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charter
Mooring Newport
the called
success
enterprise.
in
Joseph
Among
Powhatan
Unlike
returning
Britain
Ireland
Atlantic
Columbus’s
during
Tobacco
imaginations
the Sir
dayes the
earthen
“The
A
1612—1776
Colonial
Virginia
shortages
production
John
the
Land
Barnes,
smoke
colony’s Jamestown.
from
after
on
Floridians,
many
holding without
before
fitst
led
at before
their
Ocean
cup
Yet
was
use.
European
Hawkins’s
from
labor
a
its
landscape
European
1612).
the
an
with
thereof,
swampy
beneath initial
of
to
early
in
fertile
“Wholly
just
inception
a
John
expedition
tobacco
and
English
the
tobacco
Virginia
meat
the
its
hinder
in
requirements
the
altered
Engraved
tobacco
Deficient
one
when
overseas
potato,
companion
encounters
depictions
helped
New
Sparke’s
voyage
end,
which
topsoil.
farms.
second
or
island
their
offered
of
pipe
seem
crown
expansion
drinke.”
in
European
they
with
World.2
by the
cultivation.
of
while
Germany
1607 launch
smoke
feet
William
State in
Built
territories
in
of
on tale
slaving
many
105
unimaginable, and
travel,
its
fire
on
the
conspired
1492
precious
with
enterprising
species
presiding
the
as
of
new
So
Chesapeake settlers
April
monopolies,
and
satisfieth
Hole,
the
of
Britain’s
curious
landscapes
the
the
James
begins
onwards,
expedition
the
have
Upon
before
cultivation.
residents
global
the
The
the
to
mysterious
10,
from
over
peoples
metals
with
to
supply Making
map a
dried
River,
1606.
plant
the
first
Bay
Virginia
kind
their
the
chocolate
his
settlers
yet
career
the
is
Smoke”:
poor
the
is
prominent first
and
court
few
oriented
southern North
to
and all herbs
and
John
specimens
The
of
Europe’s
hunger,
Americas,
they
Instead,
influx
the
herb’s
of
English-language
herb
cultural
obvious
soil
soon
can
of
lacking
Company
environments
Smith
following
these
of
put
(cacao),
Americas
established
American
with
Nicotiana,
be
conditions,
dried,
of
and
discovered
powers, the
shores
seen
burgeoning together,
tobacco
the
antitobacco
A
plants
collected
exotic
foundations
practices
tobacco
a
Map
west
therewith
in
clear
Italy
year,
Global
which
of
the
of
in
of
colony,
at
the
taken
London arrived
a
flora
merchants
Virginia
the
the
do
upper
of
1565,
before
harsh
industrial
Captain
fortified
economic
experienced by
account
tobacco
top.
the
in with
domestic
suke
Chesapeake
campaigns,
they
European
from
from
Virginia
left
(Oxford
for
enduring
beguiled
An
Americas.
aboard
Tobacco
climates,
received the
a
through
corner.
image
live
profitable
Christopher
cane
outpost
of
across
his
plant.
depended
foothold, tomato,
potential
University,
markets.3
Amerindian
four
Edward
became
account
of
ships
limited
explorers
and
British
ways.
Bay
and
Chief
and
the
its
from
the
or
an
and
Trade,
cane
five
of
D.
MelUlo 51
52
Tobacco
naturally ways
tobacco Throughout
cannot
to revolutionaries lords”
had
culture,
farmers becoming
being
Not
tobacco tobacco medium
not and hardly
promptly
“sweet-scented known
colony’s
Dorado. Through
Venezuela)
West
fabled tobacco.
ten-month heavy
farms,
non
Chief
In
XU
the
1612,
only
been
everyone
even
BING:
native
with
French
the
built
Indian
exaggerating
be
Powhatan
city
species
as
is
upstream
and
plants
depended
for
so
a
of
the
first
occurring
On
the
cultivated
The John
sufficiently
the became
a
only
experimentation
compound “hogsheads.”
the
Tobacco
variety
international
dominated
of
member
fortunes
the
history,
sojourn
along
extensive
staple,
July
streets
government.
variety,
was
complex
shipment
gold,
pioneer
focal
produce
leaC’ Rolfe—best
means
supplemented
grown
maritime
of
20,
pleased
a from
which
of
upon
but El
Nicotiana
when
cash
divergent
point
Project
by
of the
as
in
of
on
explained
tobacco.
