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CHAPTER EIGHT

New Zealand 1944

Contributors:

Malama Meleisea Penelope Schoeffel Meleisea Isalei Va'ai I'iga Suafole

The First War 1914-1918

The War broke out in in 1914 when the Archduke Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, was assassinated in Sarajevo, by a Serbian . Austria-Hungary sent Serbia an ultimatum, which was not met, and Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. The assassination of the Archduke was not the real cause of the war, however. For a long time, events which would have resulted inevitably in a war, had been building up in Europe.

One of these events was the arms race among the European powers, especially that between and . Since armed forces represented national power, each nation wanted a large army and navy, and each nation tried to keep ahead of the others. Not only was there an arms race among the European powers, but there was a race for colonies. Germany, , and Britain were all expanding their colonial empires in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Germany was perhaps the most aggressive of the imperial powers, and she came into conflict with Russia when she tried to extend her influence over the . Austria-Hungary also had interests in the Balkans. Britain and France, on the other , had interests in the Middle East.

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In the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, the European Powers formed alliances among themselves. In 1882, , Germany and Austria-Hungary formed the Triple Alliance. In 1894, France and Russia formed a rival alliance, which was known as the Dual Alliance. Britain, alarmed by Germany's naval and colonial policies, formed the Entente Cordiale with France in 1904; Russia joined in 1907, and the Entente Cordiale became the Triple Entente. These alliances meant that if one nation declared war, then the other nations would enter the war in support of their ally. When Austria declared war on Serbia, Russia mobilised its army to come to Serbia's assistance. Germany, partly to honour her obligations to Austria, declared war on Russia. Britain and France later joined the war. The combined forces of Britain, France, Russia and the were known as the Allied Powers. The rival powers Germany, Austria and Italy were known as the Axis Powers.

Immediately upon the outbreak of the war in Europe, was invited by Britain to seize . An Expeditionary Force was sent to Samoa, and the in Samoa offered no resistance. Samoa was the first enemy to be seized by the Allied Forces. New Zealand was very ready to seize Samoa as she had had designs on Samoa for a long time. New Zealand had always regarded the Pacific as a British sphere of influence.

Back in the and 1880s New Zealand and were British colonies. But, by that period, both countries had nationalist movements that wanted internal self-government and eventual independence from direct British rule. The leaders of these movements were of British origin, for in both countries white settlers had come to far out-number the native Maori and Aboriginal peoples. The native inhabitants of both countries had no say in the political decisions of the time.

In those decades, the nationalists of New Zealand and Australia wanted Britain to take over all the of the South Pacific, including Samoa. They were motivated mainly by their fear that French and German colonies would become powerful in a they wanted to be predominantly British (see Chapter 3). The New Zealand Prime Minister of the period wanted Britain to take control of all the Polynesian islands north of New Zealand. He argued that New Zealand should be the cultural and trading centre for all the Polynesian people. This feeling was a factor leading to Britain annexing the and for New Zealand in the late nineteenth century.

When Samoa became a German colony in 1900, New Zealand was unhappy about it. She did not want a major power, such as Germany, to have a colony so close to her shores. The wish to include Samoa among New Zealand's was still strong in 1914, which is why the New

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Zealand government lost no time in sending an expeditionary force to capture Samoa from Germany. The believed they had a special ability to rule , and were proud of their record with the Maori. In the words of Sir Apirana Ngata, M.P.:

The may be congratulated that they have come under the wing of the -Saxon race, and they are extremely fortunate in that they have come under the government of New Zealand, because there is representative of the British conscience of administration in a just way of the native races than the Government of this country. I can speak with experience, sometimes with a little bitterness, as to the treatment some of the Maoris have received in New Zealand at the hands even of our own Pakeha people. But the Maoris have a saying "That is between you and me", and take it by and large, take it over the century, no native race has been so fortunate as the Maoris of New Zealand.

