21 Cycling Infrastructure in Dietikon ...... 77 Figure 22 Opinions on Road Pricing and Similar ...... 79 Figure 23 Opinions on the Spending on the Income from Road Traffic ...... 79 Figure 24 Densification in Dietikon ...... 83 Figure 25 Visual Comparison between Proposed and Current Urban From ...... 85 Figure 26 Improvement in Cycling Infrastructure ...... 90 Figure 27 Summary of Measures and Action to be Implemented in Dietikon ...... 92

VII

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Abbreviations

FAR Floor area ratio

GRD Gross residential density

NRD Net residential density

PT Public transport

TDM Traffic demand management

TOD Transit-oriented development

Measures and Actions to Promote Sustainable Transportation in the Limmat Valley ______June 2015

Master Thesis MSc Spatial Development and Infrastructure Systems

Measures and Actions to Promote Sustainable Transportation in the Limmat Valley

Erik Olofsson ETH Zürich Stefano-Franscini-Platz 5 8093 Zürich

+41 79 120 21 43 [email protected]

June 2015

Abstract The current transportation system is unsustainable and in order to achieve a sustainable transportation system an integrated spatial and traffic planning is need. This thesis studies the relationship between spatial and traffic planning and the transportation mode choices. Trough land use – density, mixed land-use and street connectivity – up to one third of the transport mode choices can be explained. Traffic demand management influence the choices through the accessibility and quality of public transport, cycling and pedestrian infrastructure. Parking, pricing and supply, is a further central theme in traffic demand management. Based on these parameters the current situation in the Limmat Valley have been analysed resulting in measures and actions to be implemented in Dietikon, the municipality which have been focused on. The following measures and actions are proposed: Densification in areas with good public transport; land-use restrictions to increase the attractiveness of the built-up environment; stricter parking requirement for new developments; higher parking fees in areas with good public transport; and improvements of cycling and pedestrian facilities.

Keywords

Sustainable Transportation, Land Use, Traffic Demand Management, Limmat Valley, Dietikon

Preferred Citation Style

Olofsson, E. (2015). Measures and Actions to Promote Sustainable Transportation in the Limmat Valley (Master Thesis). Institute for Spatial and Landscape Development (IRL), ETH Zürich, Zürich.

Measures and Actions to Promote Sustainable Transportation in the Limmat Valley ______June 2015

1 Introduction: Sustainable Transportation and its Effect on Urban Development

The modern transportation systems in Europe give its inhabitants a high degree of mobility with an ever increasing in terms of speed, comfort, safety and convenience (European Commission, 2011). At the same time, this mobility of people and businesses is not sustainable, but despite this, there has been no structural change in the way the traffic system operates and it is still heavily dependent on fossil fuels and road transport in moving both freight and passengers. This is one of the main causes of unsustainable trends: growing greenhouse gas emissions, persistent oil dependency, and rising congestion. Thus, the transportation system needs to change in order to reduce its shares of greenhouse gas emission, its oil dependency, and congestion.

Still, planning authorities and companies often fail to take into account the consequences of the traffic system properly when making land-use or location decisions, especially in urban areas (European Commission, 2011). For example, decisions are reached without considering things as walkability, even though it has been proven that people living in neighbourhoods with high walkability live longer, are healthier, and have improved social relations (Faskunger, 2007; 2008). There are further impacts of transportation on sustainability, as shown in Table 1, suggesting a need for a more sustainable transport system.

Table 1 Transportation Impacts on Sustainability

Economic Social Environmental Traffic congestion Inequity of impacts Air pollution Mobility barriers Mobility disadvantaged Climate change Crash damages Human health impacts Habitat loss Transportation facility costs Community cohesion Water pollution Consumer transportation costs Community liveability Hydrologic impacts Depletion of non-renewable resources Aesthetics Noise pollution

Source: Victoria Transport Policy Institute (2014a)

In Switzerland, the Sustainable Development Strategy of the Swiss Federal Council (2012) presents strategies to aid sustainable development practices. Even though the trend is mainly positive for transportation, more actions are needed to reach the goals set forth.

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These goals must include a sustainable transport system. However, there is no universal definition of sustainable transportation and many definitions have been presented over the years (Victoria Transport Policy Institute, 2014a). In this paper, the definition from the European Union Council of Ministers of Transport will be used as it one of two of the most widely accepted definitions (The Centre for Sustainable Transportation, 2005). It states:

[A] sustainable transport system [is] defined as one that

• allows the basic access and development needs of individuals, companies and society to be met safely and in a manner consistent with human and ecosystem health, and promotes equity within and between successive generations.

• is affordable, operates fairly and efficiently, offers a choice of transport mode, and supports a competitive economy, as well as balanced regional development.

• limits emissions and waste within the planet’s ability to absorb them, uses renewable resources at or below their rates of generation, and uses non-renewable resources at or below the rates of development of renewable substitutes, while min- imizing the impact on the use of land and the generation of noise (European Council of Ministers of Transport, 2001).

This definition does not mention car use directly; however, indirectly cars are responsible for the highest emissions, negative impact on land use and generation of noise. Even though environmentally friendly cars are potentially better, they still do not reduce many other aspects substantially and people have a tendency to drive more with these vehicles (Turner, 2012). Therefore, increased car traffic in any form is not considered a primary goal in a sustainable transportation system. Cars do still have a place in a sustainable transportation system, but not at the current usage levels. Therefore, car traffic as a whole must be reduced and more sustainable modes needs to be prioritised, public transport, cycling and walking.

In order to change the current transport system into a sustainable transportation system, it must be understood that it is a complex system based on many interacting components – vehicles, infrastructure, behaviour, and more – which all need to evolve together (European Commission, 2011). Thus, changing this system is also a complex task that involves many stakeholders and interests. In order to achieve an integrated and sustainable urban transport system, coordination is needed between land-use and transport planning.

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2 Sustainable Transportation: Main Concepts

Transit-oriented development is a concept used to describe integrated sustainable transport and land-use planning and design (Institute for Transportation and Development Policy, n.d.-a). This concept refers to residential and commercial centres designed to maximize access by public transport, cycling and walking (Renne, 2009). It is characterised through, among others things, high densities with good public transport access, pedestrian focused design, bicycle access, and mixed land uses. In this chapter, these aspects, which can be divided into two categories, land use and urban form, as well as traffic demand management, are further researched in order to find their impact on the transport mode choices.

2.1 Land Use and Urban Form

Land use and urban form factors can explain up to a third of the variation in trip making (Banister & Hickman, 2006). They are most important in predicting trip lengths and vehicle distance travelled (a combination of trip lengths, frequencies and modes) but less so in trip frequencies and modal choice. Land-use strategies have the potential to reduce vehicle travel by bringing activities closer to the home location and thereby reduce the length of trips.

2.1.1 Density

Density is the most important physical variable in determining transport energy consumption (Banister, 2007). Higher density expands the local opportunities for activities and thereby reducing the need to travel longer distances. It can also widen the range of local services and facilities that are provided. Furthermore, it has been shown that with higher density, fewer car trips are being made (Banister, 2007; Kenworthy, 2006). High-density areas can also provide more passengers for public transport and increase the number of cycling and walking trips.

Table 2 shows some optimal densities. The optimal density for walking has additionally been shown by Masnavi (2001) where a gross residential density of 100 persons per hectare (or 45- 50 dwellings per hectare) can reduce the use of private cars by up to 70% and at the same time reduce non-work travel distance by 75% compared to a low-density, single-use urban area. Higher density also has a positive (reduction) of the car speed; an urban environment reduces the average speed with approximately 5 km/h compared to a suburban neighbourhood (Trafikverket, 2012). This effect is further discussed in chapter 2.2.1.

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Table 2 Optimal Densities

Gross Net Residential Residential Density 1 Density 2 Mode/Use [person/ha] [person/ha] Public Transport 30-40 90-120 Walking 100 300 Sustainable Urban 225-300 Central/Accessible Urban up to 370

Source: Fulford (1996, p. 112)

Studies have shown that there is no correlation between various densities and living satisfaction (Masnavi, 2001; Stadtentwicklung Wien, 2004). People in low-density neighbourhood are overall more satisfied with their housing and quality of living. However, they lack shopping and leisure facilities, though they make less leisure trips. As a result, there is a more widespread car use in low-density neighbourhood because of the increased distances. An important factor that has been shown to be significant in determining in life satisfaction is the amount of greenery, which has a positive influence on the quality of living.

As stated, density plays an important role, but it must be combined with other factor such as mixed uses, safe and secure places, community, open space, green space, and quality of development, to be successful (Banister, 2007; Masnavi, 2001).

2.1.2 Diversity: Jobs-Housing Balance and Mixed Use Development

Mixed land uses and jobs-housing balance are indicators for diversity (Banister, 2007). A balanced community needs a ratio of 0.75 to 1.5 jobs to housing units. Nevertheless, the evidence that this affects travel patterns varies. Mixed-used developments should reinforce denser neighbourhoods through the provision of more small shops and other facilities. Again, this does not necessarily correlate with greater use but those without a car are potentially greater users of local jobs and facilities. The short distance to non-residential destinations and neighbourhood facilities such as schools, grocery stores, restaurants, and retail stores do have positive influ-

1 Population dived by geographical area. 2 Excludes open spaces and non-residential land.

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ences on walking (Banister, 2007; Lee & Moudon, 2006; Saelens & Handy, 2008). Further- more, it is also suggested that mixed land-use needs to be combined with measures to discour- age car use directly (Farthing, Winter, & Coombes, 2005).

2.1.3 Location, Local Accessibility, and Neighbourhood Design

The proximity to transport networks – highway, public transport and walking and cycling – influences travel patterns (Banister, 2007). Short distances from home to the highway network, particularly free-flowing strategic routes, appear to increase travel distances and are a powerful influence on the dispersal of development.

Distance from home to nearest public transport stop influences modal split 3 (Banister, 2007). In London, 500 meters for commercial and 800 meters for residential properties are seen as an acceptable level. In Switzerland, 500 meters for bus and light rail and 750 meters for trains are seen as the limits (Weidmann, 2013).

Local neighbourhood design may also have an impact, but the relationship between route and network connectivity is ambiguous (Banister, 2007; Saelens & Handy, 2008). It could be useful to improve pedestrian and cycle permeability and a grid network is estimated to reduce motorised traffic and increase walking and cycling usage (Banister, 2007). Figure 1 shows the difference between a grid network and a layout with loops and cul-de-sacs. Although the grid network reduces the amount of usable land to 64% from 76% compared to a street layout with loops and cul-de-sacs, it increases the permeability (Banister, 2007). For a grid network, the ideal block length in such grid network is 100 meters with up to 150 meters as an upper limit (Ewing, 1999). This is a different scale with lower distances compared to car centred development (Banister & Hickman, 2006).

3 Modal split: The percentage of travellers using a particular type of transportation or number of trips using said type.

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Figure 1 Suburban Sprawl Versus Traditional Development

Source: Duany, Plater-Zyberk, and Speck in Banister & Hickman (2006)

2.2 Traffic Demand Management

Traffic demand management is a collective term used for a wide range of measures to modify the travel behaviour. Table 3 shows a list of possible traffic demand management interventions where those in italic will be further explored in this chapter. All other aspects presented in the table are important but are either difficult to influence (such as company work hours) or lack a direct or indirect spatial extent and impact (as public transport subsidy).

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Table 3 Traffic Demand Management Interventions

Organisational and Operational Financial Infrastructure • Travel plans (workplace, • Pricing regimes, • Improved public transport school, residential, area- including road user facilities, including rail, wide). cordon charging, area- underground, light rail, • Personalised travel licensing scheme bus, etc. planning • Vehicle ownership taxes • Demand responsive • Carpooling, carsharing, • Public transport transport and car clubs investment/subsidy • Park-and-ride • Company work hours, • Parking charging • Improved cycling and flexi-working, home • Bicycle walking facilities working investment/subsidy • Road space re-allocation • Home retailing and and priority, traffic delivery calming, access control • Tele-activities and and restriction interaction. • Streetscape design • Marketing/media • Parking campaigns. • Transport optimization, peak congestion avoidance. • Slower speeds and ecological driving styles.

Based on: Hickman, Seaborn, Headicar, & Banister (2010, p. 48)

2.2.1 Road Transport

Increased car ownership is associated with increased trip frequency, increased travel distance and higher proportion of car journeys (Banister & Hickman, 2006). Furthermore, there are several negative impacts of car trips that were presented in the introduction. Here, measures to reduce the number of cars and its negative impacts are studied.

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Carsharing

Carsharing reduces the number of cars per household in Europe by four to ten vehicles per carsharing vehicle as well as reducing the vehicle kilometres travelled by 28 to 45% (Shaheen & Cohen, 2007). Households joining carsharing also exhibited a dramatic shift toward a carless lifestyle, up to one third of the households joining carsharing sold their vehicle after joining. Most of the cars shed or sold are often old and the households avoid or postpone purchasing a new vehicle (Martin, Shaheen, & Lidicker, 2010). Carsharing is also, a “flexible alternative that can be used in a variety of contexts to assist in increasing mobility by serving as a ‘missing link,’ reducing dependence on private vehicle ownership” (Shaheen & Cohen, 2007, p. 5). Fi- nally, it also encourages active lifestyles as public transport, cycling, and walking are primary modes of transportation.

Congestion Charging and Access Control

From transport economists’ and traffic planners’ perspective, congestion pricing is an efficient strategy to reduce congestion and thereby traffic (Eliasson & Jonsson, 2011).

There are different types of congestion pricing which have been introduced in different cities around the world (Anas & Lindsey, 2011; Lian, 2008; Santos, 2005). All systems reported an initial decline in traffic, however, the long term effects varies depending on the goals of the congestion charging structure. The initial reduction varies quite substantially; in Singapore (introduced in 1975, revised in 1998 traffic volumes during the morning peak hours fell by 45% and in the Norwegian cities Bergen (1986) and Oslo (1990) the daily traffic volume was reduced by around 5%. The more recent introductions in London (2003) and Stockholm (as trial 2006, permanently 2007, see also chapter 3.2.1) saw a reduction of close to 20%. The long-term effects of congestion pricing vary depending on the goal of the congestion charging. If the goal of the congestion charging is to fund improvements in road infrastructure, it means that the traffic will then increase again after funds have been raised, as seen in Bergen. If the goal is to reduce congestion and fund improvements, this reduction seems to remain stable as seen in London, Singapore, and Stockholm.

Also worth mentioning is that the change in land use due to congestion pricing is very small, especially in comparison to the changes in traffic (Banister, 2008a). The largest impacts seem to be on smaller businesses, restaurants, and hotels, in particular close to the edge of the priced area.

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Pricing is not the only way to limit access; it can also be regulated and limited to forbid certain vehicles at particular times and places (Victoria Transport Policy Institute, 2014b). It is frequently combined with other strategies to increase the amenity of the city centre for pedestrians as with pedestrian zones. It is also possible to combine access control with pricing (Ieromonachou, Potter, & Warren, 2006). It may increase the modal split for sustainable modes of transportation visiting the area but with limited overall effects on the network (Marshall & Banister, 2000).

Traffic Calming and Speed Reduction

The so-called Downs-Thomson paradox is based on the “Iron Law of Congestion” stating that traffic expands to meet the available road space (Dechenaux, Mago, & Razzolini, 2014). Fur- thermore, the equilibrium speed of car traffic on the road network is determined by the average door-to-door speed of equivalent trip by public transport. By increasing road capacity, traffic congestion can worsen as people shift away from public transport and use cars, thereby resulting in increased prices for public transport or reduced frequency. This can cause a downward spiral where more and more people are pushed away from public transport. Ultimately, the public transport system may be eliminated and traffic congestion is worse than before.

However, the opposite relationships must also apply: Improving public transport or reducing the average speed on roads would cause a shift to public transport. In a city, the average speed is mainly decided by intersections, pedestrian crossings, and other “obstacles” (Trafikverket, 2012). A reduction of the speed limit will smoothen the traffic speed and thereby reducing the emissions. If the “obstacles” are increased, it will increase the stop-and-go behaviour and cause additional emissions, which needs be offset with improvement for other mode as public transport, cycling, and/or walking.

A traffic calmed street does not significantly change the way the street is being used in residential areas (Biddulph, 2012) but it makes people walk more (Morrison, Thomson, & Petticrew, 2004). Traffic calming has a positive influence on pedestrian and cycling safety as well as a reduction of traffic volume (Ewing, 2001; Pucher & Dijkstra, 2000; Trafikverket, 2012).

2.2.2 Parking

Parking policy is a central element in traffic demand management and is much under-utilised as such (Hickman, Seaborn, Headicar, & Banister, 2010). The demand for parking depends on several factors (Trafikverket, 2013):

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• Price and availability for car parking in the neighbourhood

• The easiness of finding a parking space (without searching)

• Public transport

• Accessibility by bike and quality of bicycle parking

• Number of residents within walking distance

• Type of business and size of housing unit

Parking can be controlled through restriction on spaces and/or pricing (Hickman, Seaborn, Headicar, & Banister, 2010). Both the amount of parking space and the form in which it is provided (i.e. within the curtilage of private developments, in allocated or unallocated off- street spaces, and in on- street bays) have implications for the wider issues of neighbourhood design and street layout. Parking regulations should be based on the category of development (business, retail and leisure and residential), local density and public transport accessibility. Moreo- ver, is important to coordinate policies across local authority boundaries, and within and between settlements, so that local action is consistent with regional and sub-regional traffic demand management strategies.

A common assumption with parking restriction is that it could damage the attractiveness of city centres to both retail and commercial enterprises (Banister & Hickman, 2006; Marsden, 2006). However, the evidence for such case is ambiguous.

Pricing

A UK study shows that the elasticity for parking pricing is -0.2, thus doubling the price reduces car usage by 20% (Kodransky & Hermann, 2011). For a successful pricing scheme to work, the following strategies should be followed (Victoria Transport Policy Institute, 2014c):

• Price the most convenient parking spaces for customers and clients, with minute or hourly rates with a progressive price structure to favour short-term users.

• Use time variable rates (higher prices during peak periods and lower prices at off-peak times).

• Price the less convenient parking spaces for employees and residents, with weekly or monthly rates with a daily price that equals or exceeds two single tickets or monthly pass with public transport.

• Use Parking Pricing to encourage mode shifting. Integrate Parking Pricing with other traffic demand management strategies that support transportation alternatives.

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A workplace-parking levy is another option for pricing targeting commuting trips (Frost & Ison, 2009). The idea is to charge companies for the parking spaces provided. It is quick to implement, enabling generation of an income stream, and presents little implementation risk and cost in both technological and monetary terms. It has been in use in Sydney and Perth since the 1990s and spread to other Australian cities where the revenue has been invested in public transport (Hamer, Currie, & Young, n.d). The reduction in car trips and the corresponding increase in public transport trips are only marginal. One hypothesis for this is that only a limited number of drivers are required to pay the levy personally.