1613,
that Nicotiana
Dorado.4
it
chemistry
economic
for
planter
London
Jamestown,
colonial Bermuda
the
peoples
varying the
Rolfe’s
the
of
the
Pamunkey
hath
exchange.
crop
the
Sir
passage
with
he
in
acts
centuries
cured
It
nightshade
currency
Jamestown
the with
remembered
transatlantic
Walter
wrote
labor
an
is
produced’7
to
their
cultural
species,
Instead
botanical
named
as the
hardly
merchants
cargo
without
concentrations of
life
intricate
tabacuni,
rival
the
as
leaves,
of
a
protections
of
omnipresent
the
of
In
that
stimulant
Virginia,
war
a
Raleigh
Indians—became
that
the
a
by
“golden
of
castaway
West
ship
all
1622,
dozen
a
his
of
Americas
attitudes
(Solanaceae)
of
settlement,
by
the
plant chest
North
stretch
granting
densely
Virginia
innovation
others.
cultivating
network
which
for
trade
leaves
Yet
dubbed
which
1615
Elizabeth
African
colony’5
twelve
had
were
women
his
weed,”
in
with
itself.
from
behind
from
American
to
of
Virginia
“the
in
toward
mammals
journeyed
British
forty-five
“Orinoco”
marriage
packed
for
he
a
was
say
the planted
the
Virginia’s male
of
Rolfe
funds
central
the
Like
slaves,
family.
captivated
fields,
had
the
Nicotiana
Rolfe
many Indeed,
of
reached
global
that
this
psychoactive
superior
“wholly
the
British
marriageable
tobacco
barrister
colonists
leaves. shipwrecked
harvested
tomatoes,
likely
into
from
Indians,
with
first
hazy
Virginia’s
had
and
to
the
role
are millennia. the
in
Scientists
after
exchanges.
staple
tobacco
Pocahontas,
England
massive
1595
gardens,
the
native
spread
built
rustica,
grades
is crown
obtained
stumbled
Virginia
English
to
As
tobacco—nay,
façade,
have
each
Andrew
the
the
the
consignment King
his
potatoes,
crop, while
Rolfe
alkaloid
upon
colonial
principal
river
offered
blended age
Sea
to recognize
tobacco
to
of
Scottish
paid
of
wooden
first
the
with
the
consumers.
Virginia
Charles
Virginia’s
the
colonist
Virginia
grow
in
European
while
from
upon
chose
searching
Venture.
Steinmetz
smoke,
daughter
harsh,
in
public
crop
120
1609
Americas.
the
known
and
a
development
Guiana
in
leaf.
it
a
convenient
source
England.6
“tobacco
pounds barrels
American
his
seventy
I
Virginia
of
a
plant
became of
unique was
peppers, during
to
tobacco,
grumbled,
nicotine-
squares,
milder
tobacco
tobacco
At
tobacco
Virginia
own
The
as
for
plant
of
was
fast
Varina
(now
of
that
of
the
El
a a
tobacco
the
the
Virginia
map
(London:
Jersey
This
Province the
Figure
right
shipment
Most
cartouche,
carefully
and
leaves.
tobacco
tolls
4.1
of
Inhabited
Robert
ic)
North
%
Maryland
of
a
executed
hogshead,
designed
his
Carolina
/p
planter,
Sayer
Parts
valuable
/i
with
and
wharf
of
by
seated
Part
by
4/
ty/
Virginia
presumably
Joshua
Thomas
product,
Francis
of
scene
on
t
Pensilvania
Containing
the
Fry //t.