Despite these claims, the Expeditionary Force, which comprised initially 1,413 officers, mechanics, technicians and medical staff, was not qualified to run a colony. When the New Zealand Expeditionary Force, led by Colonel Logan, landed in Samoa, they lowered the German and seized all buildings and properties belonging to the German Government. On 31 1914, the British Flag was raised, Logan became the Administrator and issued the following proclamation:

Dieu Et Mon Droit Proclamation 1. The of his King George V now occupies for his Majesty all the German territories situated in the islands of the Samoan Group. 2. All inhabitants of the occupied territories are commanded to submit to all such directions as maybe given by any officer of the occupying force. 3. Every inhabitant of the occupied territories is forbidden to assist or to communicate directly or indirectly with the German Government or the German forces, or to molest or to resist, directly or indirectly the occupying forces of any member thereof. 4. All public property of the German Government must be delivered forthwith by those responsible for its safety to the possession of the occupying forces. 5. Private property of individuals will only be taken if required for the purposes of occupying forces and if so taken, will be paid for at a reasonable price at the termination of the war. 6. No person shall except with the written permission of an authorised officer of the occupying force be out of doors on any night between the hours of 10 p.m. and 6 a.m. nor change his or her present place of residence, nor use any boat or .

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7. All public meetings are prohibited. 8. No circular or newspaper or printed matter of any description shall be circulated, printed, or issued without the written per- mission of an authorised officer of the occupying forces. 9. No spirituous or intoxicating liquor shall be manufactured or sold without the written permission of an authorised officer of the occupying force, nor shall liquor be supplied to any Samoan native. 10. All officials of the German Government who desire to continue to carry out their functions under the present military Government must report themselves forthwith to the commander of the occupying force and such as may be retained in their employment will receive the same rate of renumeration as was received by them prior to the occupation. 11. All inhabitants having in their possession any motor cars, horses, carts or other means of transport must forthwith be delivered at the office of the Provost-Marshall of the occupying force. 12. All arms of every description, whether the property of the German Government or of private persons, must forthwith be delivered at the office of the Provost-Marshall of the occupying force. 13. All persons who quietly submit to the administration of affairs by the occupying force will be protected in their occupations except in the case of such occupations as may be contrary to the best interests of the occupying force. 14. All persons who in any manner resist the occupation force or attempt by violence or otherwise to interfere with or overthrow the military Government now established for his Majesty King George V or who fail to obey the above written or any subsequent commands of any officer of the occupying force will be punished according to the laws of war. Given at this 29th August in the year of our Lord 1914

Robert Logan, Colonel Commanding the occupying force.

The proclamation established a military government in Samoa. It did not make any changes in the political organization set up by the Germans. Laws and policies passed by the Germans were maintained, too. Some officials were asked to continue in their posts but they refused; all German officials were then deported. The German Governor, Dr Schultz and other Germans were taken to New Zealand where they were kept as prisoners of war.

Private German citizens were given the option of remaining in Samoa or being repatriated to Germany. Most preferred to remain in Samoa, where they had established themselves. Those Germans who had married Samoans opposed the deportation of their countrymen.

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The New Zealand Military Government took over D.P.H.G., which it later (in 1919) renamed the New Zealand Reparation Estates. The new government retained the German overseers and Melanesian and Chinese labourers, because it could not supply its own experienced personnel. It was for this reason also that it did not make any changes to the established political and economic systems. This 'ramshackle administration' (as Davidson called it) left Samoans pretty much to their own affairs and, after Solf's intrusive policies, the Samoans were able to reassert many of their traditional institutions, such as the authority of Tumua and Pule. Export earnings increased during the war, but import prices rose sharply. This was attributed by many Samoans to the greed of the merchants. Other grievances were the economic effects of the ex- propriation of German businesses, export taxes, and stricter labour laws. Several local merchants were able to buy up the assets of the departing Germans. At the end of the war, New Zealand made a major mistake which was to unite the Samoans, the local-born Europeans and many foreign residents, against the Administration. The Talune arrived from with people aboard suffering from pneumonic influenza. This terrible, infectious disease was sweeping around the world in 1918, and had killed hundreds of thousands of people in other countries. The ship had been quarantined in , but when it docked in Samoa, no restrictions were imposed, and the disease spread quickly. It has been estimated that one fifth of the population died; 7,542 persons out of a population of approximately 38,302. (Another estimate was that by 1919, there were 8,500 deaths from the epidemic.)

Governor Logan ignored an offer from to send a medical team, and closed down wireless communication with . Local services were very disorganized. Many people who tried to help in the emergency were stopped by New Zealand officials. A group of Apia women tried to establish a temporary but it was closed down. The at , Savai'i, hid in his house and refused to visit the sick. There were so many people dying that, after being wrapped in mats, the dead were collected on trucks and taken for in mass graves.