Supply

The elasticity for parking supply is 0.3, meaning cutting the parking supply in half leads to a 30% drop in car use (Kodransky & Hermann, 2011). Altough the evidences are not clear, “[i]t is suggested that residents with more parking spaces make fewer, longer car-based journeys, whilst residents with fewer parking spaces make more journeys, but these tend to be short and less car-based” (Banister, 2007, p. 128).

Minimum parking places requirements have been used for a long time (Kodransky & Hermann, 2011). The idea is to put the burden on creating parking places on the developer as new developments will generate car trips and demand for parking. Still, the forecasting for parking demand is not based on any well-studied algorithm and most parking managers cannot explain the origin or rationale to parking requirements for buildings.

In countries such as Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and Italy a minimum limit has been set as a national guideline (Kodransky & Hermann, 2011). This can also be adjusted depending on the accessibility by public transport. In a couple of European cities, there is a parking supply cap (Kodransky & Hermann, 2011). This cap limits the available parking places in the city centre and as the city grows the parking places remains constant, resulting in a promotion for other modes.

Park-and-ride

Many cities have park-and-ride facilities and they are used to promote public transport (Parkhurst, 1995). Park-and-ride facilities offer real benefits to motorists, let it be value savings, more pleasant environment and new living location opportunities. As shown in the UK, unless complementary measures are taken, the traffic in the urban area does not decrease. Park-and- ride facilities also encourages car use by making it more attractive to travel by car to the location of the park-and-ride facilities, thus people tend to change from public transport or other modes.

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2.2.3 Public Transport

A public transport system consists of several elements as shown in Table 4. These aspects are not equally important; largest influences on travel demand have accessibility, frequency, travel time, and direct connections (Weidmann, 2013).

Table 4 Elements of Public Transport

Element Relevance for customers Accessibility Distance to and from stop Availability Period during which departures are available Frequency Waiting time for next departure Travel time Time required from departure to arrival Direct connections Requirement to change Reliability Delay risk, frequency of missed connections Comfort Security Protection of life Price Costs, burden on the household budget Distribution Opportunities to acquire a ticket Information Knowledge required to use the system Advertisement Motivation for use of public transport

Source: Weidmann (2013, p. 1:53)

Looking further at these four main aspects, the attractiveness of public transport decreases exponentially with the distance from the stop (Weidmann, 2013). The decrease is faster for a bus or tram stop compare to a train station. After 500 meters, a bus or tram stop has lost 95% of its potential attractiveness and a train station after 750 meter has less than 15% of its potential attractiveness left. 4 The demand elasticity for the frequency is between +0.25 and +0.35 for city traffic and between +0.35 and +0.45 for regional and long-distance traffic. This means that if the frequency in a city is increased from 20 to 10 minutes, the demand increases by between 25 and 45%. For travel time, the elasticity in Switzerland is between -0.6 and -1.0. Thus a decrease in travel time by ten percent would increase the demand with between six and ten percent. However, this is only true for the time spent in the vehicle; the walking time to the stop is weighted exponentially with distance. Waiting time is also weighted more than in vehicle travel time, 1.3 times more than the travel time. A change between vehicles in public transport is seen

4 Distances chosen based on values in chapter 2.1.3.

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as a loss of comfort and therefore people would rather travel longer than having to change. A change to another line corresponds to a willingness to travel an additional five minutes.

2.2.4 Cycling

Of the car journeys in Switzerland, 46% are shorter than 5 kilometres (Bundesamt für Statistik, 2012). In Norway, this share is also 46% and 30% of the car trips are less than three kilometres (Fyhri & Fearnley, 2015). It has been estimated that 35% of all short car trips in Norway could potentially be done by bike.

Safety is a key to promote cycling and when cycling increases the ‘safety in numbers’ holds (Pucher & Buehler, 2008). It is not the actual safety that is the main component but rather the perceived traffic danger that is an important to deter a more widespread cycling, especially for children, women, and the elderly.

Pucher and Buehler (2008, p. 523) argues that the most important approach to making cycling safe and convenient is “the provision of separate cycling facilities along heavily travelled roads and at intersections, combined with extensive traffic calming of residential neighbourhoods.” These facilities should connect practical, utilitarian origins and destinations in order to promote cycling for work, school and shopping trips. Several other measures need to be coordinated in order to create an appealing cycling network. Some of these measures are extensive systems of separate cycling facilities, intersection modifications, and priority traffic signals, general traffic calming (see earlier chapter), and bike parking.

Table 5 lists additional positive and negative influence on cycling routes from recent study in Copenhagen lists based on feedback from cyclists (Snizek, Sick Nielsen, & Skov-Petersen, 2013). It suggests that calm, fast, safe and with limited stops are preferred.

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Table 5 Positive and Negative influence on Cycling Routes

Positive Negative Cycling with the availability of cycling Signalled and non-signalled intersections facilities, in particular cycle path Attractive environment and view High traffic densities along the route Direct route Cycling on primary or secondary roads Bus stops

Source: Snizek, Sick Nielsen, & Skov-Petersen (2013)

E-Bikes

The sales of e-bikes have increased drastically over the recent years (Fyhri & Fearnley, 2015). However, the effects on the transportation and mode choice have yet to be fully understood. A study by Fyrhi and Fearnley (2015), shows that e-bikes have the following effects:

• E-bikes increase the amount of cycling expressed as both number of trips and as distance cycled for all trip purposes.

• E-bikes have a greater effect on female than on male cyclists in increasing the number of trips.

• E-bikes have similar effects in all age groups.

• E-bikes affect commute travel as well as leisure time travel.

• Both the novelty and learning effects are strong, thus the attractiveness of an e-bike stays strong.

When people in Norway were introduced to e-bikes, their cycling distance almost doubled, which is similar to a study in the Netherlands (Fyhri & Fearnley, 2015), and both the number of bike trips and modal share increased by 50%. Furthermore, e-bikes solve many of the reasons people give for not cycling, distance, hills, physically strenuous, and offers many of the same benefits as the car, range, flexibility, rush-hour speed.

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Bikesharing

Bikesharing are currently available in over 700 cities worldwide. A look at the Bike-Sharing World Map 5 shows that not only major cities have bikesharing; it can be found in smaller cities and even regions too. In Madrid, e-bikesharing was implemented as it was cheaper than with human-powered bikes (Laursen, 2014).

Bikesharing has many positive benefits, including greater transport choice, travel-time savings, reductions in transport costs, as well as health benefits (Fishman, Washington, & Haworth, 2014). However, the impact on car use is unclear and dependent on how many car trips are replaced with bikesharing. In London, it was shown to replace only 2% of the car trips, and as bikes need to be moved and serviced, the travel distance by car increased. When the bikes replace 10% of the car trips, it is estimated the reduction in vehicle kilometres travelled to be approximately twice the distance travelled by operational and maintenance vehicles in London. In other cities in this study such as Melbourne, Minneapolis/St. Paul, and Washington, D.C, the car replacement share was higher, up to 21%, and in most cities, a reduction in vehicle kilometres travelled was achieved.

In order for a system to be successful, the following parameters are essential (Institute for Transportation and Development Policy, 2013):

• Minimum System Coverage Area: 10 km 2

• Station Density: 10–16 stations per km 2

• Bikes/Resident: 10–30 bikes for every 1,000 residents (within coverage area)

• Docks per Bike Ratio: 2–2.5 docking spaces for every bike

2.2.5 Pedestrian-Friendly Streetscape Design (“Walkability”)

The term walkability is nowadays used to describe an array of different environments (Shay, Spoon, & Khattak, 2003). This chapter investigates what impact different factors have on walking. It was shown in earlier chapters that density, mixed land use (diversity of housing stock is a further important aspect), connectivity and grid-like street pattern have a positive impact on walking (see also Shay, Spoon, & Khattak, 2003; Guo, 2009). Additionally, pedestrian facilities such as sidewalks and crosswalks are important. When these factors are present, the positive influence is strong. Other import aspects that influence walking, but to a lesser extent, are the presence of parks, plazas, and open space, the density of pedestrian-friendly parcels (retail,

5 Found at http://www.bikesharingmap.com

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restaurants, and more), average sidewall width, aesthetics (atmosphere, architecture, landscap- ing, and street trees), as well as traffic calming and street speeds (Guo, 2009; Shay, Spoon, & Khattak, 2003). Ewing (1999) also argues that visual enclosure and absence of parking lots have positive influence, the later limiting the amount of dead spaces that do not generate human presence. Maximum 9% of a lot should be used for parking and presents research that in order to form a visual enclosure the street width to building height ratio should ideally be around 1:1- 1:2.

Another positive influence on walking is living streets that are streets where the surface is shared between pedestrians, cyclists, and cars (Biddulph, 2012; Southworth & Eran, 2003). This is different from traffic-calmed streets that typically retain their distinction between street and sidewalk. The living street is much more effective in encouraging use then a traffic-calmed street.

Improving walkability does not only improve the conditions for pedestrians; “better [pedestrian] infrastructure and more inviting pedestrian environments have the potential to improve conditions for all travelers of any mode” (Shay, Spoon, & Khattak, 2003, p. 15).

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3 Sustainable Transportation in Europe: International Experiences

In the previous chapter, the impact and result of the measures were presented, primarily from a conceptual perspective. In this chapter, two cities are presented which have implemented some of the measure previously mentioned and where additional aspects have been considered. They have both experienced successes and unexpected problems. The cities are:

• Freiburg: Most famous for the low car neighbourhood Vauban

• Stockholm: Known for its congestion charging but also the brownfield redevelopment Hammarby Sjöstad

Both Vauban and Hammarby Sjöstad are among the top projects on the Institute for Transportation and Development Policy’s TOD Standard (Institute for Transportation and Development Policy, n.d.-b).

3.1 Freiburg, Germany: Policies and Low-Car Development

Freiburg (full name: Freiburg im Breisgau) is a middle-size city (about 220,000 inhabitants) in southwest Germany (Beim & Haag, 2010). The modal split in the city is:

• Car: 32%

• Public transport: 18%

• Cycling and walking: 50%

Until 2020 the share for cars is targeted to decrease further to 29%, which is done through an array of measures in traffic management activities (extension of the tram network, development of cycle infrastructure, and pedestrian traffic quality improvement) and urban planning tools (limitation of spatial development, better utilisation of inner-city areas, and mixed use).

The focus of the transport policy in Freiburg is to provide attractive alternatives (Beim & Haag, 2010). In the city, large car-free areas and pedestrian zones have been created and the cycle network is large. It has been proven to achieve tremendous changes within a short period and with only little investment and follow-up costs with a cycle policy. Over the last few years, more than 8,000 cycle parking spaces have been provided, partially with reallocation of existing car parking spaces.

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However, the well-known implementation of Freiburg’s sustainability policy is Vauban.

3.1.1 Vauban

Vauban is a 38-hectare brownfield redevelopment in the southern parts of Freiburg (Beim & Haag, 2010) with 5,300 inhabitants. Table 6 list additional facts and the low usage of cars are characteristic for Vauban.

Table 6 Vauban in Numbers

Construction time 1998-2010 Residential units 2,336 Population 5,300 Area 38 ha Gross population density 130 persons/ha Net population density 230 persons/ha Distance from city centre 3 km Parking spaces per resident <0.5 Cars per resident 0.165 Modal split cycling and walking 64% Modal split public transport 19% Modal split car 16%

Source: Foletta & Field (2011); Stadtteilverein Vauban (n.d.)

The creation of Vauban as a low-car development is a result of local environmental activists and their association Forum Vauban that persuaded the municipality to create a neighbourhood for non-car owners (Melia, 2014). The neighbourhood is not car-free, but rather free of parking spaces. It is possible to drive up to the houses on home zones for picking up and dropping off. According to the Traffic Department of Freiburg, this policy is quite liberal compared to other car free concepts in Europe, “liberal in that sense you can own a car. If you make a real car free concept, you get real problems with marketing or getting a successful concept” (Eltis Mobility Portal, 2014).

The layout of Vauban is shown in Figure 2. The residential buildings are four or five stories high with several large green spaces (Foletta & Field, 2011). The area has a supermarket, primary school and other amenities located central in the neighbourhood where the tramline runs. Parking for the parking-free houses (housing with parking is also available) is only allowed in

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multi-storey car parks on the periphery, costing €18,500 or €22,500 in 2010, plus a monthly fee. This means that many citizens have longer distances to the car compared to the tram. This is enforced through a legal contract that residents must sign. However, lack of obedience is a problem as some residents park their cars in front of their houses and the absence of police or local authority enforcement is thought to be a source of frustration in the community.

Figure 2 Vauban

Source: Beim & Haag (2010, p. 289)

The modal split, as seen in Table 6, is prior to the opening of the tramline in 2006 (Foletta & Field, 2011). In particular, cycling usage is a key difference between Vauban and other areas in Freiburg. In 2001, 61% and 91% of Vauban’s car-owning and car-free households respectively commuted by bike. Other car related figures are:

• Approximately 40% of the households in the parking free blocks did not own a car.

• 81% of the inhabitants of car-free households previously owned a car.

• 57% gave up their car just before moving to Vauban

• 39% of the Vauban households were members of a carsharing organization in 2001

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Despite the lack of cars, most households found organising their life easy or very easy (81% of the residents in car-free households) (Foletta & Field, 2011). This is a result of the high quality non-motorised traffic infrastructure, the convenience of bicycle use compared with walking to one of the parking garages, the provision of local services, proximity to the city centre, good regional public transport links, and the availability of a carsharing service.

The largest dissatisfaction is from the car-owning residents who would prefer to park outside their home, 67% find this problematic (Foletta & Field, 2011). This means that approximately 40% of the residents in parking-free households considered Vauban’s advantages to outweigh this inconvenience, but a significant proportion would like to have “the best of both worlds” helping to explain the parking infractions.

3.2 Stockholm, Sweden: Congestion Charging and Transit Oriented Development

Stockholm is the capital of Sweden with a population exceeding 800,000 (Stockholms Stad, 2011a). As many other cities in Europe, it also has the goal of sustainable growth and in this area, it is well known for two projects that has been implemented and are deemed successful: The congestion charging and Hammarby Sjöstad.

3.2.1 Congestion Charging

As seen in chapter 2.2.1, congestion pricing can be an efficient strategy to reduce congestion. Stockholm is one of the few cities to have introduced congestion pricing, despite the evidence supporting this strategy (Eliasson & Jonsson, 2011). It was introduced as a trial in 2006 despite significant public resistance. After this trial period, which lasted half a year, a referendum was held in 2007 and the outcome was to keep the congesting pricing. The congestion charges in Stockholm were actually more successful in reducing traffic than predicted; a decrease of 17% during peak hours and 16% during the entire charged period (6:30 ‐18:30) were predicted, the actual figures were 19% and 20% (Eliasson, 2014). However, the increase in public transport was less than predicted; the increase was six percent compared to the four to five percent achieved. An interesting phenomenon is that when people were asked about their travel behaviour, most did not notice their change in behaviour. In fact, “around 3/4 of the reduction in car trips across the cordon seems to have gone unnoticed by the travellers themselves” (Eliasson, 2014, p. 27).

It was not always certain that the congestion charges should be accepted as shown in Figure 3. The figure also shows that the support for the congestion charges has only increased since it

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was introduced. One of the reasons behind this change is the concept of “familiarity breeds acceptability” when it comes to congestion charges (Eliasson & Jonsson, 2011). Nevertheless, this does not explain everything; the most important factor in determining support for congestion charging is the beliefs about the charges’ effects, in particular the charges effect on congestion. Hence, congestion pricing should only be introduced where congestion is a problem and results can be achieved. The second most important factor in determining support for congestion charging is the environmental concern. It is not environmental behaviour per se that is important, but the self-image of being an environmentally concerned person. Car dependence and public transport satisfaction are important, but less so than the pro-environmental defining attitudes. People less dependent on cars are more satisfied with the congestion pricing. How- ever, even with a high car dependency, support stays relatively high for congestion pricing.

Figure 3 Support for Congestion Charges

Source: Eliasson (2014, pp. 17-18)

As mentioned, the environmental concern was one of the arguments for congestion charging (Eliasson & Jonsson, 2011). It was promised when introduced that the revenue was to be spend on investments in public transport and roads in the Stockholm region (Permell, 2013). However, it was decided in 2013 that the revenue for the coming 40 years would be spent on the Stock- holm bypass, a new motorway.

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3.2.2 Hammarby Sjöstad

Hammarby Sjöstad is marketed as an international role model in eco-friendly solutions (Stockholms Stad, 2011b). It “is recognized around the globe for having implemented an integrated approach to district planning incorporating sustainable resource use, ecological design and low-carbon” (Foletta & Field, 2011, p. 32). Located three kilometres from the city centre and just outside the cordon for the congestion charges, Hammarby Sjöstad is a 160-hectare brownfield redevelopment with mixed uses, carsharing, good access to public transport and high quality bicycle infrastructure. Further data about the area are found in Table 7, and compared to Vauban; Hammarby Sjöstad has a slightly higher car usage but a higher density and more diverse land use.

Table 7 Hammarby Sjöstad in Numbers

Construction time 1999-2017 Residential units 11,500 Population 26,000 Workplaces 10,000 Area 160 ha Gross residential density 163 persons/ha Net residential density 270 persons/ha Distance from city centre 3 km Parking spaces per resident 0.65 Cars per resident 0.210 Modal split walking and cycling 27% Modal split public transport 52% Modal split car 21%

Source: Foletta & Field (2011); Stockholms Stad (2011b)

The layout of Hammarby Sjöstad was designed to integrate transportation, amenities, and public spaces. The spine of the district is a 37.5-meter wide boulevard and transit corridor, which connects key transport nodes and public focal points, and creates a natural focus for activity and commerce, which can be seen in Figure 4.

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Figure 4 Hammarby Sjöstad

Source: Stockholms Stad (2011b, p. 8)

Hammarby Sjöstad is built with high density, with the highest density found along the light rail line where buildings are seven to eight stories high (Foletta & Field, 2011). The average height of buildings in the district is 18 meters, or six stories; the buildings are generally placed as block built around an inner courtyard. Safety on the streets is enhanced by providing a variety of ground floor uses, and facing balconies and front doors onto the street in order to increase “eyes on the street.” Furthermore, the initial goal for the development was to provide 25 square meters

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of public green space per housing unit and 15 square meters of private courtyard space per housing unit (City of Stockholm Website).