Jefferys,
adorns
Hayman,
while
left, and
packed
C/4/7
7:
attending
Peter
a
[sicl,
A
slave 1775).
the
Map
shows
with
Jefferson
Whole
New
of
on
cured
The
to
a
caitleznttiiç
,
I\I
VIRGINIA
((1/9(
to
emanating
return
scouts,
leaves,
noted
After
herb,
far
tobacco’s
prison
A
north ii,t,/
his
a
that
,e
to
which
Rodrigo
social
,m),
R
for
Ayamonte,
arrival
addictive
as
from
representatives
/mll’//
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the
‘7t”t#L.Thi’t(/
his
t/t/,i
must
stimulant,
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Y
the
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demonic
de
in
GuanahanI
be
Lawrence
Jeréz,
properties.
sailor’s
Spain,
1’]?
held
I
4 a
-,-
behavior.’0 became
7/
diplomatic
of
(
nostrils.
in
his
6
.YORTB
C)
the
A
River
high
/1///t//Itt1//t’/J (San
fellow
for
// viiv
\.
local
the
esteem
thousands
The
Valley,
N Salvador,
,
townspeople
tool,
first
TaIno
Holy
//.
c
i
here.”9
D
Amerindian
European
and
population
Inquisition
‘
Bahamas)
t
of
a
years,
sacred %‘i/
Shortly
%,y///1
were
‘‘YRADRr,mA.
to
from
peoples
vehicle
consume
regaled
appalled
on
promptly
thereafter,
-
October
as
-:9
far
A
for
used
him
6)//t/////J17/t
to
Land
tobacco.
sent
south
accessing
find
one
12,
with
tobacco
Rodrigo
Wholly
1492,
of
wisps
1 as
—
“some
Columbus’s
Upon
Paraguay
the
as
Columbus
of
Built
‘iTI(?
de
a
dried
divine.8
smoke
his
healing
Jeréz
Upon
to
as
Smoke’
/ 53 XU BING: Tobacco Project
from the sixteenth century onwards, the rapid proliferation of European print culture provided diverse audiences with further clues about tobacco use in the Americas.” The publication of Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés’sHistoria general y natural de las Indias in 1535 gave curious residents of the Old World a window into the social life surrounding this New World plant. Oviedo y Valdés, a Spanish mine supervisor who spent a decade in the Americas and took up smoking to alleviate the pains of syphilis, summarized the predictive powers that tobacco held for the Caquetio of northwestern Venezuela:
Thereis in the country an herb which they call tabaco,which is a kind of plant, the stalk of
which is as tall as the chest of a man. . . havingtwistedthe leavesof this herb in a rollto the size of an ear of corn, they light it at one end, and they hold it in their mouth while it burns, and blowforth [smoke],and when it is halfburned, they throw down what is rolledup [i.e.,the cigar].Ifthe burned part of thetobaccostaysfixedin the form of a curved sickle,it is a sign that the thing which they desirewillbe given;if the burned portion isstraight, it is a sign that the contrary of what is desired will happen, and what they hope to be good will be bad.’2
Despite the intrigue that such accounts generated, most Europeans spurned tobacco’s sacred meanings, embracing the leaves for their more mundane physiological effects and their alluring commercial potential. Portuguese and Spanish sailors were quick to adopt the golden weed, which became their calling card at port cities in both hemispheres. Spanish mariners introduced tobacco from Acapulco to Manila in 1575, while Portuguese and Dutch traders extended the plant’s botanical reach to equatorial Africa in the late sixteenth century. By 1623, English explorer Richard Jobson was hardly surprised to find residents of the Gambia River region cultivating tobacco, “which is ever growing about their houses.” Jobson described how these men and women smoked the dried leaveswith “fine neate Canes:”3
At roughly the same time that West Africans were cultivating tobacco and John Rolfe was experimenting with varieties of Nicotiana tabacurn in Virginia, Chinese farmers were sowing their first seeds of the exotic plant. During the mid-1600s, the scholar fang Yizhi (1611—1671)recorded the arrival of tobacco in the Middle Kingdom:
Late in the reign of Emperor Wanli [from 1573 to 1620],people brought it to Zhangzhou and Quanzhou. The Ma familyprocessedit, callingit danrouguo[fleshyfruit of the danbagu]. It gradually spread within all our borders, so that everyone now carries a long pipe and swallowsthe smoke after lighting it with fire; some have become drunken addicts.’4
Recent evidence suggests that tobacco appeared in China earlier than Fang Yizhi surmised. In 1980, an archaeological team in the southern province of Guangxi unearthed three porcelain tobacco pipes from the Ming Dynasty Inscriptions on the artifacts situate their origins at 1550.’