The awful result was the loss of many lives, from young children to elderly, widely respected leaders of the Fono of Faipule, of whom only seven of the thirty four members survived. Of the leaders of Pule, who had been exiled to , only I'iga Pisa survived. Every family in Samoa suffered losses; for example, Taisi O.F. Nelson lost his , his brother and sister-in-law, one of his sisters, and his only son. Compared to the losses in other countries, Samoa probably had the

129 highest casualty rate in the world. For example, New Zealand lost only five percent (5,471) of its population. Samoa lost almost twenty percent. One study concluded that the 1918 epidemic in Samoa was one of the most disastrous recorded this century. New Zealand's record in the of public health in Western Samoa since the epidemic has been very good. In the , hundreds of Samoans were crippled with elephantiasis, the advanced form of filariasis. In addition, almost everyone was afflicted by yaws, and many people suffered ulcerations to the bone as a result of it. Leprosy, and other diseases were common. Some of these diseases were introduced, others were caused by bad sanitation and spread by introduced and native species of insects, such as flies, mosquitoes, lice and other parasites. The New Zealand Administration implemented new health policies in the 1930s. These were carried out by village women's and greatly improved local health conditions.

A pre-occupation of Europeans in the 1800s and 1900s was that 'native races' were dying out as a result of European contact. This belief was based partly upon incorrect pseudo-scientific theories about evolution, and partly upon the fact that the Maori and Aboriginal populations of New Zealand and Australia, and the of North and and , had been declining in numbers as a result of introduced diseases or starvation. Some groups, such as the Tasmanian Aboriginal people, had been exterminated violently by European settlers.

This is why placed great emphasis on the passage in Genesis where God told man to 'be fruitful and multiply': they believed the Samoans might die out too. Similarly, after the Epidemic of 1918, New Zealand also feared the Samoans might die out. Logan's response to the discontent of the Samoans and the local Europeans was so unapologetic that a petition was drawn up, requesting that the administration of Samoa be transferred to the United States Government. Logan's response, from New Zealand, was to blame H.J. Moors, an American merchant, for agitating the Samoans. Logan did not return to Samoa, but was replaced by Colonel Robert Ward Tate as Administrator.

New Zealand's plans for Samoa's future were negotiated with the without any reference to those Samoan leaders who were still alive after the Epidemic. The issue of a New Zealand mandate over Samoa was challenged by a Labour Member of Parliament, H.E. , who later became a supporter of the Mau. He advocated Labour Party backing for internal self-government in Western Samoa. The majority of politicians wanted the mandate and agreed with the Minister of Defence, Sir James Allen, that Samoa was of strategic

130 importance to New Zealand. It was argued that supporting, and would cost the New Zealand that the possession of colonies would add to national prestige. From 1919, when news of the impending mandate reached Samoa, there was little enthusiasm for the proposal. Memories of the bungling incompetence of the Administration during the epidemic were still fresh in people's minds. New Zealand had only recently rid herself of her colonial status, and Samoans would have preferred a Great Power, if they had to be colonized. Another source of bitterness was the laws banning the importation of liquor which were introduced by New Zealand before the mandate was established. This very much angered the local European community.

Legislation for the mandate, including the Samoan , was passed in New Zealand in 1920. This placed power squarely in the hands of the administering authorities and gave local Europeans a minority of seats in the weak local . The Samoans were given only an advisory role in government. There were from all sides, and when a group of New Zealand politicians came to Samoa in early 1920, they were presented with petitions from the Citizens' , on behalf of the local Europeans and Part- Europeans, and from the Fono of Faipule.

The Faipule asked for legal recognition in government, the power to make laws, and control local finance, and for representation in the . The Citizens' Committee asked for elective representation in the Legislative Council, an elected municipal government for Apia, a free press, removal of restrictions on liquor sales, and permission to recruit foreign indentured labourers. These requests reflected the different political concerns of the two groups, and indicate that, at this time, the Citizens' Committee accepted New Zealand authority over Samoans but not over themselves. Neither group received any response from New Zealand, and the mandate was confirmed by the Council of the League of Nations in December 1921.

The League of Nations had been established after the First World War in the hope of maintaining world peace and order. A special committee of the League decided what would happen to the colonies of the nations which had fought on the losing side with Germany. German territories in the Pacific were divided among Australia, New Zealand, and . Australia took German , New Zealand took German Samoa, and Japan took German - the islands of the Carolines, Marianas and Marshalls.

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The Civil Administration and the Mau, 1920 to 1945

Although the War ended in 1918, it took until 1921 and numerous international negotiations before Samoa was finally given a civil admini- stration. New Zealand intended her administration to be for the benefit of Samoans. Writers of that period often claimed that the German administration had been intended to benefit Germany and the German , with no thought for the betterment of Samoans. New Zealand was proud that it had no profit motive in its administration.