The light rail line carries one third of all trips made by residents (Foletta & Field, 2011). The area is also well served with bike paths, pedestrian paths and footbridges, many of which enable scenic strolls along picturesque canals and through a variety of green spaces. Providing both safe and accessible bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure is important to encourage healthy activities, but also to promote use of non-motorized forms of transport. The area is also included in the bikesharing program that consists of public bicycles, available from docking stations spread throughout the city. There are also three different organisations providing carsharing with 37 low emission vehicles and in 2008, 100 companies located in Hammarby Sjöstad were reported as having a carsharing membership.

In Hammarby Sjöstad, there are approximately 0.15 on-street parking spaces per household and an estimated 0.55 spaces per household in public or private garages. The supply of parking is not equally distributed and in some parts of the district, the practical parking supply is much lower. On-street parking in Hammarby Sjöstad is regulated in the same way as for the rest of the inner city. There is a charge to park between 9:00am and 5:00pm on weekdays. Evening and night time parking is free.

One problem that occurred in Hammarby Sjöstad was there were too few parking places built, 0.5 places per housing unit, and the municipality was forced to add extra garages (Tottmar, 2015). The government of municipality argues that Hammarby Sjöstad was too early to adopt such high restriction, but for the new development of Royal Seaport, the same restriction will be used together with the principle that it should be farther distance to the parking lot from the flat compared to the public transport.

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4 Situation Assessment and Focus Area

Based on conceptual background and practical examples, this chapter focuses on the goals and aims of the thesis.

4.1 Review of Concepts and Practical Examples

In chapter 2.1 the importance of land use and urban form, which can explain up to a third of the variation in trip making (Banister & Hickman, 2006), was presented. Some of these factors can be quantified and are presented in Table 8.

Table 8 Quantifiable Parameters of Land Use and Urban Form

Parameter Ideal Gross population density 100 persons per ha Net population density 300 persons per ha residential zone Diversity 0.75-1.5 jobs per housing units Block size ≤150 meters

Source: Fulford (1996); Banister (2007); Ewing (1999)

With higher density, the range of local services and facilities can increase which can reduce the number of car trips and increase the number of walking and cycling trips. Thus, a mix of land uses is necessary to allow for these local services and facilities. Higher connectivity can decrease the travel distance and thus make walking and cycling more attractive. Furthermore, the access to traffic infrastructure influences the mode people choose. For example, good cycling facilities would encourage cycling.

There are many traffic demand management strategies and in chapter 2.2, those relevant to spatial planning were studied. The measures can be divided into two groups. Push and pull measures. Push measures disincentive “wrong” usages; pull measures rewards “right” usages and seeks to improve the opportunities (Transport, Health and Environment Pan-European Programme, n.d.).

The push measures are related to car traffic and parking. Congestion charging is an effective intervention to reduce road traffic. Access control seems to be less effective and reducing

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speeds make other modes more attractive, though in cities, the average speed is often determined by the number of “obstacles”. Parking is a central element and can be regulated through pricing and supply. There is an array of parking pricing options. Limiting parking supply and linking the supply regulations with public transport accessibility and populations density may promote other modes. Park-and-ride is another parking option but with many negative influences.

The pull measures are in carsharing, public transport, cycling and walking. Carsharing can reduce the number of cars by between four and ten vehicles per carsharing vehicle and increase the modal split for non-car modes. For an attractive public transport, four aspects are particularly important: Accessibility, frequency, travel time, and direct connections. Cycling is often a neglected option for short for short trips. Providing attractive routes has been shown to increase its modal share. E-bikes are a new option that is gaining traction around the world for various ease of use factors and is a good competitor to cars. Bikesharing is another way to promote cycling. The built-up environment influences walking and many parameters have been presented to design an attractive streetscape. Additionally, traffic calmed street are more attractive for pedestrians.

The practical examples show some difficulties with implementation, but also some positive surprises and results. Vauban has achieved a low share of car trips by separating parking and living, both in form location and pricing of parking. Other measures have contributed to achieving high attractiveness for cyclists and pedestrians. Problems have arisen with obedience and enforcement, due to illegal parking. Stockholm achieved success with the congestion charging which is now accepted from over 70% of the population; even a majority of those who often pays the congestion charge support it. Hammarby Sjöstad is another example of how measures can be implemented with a high density and mixed uses. It is less radical than Vauban is, but still has low car use. The planners were too optimistic in reducing car ownership, which resulted in extra parking places had to be added in a later stage.

It is clear that in order to promote sustainable transportation, both push and pull measures are needed as well as an integrated traffic and spatial planning.

4.2 Hypotheses and Research Goals

Based on the conceptual background and the practical examples, this chapter presents the research goals of thesis.

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4.2.1 Research goals

The goals of this thesis are:

• To explore and analyse different concepts related to sustainable transportation and their potential effects on the modal split.

• To research and analyse practical examples and gain knowledge from their implementation of measures.

• To analyse a region from a sustainable transportation point of view and find out strength and weaknesses in the region.

• To develop measures and action to shift the modal split towards more public transport, cycling, and walking as well as implementing these measures in the institutional framework.

4.2.2 Research Questions

In order to reach the aim of the thesis, the following questions are to be answered:

• Which contemporary concepts are related to sustainable transportation?

• What measures are taken in Switzerland and other countries in order to encourage more sustainable modes of transportation?

• What are the consequences of these measures for the spatial and transport development?

• How can these be implemented in the Limmat Valley?

4.2.3 Hypothesises

To answer the research questions and reach the goals, the following hypotheses are to be answered in this thesis:

• Transit oriented development is a preferred and efficient concept for sustainable transportation. • Sustainable transportation is dependent on measures in both urban development and traffic demand management. • Successful implementation of sustainable transportation measures rely heavily on the change of the institutional framework in respective fields.

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4.3 Study Area: The Limmat Valley

The Limmat Valley, located east of Zürich, is a region that is growing rapidly but suffers from many traffic problems (Baden Regio, 2013; Kanton Zürich, 2015). This rapid growth could worsen the traffic congestion, increase air pollution, and decrease the quality of living. The introduction of a light-rail line should work as a catalyst for future development and improve the situation. Still, an increase in private traffic is expected. Through measures and actions to promote sustainable transportation, it could be possible to accommodate the potential population growth and increased employment opportunities without worsening the current traffic problems.

There are several definitions of the spatial boundaries of the Limmat Valley. In this thesis, the extent of the Idea Competition Perspective Spatial Development Limmat Valley (ETH Zürich, 2014) will form the spatial limit. This perimeter, together with its municipalities 6, which are located in both the Cantons of Zürich and Aargau, is shown in Figure 5. This figure also shows the three districts, which contains the areas that are used for statistical purposes.

In this thesis, the twenty municipalities have been grouped together to three areas where the spatial properties and development are similar:

• Southern Limmat Valley: Zürich Altstetten, Dietikon, Schlieren, Urdorf, Killwangen, and Spreitenbach

• Northern Limmat Valley: Geroldswil, Oberengstringen, Oetwil an der Limmat, Un- terengstringen, Weiningen (ZH), and Würenlos

• Baden and Surroundings: Baden, Ennetbaden, Gebenstorf, Neuenhof, Obersiggenthal, Turgi, Untersiggenthal, and Wettingen

Furthermore, the six larger municipalities, those who have a population exceeding 10,000 will primarily presented. They are Zürich Altstetten, Baden, Dietikon, Schlieren, Spreitenbach, and Wettingen, four of them are located in the Southern Limmat Valley.

6 Zürich Altstetten will be referred to as a municipality although it is a district within the city of Zürich.

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Figure 5 Perimeter of the Limmat Valley and Other Relevant Areas

Measures and Actions to Promote Sustainable Transportation in the Limmat Valley ______June 2015

5 The Limmat Valley

The Limmat valley, as defined in chapter 4.3, is a transit corridor and urbanised axis along the Limmat river (Kanton Aargau & Kanton Zürich, 2012). The region is characterised through a diversity in spatial arrangement and utilisation in different scales. The region has experienced a strong growth in the last twenty years and is today one of the largest urban areas in the Zürich agglomeration.

5.1 Current Situation

In order to understand the current situation better, the population and employment will be presented first. Following and based on the parameters presented in the conceptual background, the land use and traffic will be analysed. Table 9 shows these parameters and their form of analysis given the data availability.

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Table 9 Analysis of Current Situation

Parameter Form of Presentation Density: Gross population density Table/map Density: Net population density Table Diversity: Jobs housing units ratio Table Diversity: Land uses Table Land Use Location Map/descriptive in TDM Road Transport/PT: Travel Times Table Road Transport: Car Ownership Table Road Transport: Carsharing Table Road Transport: Congestion Charg- Descriptive ing and Access Control Car: Traffic Calming and Speed Descriptive Reduction Parking: Supply Table/descriptive Parking: Pricing Table Parking: Park-and-ride Table/descriptive PT: Access Table/map PT: Frequency Map PT: Direct connections Descriptive

Traffic Management Demand Cycling: Facilities Map/descriptive Cycling: Bikesharing Descriptive Walkability Indirect through other measures Walkability: Open Spaces Table

5.1.1 Population and Employees

As mentioned earlier, the area has grown rapidly over recent years. The population of the Lim- mat Valley and its municipalities is presented in Table 10. All municipalities have experienced a population growth between 2005 and 2011. In particular, municipalities in the southern Lim- mat Valley have grown most quickly, with Schlieren standing out as the fastest growing municipality in the area with an average annual growth of 3.2%. The highest absolute growth is taking place in the largest six municipalities with a growth above 1,000 persons. The projection to 2030 is that the Limmat Valley will continue to have strong growth, faster than other areas and the cantons. This growth is mainly due to migration from abroad (Kanton Aargau & Kanton Zürich, 2012). The average age is expected to increase which will also contribute to the population growth.

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Table 10 Population in the Limmat Valley and Average Annual Growth

2005- Trend 2003- Municipality/Region 2005 2011 2011 2030 2030 Zürich Altstetten 28,278 30,659 1.36% Dietikon 21,886 23,624 1.28% Schlieren 13,363 16,157 3.21% Spreitenbach 9,935 10,930 1.60% Southern Limmat Valley 84,251 92,189 1.51% Northern Limmat Valley 24,678 26,645 1.29% Baden 16,220 17,929 1.68% Wettingen 18,192 19,981 1.58% Baden and Surroundings 66,007 71,549 1.35% Total 209,348 228,293 1.45%

Canton of Zürich 1,264,141 1,373,068 1.39% 1,617,641 0.87% Canton of Aargau 555,782 611,466 1.60% 766,442 1.20% Baden District 118,871 131,565 1.71% 166,037 1.23% Dietikon District 74,415 80,547 1.33% 100,810 1.19% City of Zürich 342,116 372,857 1.44% 426,455 0.71%

Source: Bundesamt für Statistik (n.d.-a); Kanton Aargau (2013); Kanton Zürich (2014a); Stadt Zürich (2006, 2012a)

Employment has been growing even faster than the population, as can be seen in Table 11. As with the population, the strongest growth is taking place in the southern Limmat Valley as well as Baden and its surroundings. Two municipality have seen a decrease in employment: Unter- siggenthal (average -3.94% per year) and Oberengstringen (average -2.61% per year). Six communes have experienced an average growth of above 5%. However, only one municipality, Schlieren, has an absolute growth of over 500 persons between 2005 and 2011. The strongest absolute employment growth has taken place in Zürich Altstetten, Schlieren, Urdorf, Dietikon, and Baden. The projections for 2030 indicate that strong employment growth is expected throughout in the Limmat Valley (Kanton Aargau & Kanton Zürich, 2012).

The strongest growth is experienced in the service sector that accounts for around 75% of the employees (Kanton Aargau & Kanton Zürich, 2012). The economic sector has considerable diversity; besides long-established industrial and commercial enterprises, emerging fields such as the life-science sectors have seen more companies being established. The good location within the Zürich agglomeration has also meant that many logistics companies, as well shopping centres and specialist stores, have been located in the region.

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Table 11 Employed in the Limmat Valley and Average Annual Change

2005- Municipality/Region 2005 2011 2011 Zürich Altstetten 32,133 33,185 0.54% Dietikon 13,410 16,268 3.27% Urdorf 5,501 6,527 2.89% Spreitenbach 6,135 6,690 1.46% Southern Limmat Valley 69,059 78,828 2.23% Northern Limmat Valley 6,695 7,445 1.78% Baden 20,219 25,417 3.89% Wettingen 6,318 6,545 0.59% Baden and Surroundings 33,379 39,284 2.75% Total 135,671 157,518 2.52%

Canton of Zürich 733,397 955,859 4.51% Canton of Aargau 227,069 250,471 1.65% Baden District 52,996 61,018 2.38% Dietikon District 38,338 46,731 3.35% City of Zürich 329,640 446,561 5.19%

Source: Bundesamt für Statistik (2014); Kanton Aargau (n.d.-a); Kanton Zürich (n.d.-a); Stadt Zürich (2006, 2012a)

5.1.2 Land Use

Density and diversity are two important aspects in land use and will here be examined.

Density

The densities, as seen in Table 12, are high enough in all municipalities to support public transport (30-40 persons per hectare), although in some places, just barely. The average densities are generally too low to support walking (100 persons per hectare); however, in certain areas the density is sufficiently high, as seen in Figure 6. This is particularly true for central areas in Zürich Altstetten, Schlieren, Dietikon, Spreitenbach, and Wettingen.

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Table 12 Population Densities 2013 in the Limmat Valley

Gross Net population population density density [person per [person per ha built-up ha residen- Municipality/Region area] tial area] Zürich Altstetten 78 134 Dietikon 51 103 Schlieren 48 116 Spreitenbach 33 123 Southern Limmat Valley 50 111 Northern Limmat Valley 34 66 Baden 40 113 Wettingen 48 83 Baden and Surroundings 43 81 Average 44 90

Source: Bundesamt für Raumentwicklung (2012); Bundesamt für Statistik (2014); Stadt Zürich (2014a)

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Figure 6 Population Density 2013 in the Limmat Valley

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Diversity

As Table 13 shows, there are considerable differences in the jobs to housing ratio. As mentioned in chapter 2.1.2, an optimal ratio is between 0.75 and 1.5. Of the largest municipalities, only Spreitenbach is within this ratio. Wettingen is the only municipality with a ratio lower than the optimum, the remaining, in particular Baden with a ratio of almost three to one, are above this ratio. Despite this, the average for the Limmat Valley remains in the optimal span as many municipalities have a lower ratio as seen in Northern Limmat Valley.

Table 13 Jobs to Housing Ratio in the Limmat Valley

Municipality/Region 2005 2011 Zürich Altstetten 2.2 2.1 Dietikon 1.4 1.6 Urdorf 1.3 1.6 Spreitenbach 1.5 1.5 Southern Limmat Valley 1.6 1.9 Northern Limmat Valley 0.6 0.6 Baden 2.6 2.9 Wettingen 0.7 0.7 Baden and Surroundings 1.0 1.2 Average 1.2 1.4

Calculations based on: Bundesamt für Statistik (2014, n.d.-a, n.d.-a); Kanton Aargau (2013, n.d.-a); Kanton Zürich (2014a, n.d.-a); Stadt Zürich (2006, 2012a)

The land use mix, as seen in Table 14, confirms Zürich Altstetten and Baden as the main centres. Southern Limmat Valley has an industrial character, which also includes large-scale retail stores. The residential character of Northern Limmat Valley is further confirmed with only one municipality having a residential land-use zone share lower than 59%.

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Table 14 Land-Use Zone Mix in the Limmat Valley

Buildable Centre/ zones Residen- Indus- Mixed Commer- Public Municipality/Region [hectare] tial trial Uses cial Buildings Zürich Altstetten 476 40.2% 22.0% 7.7% 20.7% 9.4% Dietikon 403 43.2% 25.6% 14.0% 7.5% 9.8% Schlieren 285 33.2% 33.9% 15.6% 7.6% 9.6% Spreitenbach 209 29.7% 41.9% 7.6% 6.0% 14.7% Southern Limmat Valley 1,658 39.8% 27.5% 10.3% 11.7% 10.8% Northern Limmat Valley 571 63.9% 12.1% 7.2% 10.4% 6.4% Baden 337 41.5% 11.9% 5.7% 15.8% 25.1% Wettingen 355 48.1% 3.4% 19.9% 8.6% 20.1% Baden and Surroundings 1,407 50.6% 8.9% 12.3% 10.9% 17.4% Total/Average 3,636 47.8% 17.9% 10.5% 11.2% 12.6%

Source: Bundesamt für Raumentwicklung (2012)

5.1.3 Traffic

There is no data available for modal split of the entire Limmat Valley. In the Agglomeration Programme Limmattal (Kanton Aargau & Kanton Zürich, 2012) (see chapter 5.2.3), a modal split is presented which gives the following shares:

• Car: 65%

• Public transport: 15%

• Cycling and walking: 20%

Given the larger perimeter that includes some municipalities with higher population density, it is possible that the average share for public transport is higher, as it is in, for example, Baden, where it is 32% (Stadt Baden, n.d.). However, car remains the predominant mode in the region.

As can be seen in Table 15, travelling with car is often faster than with public transport. Only when travelling to or from the main stations of Baden and Zürich is public transport, from a travel time perspective, a competitive alternative. In addition to this, the so-called “last mile problem” should not be forgotten, which increases travel time for public transport further. 7

7 Last mile problem describes the problem of getting people from a transportation hub to their final destination.

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Table 15 Comparison of Travel Time between Main Centres with Car and Public Transport

Car

PT To Centre From

Zürich Main Station Altstetten Centre Dietikon City Centre Schlieren City Centre Urdorf Spitzacker Spreitenbach Shoppi Tivoli Baden Main Station Neuenhof Landhaus Nussbaumen Sternenplatz Wettingen City Zürich 14-20 20-28 14-22 18-24 22-28 24-35 22-30 26-40 22-30 Main Station 22 18 14 29 32 15 35 32 31 Altstetten 14-18 14-18 7-10 12-16 16-18 18-24 16-20 20-30 16-22 Lindenplatz 23 20 13 25 41 26 33 48 39 Dietikon 22-35 12-18 7-10 8-10 8-10 16-20 14 18-24 14-18 City Centre 21 28 16 16 20 13 20 33 26 Schlieren 18-26 7-9 8-10 7 14-18 18-28 18-22 20-35 16-26 City Centre 20 12 18 8 30 27 31 44 35 Urdorf 18-28 14 7-10 7 12-20 16-24 14-22 18-30 14-24 Spitzacker 28 27 14 8 31 31 35 48 39 Spreitenbach 24-35 18-20 10 14-20 14-16 14-18 9 16-22 12-16 Shoppi Tivoli 33 39 20 29 36 20 12 35 24 Baden 26-35 20-24 16-18 18-26 16-20 12 7-9 4-6 6-8 Main Station 16 27 11 25 35 19 14 10 7 Neuenhof 24-35 18-22 14 18-24 14-18 8 8-10 14 7 Landhaus 32 41 23 30 40 13 14 23 7 Nussbaumen 28-40 22-28 18-22 20-28 18-24 12-16 6 9-14 9 Sternenplatz 36 45 29 44 53 37 11 24 30 Wettingen 24-35 18-24 14-18 18-24 14-20 12 7 6 9 City Centre 35 43 25 32 42 26 9 7 27

Source: Search in http://maps.google.com

The most common destinations for commuters are Baden, Zürich, and the surrounding municipalities of Zürich (Kanton Aargau & Kanton Zürich, 2012).