As all accounts demonstrate, tobacco had permeated the major arteries of world trade by the early 1600s. Ironically, the global expansion of tobacco use met one of its most 54 formidable challenges among the English royalty. In part, the Crown’s hostility stemmed
William tobacco
(London:
Figure
British
gentlemen
Fairholts
in 4.2
Chapman
“A
Smoking
share
book,
and
the
Club,”
Tobacco,
Hall,
pleasures
1859).
a
Its print
History
of
illustrating
Virginia
andAssociations
“sweet-leaf”
Frederick
Ultimately, craving among
imposed smoking body
mously English
from
underwent in century,
Spain agile Spanish locked
a
from
series
the
warships
politic,
their
Spain’s
had transatlantic
-
its
in
for
published
national
of
Armada
England’s
a as
.:-
a
practitioners.
4,000
far
dramatic
Caribbean
the
however, processing
a bitter
early
inspired
“vile
more
sent
customs
percent
pride,
to
rivalry
dominance
A
and
adversaries
a
England
axis
success
naval
the Counter-blaste
battered
the
plantations
for
stinking
along
revenue
The
of
Counter-blaste
duty
at
period’s
reexport
engagements,
tobacco
the
in
monarch,
with
with
Armada
on
of
had
its
a
end
it
the
its
custome’
to
commercial
the
most
generated,
the
established
to
commerce.
sale,
to
the
of
international
objective
European
perception
torn
limping
Tobacco
the
demonstrated
widely
bustling
placing
Vice
sixteenth
between which
- refrained
__.:
Admiral
Havana
conquests.
circulated
back
of
(1604),
Spaniards
markets)7
Andalusian
tobacco
that
overthrowing
tobacco
“brought
his
to
century.
the
tobacco
and
the
from
King
Sir
distaste
beyond
antitobacco
king’s
By
shipped
trade.
Iberian
Francis
Seville
foorth
A
outlawing
port
James
the
In
Land
threatened
for
ignorance
Queen
1588,
England
the
end
city
as
Peninsula.16
a
the Drake
I
the
Wholly
generall
the
reach
of
treatise.
of
where
Philip
valuable
tobacco.
exotic
Elizabeth
England
the
dominant
and
the
and
of
of
Built
sixteenth
the
sluggishnesse”
the
II
commoners)8
vigor
plant
In
Spain
his
sent
leaves
Instead,
tobacco
Upon
his
derided
consumer
I.
fleet
nodes
During
of and
,.
were
anony
the
Smoke’
the
of
his
he 55 XU BING: Tobacco Prolect
Figure 4.3 Thissixteenth-centurySpanishdepiction ofWestIndiantobaccocirculatedin Britain are broughtfrom theWef tndiac. FoT34. andappearedinan EnglisheditionofNicolás Monardes Joyful!newesofthenew-found worlde,translatedbyJohnFrampton (London:E.AIldebyassigneofBonham Norton,1596).