In 1919, the New Zealand Government as one of the victors in the First World War, took over completely D.P.H.G. and renamed it the New Zealand Reparation Estates. This was compensation for the many New Zealanders who had been killed in the war. After 1921, the Reparation Estates were run by New Zealand for the benefit of the Samoan people; any profits from the estates ' were used to offset the cost of New Zealand Administration.

In 1921, all German nationals who had been living in Samoa as D.H.P.G. employees or as private citizens were deported; exceptions were made for those who had Samoan wives. Those being deported had to leave behind all their assets, and were allowed to take with them only a few hundred and their clothing. While some Samoans were happy to see the Germans forced out of Samoa, others were sad and a large party of Samoans came to farewell the ship on which the Germans were deported.

One of New Zealand's major priorities was the improvement of the health of Samoans. There were a number of endemic diseases such as yaws, filariasis and tuberculosis, which was probably introduced from overseas. Plans were immediately made for district at Tuasivi and Aleipata, and nursing stations were planned for every sub-district. The other priority of the New Zealand Administration was village development. The Administration planned to improve the production of cash crops in villages, as well as promoting order, cleanliness and industry, according to New Zealand rules. The native administration, had no power in policy making. Its main function was to carry out the policies and enforce the rules laid down by the New Zealand authorities. The structure was very similar to that of the German Administration in its latter days. There were 3 Fautua; Tanumafili I, Lealofi III, and Tuimaleali'ifano Si'u; 31 Faipule to represent the districts; 14 Commissioners; 16 inspectors; about 29 and 29 Samoan .

The Samoans resented interference in village matters by the representatives of an outside authority, including the New Zealand officials and the Faipule. It was not that Samoans did not want peace,

132 good health and prosperity. They did, but they felt strongly that they should have a voice in planning and policy-making. Village authorities throughout Samoa deeply resented the imposition of rules and regulations to which they had been unable to make any contribution. The New Zealand authorities, certain that their plans were in the best interests of the people, passed an ordinance to control certain Samoan . This was similar to an earlier German law; it forbade Samoan councils of matai their customary right to banish or exile law-breakers and trouble-makers from the village. This power, one of the strongest sanctions of Samoan customary law, was transferred to the New Zealand Administrator, authorizing him to banish or exile any Samoan to any place which the Administrator decreed. The Ordinance also authorised the Administrator to take away the matai of Samoans, as a punishment. Between 1921 and 1926, fifty-three Samoan matai (including one of the tams-a-'aiga, Tupua Tamasese) suffered banish- ment and the loss of their titles. The Ordinance was designed to force Samoan authorities to obey and to support the regulations which the Administration imposed upon the districts and villages.

The Ordinance enraged Samoan authorities and, by 1926, anti-New Zealand feeling was strong throughout Samoa. A spirit of rebellion began to grow among the people. Samoans deeply resented the paternalism of the New Zealand authorities, the lack of consultation and power sharing, the apparently arbitrary laws which had been imposed without the or understanding of the people, and, most of all, the interterence with traditional authority and rights over titles.

Discontent had also begun to develop among the European and part- European merchants, planters and tradesmen of Apia. The Legislative Council, established by the New Zealand Administration, permitted only four representatives from the local resident community. These were initially appointed by the Administrator rather than elected by the community.

During this period resident aliens with Samoan ancestry began to experience an increasing conflict between their status as Europeans and their status as part-Samoans. While proud of their European status, which gave them many rights and privileges denied to Samoans, they also felt that their upbringing and ancestry gave them special know-ledge of the Samoan people. Many leading part Europeans felt that they had a right to play a more prominent role in the government of the country because of their understanding of both European and Samoan society, and because of the success many of them had achieved as merchants and planters. The part-Samoans also resented the patronising

133 racial attitudes of many New Zealand officials towards them, as did local Europeans who had Samoan wives. New Zealand officials were not supposed to involve themselves with the local European community or the Samoans, or to intermarry with them. This was not merely racial prejudice, but a principle that expatriate government officials should be neutral and uninfluenced by local politics. While there was much to be said for such an attitude, it prevented New Zealand officials from learning much about the country or its people. It seemed wrong to local Europeans that expatriate officials should have so much power when they knew so little about the country. They also resented the common attitude among New Zealand officials that Samoans needed to be protected from the local European community. Many New Zealand officials believed local Europeans, particularly the part-Samoans, would have a harmful influence on Samoans, and would use Samoans to get more power or wealth for themselves. When, in 1927, New Zealand proposed that a government agency control marketing, local Europeans were irate because copra buying was a major source of business among the local merchants. They also resented the implication that they were being unfair to the Samoans in their trading practices.