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5.1.4 Road Transport

The road network within the region is pushing its capacity limits (Baden Regio, 2013; Bundesamt für Strassen, Kanton Aargau & Kanton Zürich, 2010). This is true for both autobahn and primary roads, and their intersections.

Road Infrastructure

The road infrastructure as seen in Figure 7 is characterised by the autobahn A1 which runs through most of the valley and which intersects the autobahn A4 in Weinigen. Because of this, the travel times with car are very competitive, as previously shown. Most of the main roads run parallel with the A1 and the Limmat River, often going through the heart of the towns. The number of roads crossing the valley are limited (Kanton Aargau & Kanton Zürich, 2012).

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Figure 7 Road Infrastructure in the Limmat Valley

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Car ownership and Carsharing

Table 16 shows the number of cars per inhabitant. Schlieren stand out here as having high level of car ownership. However, there are limited correlations between car ownership and population density.

In the Limmat Valley, there are currently 89 carsharing vehicles (Mobility Genossenschaft, n.d.). These are not equally distributed throughout the region, as seen in Table 16. Altstetten, Turgi, and Altstetten have the highest ratio per inhabitant. However, some of these carsharing locations are located in industrial areas, catering to companies. As before, Nothern Limmat Valley stands out as almost completely lacking carsharing vehicles, only two vehicles are located in Unterengstringen and Würenlos.

As carsharing vehicles reduce car ownership by four to ten vehicles per carsharing car (see chapter 2.2.1), it means that thanks to carsharing, the number of cars are between 0.36% and 0.91% fewer than without carsharing, which has a limited impact on traffic.

Table 16 Car Ownership and Carsharing Availability

Carsharing Cars per Vehicles 1000 Carsharing per 1000 Municipality/Region Persons Vehicles Persons Zürich Altstetten 450 27 0.88 Dietikon 487 7 0.30 Schlieren 561 6 0.37 Spreitenbach 490 1 0.09 Southern Limmat Valley 499 43 0.47 Northern Limmat Valley 574 2 0.08 Baden 530 26 1.45 Wettingen 490 6 0.30 Baden and Surroundings 509 44 0.61 Total/Average 514 89 0.47

Calculations based on: (Bundesamt für Statistik (2014); Aargauer Zeitung (n.d.) Kanton Zürich (n.d.-b); Mobility Genossenschaft (n.d.); Stadt Zürich (2014a)

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Congestion Charging and Access Control

Congestion charging is only implemented in a few places in the world and it has not been implemented in the Limmat Valley. There is no data suggestion that access control has been implemented in a larger scale within the Limmat Valley.

Traffic Calming and Speed Reduction

Both cantons are promoting the introduction of 30 km/h zones in residential areas (Kanton Aargau, 2012a; Kanton Zürich, n.d.-c). It is motivated by the increased safety for cyclists and pedestrians as well as reduction of noise. Living streets are promoted but less frequently used (Kanton Zürich, 2013).

5.1.5 Parking

Parking is controlled through the Parking place requirements and pricing. Both these can vary depending on if they are to be used by residents/employees or visitors.

Parking place requirements

Parking regulations vary throughout the different municipalities (Gemeinde Spreitenbach, 2012; Gemeinde Wettingen, 2014; Stadt Baden, 2014a; Stadt Dietikon, 2014a; Stadt Schlieren, 2010; Stadt Zürich, 2010). Given the complexity in calculation of the requirements and the different categorisations of uses, a clear overview is difficult to present, though in Table 17 the requirements for residential use are presented. General conclusions are that the lowest minimum requirements are to be found in Zürich Altstetten. Baden has major limitations for employees but still rather high minimum requirements for residential purposes. Spreitenbach and Wettin- gen have, in general, large requirements and largest requirements are found in Dietikon and Schlieren. Three of the municipalities lack maximum requirements: Dietikon, Spreitenbach, and Wettingen.

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Table 17 Residential Car Parking Requirements

Minimum Maximum 1 Parking 1 Parking Place Place per … m 2 per … m 2 Municipality Floor Area Floor Area Zürich Altstetten 250 133 Dietikon 80-90 - Schlieren 80-90 73-82 Spreitenbach 100 - Baden 111-143 100 Wettingen 100-125 -

Source: Gemeinde Spreitenbach (2012) Gemeinde Wettingen (2014); Stadt Baden (2014a); Stadt Dietikon (2014a); Stadt Schlieren (2010); Stadt Zürich (2010)

In Zürich and Baden, the mandatory parking spaces in new buildings and conversions can be reduced further, even down to nil, if specific mobility management measures are taken (Stadt Baden, 2014a; Ott, 2012).

Furthermore, in Zürich there is a parking cap in the city centre (the so-called historical compromise) (Kodransky & Hermann, 2011; Fellmann, Ott, & Willi, 2009). This means that if a parking space in the capped area is created off-street, it will replace an on-street parking space. Thus, the supply of parking spaces remains constant. Parking facilities have been built underground, and aboveground public plazas have been created. The parking facilities are often privately operated through a concession.

Only two of the municipalities, Zürich and Dietikon, have minimum requirements for bicycles. Zürich has requirements for many different usages, while Dietikon has only for residential uses. Other municipalities only requires “sufficient” number of parking places for bike, that should be close to entrances and in residential building, sometimes protected from weather.

Parking Pricing

The residential on-street parking pricing, as seen in Table 18, varies through the area and does not correlate to the population or density. These fees are lower than the monthly ticket with the public transport, which costs 83 or 84 francs depending on canton (Tarifverbund A-Welle, n.d.; Zürcher Verkehrsverbund, n.d.).

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Table 18 Residential Night-Time Pricing for Parking on Street or Public Ground

Price per month and car for residents Municipality/Region [CHF] Zürich Altstetten 25 Dietikon 20-40 Schlieren 34 Spreitenbach 35 Baden 30-40 Wettingen 25

Source: Gemeinde Spreitenbach (2013); Gemeinde Wettingen (n.d.); Stadt Baden (2002) Stadt Dietikon (n.d.-a); Stadt Schlieren (2011); Stadt Zürich (2012b)

Park-and-Ride

Most of the train stations offer park-and-ride facilities, as shown in Table 19. The cantons have different policies regarding the future of the park-and-ride facilities (Kanton Aargau & Kanton Zürich, 2012). Canton Aargau promotes an extension of the park-and-ride facilities following a priority list. In Canton Zürich, public transport should be used for all parts of the trip, except for some rural areas with limited public transport.

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Table 19 Park-and-Ride Parking in the Limmat Valley

P&R Parking Train Station Places Dietikon 155 Dietikon Glanzenberg 100 Schlieren 50 Urdorf 35 Killwangen-Spreitenbach 78 Würenlos 18 Baden 80 Turgi 142 Untersiggenthal-Würenlingen 31 Wettingen 111 Total 800

Source: Kanton Aargau & Kanton Zürich (2012); Kanton Aargau (n.d.-b)

5.1.6 Public Transport

In chapter 5.1.3, the travel times between central locations were presented. In this chapter, the remaining three main components of public transport: Frequency, accessibility, and direct connections, are presented.

Frequency

Figure 8 shows the departures per hour in non-peak hours of workdays; in peak hours, most lines see an increase in departure that can be substantial. In the Canton of Zürich the S-Bahn lines run with a 30 minutes interval and with lines overlapping, many places have departures every 15 minutes to Zürich main station. In Aargau, the S-Bahn has lower frequency. In addition, in Baden and Dietikon many additional regional train stops.

The bus lines often have a 15 or 30 minutes interval and many lines overlap, thus forming an increased departure rate. In Canton Zürich, this often means an effective 15 minutes interval. In the cities of Baden and Zürich, the departures are more frequent and this extends to the surrounding municipalities, in one case all the way from Baden to Spreitenbach.

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Figure 8 Public Transport Frequency in the Limmat Valley

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Accessibility

The Federal Office for Spatial Development has developed a method to evaluate the quality of accessibility for the public transport 8. As seen in Figure 9, most of land-use zones in the Limmat Valley belongs to the class C (moderate accessibility) which would typically mean a bus de- parting every 7-8 minute (independent of direction) and a distance less than 300m to the stop (Bundesamt für Raumentwicklung, 2015a).

Table 20 shows the accessibility for the population and Table 21 for the employees. As one might expect, the cities of Baden and Zürich have the best coverage; however, on average the class B and C have the largest shares. The differences between the municipalities are significant. In the Nothern Limmat Valley, the accessibility is worse, for example, Oetwil an der Lim- mat has the largest share in class D (79%), and 19% lacks access to public transport.

8 Full description (in German) at http://www.are.admin.ch/themen/verkehr/00256/04271/index.html?lang=de

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Figure 9 Accessibility to Public Transport in the Limmat Valley

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Table 20 Access to Public Transport for Inhabitants

Municipality/Region A B C D - Zürich Altstetten 75% 25% 0% 0% 0% Dietikon 18% 32% 42% 7% 1% Schlieren 0% 55% 36% 8% 0% Spreitenbach 11% 63% 22% 3% 0% Southern Limmat Valley 30% 37% 28% 5% 0% Northern Limmat Valley 1% 28% 51% 17% 3% Baden 36% 45% 18% 2% 0% Wettingen 12% 45% 41% 2% 0% Baden and Surroundings 16% 48% 32% 4% 1% Average 20% 40% 32% 6% 1%

Calculations based on: Bundesamt für Raumentwicklung (2015b); Bundesamt für Statistik (n.d.-c)

Table 21 Access to Public Transport for Employees

Municipality/Region A B C D - Zürich Altstetten 73% 27% 0% 0% 0% Dietikon 18% 22% 57% 2% 1% Schlieren 0% 58% 30% 11% 1% Spreitenbach 20% 47% 19% 14% 0% Southern Limmat Valley 38% 33% 23% 5% 1% Northern Limmat Valley 1% 34% 42% 16% 8% Baden 67% 25% 7% 0% 0% Wettingen 16% 35% 47% 2% 0% Baden and Surroundings 45% 33% 19% 1% 1% Average 38% 33% 23% 4% 1%

Calculations based on: Bundesamt für Raumentwicklung (2015b); Bundesamt für Statistik (n.d.-d)

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Direct Connections

The S-Bahn is the backbone of the public transport with bus lines connecting the S-Bahn and the built-up area (Kanton Aargau & Kanton Zürich, 2012). Within the Limmat Valley, many places can be reached directly or with one change. For longer distances, the S-Bahn works as an intermediate connection, increasing the number of changes to one or two.

5.1.7 Cycling

Within the Limmat Valley, the topographic conditions for cycling are ideal, except for some areas on the edges of the valley (Kanton Aargau & Kanton Zürich, 2012). In order to reach other areas to the north and south, physical exertion is needed to climb large elevations. In Figure 10, the current cycle routes are presented. The gaps are quite substantial and, as with the private transport, there is a lack of connections crossing the valley. However, these cycling routes do not always have the required cycling infrastructure. Canton Zürich has guidelines to which infrastructure should be provided: shared paths in rural areas and cycle paths in the urban areas (Kanton Zürich, 2012). Canton Aargau lacks such guidelines.

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Figure 10 Cycle Routes in the Limmat Valley

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5.1.8 Walkability

Most of the parameters that influence walking have been presented in earlier chapters. How- ever, in addition to those, parks also have a positive influence on walking and the attractiveness of the neighbourhood. As seen in Table 22, the restricted zones, where buildings are not allowed, vary. Furthermore, most of these zones are located at the edge of the zoned areas, which is also true for Altstetten, which has a very high share, of which much is used for allotment gardens. The shares presented in Table 22 do not completely explain the presence of parks, as there could be parks in not-zoned areas within the build-up area, or in land-use zones that could potentially be built. Moreover, many residents have access to the countryside as well as the river Limmat. Wettingen, with the lowest share, recognises that there is a lack of green spaces (Gemeinde Wettingen, 2013). Those that exist have often arisen randomly and they could be threatened, as they are not protected in the land-use regulations.

Table 22 Restricted Zones

Restricted Zone of Building Municipality/Region zones Zürich Altstetten 18.2% Dietikon 4.8% Schlieren 6.4% Spreitenbach 1.7% Southern Limmat Valley 8.8% Northern Limmat Valley 7.9% Baden 8.8% Wettingen 0.3% Baden and Surroundings 4.4% Average 7.0%

Source: Bundesamt für Raumentwicklung (2012)

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5.2 Cantonal, Regional and Municipal Planning

Both the cantons and the municipalities have plans for how the future development should take place. This institutional framework is here presented.

5.2.1 Canton Zürich, Regional Planning Zürich, and Region Limmattal

The Canton Zürich has a Structure Plan (Kanton Zürich, 2014b) which is binding for authorities. A non-binding Regional Spatial Development Perspective (Regionalplanung Zürich und Umgebung, 2012) has also been prepared. Based on these two plans, a Regional Structure Plan (Kanton Zürich, 2015) for the Dietikon District is currently in public disclosure. All of these plans strive for a sustainable development and where the increase in population and employed primarily takes place within the current land-use zones (Kanton Zürich, 2014b; Kanton Zürich, 2015; Regionalplanung Zürich und Umgebung, 2012). This can be due to a popular referendum, which resulted in that zoning of ecologically valuable areas and agricultural fields to built-up zones is practically impossible (Schweizer Radio und Fernsehen, 2014). The areas with good accessibility to public transport, in particular S-Bahn, may see a higher density and together with the possibility of high-rise buildings (Kanton Zürich, 2014b; Kanton Zürich, 2015). The proposed density levels are presented in Table 23. The centres of Dietikon and Schlieren, both regional centres and development areas, will see large transformation of certain built-up areas. The development should also be future-safe, with high quality design and use few natural resources. Cycling and walking should be promoted and public transportation should absorb at least 50% of the increase in traffic, which is not absorbed by cycling or walking.

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Table 23 Proposed Density Levels in Zürich Agglomeration

Person Density [Inhabitants + Jobs Public Accessibility Density level per hectare] Class 9 Very high density >300 A, partially B High density 150-300 B, partially A Medium density 100-150 C, partially B Low density 50-100 D, partially C Very low density <50 D or none

Source: Kanton Zürich (2015, p. 11)

Limmattal Line

An important element for the future development is the new light-rail between Zürich-Altstetten and Killwangen that is to be operational by 2020 (Limmattalbahn, 2013a), which can be seen in Figure 11. Most of the future development in the Limmat Valley should be coordinated with Limmattal Line (Kanton Zürich, 2014b; Kanton Zürich, 2015). The construction of the Lim- mattal Line will be decided through a popular referendum in Canton Zürich (Arnet, 2015).

Figure 11 The Limmattal Line

Source: Limmattalbahn (2013a, p. G-01: 12)

The goal of the line is to increase the modal split for public transport, reduce congestion, and increase the attractiveness of the region. With the construction of the Limmattal Line, further construction projects are to start and the aim is that the Limmattal Line should work as a catalyst and spur further development.

9 See chapter 5.1.6.

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The Limmattal Line will run with a 15 minutes interval with the possibility that a 7.5 interval to be offered in peak hours (Limmattalbahn, 2013a). In Dietikon and Spreitenbach, the arrival and departure times will be coordinated with the departure times of the S-Bahn. Furthermore, the bus lines in the region will be revised and adjusted to suit the Limmattal Line, as seen in Figure 12 (Kanton Zürich, 2015). The figure does not show local bus lines within the municipalities.

Despite the goals mentioned above and the reduction of private traffic on the roads connected with the Limmattal Line, the overall traffic will not be heavily influenced (Limmattalbahn, 2013b).

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Figure 12 The Limmattal Line and New Bus Lines

Current Bus Line

Planned Bus Line

Limmattal Line

Source: Kanton Zürich (2015, p. 72)

Cycle Superhighway

In the Agglomeration programme Limmattal (see below), a cycle superhighway is proposed (Kanton Aargau & Kanton Zürich, 2012). This has been refined and integrated in the Regional Structure Plan (Kanton Zürich, 2015) for Dietikon District, as shown in Figure 13, together

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with current and other proposed new routes. The city of Winterthur is also working on cycle superhighways and there they should have the following qualities (Stadt Winterthur, 2014): direct route, low inclinations, have priority at intersections, and separation from pedestrians and cars. The proposed cycle superhighway, although direct, runs mainly through industrial and rural areas and on the north side of the railroad, limiting its accessibility for most residents.

Figure 13 Cycle Routes

Cycle Route Types Ev eryday Routes

Recreational Routes

Cycle Superhighway

Source: Kanton Zürich (2015, p. 82)

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5.2.2 Canton Aargau and Regional Development Baden

As in Canton Zürich, Canton Aargau also promotes a densification in the already built-up areas in their Structure Plan (Kanton Aargau, 2011). However, the goals for traffic are much less rigorous. Firstly, the traffic planning should be coordinated between the different transportation modes; secondly, the traffic planning should also be line up with the desired economic development, spatial structures, residential development, and the preservation of the living space quality. However, this development should be coordinated regionally where Baden Regio is one of the regions.

The Baden Regio (2013) states the densification is primarily to take place in locations with good public transport. Planning over the long-term, the Limmattal Line should be extended to Wettingen and Baden. Cycling and walking should be promoted. Baden-Wettingen should be the regional centre and Spreitenbach a regional side centre, due to its location and regional functions, in particular, in the field of supply and work. In the future, they see a regional bikesharing system (“BadenRegio Bike”).

5.2.3 Agglomeration Programme Limmattal

The Agglomerations Programmes are funded by the Federal Government and the second generation, as here presented, are used to show how the spatial and traffic planning can be integrated (Kanton Aargau & Kanton Zürich, 2012).

For the future development of the Limmat Valley, as presented in Figure 14, the central ideas are derived from the following key elements (Kanton Aargau & Kanton Zürich, 2012, p. 76):

• The Limmat River is the “blue band” which characterises the valley holding the communes together like a string of pearls.

• The landscapes and open spaces that transverse the valley divides the settlements and links the hills.