• I3e p3opernameoftt aniong tijenan (zPiciek, Thetzatnt tlgname QfTabacotgjuentoit b our paniarOb efit. reafonofan%tlanOtL)attname Tabaco. 3t is an tarbe ttjat aot1j groue 4flDcometo bce’13cr!Tb:4fcrip grcate: rnattmnie$ toobeegreater ten a L1cmniontree. twisofir. 3t caftetbtoot onefteamefromte roote1uljictjgro1uet Wdoutc1intu toau partc, it fenoct footb man’
56 A Land “Wholly Built Upon Smoke”
revolution overtaking his kingdom; by 1619, the Crown had granted Virginia a monopoly on tobacco exports to England. “That bewitching vegetable”—as William Byrd II, founder of Richmond, Virginia, described tobacco—had cast its spell)9
Tobacco acted as a social salve during a period of political upheaval. Thomas Kobbes, who fled to Paris during the English Civil War (1642—51)and memorably characterized life in the state of nature as “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short,” made his own seventeenth- century existence tolerable with a daily regimen of no fewer than twenty pipes of tobacco.2° By the end of the seventeenth century, more than half of all Englishmen smoked the golden weed; its price had fallen enough “so that every ploughman has his pipe’2’
With each passing year, more of the tobacco chewed, snuffed, and smoked in England, Scotland, and Wales came from Virginia. A British visitor to the Commonwealth in 1690 acerbically commented, “for the most general true character of Virginia is this, that as to the natural advantages of a country, it is one of the best; but as to the improved ones, one of the worst in all the English plantations. . . . So it is at present, that Tobacco swallows up all other Things.”22Nicotiana tabacum not only had emerged as the first truly global agricultural commodity, it had become the centerpiece of the world’s earliest plantation monoculture, a system in which farmers cultivate one species to the exclusion of all others.23
Tobacco is a delicate crop, requiring meticulous care at each stage of cultivation. “The tobacco-grower has to tend his tobacco not by fields, not even by plants, but leaf by leaf. The good cultivation of good tobacco does not consist in having the plant give more leaves, but the best possible’ remarked Cuban anthropologist Fernando Ortiz.24 Removal of the leading stem and the lateral shoots of the plant—known as “topping and suckering”—diverts the plant’senergy toward leaf production, thereby increasing the nicotine content of the leaves. Virginia tobacco planters often performed this delicate operation with their untrimmed thumbnails, which they would harden by repeated passes through a candle’s flame.25
The management of soil fertility also became an essential skill of the successful tobacco farmer. Nicotiana tabacurn has a voracious appetite for nitrogen, phosphorous, and calcium, and soil exhaustion becomes a pressing problem after only a few years of cultivation. Tidewater planters—those who farmed the eastern coastal region of Virginia below the Piedmont plateau—often rotated their crops, cultivating tobacco for three years, farming corn for the next three, and allowing their fields to revert to forests for twenty years. This approach helped worn-out lands recover from the severe nutrient demands imposed by a plant that required “uncommon fertility of soil’ as gentleman farmer Thomas Jefferson put it in his Notes on the State of Virginia.26
Between 1620 and 1680, small tobacco farms dominated Virginia’s coastal landscape. As wealthier planters expanded their holdings, chronic labor shortages arose. Initially, growers hired European indentured servants who paid for their transatlantic passage with 57 XU BING: Tobacco Project
several years of fieldwork. By the end of the seventeenth century, the servant trade had turned prohibitively expensive. The emergence of an English slaving fleet allowed Virginia’s nascent planter class to reconstitute their workforce with African slaves. Between 1700 and 1780, approximately 78,000 slaves arrived at the colony’s ports!7
Curiously enough, many of the women and men who survived the hellish ordeal of the Middle Passage arrived on Virginia’s shores with abundant knowledge of the tobacco plant. Slaves from Senegambia, the Gold Coast, and the Windward Coast of West Africa came from cultures that had featured tobacco as a staple crop for several generations. Extensive knowledge of tobacco farming made certain slaves more desirable at auctions, and the Virginia planters who purchased them appropriated these African cultivation strategies from their field laborers.28