The new Administrator, Brigadier General George Spafford Richardson, who succeeded Tate in 1923, thought of Samoans as backward children who would, under New Zealand's benevolent influence, gradually until they could live and act like Europeans. Such an attitude was common among Europeans in the first half of this century. It was reflected in the British idea that colonial governments should help native people to 'advance'. The idea of advancement confused European technical superiority with European cultural superiority. in other words, because Europeans had access to new, advanced technical discoveries, they thought their way of life was better than that of other nationalities and races. Richardson admired the Samoans and wanted to help them. He did not realize that Samoans were proud of their own way of life, and did not necessarily want to live or behave like Europeans. However, Samoans did want some of the knowledge and tools to which Europeans had access.

By 1926, Richardson's early popularity among the Samoans and local Europeans had gone. Leading members of the part-European community, such as Taisi O.F. Nelson one of the most successful businessmen in Samoa, as well as Samoan leaders, began to openly criticize the Richardson Administration. Nelson was a member of the Legislative Council and, in 1926, while on a visit to New Zealand, he made the grievances of the local Europeans and Samoans known to the New Zealand Prime Minister.

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When the New Zealand Minister of External Affairs visited Samoa the following year, Nelson organized meetings at which Samoan and local European leaders, through their Citizens' Committee, expressed their complaints against the Richardson Administration. Nelson also founded a newspaper, The Samoan , for the expression of public criticism of New Zealand rule. The Minister, W. Nosworthy, was unsympathetic and accused the local Europeans of intriguing against the Administration, and of stirring up the Samoans. He announced that the Administration would be empowered to deport local Europeans, including part-Samoans, who stirred up trouble.

Prior to the Minister's visit, members of the Citizens' Committee, together with a number of leading Samoans, had founded an organization called the Samoan League, `0 le Mau', to represent local views. This organization became the focus of local dissatisfaction with the New Zealand regime, following the unsuccessful appeal to the Minister. It took the motto, `Samoa mo Samoa', Samoa for Samoans, which had, ironically, first been proposed by Richardson himself, when speaking against local Europeans.

Richardson's response to the Mau was to order that it be disbanded; he also banished two of its Samoan leaders, Faumuina and 'Afamasaga, to . This aroused support for the Mau all over Samoa. The headquarters of the Mau was at . There was a central committee headed by Tupua Tamasese Lealofi III, with the help of Tuimaleali'ifano Si'u, and there were representatives of Mau commit-tees in all the districts of Samoa except Falealili and Manono. These districts along with some parts of , had a majority of leaders who remained loyal to the Administration. Two of the tama-a-'aiga, Malietoa and Mata'afa, were not strong supporters of the Mau.

The policy of the Mau was a peaceful, orderly programme of non- cooperation with the New Zealand Administration. Committees and councils established by the Administration stopped meeting, villages ignored visiting New Zealand officials, courts of law were avoided by disputing parties, children were withdrawn from government schools, and officially-promoted copra and banana projects were abandoned. In many districts, all New Zealand imposed village regulations, even those which promoted public health, were disregarded, and, instead of paying taxes, money was raised and collected for the Mau. The Mau colours, purple and white, were worn by its supporters as a , especially when they held public processions and meetings.

The New Zealand Government, instead of reconsidering its policies, appointed a in 1927, to inquire into the complaints made against the Administration, with special reference to the question

135 of whether banishment should be stopped. The banishment of Tupua Tamasese in 1924 was thought, by many observers of the period, to have been the main cause of Samoan support for the Mau. His banishment occurred because he had ignored an order to remove a hedge from land over which he claimed ownership. When he returned from Savai'i to get more information about the period of his banishment he was sentenced to jail in New Zealand and the Administration took his away. When he was released from jail, he was banished again.

The Royal Commission heard evidence from 155 witnesses, but its findings upheld Richardson's view that the Mau was mainly caused by Nelson and a few other local Europeans. The Samoan objections were considered irrational and rebellious. As a result of the findings of the Commission, O.F. Nelson was deported, along with the local European residents, E.W. Gurr and A.G. Smyth. Nelson used his influence with the leaders of the Mau to ask for peace. When he left Samoa there was a huge Mau procession through the streets of Apia, but no violence.