• The arc between Schlieren and Spreitenbach with the main centre Dietikon. This is where the urban growth should take place and where the future urban Limmat Valley should be formed.

• The S-Bahn/long-distance-trains form the backbone of the public transport and the Lim- mattal Line together with the Bremgarten-Dietikon-Bahn (BDWM) are the fast, rail- bound connections in the settlements, which should manage the growing population and employment in urban areas in an environmentally compatible way.

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Figure 14 Overall Picture of the Vision of the Agglomeration Programme

Landscape: Band” Blue “The Clinches” Green “The Forest landscapes dividing Settlement spaces open influenced Urban spaces open Other Urban: areas changed Moderately kept be to Structure - C/D class PT accessibility - areas changed Clearly Densification - B/C class PT accessibility - areas changed Heavily densification Strong - A/B class PT accessibility - The Arc Schlieren Spreitenbach – Dietikon areas Supporting – Traffic: Railroad S-bahn / S-bahn & regional Stops Tram / rail Light Autobahn roads Primary roads Secondary hubs transportation Multi-modal yard Shunting Vision Limmat Valley 2030 Valley Limmat Vision Picture Overall

Source: Kanton Aargau & Kanton Zürich (2012, p. 78)

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5.2.4 Municipal Planning

The different municipalities have different conditions and goals. Here the planning of the six largest municipalities is examined.

Zürich Altstetten: 2000 Watt Society

In 2008, the inhabitants of Zürich voted for in favour of “the 2,000 watt society,” meaning that the inhabitants of Zürich should not use than 2,000 watt per person per year by 2050 (Stadt Zürich, 2011). One important aspect in order to achieve this is mobility and increasing the share of public transport, cycling and walking. This cannot be accomplished through traffic planning alone, “[m]obility planning is also housing development planning: short distances to the most important destinations (shopping, culture, workplace, school…) allow high mobility with little traffic” (Stadt Zürich, 2011, p. 25). To achieve this, neighbourhoods need to be designed so they are they are attractive and permeable.

Dietikon: Urban Renewal and Increased Urban Density

The municipality has developed guidelines for the future development, which shall take place along the Limmattal Line (Stadt Dietikon, 2014b). These guidelines do not differ much from the vision presented in chapter 5.2.3, but are often vaguely formulated.

Schlieren: Urban Development Concept

In Schlieren, a new Urban Development Concept is currently in development (Stadt Schlieren, n.d.). The current concept states that the development should primary take place along the railroad, where industrial zones are to be changed into residential zones and the development overall into a more city-like area (Stadt Schlieren, 2013). The vision is similar to the plans and visions presented in chapters 5.2.1 and 5.2.3.

Schlieren has also performed an evaluation of the development where inhabitants and stakeholders have been interviewed (Stadt Schlieren, 2013). This shows that the quality of living has been improved since 2003 and that the city has developed from a village towards a city. Further improvements could take place in the development of the city centre and train station, and with traffic calming measures. The stakeholders have chosen Schlieren due to the land prices, the location and proximity to Zürich, as well as the autobahn. The accessibility with car is also the greatest strength, which was mentioned by all of the stakeholders. The image of Schlieren and the lack of parking places were the greatest weaknesses in the survey.

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Spreitenbach: Master Plan

Spreitenbach is currently working on a Master Plan (Gemeinde Spreitenbach, 2015). A current master plan or similar is not available.

Baden: Planning Vision

The planning vision from Baden (Stadt Baden, 2014b) lacks many direct statements regarding the development. Densification is a theme, this includes all aspects such as outdoor space, and that neighbourhood qualities must be considered.

Wettingen: Urban Development Vision

Wettingen has a general vision how it should develop. It states that densification should take place and should be seen as an opportunity and can contribute to higher quality of life (Gemeinde Wettingen, 2009). This should primarily take place in locations with good public transport. The quality of the outdoor spaces and of the central axis should also be increased.

5.2.5 Further Relevant Planning: S-Bahn

For the S-Bahn, only minor changes are expected in the S-Bahn network through the Limmat Valley throughout 2025 (Limmattalbahn, 2013a). Spreitenbach will get an additional departure per hour, which will create a 15-minute interval between trains. In Deitikon, there will be two additional departures with a new express S-Bahn-line to Zürich (and further) (Limmattalbahn, 2013a).

The second generation of the Zürich S-Bahn network is currently in planning phase (Zürcher Verkehrsverbund, 2014). The discussions involve how the S-Bahn should develop after 2030, and the current plan centres on a central S-Bahn together with an express S-Bahn for the farther away locations. The change from central to express S-Bahn could take place in Dietikon, which would therefore see improvement in departures intervals (Schweizerische Bundesbahnen, 2012). Other stations cannot expect an increase in frequency.

5.3 SWOT-Analysis

Based on the information presented earlier in this chapter as well as the conceptual background and the practical example, the various strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats are here presented.

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5.3.1 Strengths • Most commuters travel to Zürich and its surrounding municipalities, or to Baden, which means that many destinations are within cycling distance. These locations are also well connected with public transport.

• The region is mostly flat which makes it ideal for cycling.

• The job housing unit ratio within the region is within the optimal span, though the variation is quite drastic between the municipalities.

• The plans from Canton Zürich are striving for a more sustainable transportation system where increased density is one aspect. However, these plans must be implemented in the municipal planning and regulations.

5.3.2 Weaknesses • The autobahn runs throughout the region, which enables fast connections for car, making it difficult for more sustainable modes of transport to compete. The travel times for cars within the region are often more than 25% faster than for public transport between main centres.

• The quality level of the public transport is only moderate, with mostly 15 minutes frequency. This is related to the density, that often not enough to support higher frequency.

• Many municipalities have a high parking place requirements in their land-use regulations and low pricing for residential on-street parking. Both of which directly or indirectly promote car use.

• The cycling network is not coherent and the gaps within the network are large.

5.3.3 Opportunities • In the coming years, strong population and employment growth is expected and thus, the implementation of correct actions and measures should be possible to perform.

• The Limmattal Line can spur further development and a change of modal split in parts of the Limmat Valley. However, it is unclear how large these effects are expected to be.

• A new cycle superhighway could help promoting cycling. However, the proposed route is far from ideal considering perspectives other than directness.

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5.3.4 Threats • The access by private transport is an important factor for many companies in the area, as seen in Schlieren. They find the lack of parking places troubling and would prefer additional parking places.

• There is limited improvement in the frequency of public transport departures. The S- Bahn will most likely only offer marginal improvement in its frequency up to and after 2030. With a large increase in public transport trips, it is unclear how the capacity can expand to cope with the extra demand, especially in peak-hours.

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6 Dietikon and the Limmat Valley: Proposed Measures and Actions

To be able to suggest improvements and to promote sustainable transportation, the current regulations and their impacts needs to be better understood. In this chapter, Dietikon is used as an example given the following reasons:

• It is the regional centre and therefore it could work as a model for other municipalities.

• It is neither better, nor worse, compared to other municipalities in the area.

• With the second generation of the Zürich S-Bahn, the attractiveness of the city can increase further with increased number of departures.

• It lacks a strong vision how it should develop in the future.

• It uses the “Energiestadt” (Energy city) label meaning that it should promote sustainable mobility and use resources efficiently (Energiestadt, n.d.).

6.1 Current Development and Situation in Dietikon

Most of the urban development in Dietikon takes place in the northwestern part of the municipality. Four main projects are:

• Bahnhofareal: New commercial zone Z5 (see Table 24 below) to allow for densification at the best located area, close to the main train station, that is currently used for parking and park-and-ride, the later to be retained or to be incorporated in a new building (Stadt Dietikon, n.d.-b).

• Limmatfeld: An 8.7-hectare area with dense and urban development for 500-1,000 employees and 2,000-3,000 inhabitants (Stadt Dietikon, n.d.-c). It is currently in phase five of seven and the current development can be seen in Figure 15.

• Niderfeld: This approximate 40-hectare, mostly unused, area is to be transformed into a new urban area with industrial, commercial, and residential usages (Stadt Dietikon, 2015). The design and district planning will start in summer 2015, based on a master plan (Stadt Dietikon, n.d.-d)

• Silbern-Lerzen-Stierenmatt (SLS): This is the largest industrial area in Dietikon and is currently in transformation (Scholl, et al., 2008). The public spaces will be improved

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and residential uses should be permitted, primarily in the southwestern area, adjacent to Limmatfeld.

The above-mentioned projects are presented in Figure 16 together with a slightly simplified version of the land-use zones, where those influencing the residential density are further explained in Table 24.

Figure 15 Limmatfeld in Dietikon

Source: Author

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Figure 16 Land-Use Zones and Current Planning and Development in Dietikon

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Table 24 Residential (W) and Commercial (Z) Land-Use Zones in Dietikon

Maximum Maximum Minimum Number of Floor Area Residential Zone Floors Ratio Use W1/18 1 18% - W2/25 2 25% - W2/30 2 30% - W2/45 2 45% 80% W3/65 3 65% 80% W4/80 4 80% 80%

WG2/45 2 45% - WG3/65 3 65% - WG4/80 4 80% -

Z4 4 100% 20% Z5 5 140% 30%

Source: Stadt Dietikon (2014a)

Some recent examples of infill projects are presented in Figure 17. Based on the parameters from the conceptual background, only the project Nextra can be considered a good example. Trio is not using the potential building height, although this could be due to the partial location in the centre zone, where the current urban form is to be retained. The building on Badnerstrasse has an interesting high-rise part but also a less optimal long one-story section. Finally, AGZ has a large parking in front, distancing itself from the street.

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Figure 17 Examples of Recent Projects in Dietikon

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6.2 Weaknesses in Dietikon

In the SWOT-analysis in chapter 5.3, different weaknesses in the Limmat Valley were discussed. In this chapter, these weaknesses will be more thoroughly explored in Dietikon to understand why these weaknesses have arisen and how these can be resolved.

6.2.1 Land Use

As stated in the previous chapter, densities are generally low in the Limmat Valley; density is high enough to support public transport, but still lower than would be considered optimal from a sustainable transportation point of view. To understand the relationship between land-use zone and population density better, Figure 18 shows an overlay of the land-use zones and current population density. The highest densities are generally found along the main east-west axis. The densities have been calculated for the different residential and commercial land-use zones used in Dietikon in Table 25. As expected, the higher the floor area ratio and residential share, the higher the population density. Only the zones W3/65 and W4/80 have high enough density for public transport. It is worth noting that W3/65 is the most common zone in Dietikon and that the zones with highest population density are all mostly located in the centre and along the east-west axis, which would be possible to connect with public transport.

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Figure 18 Population Density and Land-Use Zones in Dietikon

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Table 25 Estimated Population & Population Density in Residential and Commercial Land- Use Zones

Population Density Share of [Persons per Land-Use Population Zone ha Zone] Zones [Persons] W1/18 16-18 1.5% 88-93 W2/25 21-25 3.2% 270-280 W2/30 38-43 7.0% 1,000-1,100 W2/45 & WG2/45 55-63 4.3% 10 950-1,000 W3/65 & WG3/65 108-125 27.1% 11 11,000-12,000 W4/80 & WG4/80 148-170 4.4% 12 2,700-2,800 Average NRD 84-101

Z4 101-116 0.7% 280-300 Z5 85-98 2.9% 940-990

Calculations based on: Bundesamt für Raumentwicklung (2012); Bundesamt für Statistik (n.d.-c); Stadt Dietikon (2008)

The zones with higher density have also better access to public transport as Figure 19 shows where the public transport accessibility and land-use zones is presented. The best access is found along the railroad. The Bremgarten-Dietikon-Bahn heading south from the Dietikon main station also gives good accessibility to less dense areas. Table 26 shows the relationship between land-use zone and public transport accessibility. A goal with the Limmattal Line is to increase the level of accessibility one class along the line (Kanton Zürich, 2015), resulting in higher shares for class B in zones W3/65 and W4/80.

10 WG2/45 share: 0.2%. 11 WG3/65 share: 1.5%. 12 WG4/80 share: 1.9%.

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Figure 19 Public Transport Accessibility and Land-Use Zones in Dietikon

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Table 26 Public Transport Accessibility and Land-use zones in Dietikon

Zone A B C D None W1/18 0% 0% 0% 100% 0% W2/25 0% 0% 0% 93% 7% W2/30 0% 53% 21% 26% 0% W2/45 & WG2/45 0% 74% 26% 0% 0% W3/65 & WG3/65 10% 28% 55% 6% 1% W4/80 & WG4/80 10% 52% 38% 0% 0%

Z4 60% 40% 0% 0% 0% Z5 100% 0% 0% 0% 0%

Calculations based on: Bundesamt für Raumentwicklung (2012); Bundesamt für Raumentwicklung (2015b); Stadt Dietikon (2008)

6.2.2 Car traffic

The traffic problems in the Limmat Valley are many and varied, and many intersections and roads are overloaded (Kanton Aargau & Kanton Zürich, 2012). This is also true for Dietikon and as seen in Figure 20 where the loads from the cantonal traffic model are presented. Many of the primary roads see loads of close to or above 20,000 vehicles per average weekday, which approximately the capacity for a two-lane road (see, for example, United States Department of Transportation, 2012). The centre of Dietikon sees high levels of trough traffic and many intersections are close to their capacity limits.

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Figure 20 Traffic Load in Dietikon

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6.2.3 Parking

In Dietikon, parking pricing is used in the city centre for both on- and off-street parking. There is no price difference between the on- and off-street parking and the prices are:

• 0.5 hour: 0.5 Franken

• 1 hour: 1 Franken

• 2 hours: 2 Franken

6.2.4 Cycling

As mentioned in chapter 5.1.7, there are many gaps in the cycle network. In Figure 21, the cycling infrastructure is different from the (signposted) routes shown earlier. The infrastructure often meets the cantonal guidelines (Kanton Zürich, 2012): Cycle paths in the urban areas and shared paths in rural areas, the later also found in the industrial areas. The cycle lanes running along the proposed Limmattal Line will be retained after construction (Limmattalbahn, 2013a). However, there are still many gaps in the infrastructure, as clearly visible in the map. In particular, the city centre lacks facilities from almost every direction. It is also here that conflicts between cyclists and cars are largest and the available space is lowest. This area, in particular south of the main road Badenerstrasse/Zentralstrasse/Züricherstrasse, are characterised through large blocks that are not permeable.

In the city centre, there are many public parking places for bicycles including a two-story building on the main square.

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Figure 21 Cycling Infrastructure in Dietikon

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6.2.5 Walking

In chapter 2.2.4, many design parameters in regards to walking and the urban design were presented. Many of these are related to land-use regulation, and even though the density is not high enough to encourage walking, Table 27 shows parameters not covered earlier in chapter 6.2.1.

Table 27 Zoning Regulations in Dietikon and Walking

Parameter W3/65 W4/80 Z4 Z5 Parking as share of land size - - - - Minimum open space - - - - Enclosure, min distance to road 5m 13 6m 13 - - Enclosure, maximum height 10.5m 13.5m 17.5 21.5m Enclosure, maximum building length 60m 60m - -

Source: Stadt Dietikon (2014a)

Retail and commercial amenities are allowed in the centre zones and in marked areas on the map of the land-use zoning regulation, primarily along primary and secondary roads (Stadt Dietikon, 2008). For open spaces, the guidelines for future development along the Limmattal Line say that in residential zones at least 25% of the land area should be used as a coherent and communal open space for play, rest, and garden, at a central, calm, and well-sunlit location (Stadt Dietikon, 2014b).

6.3 Choice of Measures

After analysing the weaknesses, acceptable solutions can be now proposed.

6.3.1 Acceptance from Population

An important aspect of traffic demand management is the acceptance from the inhabitants (Bannister, 2008b). Mobility in Switzerland (Bundesamt für Statistik, 2012) surveyed the opin- ion about different measures. Figure 22 shows opinions on different push measures and Figure 23 shows how the income from push measures should be spend; mostly pull measures. 14

13 If building length exceeds 15 meters, this distance increases given a formula. Maximum distance is 12 meters (W3/65) or 13 meters (W4/80). 14 Push and pull measures are explained in chapter 4.1.

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Figure 22 Opinions on Road Pricing and Similar

Source: Bundesamt für Statistik (2012)

Figure 23 Opinions on the Spending on the Income from Road Traffic

Source: Bundesamt für Statistik (2012)

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It is clear that introducing and increasing pricing are highly unpopular, only tunnel fees have over one third in favour of it. Concerning how the income should be spent, all alternatives have a majority in favour of it. Strongest support has improvements for cycling and walking, lowest have improvement for public transport. Despite having the lowest support, two thirds support it.

For changes in land use, the evaluation in neighbouring Schlieren (Stadt Schlieren, 2013) is of interest. The people here are positive to the more city-like development and the new shopping opportunities. However, the lacks of open and green spaces are not favourable.

6.3.2 Measures and Actions to be implemented

Based on the weaknesses earlier identified and the acceptance from the population, it is not possible to introduce congestion pricing as the population is negative to it, it involves large costs, and it has not been tried and tested in a small city like Dietikon, though it could have been a very effective measure as seen earlier. However, there are still measures that can be taken:

• Land use : Increased density by changing the land-use regulations, also the diversity could be supported by regulating the land use. This will increase the local access to amenities and make it easier to cycle or walk.

• Road transport: The great advantages in travel time for car compared to public transport would require drastic changes in order to equalise. Therefore, the attractiveness of the current network is hard to reduce. However, changes to improve the situation for cyclist and pedestrians are proposed below, which could increase the travel times for cars.

• Parking: Parking is a central theme in traffic demand management. By limiting the parking spaces and appropriate pricing, the car availability could potentially decrease. Increasing the pricing is, as with road pricing, highly unpopular. However, the risks and costs are much lower and therefore an appropriate pricing scheme could be introduced, though for carsharing vehicles parking should be free. Regulating the location is also an important aspect as seen in Vauban but harder to implement.

• Public transport : The Limmattal Line will change the current lines. Given the complexity of the network, the larger scale, and the Limmattal Line, no addition changes will be proposed at this point.

• Cycling: The cycling facilities have many gaps that need to be closed and the proposed cycle superhighway needs be connected to the existing network. Additional cycling and

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pedestrians could further increase their attractiveness and share of trips. A bikesharing network could also promote cycling.

• Walking: The influence on walking can mostly be controlled through the land-use regulations and these be changed to improve the streetscape design to make it more attractive for pedestrians. Expansion of the 30 km/h zones will also have a positive influence.

6.4 Measures and Actions

In this chapter, the measures and actions proposed above will be presented further.

6.4.1 Land Use

Land use planning can have positive influences on sustainable transportation in general and pedestrians in particular. The current regulations can be changed to better support the factors.