During the transition from a nominally free workforce to a system reliant on slavery, tobacco output skyrocketed. Exports from Virginia and MaryLand tripled between 1725 and 1776.29 However, much like the transatlantic system of slavery upon which it depended, tobacco production was never free from constraints. As plummeting prices in the l630s and 1680s had demonstrated, stability was perpetually elusive for the tobacco farmer. Also absent during this period was an accepted standard for the leaves being shipped abroad. After taking office in 1727, Virginia governor William Gooch worked tirelessly to implement a system of quality controls for the colony’s staple crop. His legislative masterpiece, the Virginia Inspection Act of 1730, required that growers transport their tobacco to public warehouses where at least two assessors would crack open the hogsheads “and diligently view and examine the same” to determine “that the [tobacco] is good, sound, well-conditioned, and merchantable, and free from trash, sand, and dirt.”3°Inspectors burned any tobacco that failed to meet these criteria. Initially, these rules provoked resistance, even rioting, among planters; they also heralded a new phase in the long march toward a more uniform tobacco plant. As markets expanded and tastes developed among consumers, buyers demanded further refinements to their commodity. The resulting experiments and modifications conducted by farmers, and eventually by scientists, confirmed that the emerging capitalist marketplace was as much a botanical intervention as a commercial revolution.
Among the beneficiaries of these new benchmarks was a tight-knit group of Scottish merchants. Concentrating their capital on the transatlantic tobacco trade, this cartel transformed Glasgow into an unrivalled hub for re-exportation of the golden weed to continental Europe. By 1762, tobacco grown in the Chesapeake Bay region accounted for 85 percent of all Scottish imports from North America. Glasgow’s“tobacco lords” met frequently to strategize about their profitable trade. Sporting “red cloaks, satin suits, powdered wigs, three-cornered hats, and gold-topped canes’ Scotland’s elite amassed their fortunes 58 by pairing “sweet-scented” Virginia tobacco with the new cravings of European consumers.31 A Land “Wholly Built Upon Smoke’
Across the Atlantic, a similar tobacco aristocracy was emerging. Although the vast majority of Virginia’s farmers spent their lives mired in debt, eking out a hardscrabble existence from one growing season to the next, a few men, such as Robert “King” Carter, William Randolph, Benjamin Harrison, and Richard Lee, built sprawling tobacco estates. Their agrarian dominance translated into an unbridled political oligarchy. “Asearly as 1660 every seat on the ruling Council of Virginia was held by members of five interrelated families, and as late as 1775 every council member was descended from one of the 1660 councilors,” notes one historian.32
Despite underwriting the consolidation of colonial Virginia’s landed gentry, tobacco also helped North American colonists topple British colonial rule. During the American Revolution, Virginians traded tobacco for shipments of ammunition from France via the West Indies. Additionally, Benjamin Franklin secured a substantial monetary loan from the French Government using five million pounds of Virginia tobacco as collateraL33As one historian aptly put it, the 1700s were the years of “King Tobacco Diplomacy.”34
In the centuries following 1776, tobacco incited more than its share of controversy. A 2009 World Health Organization report noted, “Tobacco use is the leading cause of preventable death, and is estimated to kill more than 5 million people each year worldwide.”35Despite the overwhelming human tragedy that tobacco use has caused, if we take “a plant’s eye view” of history, the tale of Nicotiana tabacum would be one of remarkable success.36Currently, 130 countries grow commercial varieties of tobacco, making it the world’s most widely
cultivated nonfood crop.37Little could Charles I have known that the Virginia Colony, “wholly built upon smoke,” would play such a crucial role in the globalization of a humble weed from the Americas.
Edward D. Metlito is Assistant Professor of History at Amherst College.
59 60
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Notes
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