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Home , Kuujjuarapik, Nunavut

wkw5 bW‰5 vNbu | TAPIRIIT KANATAMI

Access to Drinking Water in

Our Vision: Canadian Inuit are prospering through unity and self-determination

Our Mission: is the national voice for protecting and advancing the rights and interests of Inuit in

ITK Quarterly Research Briefing Autumn 2020, Issue No. 2 About Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami

Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami (ITK) is the national representative organization for the 65,000 Inuit in Canada, the majority of whom live in Inuit Nunangat, the Inuit home land encompassing 51 communities across the Settlement (), Nunavut, (Northern Québec), and (Northern ). Inuit Nunangat makes up nearly one third of Canada’s landmass and more than 50 percent of its coastline. ITK represents the rights and interests of Inuit at the national level through a democratic governance structure that represents all Inuit . ITK advocates for policies, programs, and services to address the social, cultural, political, and environmental issues facing our people.

ITK’s Board of Directors are as follows:

• Chair and CEO, Inuvialuit Regional Corporation • President, • President, Nunavut Tunngavik Incorporated • President, Nunatsiavut Government

In addition to voting members, the following non-voting Permanent Participant Representatives also sit on the Board:

• President, Inuit Circumpolar Council Canada • President, Pauktuutit of Canada • President, National Inuit Youth Council

Vision Canadian Inuit are prospering through unity and self-determination.

Mission Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami is the national voice for protecting and advancing the rights and interests of Inuit in Canada.

ITK Quarterly Research Briefings ITK Quarterly Research Briefings provide analysis of timely policy matters that are of direct relevance to Inuit. Briefings are prepared by Inuit Qaujisarvingat, ITK’s research department, consistent with the department's mandate to produce research and analysis that can be used to support the advancement of Inuit priorities. ITK Quarterly Research Briefings are a deliverable of ITK’s 2020-2023 Strategy and Action Plan.

© Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, November 2020

Cover image: © Tom McLeod Introduction

Canada is a water wealthy nation where reliable access to clean drinking water is available to most citizens. However, this is not the case for many Inuit households and communities, where community water infrastructure tends to be aged and in disrepair, trucked water and sewer systems are often unreliable, and boil water advisories are frequently issued. The negative impacts of these challenges are more than inconveniences for individuals and households, but can pose public health risks and limit access to other services such as healthcare and education. Access to clean drinking water is the most basic element needed for survival and for societies to thrive. The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted vulnerability to water insecurity in many Inuit communities and the public health risks associated with poor water infrastructure. The United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights defines the human right to water as entitling everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses1 The following research brief identifies challenges that can too often prevent Inuit from fully enjoying our human right to water.

Figure 1. Map of Inuit Nunangat

Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami Access to Drinking Water in Inuit Nunangat 1 Background

This analysis focuses on water and sanitation services overseen by governments. The shift from living in seasonal camps to permanent settlements during the last century has changed the way we access and use drinking water. Inuit historically traveled between seasonal camps that were always located near sources of fresh water, and families were able to retrieve enough drinking water to meet their needs. Today municipal governments throughout Inuit Nunangat administer water and sanitation services with the support of regional and/or territorial governments. While many Inuit continue to retrieve water from the land as a preferred alternative or supplemental source of drinking water to that provided by municipal govern- ments, access to these water sources is beyond the scope of this research briefing.

Inuit Nunangat tends to be a politically and economically marginalized region of Canada. Limited investment in Inuit Nunangat contributes to the profound infrastructure gap between our homeland and most other regions of the country. Access to drinking water in our communities is largely contingent on the quality of community water infrastructure. Water infrastructure in our communities is often aged and vulnerable to disrepair or failure, contributing to the high number of boil water advisories issued by governments. Infrastructure-related challenges such as overcrowding in homes and inadequate housing construction can present additional barriers to drinking water access. Furthermore, is contributing to Inuit Nunangat becoming hotter and drier, potentially jeopardizing drinking water sources and drinking water quality.

2 Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami Access to Drinking Water in Inuit Nunangat Human Right to Water Access to drinking water is a human right. In 2003, the United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights adopted General Comment No. 15, affirming that the human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses.2 Treaty bodies publish general comments to provide interpretations of human rights treaty provisions.3 The Committee recognizes the right to water as indispensable for the realization of multiple rights affirmed by the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and that the right to water falls within the category of “guarantees essential for securing an adequate standard of living” because it is one of the most fundamental conditions for survival.4 This Covenant is a binding international treaty that Canada ratified in 1976, and as a State Party the is obligated to implement it. Further to the Covenant, in 2010 the United Nations General Assembly adopted Resolution 64/292, recognizing the right to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation as a human right that is essential for the full enjoyment of life and all human rights. The General Assembly resolved that states and international organizations must provide financial resources, capacity-building, and technology transfer through international assistance and cooperation, in particular to developing countries, in order to scale up efforts to provide safe, clean, accessible and affordable drinking water and sanitation for all.5 Canada is among the minority of countries that abstained from voting on the resolution.