Possible Land-use zones

Using the floor area ratios from the city of Zürich (Stadt Zürich, 2014b), theoretical densities can be calculated, which can be seen in Table 28. If the goal is to reach the net residential density of 300 inhabitants per hectare, a W6 zone is necessary. One can also see that increasing the floor area ratio of the current W3 zones to 90% does not necessarily increase the population density as the residential floor area per person has increased over time (Bundesamt für Statistik, n.d.-e).

Table 28 Possible Residential Land-Use Zones and Population Density

Zone W3/90 W4/120 W5/165 W6/205 Floors 3 4 5 6 Proposed floor area ratio 90% 120% 165% 205% Maximum building height [m] 9.5 12.5 15.5 18.5 Residential density [Persons/ha] 15 90-160 120-220 170-300 210-370

Calculations based on: Stadt Zürich (2014b)

15 Assumptions: Residential floor area: 40-50 m 2/person (based on: Bundesamt für Statistik, n.d.-e); transport infrastructure: 10-15% of land area (based on: Kanton St. Gallen, 2012, p. 20); gross to net floor area: 10-15% (based on: Kanton St. Gallen, 2012, p. 20); residential share: 80-95% (based on: Stadt Dietikon, 2014a).

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The commercial zones also have low floor area ratios, which is the main influence on density. Again, using the floor area ratios in Zürich (Stadt Zürich, 2014b), one can increase the ratios substantially, as shown in Table 29. The addition of another floor while using the values from Zürich, the cityscape height is not substantially changed.

Table 29 Changes to Commercial Land-Use Zones

Current Zone Z4 Z5 Current number of floors 4 5 Current building height [m] 17.5 21.5 Current floor area ratio 100% 140% Proposed new zone Z5/200 Z6/230 Proposed number of floors 5 6 Proposed building height [m] 19 22 Proposed floor area ratio 200% 230%

Source: Stadt Dietikon (2014a); Stadt Zürich (2014b)

Change of Land-use zones

Dietikon states that the road along the Limmattal Line will be transferred into a “city boulevard” (Stadt Dietikon, 2014b). In the land-use plan, this boulevard will be approximately 30 meters wide (Limmatttalbahn, 2013c), meaning building height should optimally be between 15-30 meters. Thus, here and along other main roads the zone W6/205 should be introduced with an increased allowance for commercial facilities, in particular on ground floor facing this city boulevard. Thus, a lower minimum residential share is here to be used: 50% could help retaining an optimal job-housing ratio as seen below. In order to increase density in areas with the best public transport, the idea is increase the floor area ratio based on the quality of accessibility. This should only be implemented in the zones W3/65 and W4/80 as the changes to other land- use zones would be too large and these zones are best located. For the zones W3/65 and W4/80 in class A, W5/165 should be allowed, and in class B zone W4/120. The latter is too low for pedestrians, but is more suitable in the current built-up environment. This would create an in- centive for developers to densify in the best-connected areas and thus increase the potential for public transport. After the Limmattal Line has been built and an increased frequency has been introduced, the changes in land-use zones are as shown in Figure 24. If the Limmattal Line is not introduced, the changes in land-use zones are considerably smaller.

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Figure 24 Densification in Dietikon

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Through this change, there would be room for up to 13,500 inhabitants and up to 11,700 employees, as shown in Table 30, which is to compare with the 23,624 inhabitants 16,268 employees in 2011, resulting in a possible increase of up to 57% and 72% respectively. It should further be compared to the growth projected in the Agglomeration Program of 5,400 additional inhabitants and 6,100 employees by 2030 (Kanton Aargau & Kanton Zürich, 2012). At the same time, there are other projects running in Dietikon (see chapter 6.1) that can assimilate some of this growth. However, as this area is primarily already built, it should be seen as a more long- term strategy and goal to achieve optimal densities.

Table 30 Residential Land-use zones and Population Density

Population Employ- Employees Jobs New Area Population 16 Increase ees 17 [Per- Increase Housing Zone [ha] [Persons] [Persons] sons] [Persons] Ratio W4/120 81 8,000-16,800 -600-7,700 0-5,000 -900-3,700 0-0.7 W5/165 9 1,200-2,600 300-1,600 0-800 -100-600 0-0.7 W6/205 19 2,000-4,700 -200-2,400 0-5,000 2,800-4,700 0-2.4 Z5/200 3 200-600 -100-300 400-900 200-600 3.4-4.5 Z6/230 12 600-2,400 -300-1,400 1,500-3,600 500-2,100 3.4-5.6 Total 125 12,000- -1,000- 4,900- 2,400- 0.9-1.3 27,100 13,500 15,300 11,700

Calculations based on: Bundesamt für Raumentwicklung (2012, 2015a); Bundesamt für Statistik (n.d.-c); Limmattalbahn (2013a); Stadt Dietikon (2008)

As further seen in Table 30, the jobs housing ratio can be kept within this general area. It would also change the cityscape as illustrated in Figure 25.

16 Assumptions: see footnote 15. Additionally: Residential share 50-70% in zone W6/205 and in zones Z5/200 and Z6/230 30-70%. 17 Assumptions: see footnotes 15 and 16. Additionally: Employment floor area: 20-27 m 2/employees (based on: Schröter, 2015).

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Figure 25 Visual Comparison between Proposed and Current Urban From

Source: Author

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6.4.2 Parking

The residential on-street parking prices are generally considerable lower than the public transport prices. However, increasing parking prices is highly unpopular. Using the public transport accessibility classes the basis for the parking price could be explainable and under- standable. It would also link the parking price with the density. A possible price setting would be 80 francs per month in class A, which is close to the monthly ticket for public transport (Zürcher Verkehrsverbund, n.d.), and around 60 francs per month in class B. In other areas, the prices could be kept or increased to 40 francs. Increasing the on-street parking prices for visitors and thereby differencing the prices between on- and off-street parking would also have positive effect. However, the off-street parking is mostly privately own and thus controlling the prices is not possible. In order to promote carsharing, all parking should be free to carsharing vehicles.

As shown in chapter 5.1.4, the parking place requirements in the Limmat Valley are generally high. A reduction of these requirements would be of high priority in order to promote other modes. The Canton Zürich published already in 1997 the Guidelines for the Regulation of the Parking Space Requirements in Municipal Ordinances (Kanton Zürich, 1997) which has a lower minimum requirement together with a maximal allowance. The use of it as basis for new calculations would reduce the parking spaces considerably, as show in Table 31. This would bring central areas on par to values of the city of Zürich that could be considered a good comparison. A further reduction of five places per carsharing vehicle could also be added based on the values in chapter 2.2.1. Additionally, it should be allowed to build car free, or car reduced, developments if a mobility concept is provided, as in Zürich. For visitors, Dietikon only has requirements for residential parking; all other uses should have “enough” parking places according to their needs. The guidelines also provide maximum and minimum values for visitors.

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Table 31 Reduction of Parking Places for Residents and Employees in Dietikon

After Before Reduction P per m2 P per m2 Level of Accessibility Min Max Min Max Min Max B 145 100 90 - 38% - Residential C 114 80 80 - 30% - B 233 156 65 - 72% - Public-Oriented Services C 156 108 45 - 71% - B 333 222 90 - 73% - Non Public-Oriented Services C 222 154 60 - 73% - B 500 333 65 - 87% - Grocery Store C 333 231 45 - 87% - B 667 444 120 - 82% - Other Stores C 444 308 80 - 82% - B 500 333 250 - 50% - Industry, Trade C 333 231 170 - 49% -

Calculations based on: Kanton Zürich (1997); Stadt Dietikon (2014a)

As seen earlier, Dietikon has good parking policy for bike parking for residential use, which is higher than the one bike parking space per 40 square metres suggested in the previously mentioned guidelines (Kanton Zürich, 1997). However, the following additions to the regulations would make it better: cycle parking should be located in a room close to the entrance, which is protected from weather and lockable. There should be an electrical outlet to most or every cycling space provided, in order to promote e-bikes. For other uses than residential, Dietikon lacks parking places requirements for bikes. The guideline makes three categories depending on the popularity of bikes in the municipality and the topography (Kanton Zürich, 1997):

• Category A: The topography is not suited for cycling. Limited cycling infrastructure. Cycling is not a generally accepted mode of transport.

• Category B: Some of the requirements for category C are fulfilled, but not all.

• Category C: Flat topography in the built-up area. Well-developed cycling infrastructure. Cycling is popular.

Dietikon fulfils some of the requirement of category C, but not all. However, the goal must be to reach category C and therefore the requirements for cycling parking places should be based on this category. The requirements are shown in Table 32.

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Table 32 Requirements for Non-Residential Cycling Parking

1 Employee 1 Visitor Parking Parking Place per… Place per… Note Grocery Store 200-300m 2 50-75m 2 Other Stores 200-300m 2 150-300m 2 Restaurants - 5 seats Industry 400-600m 2 - Public-Oriented Services 200-300m 2 250-500m 2 Non Public-Oriented Services 200-300m 2 1,000m 2 Visitors: Depend- ing on conditions, can be lower

Source: Kanton Zürich (1997)

6.4.3 Cycling

As shown earlier, there is a lack of cycling infrastructure in the city centre. The large block structure limits the route options and the roads provided have limited space. The introduction of the Limmattal Line will mean that most of these roads will be rebuilt. However, it fails to provide appropriate improvements for cyclists. A thorough analysis of what can be done here, given the traffic volumes and intersection loads here to find the best solution. It is possible that traffic calming is part of the solution, which would also increase the attractiveness for pedestrians. It is important to limit spillover effects, as increased traffic flows through the surrounding residential neighbourhoods are highly unpopular.

However, some projects could be more easily undertaken; the following list and map (Figure 26) shows some measures to improve the cycling facilities in Dietikon. 1. Kirschstrasse/Obere Reipischstrasse: With a reduction of the speed limit to 30 km/h and redesign of the street, the access to the city from the northwest could be improved as well as the thoroughfare north-south direction. 2. Obere Reipischstrasse: Reduction of speed limit to 30 km/h will make this a more attractive route for cyclists from southwest to city centre, together measure three below. 3. Hasenbergstrasse/Gaisstegweg: Improved access from between the road and path will increase the attractiveness of the route on the Obere Reipischstrasse.

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4. Schöneggstrasse: With the construction of the Limmattal Line, buses will no longer use this street. The attractiveness of this street could be increased through either cycle lanes or a reduction of the speed limit to 30 km/h. 5. Poststrasse: This part of Poststrasse will lose the bus traffic and speed limit could be reduced to 30 km/h.

6. Poststrasse: As with the measure above, the speed limit could be reduced to 30 km/h to form an attractive route almost to the main station from the southeastern part of the municipality.

Additionally, regional bikesharing will further increase cycling. Dietikon itself is too small to have an efficient network (the municipality is nine square kilometres (Schübl, 2014) and minimum system coverage area is ten square kilometres (Institute for Transportation and Develop- ment Policy, 2013)). Preferable, the bikes should be e-bikes given the structure of the Limmat Valley that runs along the river (compared to cities, which often have a more compact development). E-bikes also compete better with cars compared to normal bikes, and as the goal is to reduce the car traffic, they are from this point better. However, further research needs to be done through a feasibility study.

6.4.4 Walking

In addition to the 30 km/h routes proposed in previous chapter, additional 30 km/h zones will have a positive influence and are proposed in Figure 26. Further restrictions to the land-use regulations that should be added that have a positive influence on walking is restriction of parking as share of plot area to maximum 9%. The guidelines for the future development states that at least 25% of the land area should be used as a coherent and communal open space at a central, calm and well-sunlit location (Stadt Dietikon, 2014b, p. 4), which also must be implemented in the land-use regulations.

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Figure 26 Improvement in Cycling Infrastructure

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6.4.5 Summary of Proposed Measures and Actions

Figure 27 shows as summary of the measures.

Using the public transport accessibility as basis, the increase in density and parking should take place in the public transport accessibility classes A and B. In class A, the residential land-use zones should increase to W5/165 and the on-street parking should increase to 84 francs per months, which equals to a monthly ticket on the public transport. In class B, the residential land-use zones should increase to W5/165 for land-use zones W3/65 and W4/80. The on-street parking should increase to 60 francs per months. Along the main roads and in the centre, the densities should also be increased as seen in the Figure 27.

Figure 27 also shows examples of improvements for cycling infrastructure. In the centre of Dietikon, a detailed study is needed to coordinate changes with cars, public transport, cyclists, and pedestrians.

The number of parking place for cars should be restricted and for bicycles, it should be higher. The land-use regulations should further to improve the built-up environment. This has primarily to do with regulating the location of the building, limiting the parking area, and safeguarding there is enough open spaces.

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Figure 27 Summary of Measures and Action to be Implemented in Dietikon

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6.5 Implementation

The proposed measures need to be implemented in the regulative framework. These are the zoning regulation for land-use parameters and parking requirements, the parking regulation for parking pricing, and the urban transport concept for improved transport infrastructure. Addi- tionally, the planning of Niderfeld can still be influenced to better suite the goals of sustainable transportation.

6.5.1 Zoning Regulation

The zoning regulations in Dietikon (Stadt Schlieren, 2010) should be change:

• Art. 16: Commercial zones, mass rules o This is to be changes according to Table 29 in chapter 6.4.1.

• Art 17: Commercial zones, utilization bonus o This is article is now irrelevant.

• Art 18: Residential zones, base mass o Addition of zones W4/120, W5/165, and W6/205 according to Table 28 in chapter 6.4.1. o These new zones should have maximum building length 60 meters as currently used but without minimum distance to street. o Minimum residential share of 80% for zones W4/120 and W5/165; 50% for zone W6/205. o Open space share, which is to be used for play, rest, and garden, for these new zones is minimum 25%. o Parking space on ground should be maximum 9% of ground area.

• Art. 31: Parking for motor vehicles o The maximum and minimum number of parking places is to be based on the Guidelines for the Regulation of the Parking Space Requirements in Municipal Ordinances (Kanton Zürich, 1997). o For each carsharing vehicle, the minimum number of parking places can be reduced by five. o If the developer provides a mobility concept, the number of parking places can be reduced further, up to nil.

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• Art 32: Parking for bicycles, mopeds, and strollers: o The minimum number of bicycle parking places is to be based on the Guidelines for the Regulation of the Parking Space Requirements in Municipal Ordinances (Kanton Zürich, 1997) using category C. o The parking spaces are to be located in a room close to the entrance, which is protected from weather and lockable. There should be an electrical outlet to most or every bicycle parking spaces.

Additionally, the land-use plan is to be changed, according to Figure 24 chapter 6.4.1. It is possible that this change could be with the addition of an additional article in the regulation, where the connection between public transport access class and land use is made.

The zoning regulations was last changed in 2014 (Stadt Dietikon, 2014a) and the land-use plan in 2008 (Stadt Dietikon, 2008) and are partially not more relevant (for example, Limmatfeld is in industrial zone). However, they should periodically revised, at least every 15 years. With the new structure plans from the canton, changes should be made in the zoning regulations and land-use plans to match the statements from the structure plans better. The process of change would involve drafting, public participation, as well stipulating and approval procedures from city council and canton (Stadt Zürich, 2014c). This process would take five years or more.

6.5.2 Niderfeld

The planning for Niderfeld has not yet reached a phase where changes cannot longer be made. For this, the following changes would be important to implement.

• High density: 300 persons per hectare residential area and other zone regulations as proposed for the land use.

• 30km/h zones and living streets.

• Residential and longer-term parking should be taking place in modular parking garages at the fringe of the area, close to the access roads. Such parking solution is currently being proposed in the project Eschenbüel in Uster (Energieschweiz für Gemeinden, 2014) and through its modularity, it can react on the changes in demand.

• Price for a place in a parking garage should be equivalent to the construction cost of at least one parking space. Parking fee in garage should be lower than parking on street. On-street parking priced to support short-term use, even on evenings and nights. With this scheme, it could perhaps be possible to avoid a contract as in Vauban.

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6.5.3 Parking regulations

The parking regulations should be changed in the following way:

• Minimum price for residents should be set to 40 francs per month instead of currently 20 or 40 francs per month depending on location.

• For residents in public transport access class A, price should be 80 francs per month; for residents in class B, price should be 60 francs per month.

• The parking of carsharing vehicles is free.

This change would require a decision in the city council.

6.5.4 Urban Transport Concept

Dietikon is currently working on an urban transport concept (Stadt Dietikon, n.d.-e). It is important that this concept include improvements for cyclists and pedestrians, including those suggested in Figure 26 in chapter 6.4.3.

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7 Conclusion

The spatial and traffic planning can influence the transport mode choices people make through land use and traffic demand management.

The main influential component of land use is density and in the Limmat Valley, the density is often lower than optimal. Higher density needs to be combined with a mixed land use and connectivity that is suited for cyclists and pedestrians. Further design parameters will also encourage pedestrians but to a lesser extent.

Access to, and availability of, high quality transport infrastructures have large influences on the modal choices. The autobahn in the Limmat Valley is one example of such. This makes it difficult to construct alternatives that are more attractive. However, providing high quality public transport as well as cycling and pedestrian infrastructure will have positive influences on the modal choices. This thesis has presented factors that influence the quality of these transport modes. A central theme in transport demand management is parking and with appropriate regulation and pricing, this is an effective way of reducing use of cars.

With the example of Dietikon, the main measures and actions to promote sustainable transportation to implement are a denser built-up environment, stricter parking regulations, and the improvement of cycling and pedestrian infrastructure.

Looking at the hypotheses stated in chapter 4.2.3, at this point these can be either confirmed or rejected.

Hypothesis : Transit oriented development is a preferred and efficient concept for sustainable transportation.

In order to promote sustainable transportation, there are three main components needed to be coordinated: land use and urban form, parking, and transport infrastructure quality and accessibility. All of these aspects are included in the concept of transit-oriented development where high density, mixed land uses, access to public transport as well as good infrastructure for cyclists and pedestrians are key elements.

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Hypothesis : Sustainable transportation is dependent on measures in both urban development and traffic demand management.

In the case study, the problems in the Limmat Valley are caused by a combination of all three components mentioned above concerning the first hypothesis: A disperses and low-density built-up environment caused by the land-use regulations; a generous parking policy; the autobahn which is a high quality and accessible road infrastructure element. The lower quality of the cycling and (compared to road infrastructure) public transport. In order to promote sustainable transportation, actions and measures have to be taken in both land use and traffic demand management to change these problems. However, the easiness of implementation varies a lot. Parking restrictions are easier to implement than it is to limit the attractiveness of the autobahn.

Hypothesis : Successful implementation of sustainable transportation measures rely heavily on the change of the institutional framework in respective fields.