Nelson's departure, if anything, increased the Mau supporters' will to resist and when Richardson realized its continuing strength, he called for two New Zealand warships to come to Samoa. When they arrived, he passed laws prohibiting many of the Mau's activities. These laws were then enforced by marines from the , who arrested about 400 Mau leaders. This was completely ineffective, and Richardson was made to look ridiculous when hundreds more Mau leaders asked to be locked up as well. Their request had to be refused, because of lack of room in the jails. The arrested Mau leaders were offered their freedom if they promised to give up their opposition to the Administration. The Mau leaders refused.

In 1928, Richardson left Samoa and was replaced by Colonel Stephen Shepherd Allen, a lawyer in civilian life. By 1928, the Mau was becoming well organized and was building up its own administration in the districts. It was encouraging copra making, proper care of plantations and the education of children. A. petition to the League of Nations, stating Samoan objections to the New Zealand Administration, carried the signatures of nearly 8,000 adult Samoan men out of a total of 9,300. The petition was presented by Nelson but he was denied a hearing by the Mandates Commission.

Nelson campaigned for international support for the Mau overseas. He used a considerable amount of his own financial resources to carry out this work, which included his publication of a book entitled, The Truth about Samoa, in 1928. Despite all this, the Mandates Commission of the League of Nations chose to accept the New Zealand version of the situation. Many of the powerful voices on the Commission were

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from Imperial powers, and it was inevitable they would support New Zealand. In early 1929, a change of government in New Zealand produced changes to the Samoan Administration which may have been intended as a concession to the Mau. The unpopular Fono of Faiplue was suspended, but no other representative body was set up to replace it. Instead, the Legislative Council had the number of European elected members reduced from three to two, and the addition of two Samoan nominated members; these were the two Fautua, Malietoa Tanumafili and Mata'afa Salanoa. (Tupua Tamasese and Tuimaleali'ifano were dismissed as Fautua.) In this year a number of prominent Samoan members of the Mau, including 'Afamasaga Lagolago, had resigned. The Administrator believed that the Mau was dying out; however, public demonstrations continued, and Tuimaleali'ifano and Faumuina visited New Zealand and brought back news of public support for the Mau in that country.

On Sunday 25 December, violence broke out after four years of peaceful resistance. A large procession marched through Apia to welcome Gurr and Smyth from exile. Apparently, some Samoan youths had fought with the police prior to the procession, resulting in the death of a military policeman. This incident probably explains why the police were armed with machine guns, when they waited for the procession, intending to arrest some of those who were marching. When they tried to arrest the Mau Secretary, Mata'utia Karauna, his companions tried to protect him. There was a scuffle, and the police opened fire on the crowd. Among those killed was Tupua Tamasese Lealofi III. Tuimaleali'ifano and Faumuina were wounded. The three chiefs were actually trying to restore peace and order among the crowd when they were shot. Three others were killed trying to shield Tamasese. A total of eleven Samoans died from bullet wounds. Before Tamasese died, he spoke to his followers:

My blood has been spilt for Samoa. I am proud to give it. Do not dream of avenging it as it was spilt in maintaining peace. If I die, peace must be maintained at any price.

His brave words can be compared to those of Commodore Blake who was in charge of the marines who came to crush the Mau:

At the present moment he (the Samoan) is in the position of a sulky and insubordinate child who has deliberately disobeyed his father, as the administrator is generally termed, and no peaceful persuasion will induce him to submit. There is no alternative, therefore, but to treat him roughly... force is the only thing which will appeal to the Samoan.... Indirect pressure can be exerted by cutting off food

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supplies to the natives who are in and preventing them from coming into the village for shelter and food .... Our operations for the past few days have consisted of day and night raids on villages, excursions into the bush, chasing parties of the Mau right around the islands and generally breaking up their concentrations.

New Zealand's violent response caused the Mau to finally declare its goal of independence from New Zealand rule, and complete self-government for Samoa. The New Zealand military forces, which came to destroy the Mau after the New Zealand government declared it a seditious organization in early 1930s, made the Mau declaration seem only a dream. The New Zealand marines forced their way into Samoan villages, smashing furniture and terrifying the old people, women and children who remained there. All the men had gone into the mountains to try to find ways of resisting the New Zealand Administration. They had little chance however, because they had no guns and no food to sustain them during a long siege. Many of the Melanesian workers on the New Zealand Reparation Estates risked severe punishment from their bosses, and smuggled food to the Mau men who were hiding inland.