The institutional frameworks here place a key role to promote sustainable transportation. How- ever, not all interventions can be regulated through the institutional framework. Other measures such travel plans, company work hours, and media campaigns are important too.

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Gemeinde Spreitenbach. (2012). Bau- und Nutzungsordnung 2003. Spreitenbach, Switzerland: Gemeinde Spreitenbach. Retrieved February 27, 2015, from Gemeinde Spreitenbach: http://www.spreitenbach.ch/uploads/tx_ttproducts/datasheet/BNO__Stand_2012_kom plett.pdf Gemeinde Spreitenbach. (2013, September 20). Nachtparkieren [Night Parking]. Spreitenbach, Switzerland: Gemeinde Spreitenbach. Retrieved April 28, 2015, from Gemeinde Spreitenbach: http://www.spreitenbach.ch/fileadmin/resources/07_Verwaltung/Einwohnerkontrolle/ Nachtparkieren__Version_20.09.2013_.pdf Gemeinde Spreitenbach. (2015, February 17). News: Masterplanung Spreitenbach [News: Master Planning Spreitenbach] . Retrieved March 5, 2015, from Gemeinde Spreitenbach: http://www.spreitenbach.ch/aktuelles/newsdetails/article/645/ Gemeinde Wettingen. (2009, January 15). Städtebauliches Leitbild Wettingen: Grundlagen [Urban Development Vision Wettingen: Basis]. Wettingen, Switzerland: Gemeinde Wettingen. Retrieved May 5, 2015, from Gemeinde Wettingen: http://www.wettingen.ch/dl.php/de/0d1t3-toqfjw/Stdtebau_Leitbild_A_Grundlagen_- _090115_-_final.pdf Gemeinde Wettingen. (2013, June 28). Freiraumkonzept Wettingen [Open Space Concept Wettingen]. Wettingen, Switzerland: Gemeinde Wettingen. Retrieved May 12, 2015, from Gemeinde Wettingen: http://www.wettingen.ch/dl.php/de/54b64791e4194/FRK_Bericht_mit_Plaenen_Inter net.pdf Gemeinde Wettingen. (2014, February 26). Bau- und Nutzungsordnung Building Regulations]. Wettingen, Switzerland: Gemeinde Wettingen. Retrieved April 28, 2015, from Gemeinde Wettingen: http://www.wettingen.ch/dl.php/de/0dfxl- 6jip5k/14252_05A_1401014_BNO_Stand_2014.pdf Gemeinde Wettingen. (n.d.). Parking (Tages-/Nachtparking) [Parking (Day/Night Parking] . Retrieved April 28, 2015, from Gemeinde Wettingen: http://www.wettingen.ch/de/dienstemain/dienstleistungen/welcome.php?dienst_id=54 18 Guo, Z. (2009). Does the pedestrian environment affect the utility of walking? A case of path choice in down-town Boston. Transportation Research Part D, 14 , pp. 343-352. doi:10.1016/j.trd.2009.03.007 Hamer, P., Currie, G., & Young, W. (n.d). Exploring Travel and Parking Impacts of the Melbourne CBD Parking Levy. Retrieved March 19, 2015, from State Government of Victoria, Australia: http://www.dtpli.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/220728/Exploring-travel-and- parking-impacts-of-the-Melbourne-CBD-parking-levy.pdf Hickman, R., Seaborn, C., Headicar, P., & Banister, D. (2010). Planning for sustainable travel: Integrating spatial planning and transport. In M. Givoni, & D. Banister (Eds.), Integrated Transport: From Policy to Practice (pp. 33-53). Abingdon, Oxon, United Kingdom: Routledge .

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Ieromonachou, P., Potter, S., & Warren, J. P. (2006). Evaluation of the implementation process of urban road pricing schemes in the United Kingdom and Italy. European Transport, 32 , 49-68. Retrieved May 21, 2015, from http://www.openstarts.units.it/dspace/bitstream/10077/5894/1/Ieromonachou_Potter_ Warren_ET32.pdf Institute for Transportation and Development Policy. (2013, December 5). The Bike-share Planning Guide. New York, NY, USA: Institute for Transportation and Development Policy. Retrieved April 10, 2015, from Institute for Transportation and Development Policy: https://www.itdp.org/wp- content/uploads/2014/07/ITDP_Bike_Share_Planning_Guide.pdf Institute for Transportation and Development Policy. (n.d.-a). About the TOD Standard . Retrieved June 5, 2015, from Institute for Transportation and Development Policy: https://www.itdp.org/library/standards-and-guides/transit-oriented-development-are- you-on-the-map/about-the-tod-standard/ Institute for Transportation and Development Policy. (n.d.-b). TOD Standard - Best Practices . Retrieved June 5, 2015, from Institute for Transportation and Development Policy: https://www.itdp.org/library/standards-and-guides/transit-oriented- development-are-you-on-the-map/best-practices/ Kanton Aargau & Kanton Zürich. (2012, May 30). Agglomerationsprogramm Limmattal, 2. Generation [Agglomeration Programme Limmattal, 2nd Generation]. Zürich, Switzerland: Kanton Zürich. Retrieved February 25, 2015, from Kanton Zürich: http://www.afv.zh.ch/internet/volkswirtschaftsdirektion/afv/de/gesamtverkehr/agglom erationsprogramm/agglomerationsprogramm2generation/_jcr_content/contentPar/dow nloadlist/downloaditems/limmattal.spooler.download.1418195607534.pdf/AP_LT_Ei nreichungsversion Kanton Aargau. (2011). Richtplan [Structure Plan]. Abteilung Raumentwicklung, Departement Bau, Verkehr und Umwelt. Aarau, Switzerland: Kanton Aargau. Kanton Aargau. (2012a). Sicher-im-verkehr.ch. Aarau, Switzerland: Kanton Aargau. Retrieved May 2, 2015, from Kanton Aargau: https://www.ag.ch/media/kanton_aargau/bvu/dokumente_2/mobilitaet___verkehr/stra sseninfrastruktur_4/kampagne_sicher_im_verkehr/332_051102_broschuere_a5_web.p df Kanton Aargau. (2012b, May 8). Agglomerationsprogramm Aargau-Ost, 2. Generation - Analyseband [Agglomeration Programme Aargau-Ost, 2nd Generation - Analysis]. Departement Bau, Verkehr und Umwelt. Aarau, Switzerland: Kanton Aargau. Retrieved March 25, 2015, from Kanton Aargau: https://www.ag.ch/media/kanton_aargau/bvu/dokumente_2/raumentwicklung/projekte _5/agglomerationsprogramme_verkehr_und_siedlung_1/AargauostHauptbericht.pdf Kanton Aargau. (2013). Bevölkerungsprognose 2013 [Population forecast 2013]. Retrieved May 22, 2015, from Kanton Aargau: https://www.ag.ch/media/kanton_aargau/dfr/dokumente_3/statistik/publikationen/stati stikthemen/bevoelkerung_1/Bevoelkerungsprognose_2013~1.zip Kanton Aargau. (n.d.-a). Beschäftigte nach Gemeinden 2005-2011 [Employed per Municipality 2005-2011]. Retrieved April 22, 2015, from Kanton Aargau:

104 Measures and Actions to Promote Sustainable Transportation in the Limmat Valley ______June 2015

https://www.ag.ch/media/kanton_aargau/bvu/dokumente_2/raumentwicklung/grundla gen_6/raumbeobachtung_1/Tabellen_Beschaeftigtenentwicklung.xlsx Kanton Aargau. (n.d.-b). Onlinekarten [Online Maps] . Retrieved April 25, 2015, from Kanton Aargau: https://www.ag.ch/app/agisviewer4/v1/html/agisviewer.htm Kanton St. Gallen. (2012). Ergebnisbericht der Flächenpotenzialanalyse für den Kanton St.Gallen 2011 [Result Report of the Area Potential Analysis for the Canton St.Gallen 2011]. St. Gallen: Kanton St. Gallen. Retrieved April 22, 2015, from http://www.irl.ethz.ch/re/cooperation/BerichtSG.pdf Kanton Zürich. (1997, October). Wegleitung zur Regelung des Parkplatz-Bedarfs in Kommunalen Erlassen [Guidelines for the Regulation of the Parking Space Requirements in Municipal Ordinances]. Zürich, Switzerland: Kanton Zürich. Retrieved April 1, 2015, from Kanton Zürich: http://www.awel.zh.ch/internet/baudirektion/awel/de/luft_klima_elektrosmog/veroeffe ntlichungen/jcr:content/contentPar/publication/publicationitems/wegleitung_zur_regel /download.spooler.download.1284997887748.pdf/pp_wegleitung.pdf Kanton Zürich. (2012, October 1). Anlagen für den leichten Zweiradverkehr des Kantons Zürich [Facilities for Cycling Traffic in the Canton of Zürich]. Zürich, Switzerland: Kanton Zürich. Retrieved from Kanton Zürich: http://www.tba.zh.ch/internet/baudirektion/tba/de/verkehrswege/langsamverkehr/_jcr_ content/contentPar/downloadlist/downloaditems/test.spooler.download.140552362910 3.pdf/Radwegrichtlinie_Oktober_2012.pdf Kanton Zürich. (2013). Tempo30- und Begegnungszonen im Kanton Zürich [30 km/h Zones and Living Streets in Canton Zürich] [Data file] . Retrieved May 22, 2015, from Kanton Zürich: http://wms.zh.ch/AFVTempo30ZHWMS Kanton Zürich. (2014a, June 3). Bevölkerungsentwicklung Kanton Zürich 1990-2013-2040 [Population Growth Canton Zurich 1990-2013-2040]. Retrieved May 22, 2015, from Kanton Zürich: http://www.statistik.zh.ch/internet/justiz_inneres/statistik/de/daten/daten_bevoelkerun g_soziales/bevprognosen/_jcr_content/contentPar/downloadlist/downloaditems/bevpr og.spooler.download.1409743867532.xlsx/BPZH2014.xlsx Kanton Zürich. (2014b, March 24). Richtplan [Structure Plan]. Amt für Raumentwicklung, Abteilung Raumplanung. Zürich, Switzerland: Kanton Zürich. Retrieved February 25, 2015, from Kanton Zürich: http://www.are.zh.ch/internet/baudirektion/are/de/raumplanung/kantonaler_richtplan/r ichtplan/_jcr_content/contentPar/downloadlist/downloaditems/42_1397641321238.sp ooler.download.1397641291968.pdf/KRP_komplett_20140324.pdf Kanton Zürich. (2015, April 10). Regionaler Richtplan, Region Limmattal – Öffentliche Auflage [Regional Structure Plan, Region Limmattal – Public Disclosure]. Zürich, Switzerland: Kanton Zürich. Retrieved May 10, 2015, from Zürcher Planungsgruppe Limmattal: http://www.zpl.ch/files/zpl/pdf/Richtplantext%20oeff%20Auflage.pdf Kanton Zürich. (n.d.-a). Beschäftigte (Voll- und Teilzeit) [Employed (Full and Part Time)]. Retrieved April 22, 2015, from Kanton Zürich: http://www.statistik.zh.ch/internet/justiz_inneres/statistik/de/daten/daten_arbeit_wirts

105 Measures and Actions to Promote Sustainable Transportation in the Limmat Valley ______June 2015

chaft/betriebe_beschaeftigte/_jcr_content/contentPar/downloadlist/downloaditems/45 3_1340890589903.spooler.download.1363263014024.xls/K031BZBe.xls Kanton Zürich. (n.d.-b). Gemeindeporträt Kanton Zürich [Municapilty Portrait Canton Zurich] . Retrieved 23 April, from Kanton Zürich: http://www.statistik.zh.ch/internet/justiz_inneres/statistik/de/daten/gemeindeportraet_ kanton_zuerich.html Kanton Zürich. (n.d.-c). Tempo-30-Zonen [30 km/h Zones] . Retrieved May 2, 2015, from Kanton Zürich: http://www.tba.zh.ch/internet/baudirektion/tba/de/laerm/laermvorsorge/raumplanung/s iedlungs_und_verkehrsplanung/strassenverkehr_beruhigen/tempo_30_zonen.html Kanton Zürich. (n.d.-d). Velo-, Skating- und Mountainbikerouten [Cycling, Skating, and Mountain-bike routes] [Data file] . Retrieved April 26, 2015, from Kanton Zürich: http://wms.zh.ch/VelonetzZHWMS Kanton Zürich. (n.d.-e). Gesamtverkehrsmodell Kanton Zürich [Traffic Model Canton Zürich]. Retrieved April 26, 2015, from Kanton Zürich: http://maps.zh.ch/?topic=AfvVMwwwZH&offlayers=verkehrsmodell-oev-2013 Kenworthy, R. J. (2006). The eco-city: Ten key transport and planning dimensions for sustainable city development. Environment & Urbanization, 18 (1), 67-85. doi:10.1177/0956247806063947 Kodransky, M., & Hermann, G. (2011). Europe’s Parking U-Turn: From Accommodation to Regulation. New York, NY, USA: Institute for Transportation and Development Policy. Retrieved March 5, 2015, from Institute for Transportation and Development Policy: https://www.itdp.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Europes_Parking_U- Turn_ITDP.pdf Laursen, L. (2014, July 29). Madrid Begins Electric Bike Sharing . Retrieved April 20, 2015, from IEEE Spectrum: http://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-talk/transportation/alternative- transportation/madrid-begins-electric-bike-sharing Lee, C., & Moudon, A. (2006). The 3Ds + R: Quantifying land use and urban form correlates of walking. Transportation Research Part D, 11 , 204–215. doi:10.1016/j.trd.2006.02.003 Lian, J. I. (2008). The Oslo and Bergen toll rings and road-building investment – Effect on traffic development and congestion. Journal of Transport Geography, 16 , 174-181. doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2007.08.004 Limmattalbahn. (2013a, June 30). G-01 Gesamtbericht Plangenehmigungsgesuch [G-01 General Report Plan Approval Application]. Zürich, Switzerland: Limmattalbahn. Retrieved February 25, 2015, from Limmattalbahn: http://www.limmattalbahn.ch/dokupool/00Gesamtprojekt/G-01%20Gesamtbericht- V1.0-30.06.2013.pdf Limmattalbahn. (2013b, Juni 30). 7-01 UVB Hauptuntersuchung Stufe 2 Bauprojekt [7-01 Environmental Sustainability Report Level 2 Construction Project. Zürich, Switzerland: Limmattalbahn. Retrieved March 2, 2015, from Limmattalbahn: http://www.limmattalbahn.ch/dokupool/07Umwelt/B-7- 01%20UVB%20Hauptuntersuchung%20Stufe%202-V2.0-30.6.2013.pdf

106 Measures and Actions to Promote Sustainable Transportation in the Limmat Valley ______June 2015

Limmatttalbahn. (2013c). 4-14 Situation TP 4/5, km 8.45 - 9.10. Zürich, Switzerland: Limmatttalbahn. Retrieved April 22, 2015, from Limmattalbahn: http://www.limmattalbahn.ch/dokupool/04Teilprojekt%204_5/G-4- 14%20Situation%20TP4_5-V2.0-30.06.2013.pdf Marsden, G. (2006). The evidence base for parking policies — A review. Transport Policy, 13 , 447-457. doi:10.1016/j.tranpol.2006.05.009 Marshall, S., & Banister, D. (2000). Travel reduction strategies: intentions and outcomes. Transportation Research Part A, 34 , 321-338. doi:10.1016/S0965-8564(99)00034-8 Martin, E., Shaheen, S. A., & Lidicker, J. (2010). Impact of carsharing on household vehicle holdings: Results from North American shared-use vehicle survey. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2143 , 150-158. doi:10.3141/2143-19 Masnavi, M.-R. (2001). The new millennium and the new urban paradigm. In K. Williams, E. Burton, & M. Jenks (Eds.), Achieving Sustainable Urban Form (pp. 64-73). London, UK: Spon Press. Melia, S. (2014). Carfree and low-car development. Parking Issues and Policies, 5 , 213-233. doi:10.1108/S2044-994120140000005012 Mobility Genossenschaft. (n.d.). Standorte [Locations] . Retrieved May 13, 2015, from Mobility: https://www.mobility.ch/de/privatkunden/standorte/ Morrison, D. S., Thomson, H., & Petticrew, M. (2004). Evaluation of the health effects of a neighbourhood traffic calming scheme. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 58 (10), 837-840. doi:10.1136/jech.2003.017509 OpenStreetMap contributors. (2015). Planet dump [Data file] . Retrieved May 15, 2015, from Geofabrik: http://download.geofabrik.de/europe/switzerland-latest.shp.zip Ott, R. (2012, January 26). Eliminating Gridlock Through Effective Travel Demand Management and Urban Mobility Strategies. Tiefbau- und Entsorgungsdepartements, Tiefbauamt. Zürich, Switzerland: Stadt Zürich. Retrieved April 15, 2015, from Stadt Zürich: https://www.stadt- zuerich.ch/content/dam/stzh/ted/Deutsch/taz/Mobilitaet/Publikationen_und_Broschuer en/Mobilitaetsstrategie/english_documents/001_Toronto2012.pdf Parkhurst, G. (1995). Park and Ride: Could it lead to an Increase in car traffic? Transport Policy, 2 (1), pp. 15-23. doi:10.1016/0967-070X(95)93242-Q Permell, C. (2013, May 16). Alla trängselpengar går till Förbifarten [All congestion money goes to the Stockholm bypass] . Retrieved March 23, 2015, from Sveriges Television: http://www.svt.se/nyheter/regionalt/abc/inga-trangselpengar-till-kollektivtrafik Pucher, J., & Buehler, R. (2008). Making cycling irresistible: Lessons from The Netherlands, Denmark and Germany. Transport Reviews, 28 (4), 495-528. doi:10.1080/01441640701806612 Pucher, J., & Dijkstra, L. (2000). Making walking and cycling safer: lessons from Europe. Transportation Quarterly, 54 (3), 25-50. Retrieved March 25, 2015, from http://www.ta.org.br/site/Banco/7manuais/VTPIpuchertq.pdf

107 Measures and Actions to Promote Sustainable Transportation in the Limmat Valley ______June 2015

Regionalplanung Zürich und Umgebung. (2012, March 21). Integriertes Zielbild 2030 der Regio-ROKs [Integrated Vision 2030 of the Regional Spatial Development Perspective of the RZU]. Zürich, Switzerland: Regionalplanung Zürich und Umgebung. Retrieved February 25, 2015, from Regionalplanung Zürich und Umgebung: http://www.rzu.ch/files/Publikationen%20RZU/129_Integriertes_Zielbild_2030_2012 .pdf Renne, J. L. (2009). From transit-adjacent to transitoriented development. Local Environment: The International Journal of Justice and Sustainability, 14 (1), 1-15. doi:10.1080/13549830802522376 Saelens, B. E., & Handy, S. L. (2008). Built environment correlates of walking: A review. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 40(7) Supplement 1 , 550-556. doi:10.1249/MSS.0b013e31817c67a4 Santos, G. (2005). Urban congestion charging: A comparison between London and Singapore. Transport Reviews: A Transnational Transdisciplinary Journal, 25 (5), 511-534. doi:10.1080/01441640500064439 Scholl, M., Ulrich, D., Chacón, G., Enz, R., Mettler, M., Felsberger, C., & Nipkow, B. (2008, June 5). Erläuterungsbericht Entwicklungskonzept [Explanatory Report Development Concept]. Dietikon, Switzerland: Stadt Dietikon. Retrieved May 5, 2015, from Stadt Dietikon: http://www.dietikon.ch/dl.php/de/0dkgr- rzuzdx/Erluterungsbericht_Entwicklungskonzept_08_06_05.pdf Schröter, F. (2015, April 13). Orientierungswerte (Richtwerte) für die Planung [Orientation Values (Guideline Values) for Planning] . Retrieved May 15, 2015, from Dr. Frank Schröter: http://www.dr-frank-schroeter.de/planungsrichtwerte.htm Schweizer Radio und Fernsehen. (2014, July 24). Kulturland-Initiative: Teilerfolg der Grünen vor Bundesgericht [Cultivated Land Initiative: Partial Success of the Greens in the Federal Court] . Retrieved March 22, 2015, from Schweizer Radio und Fernsehen: http://www.srf.ch/news/regional/zuerich-schaffhausen/kulturland- initiative-teilerfolg-der-gruenen-vor-bundesgericht Schweizerische Bundesbahnen. (2012, May 13). Zürcher S-Bahn 4. Teilergänzungen (4. TE), Künftiger Weiterausbau S-Bahn [Zürich S-Bahn 4th Part Complements, Future Further Expansion of the S-Bahn]. Retrieved March 2, 2015, from Gesellschaft der Ingenieure des öffentlichen Verkehrs: http://www.gdi- adi.ch/fileadmin/content/ausschuesse/fachtagung/de/120511-Frischknecht- 4.Teilergaenzung_S-Bahn.pdf Schweizerische Bundesbahnen. (n.d.). Online-Fahrplan [Online Timetable] . Retrieved June 11, 2015, from Schweizerische Bundesbahnen: http://fahrplan.sbb.ch/bin/query.exe/dn Schübl, D. (2014, December 8). Gemeindekarte Schweiz [Municipalities Map Switzerland] [Data file] . Retrieved April 30, 2015, from ArcGIS: http://www.arcgis.com/home/item.html?id=de308026134c44679f734edf9ca63293 Shaheen, S. A., & Cohen, A. P. (2007). Growth in worldwide carsharing: An international comparison. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 1992 , 81-89. doi:10.3141/1992-10

108 Measures and Actions to Promote Sustainable Transportation in the Limmat Valley ______June 2015

Shay, E., Spoon, S. C., & Khattak, A. J. (2003). Walkable Environments and Walking Activity. Retrieved March 18, 2015, from University of Tennessee: http://stc.utk.edu/STCresearch/PDFs/walkfinal.pdf Snizek, B., Sick Nielsen, T., & Skov-Petersen, H. (2013). Mapping bicyclists’ experiences in Copenhagen. Journal of Transport Geography, 30 , pp. 227-233. doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2013.02.001 Southworth, M., & Eran, B.-J. (2003). Streets and the shaping of towns and cities. Washington, DC, USA: Island Press. Stadt Baden. (2002, April 29). Gebührenverordnung für die Benützung der öffentlichen Parkplätze [Fee Regulation for the Use of Public Parking]. Baden, Switzerland: Stadt Baden. Retrieved April 28, 2015, from Stadt Baden: http://law.baden.ch/scripts/ekes/ekes_doc/Parkieren%20auf%20%C3%B6ffentlichem %20Grund;%20Geb%C3%BChren.pdf Stadt Baden. (2014a, September 2). Bau- und Nutzungsordnung [[Building Regulations]. Baden, Switzerland: Stadt Baden. Retrieved April 28, 2015, from Stadt Baden: http://law.baden.ch/scripts/ekes/ekes_doc/Bau-%20und%20Nutzungsordnung%20%2 8BNO%29.pdf Stadt Baden. (2014b, March 25). Planungsleitbild 2026 [Planning Vision 2026]. Baden, Switzerland: Stadt Baden. Retrieved May 5, 2015, from Stadt Baden: http://www.baden.ch/documents/Planungsleitbild_2026.pdf Stadt Baden. (n.d.). Planungsbericht 2014 [Planning Report 2014]. Baden, Switzerland: Stadt Baden. Retrieved April 22, 2015, from Stadt Baden: http://www.baden.ch/documents/25_14_Beil_zu_Planungsleitbild_Planungsbericht_2 014.pdf Stadt Dietikon. (2008). Zonenplan [Land-Use Plan]. Dietikon, Switzerland: Stadt Dietikon. Retrieved May 6, 2015, from Stadt Dietikon: http://www.dietikon.ch/dl.php/de/0d7vf- jdut3k/DIE_Zonenplan.pdf Stadt Dietikon. (2014a, January 30). Bauordnung vom 19. März 1987 (Stand 30. Januar 2014) [Building Regulations from 19 March 1987 (As of 30 Januar 2014)]. Dietikon, Switzerland: Stadt Dietikon. Retrieved February 27, 2015, from Stadt Dietikon: http://www.dietikon.ch/dl.php/de/530dc46acb092/Bauordnung_Stand01.01.14.pdf Stadt Dietikon. (2014b, December 8). Siedlungserneuerung und Siedlungsverdichtung [Urban Renewal and Increased Urban Density]. Dietikon, Switzerland: Stadt Dietikon. Retrieved March 5, 2015, from Stadt Dietikon: http://www.dietikon.ch/dl.php/de/54cb30841cab7/Richtlinien_Entwicklungsstandards. pdf Stadt Dietikon. (2015, March 23). Gebietsentwicklung Niderfeld: Synthesebericht Studienverfahren [Area Development Niderfeld: Summary Report Study Process]. Dietikon, Switzerland: Stadt Dietikon. Retrieved May 28, 2015, from Stadt Dietikon: http://www.dietikon.ch/dl.php/de/555ed32e491ec/Synthesebericht.pdf Stadt Dietikon. (n.d.-a). Parkvorschriften [Parking Regulations]. Dietikon, Switzerland: Stadt Dietikon. Retrieved April 28, 2015, from Stadt Dietikon: http://www.dietikon.ch/dl.php/de/0d2io-aogr27/Parkvorschriften_Dietikon.pdf

109 Measures and Actions to Promote Sustainable Transportation in the Limmat Valley ______June 2015

Stadt Dietikon. (n.d.-b). Einzonung Bahnhofareal Dietikon / Teilrevision Bauordnung [Zoning Bahnhofareal Dietikon / Partial Revision of Building Code] . Retrieved May 5, 2015, from Stadt Dietikon: http://www.dietikon.ch/de/bauvorhaben/aktuelleprojekteindietikon/welcome.php?acti on=showinfo&info_id=2777 Stadt Dietikon. (n.d.-c). Neuer Stadtteil Limmatfeld [New neighborhood Limmatfeld] . Retrieved May 5, 2015, from Stadt Dietikon: http://www.dietikon.ch/de/bauvorhaben/aktuelleprojekteindietikon/welcome.php?acti on=showinfo&info_id=1876 Stadt Dietikon. (n.d.-d). Gebietsentwicklung Niderfeld [Area development Niderfeld] . Retrieved May 28, 2015, from Stadt Dietikon: http://www.dietikon.ch/de/bauvorhaben/aktuelleprojekteindietikon/welcome.php?acti on=showinfo&info_id=2240 Stadt Dietikon. (n.d.-e). Städtisches Gesamtverkehrskonzept [Urban Transport Concept]. Retrieved June 11, 2015, from Stadt Dietikon: http://www.dietikon.ch/de/bauvorhaben/aktuelleprojekteindietikon/welcome.php?acti on=showinfo&info_id=4083 Stadt Schlieren. (2010, January 7). Bauordnung vom 16.9.1996 [Building Regulations from 16 September 1996]. Schlieren, Switzerland: Stadt Schlieren. Retrieved February 27, 2015, from Stadt Schlieren: http://www.schlieren.ch/dl.php/de/0d1ea- q1i8o0/Bauordnung.pdf Stadt Schlieren. (2011, November 7). Verordnung über das unbeschränkte Parkieren in Blauen Zonen (Parkkartenverordnung, PKV) [Regulation on Unrestricted Parking in Blue Zones (Parking Ticket Regulation, PKV)]. Retrieved April 28, 2015, from Stadt Schlieren: http://www.schlieren.ch/dl.php/de/20080402153818/SKR_6_40_VO_ber_unbeschrnk tes_Parkieren_in_Blauen_Zonen_980119_111114.pdf Stadt Schlieren. (2013). Beurteilung Räumliche Entwicklung 2005 - 2013 [Evaluation Spatail Development 2005 - 2013]. Schlieren, Switzerland: Stadt Schlieren. Retrieved March 3, 2015, from Stadt Schlieren: http://www.schlieren.ch/dl.php/de/5405ccf153463/140313_Schlussbericht_V1.pdf Stadt Schlieren. (n.d.). Stadtentwicklungskonzept Schlieren [Urban Development Concept Schlieren] . Retrieved March 5, 2015, from Stadt Schlieren: http://www.schlieren.ch/de/vorhabenmain/vorstadtentwicklung/ Stadt Winterthur. (2014, April 2). Projektstudie Velobahnen [Project Study Cycle Super Highway]. Winterthur, Switzerland: Stadt Winterthur. Retrieved March 2, 2015, from Stadt Winterthur: http://bau.winterthur.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/AmtfuerStaedtebau/Dateien/Verkehr_ Mobilitaet/Projekte/Velobahnen/Bericht_Velobahnen_reduziert.pdf Stadt Zürich. (2006). Statistisches Jahrbuch der Stadt Zürich 2007 [Statistical Yearbook of Zürich 2007]. Zürich, Switzerland: Stadt Zürich. Stadt Zürich. (2010, July 7). Verordnung über private Fahrzeugabstellplätze (Parkplatzverordnung) [Regulation on Private Car Parking (Parking Regulation)]. Zürich, Switzerland: Stadt Zürich. Retrieved April 28, 2015, from Stadt Zürich:

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https://www.stadt- zuerich.ch/content/dam/stzh/portal/Deutsch/AmtlicheSammlung/Erlasse/741/500/741. 500_Parkplatzverordnung_10%20V3.pdf Stadt Zürich. (2011, April). On the way to the 2000-watt society. Zürich, Switzerland: Stadt Zürich. Retrieved from Stadt Zürich: https://www.stadt- zuerich.ch/content/dam/stzh/gud/Deutsch/Umwelt/2000-Watt- Gesellschaft/On%20The%20Way%20To%20The%202000- Watt%20Society%20(englisch).pdf Stadt Zürich. (2012a). Statistisches Jahrbuch der Stadt Zürich 2012 [Statistical Yearbook of Zürich 2012]. Zürich, Switzerland: Stadt Zürich. Stadt Zürich. (2012b). Broschüre über das Parkieren in den Blauen Zonen [Brochure on Parking in the Blue Zones]. Retrieved April 28, 2015, from Stadt Zürich: https://www.stadt- zuerich.ch/content/dam/stzh/pd/Deutsch/Dienstabteilung%20Verkehr/Publikationen% 20und%20Broschueren/Flyer%20BlaueZone.pdf Stadt Zürich. (2014a, July 29). Statisches Jahrbuch der Stadt Zürich 2014 [Statistical Yearbook of the City of Zürich]. Retrieved February 24, 2015, from Stadt Zürich: https://www.stadt- zuerich.ch/content/dam/stzh/prd/Deutsch/Statistik/Publikationsdatenbank/jahrbuch/20 14/pdf/JB_2014_gesamt.pdf Stadt Zürich. (2014b, October 1). Teilrevision der Bau- und Zonenordnung der Stadt Zürich (BZO 2014): Änderungen der Bauordnung (Synoptische Darstellung) Partial Revision of the Building and Zoning Regulations of Zürich (BZO 2014): Changes in the Building Code (Synoptic Presentation)]. Retrieved April 25, 2015, from Stadt Zürich: https://www.stadt- zuerich.ch/content/dam/stzh/hbd/Deutsch/Staedtebau_und_Planung/Weitere%20Doku mente/BZO_RR_Revision/BZO/Aenderung_der_Bauordnung_Synoptische_Darstellu ng_2014.pdf Stadt Zürich. (2014c). Ablauf BZO-Teilrevision [Course Partial Revision of the Construction and Zoning Regulations]. Retrieved June 12, 2015, from Stadt Zürich: https://www.stadt- zuerich.ch/content/dam/stzh/hbd/Deutsch/Staedtebau_und_Planung/Weitere%20Doku mente/BZO_RR_Revision/BZO/BZO_Ablauf_14.pdf Stadtentwicklung Wien. (2004). Wiener Wohnstudien: Wohnzufriedenheit, Mobilitäts- und Freizeitverhalten. Werkstattbericht [Wiener Wohnstudien: Satisfaction with Housing, Mobility and Leisure Behavior. Workshop Report]. Wien, Austria: Stadt Wien. Retrieved March 16, 2015, from Stadt Wien: http://www.wien.gv.at/stadtentwicklung/studien/pdf/b007569.pdf Stadtteilverein Vauban. (n.d.). Vauban in Zahlen [Vauban in Numbers] . Retrieved April 5, 2015, from Quartiersarbeit Vauban: http://www.quartiersarbeit- vauban.de/index.php/home/vauban-in-zahlen Stockholms Stad. (2011a). The Walkable City - Stockholm City Plan. Stockholm, Sweden: Stockholms Stad. Retrieved May 28, 2015, from Stockholms Stad:

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http://www.stockholm.se/PageFiles/267644/The%20Walkable%20City%20l%c3%a5 gupp_.pdf Stockholms Stad. (2011b). Hammarby Sjöstad – a new city district with emphasis on water and ecology. Stockholm, Sweden: Stockholms Stad. Retrieved April 30, 2015, from Stockholms Stad: http://bygg.stockholm.se/Web/Core/Pages/Special/ServiceGuideFile.aspx?source=con structionProjects&fileid=a0abe2fd647b436898afb7d90ce0a083 Swiss Federal Council. (2012, January 25). Sustainable Development Strategy 2012–2015. Retrieved February 25, 2015, from Federal Office for Spatial Development ARE: http://www.are.admin.ch/themen/nachhaltig/00262/00528/index.html?lang=en&down load=NHzLpZeg7t,lnp6I0NTU042l2Z6ln1ad1IZn4Z2qZpnO2Yuq2Z6gpJCEd319gG ym162epYbg2c_JjKbNoKSn6A-- Tarifverbund A-Welle. (n.d.). Persönliches Monats-Abo Erwachsene [Personal Monthly Tickets Adults] . Retrieved May 15, 2015, from Tarifverbund A-Welle: http://www.a- welle.ch/index.php?id=66 The Centre for Sustainable Transportation. (2005, March 31). Defining Sustainable Transportation. Retrieved February 25, 2015, from The Centre for Sustainable Transportation: http://cst.uwinnipeg.ca/documents/Defining_Sustainable_2005.pdf Tottmar, M. (2015, May 15). Här får Stockholm en ny ö [This will be a new island for Stockholm] . Retrieved May 28, 2015, from Dagens Nyheter: http://www.dn.se/sthlm/har-far-stockholm-en-ny-o/ Trafikverket. (2012, June). Utvärdering av nya hastighetsgränser [Evaluation of new Speed Limits]. Borlänge, Sweden: Trafikverket. Retrieved from Trafikverket: http://www.trafikverket.se/contentassets/c0c2535acd264553a33cd3e203c299a8/slutra pport_utvardering_nya_hastighetsgranser.pdf Trafikverket. (2013, May). Parkering i Täta Attraktiva Städer [Parking in Dense Attractive Cities]. Borlänge, Sweden: Trafikverket. Retrieved May 15, 2015, from Trafikverket: http://fudinfo.trafikverket.se/fudinfoexternwebb/Publikationer/Publikationer_001701_ 001800/Publikation_001730/Parkering_i_t%C3%A4ta_attraktiva_st%C3%A4der_100 _599_WEBB.pdf Transport, Health and Environment Pan-European Programme. (n.d.). Push and pull measures . Retrieved June 15, 2015, from Transport, Health and Environment Pan- European Programme: http://www.thepep.org/chwebsite/chviewer.aspx?cat=d47 Turner, L. (2012, November 26). Our relationship with Cars , [Video file]. Retrieved March 22, 2015, from Youtube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IaFDvT9Lwv4 United States Department of Transportation. (2012, December 4). Summary Report: Evaluation of Lane Reduction "Road Diet" Measures and Their Effects on Crashes and Injuries . Retrieved June 10, 2015, from United States Department of Transportation: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/safety/humanfac/04082/ Weidmann, U. (2013). System- und Netzplanung [System and Network Planning]. Zürich, Switzerland: ETH Zürich.

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Victoria Transport Policy Institute. (2014a, June 4). Sustainable Transportation and TDM . Retrieved February 25, 2015, from TDM Encyclopedia: http://www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm67.htm Victoria Transport Policy Institute. (2014b, May 22). Vehicle Restrictions: Limiting Automobile Travel At Certain Times and Places . Retrieved March 24, 2015, from Victoria Transport Policy Institute: http://www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm33.htm Victoria Transport Policy Institute. (2014c, April 1). Online TDM Encyclopedia - Parking Pricing . Retrieved March 15, 2015, from Victoria Transport Policy Institute: http://www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm26.htm Zürcher Verkehrsverbund. (2014, November 27). Kapazitätsausbau für Zürcher S-Bahn: Planungen für Ausbauschritt 2030 beim Bund eingereicht [Capacity Expansion Zürich S-Bahn: Submitted Plans for Expansion Step 2030 to the Federal Government]. Retrieved March 2, 2015, from Zürcher Verkehrsverbund: http://www.zvv.ch/zvv- assets/medienmitteilungen/2014/MM_STEP%202030_Planungsregion%20ZH_14112 7_DEF.pdf Zürcher Verkehrsverbund. (n.d.). NetzPass: Jahres- oder Monats-Abonnement [NetzPass: Annual or Monthly Subscription] . Retrieved April 25, 2015, from Zürcher Verkehrsverbund: http://www.zvv.ch/zvv/de/abos-und-tickets/abos/netzpass.tab- tab_0.html

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