The women of Samoa took over the work of the Mau in the 1930s. Led by Alaisala, the widow of Tamasese, Losa Taisi (Rosabel Edith Nelson), and the wives of Tuimaleali'ifano and Faumuina, the Women's Mau continued the demonstrations in Apia and went on malaga around Samoa to encourage the districts to keep up their faith. When the New Zealand Minister of Defense, J.T. Cobbe, visited Samoa in 1930, Tuimaleali'ifano, who was by then a very old man, called Cobbe a liar for defending and indeed praising New Zealand policies. Tuimaleali'ifano remembered three governments, the Three Powers in the 1890s, the Germans before 1914, and now the New Zealanders. The leadership of the Mau had been taken over, after the death of Tamasese, by Faumuina, whom Davidson describes as, 'a reluctant politician, a man motivated by a sense of public obligation, as the holder of the high title, and by personal ambition rather than by commitment to a policy (Davidson 1967: 140). The Administrator still believed Nelson to be the real villain of the Mau, and wanted to use taxation to force Nelson into bankruptcy. This idea was opposed by Cobbe, who sought to negotiate with the Mau, with only limited success. Many Mau leaders were arrested, but not Fame Faumuina, who was thought highly of by A.L. Braisby, the Inspector of Police, and by a number of other New Zealand officials.

In 1933, Nelson returned to Samoa. He had delayed his return, on the advice of the Mau leaders, until the New Zealand marines had left the country and a calmer atmosphere prevailed. He feared that violence

138 would be used again by military police against the great crowd of Samoans who came to welcome him. The new Administrator, Brigadier General Hart, began talks with Mau leaders, but these failed when he refused to accept Nelson as one of their representatives. The leaders of the Mau continued to organize their national administration, and two parties of Mau leaders travelled round Samoa organizing the appointment of district leaders (ta'ita'i itu), village wardens (tausi nu'u) and village agricultural committees. The Administrator arrested the leaders of these parties, and raided Nelson's house. When they found documentary evidence that Nelson was continuing to help the Mau, Nelson was arrested and charged with taking part in seditious activities. In 1934 he was sentenced to eight months imprisonment in New Zealand, to be followed by ten years exile, despite an ifoga made by Nelson's wife and daughters at the Administrator's residence, Vailima. By this time it was clear to some Mau supporters that one or more Samoan leaders were passing information about Mau activities to the Chief of Police. The administrative plans and strategies of the Mau were no secret to the rulers of Samoa.

In 1935, Mata'afa Lealaisalanoa Muliufi was still being ostracised, by many of his traditional supporters and his extended family. He was living at Mulinu'u, in keeping with his position as one of the two Fautua. One day a man from Amaile came to Mulinu'u, broke into the tomb of Mata'afa losefo, and took away his bones. They were recovered by the police, and Mata'afa Salanoa had to hold a Liutofaga, a big ceremony to re- interment. It was attended by all the chiefs and districts of Samoa and lasted for four days, and it created greater unity among Samoans as a result of their coming together at Mulinu'u.

Differences of opinion had developed among the leaders of the Mau. Some, like Faumuina, disagreed with the establishment of an autonomous government and administration by the Mau; some, like Autagavaia Siaupiu, felt that political authority should be exercised through the Mau by Tumua and Pule; and others, like Mea'ole, the new holder of the Tupua Tamasese title, believed that there should be a modern, centralized administration similar to that planned by New Zealand, but under Samoan control.

In 1936, a Labour Government took office in New Zealand. In the preceding years, support for the Mau had been strongest in New Zealand Labour circles, and the new Prime Minister, Michael Joseph , promised a more cooperative attitude towards Samoa. He also promised to release O.F. Nelson and allow his return to Samoa. The new Government said that it would repeal the proclamation which declared the Mau a seditious organization. In 1936, a

139 goodwill mission was received by Malietoa, the Faipule and the leaders of the Mau. The visiting New Zealanders remained for a month to discuss the basis of a new relationship between New Zealand and Samoa, and proposals to reform the administration were discussed.

Before the New Zealand parry left, Nelson arrived home in Samoa to an even bigger welcome than had been imagined: a fleet of (long row boats), one carrying a , surrounded his ship, and Nelson was brought ashore in an 'alia, escorted by a taupou. The new proposals for the administration of Samoa included:

The repeal of the ordinance which allowed the Administrator to banish the Samoans and deprive them of their titles; an increase in the number of Samoan members of the Legislative Council from two to four; the selection of a new fono or Faipule; the appointment of a Samoan associate to the high court for cases involving Samoans; a programme to employ more Samoans and local Europeans in the Public Service. This was a greater compromise than the Mau had hoped for, but it seemed to open the way towards Samoan self-government. Leaders of the Mau were recognized in the new administration: 33 of the 39 Faipule were members of the Mau. Tuimaleali'ifano, now 89 years old, was appointed Fautua on the death of Mata'afa Salanoa. The new Mata'afa, name Faumuina Mulinu'u I, was appointed supervisor of police. Since the Fono of Faipule had the right to nominate the Samoan members of the Legislative Council, it seemed that the Mau now controlled the administration.

After the departure of Hart in 1935, the Secretary to Government became Acting Administrator, a post he held until confirmed as Administrator in 1943. He was not a popular figure, but with the Second World War looming, New Zealand 's interest in Samoa was lessening. During the Mau many patriotic songs were composed and sung by huge Mau choirs to spread the word and gain support for the movement. This is a translation of one of those known songs.

Song in Honour of the Mau Wait and think of me Care well for our children While I am away in Apia with the Mau, Uncertain if I will return. Tamasese, you have laboured to establish a Samoan government We are uncertain of Malietoa who is not here Tamasese, you have witnessed

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the results of your desires Samoan blood has been spilled by the Government of New Zealand Is it true - About the talopa'ia of the Fa'asalele'aga? Who since returning Has faced stormy

(Translated by Mama Meleisea)

Labour Policy and World War II

The Labour Parry of New Zealand, like that of Australia in the same period, was racist, particularly against the Chinese. A cartoon published in the early 1930s in the New Zealand Truth typified the attitude of Labour supporters to Chinese labour in Samoa. A caricature of a Chinese, labelled 'indentured Labour' is shown being married to a pretty Samoan bride by a fat businessman dressed as a clergyman. The caption given to this racist cartoon by the Labour supporters of the Mau who reprinted it in a booklet about New Zealand's bad administration of Samoa reads:

Nearly 1,000 indentured Chinese coolies are now working in Samoa, mostly on the ex-German plantations seized by the New Zealand Government. They are recruited from the scum of to work under semi- conditions. New Zealand does not protect the Samoan women against these serfs, and reliable estimates gives the number of Chinese half-breeds now in New Zealand at over 1,000.

This attitude reflects the ideology of the Labour Movement of the late nineteenth century which feared that wealthy men in Australia and New Zealand would promote the importation of Asian labour. It was feared that, because the Asians worked for low wages, it would lower the pay and working conditions of all workers because of the competition they offered. Such fears hardened, over the years, into racial prejudice against non-Europeans, particularly Chinese, and led to racially restrictive immigration policies in both countries.

The Labour Government of New Zealand responded to this policy of the party, with the support of the Samoan Faipule, by sending home the Chinese indentured labourers as their contracts expired, and refusing to allow further importation of labourers. The local planters were discontented. it was believed that Samoans would not work on the plantations, and that whites could not. The operation of the plantations, particularly the cocoa industry, had come to depend upon indentured labour.

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The planters became strongly opposed to the Labour Party of New Zealand. This was the first time New Zealand parry politics had become significant in Samoa. A number of part-Samoans, led by Amando Stowers (Viu Tafilipepe Amato), had formed a local Labour Party which had the specific goals of obtaining jobs and land, and establishing political unity among the rapidly growing part-Samoan community. This was offset by the anti-Labour movement among the planters who included local-born and Europeans with local-born wives. It should also be noted that, by the late 1930s, significant numbers of people of Samoan-Chinese ancestry were among the local-born.

The outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 was brought about by the rise of National Socialism (the Nazi Party) in Germany, which began to overwhelm neighbouring countries by military conquest, and also threatened the British Isles. The first four years of the War made little impact upon Samoa. Local-born people who had inherited German , and a few German residents of Apia, were imprisoned. Of the forty arrested, fifteen were deported to New Zealand where they were forced to live on Soames in Harbour. A local defense force was formed by New Zealanders and other local people with British ancestry. They raised $6,000 and remitted it to Britain, to be used towards the cost of building an aircraft for the British Air Force. As had happened in the First World War, many local-born joined the British Forces overseas. These included:

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