Inuit Community Water Infrastructure Water infrastructure includes the components necessary to deliver drinking water and water for sanitation to members of the community, such as reservoirs, piped water distribution systems, water pumps and holding tanks, treatment systems, as well as water and sewage trucks. Water infrastructure quality and type determine the nature of community access to drinking water and influence drinking water quality. Water infrastructure in Inuit Nunangat is distinct from most other regions of Canada. Forty-eight of 51 Inuit communities have access to running tap water that is intended for personal consumption, either through piped distributions systems or, more commonly, through trucked water delivered to household water tanks. Households in the Nunatsiavut communities of Makkovik, Rigolet, and Postville are the exception, where residents must secure their own water for personal consumption from Potable Water Dispensing Units located in each community. Although households in Nunatsiavut’s five communities are connected to piped water distribution systems this water is only considered reliably safe for personal consumption in Nain and Hopedale.

Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami Access to Drinking Water in Inuit Nunangat 3 Forty-one of 51 Inuit communities are solely reliant on trucked water delivery systems to access drinking water. Households in five communities access drinking water exclusively through piped water distribution systems: , Inuvialuit Settlement Region, Northwest Territories; Kuujjuarapik, Nunavik, ; , Nunavut*; and Nain and Hopedale, Nunatsiavut, Newfoundland and Labrador. Households in the Nunavut communities of and are served by a combination of piped water distribution systems and trucked water (see Figure 2). Most potable water assets in Canada, including water treatment facilities and storage tanks, are reported to be in good or very good condition.6 Inuit community water infrastructure, by contrast, tends to be rudimentary as well as aged and/or vulnerable to disrepair, negatively impacting access to drinking water as well as water quality. In Nunavut, for example, 86.8% of water treatment facilities and 84.4% of water pump stations are reported to be in poor condition.7 The limited number of piped water distribution systems in Inuit Nunangat tend to be decades older than their intended lifespans, and the reliability of trucked water systems is often compromised by multiple factors, including blizzards and breakdowns. Drinking water quality in Inuit communities can be impacted by the rudimentary nature of water treatment systems, though water quality at the tap in particular requires further study. Most communities in Inuit Nunangat rely exclusively on some form of chlorination for water treatment that targets microbiological contaminants in water but does not remove particulate matter, organic compounds, or metals.8 In , Nunavut, for example, repeat sampling found the characteristics of the water supplied to buildings in the community to be conducive to the corrosion of plumbing components, copper and lead release from plumbing, and metal transport to the tap.9 Drinking water quality in that community, whose water infrastructure resembles that of most other Inuit communities, was found to be out of compliance with territorial and federal water quality guidelines, influenced by both system-wide and building-specific factors, and vulnerable to microbial water quality hazards.10

Water infrastructure challenges are compounded by other infrastructure deficits that place stress on water delivery systems, such as housing shortages and overcrowding. Water infrastructure in Inuit Nunangat is also impacted by factors including population growth, climate change, and extreme weather events. It is further influenced by the beneath many communities, as well as the corresponding geotechnical engineering and cost considerations that inform the installation and maintenance of systems. In some cases, community sources of drinking water are being depleted faster than they are being replenished by , threatening the availability of drinking water.

* In Resolute Bay, Nunavut, all personal residences are serviced through a piped utilidor system, while buildings located outside the residential centre are provided with water through trucked services. For the purposes of this analysis, Resolute Bay has been included in the “piped water services” category, as this is the delivery method for water used for personal consumption at the household level.

4 Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami Access to Drinking Water in Inuit Nunangat Figure 2. Summary of water delivery infrastructure in Inuit Nunangat Water Delivery Infrastructure in Inuit Nunangat

Communities access water through trucked services.

Communities access water through piped services.

Communities access water through a combination of trucked and piped services.

Communities access water through a combination of piped services and Potable Water Dispensing Units.

Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami Access to Drinking Water in Inuit Nunangat 5 There are 10 piped water distribution systems in Inuit Nunangat and they tend to be old and in frequent states of disrepair. The system in Inuvik, Inuvialuit Settlement Region, Northwest Territories includes 16 kilometers of above ground utilidor and less than one kilometer of buried line. The utilidor lines were installed by the federal government in the 1950s with an expected service life of 30 years. Ownership and system operations were transferred to the Government of the Northwest Territories in 2000.11 The system is deteriorating and although sections of utilidor have been replaced, replacing the entire system is expected to cost tens of millions of dollars, forcing the Town of Inuvik to replace sections of the system incrementally as its budget permits.12 The piped water distribution system in Rankin Inlet, Nunavut is similarly aged and in poor condition. The system was installed in the 1970s and, according to analysis carried out by the Government of Nunavut, does not meet current codes and standards nor does it meet the current and future water needs of the .13 For example, operating components of the Williamson Pump House, where freshwater is drawn from Williamson Lake for treatment and distribution, are over 40 years old.14 The result is corroding piping, leaks, build-up of corrosion products within pipes, deteriorating water storage tanks, and broken valves. Furthermore, pipes carrying water throughout the community leak, contributing to low water pressure, significant wastage, and the depletion of the community’s freshwater supply at Lake Nipissar. The high “bleed rate” and leakage within the piped water utilidor system contributes to Rankin Inlet consuming 627 litres of water per capita per day on average compared to the Canadian residential average of 251 litres.15 High water consumption, in the absence of maintenance or conservation measures, and in combination with multiple others factors such as population growth and reduced precipitation, could result in the community facing end-of-winter water shortages as early as 2022.16 The piped distribution system in Iqaluit, Nunavut is also deteriorating. The first utilidor piping was laid in Iqaluit in 1975 and the average age of the 24 kilometers each of water and sewer line in the city is 26 years.17 Iqaluit is also facing water shortage. The city declared states of emergency in 2018 and 2019 after its water reservoir at Lake Geraldine reached historic lows.18 Analysis from 2017 estimates that under current climate conditions and population demand the city would enter a perpetual state of drawdown by 2024, meaning that the water supply will not be fully replenished by precipitation before the surface of the reservoir freezes during winter.19 Multiple factors are contributing to the depletion of the supply, including population growth, water leaks in distribution pipes that accelerate depletion, and lack of precipitation.20 In the first of 2020 alone, the city had seven “priority” water leaks, which coincided with COVID-19-related stay-at-home orders. This contributed to the city going over its daily water use target by approximately 300,000 litres a day.21 At the time of publication, the city will likely undertake construction of an additional water reservoir in order to meet increasing demand.22 However, it remains unclear what measures are being contemplated to address bleeding and leaking.

6 Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami Access to Drinking Water in Inuit Nunangat Smaller communities also face challenges in maintaining adequate supplies of water. In 2015, the water reservoir in , Nunavut froze and was temporarily depleted within the same year. Residents in the growing community used water beneath the reservoirs top layer of surface ice faster than natural melt cycles could replenish it, forcing the Hamlet of Igloolik to pump water from an alternative water source. This stopgap measure was in place until the surface ice in the reservoir could melt.23 Other Inuit communities have faced water shortages in recent years that are at least partially attributed to population growth and archaic water infrastructure. In 2015, the Hopedale Inuit Community Government, in Nunatsiavut, declared a state of emergency when the town’s reservoir ran dangerously low, causing the local school and health clinic to temporarily close.24 Water intake pipes at the reservoir also froze and needed to be replaced because they became exposed in too-shallow water.25 Leaks and low water pressure in the aging system’s gravity-fed pipes caused them to freeze, cutting households off from the community water supply, and preventing families from washing, bathing, or being able to flush their toilets.26 Hopedale’s water distribution system has since been repaired but locating a new reservoir remains a priority. Potable Water Dispensing Units (PWDUs) have been installed in the Nunatsiavut communities of Makkovik, Rigolet, and Postville in order to help remedy challenges related to aging water infrastructure and concerns over poor water quality. PWDUs are small-scale water systems that are intended to treat water in a manner similar to large-scale water treatment plants. Residents must retrieve water for personal consumption from PWDUs using their own storage containers. Households in these three communities are connected to piped water distribution systems that distribute water treated with chlorine after being pumped from their respective reservoirs. PWDUs are designed to treat water using multiple steps of filtration that include ultraviolet light and reverse osmosis. As of 2019, 32 communities in Newfoundland and Labrador were using PWDUs. The most common reasons for installing a PWDU in the province are chronic boil water advisories on the existing drinking water system, a lack of financial resources for household hook-ups, and health concerns surrounding drinking water, such as exposure to disinfection byproducts used for water treatment.27 Water infrastructure in communities with trucked water delivery systems can also be easily compromised, impeding access to drinking water. In the summer of 2020 only one water truck was operating in , Nunavut, population 1,450, due to breakdowns of its two other water trucks.28 In 2019, the union that represents teachers in Nunavik noted in a letter to regional and provincial officials that the health of students in the region is being compromised both in their homes and at schools due to the lack of reliable access to drinking water and sanitation, caused in part by household crowding and water and sewage truck breakdowns.29

Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami Access to Drinking Water in Inuit Nunangat 7 Households and communities relying on trucked water also rely on septic tanks that must be regularly emptied by separate sewage trucks. Once septic tanks are full, the household drinking water supply automatically shuts off to prevent septic tanks from overflowing. Households on trucked water must therefore cope with the dual stresses of budgeting a finite supply of water for personal consumption as well as attempting to manage wastewater outputs. The COVID-19 pandemic has further underscored the fragility of trucked water and sewer systems in particular and the elevated public health risks Inuit face as a consequence. In , Nunavik, for example, only one of the community’s three sewage trucks was working in November 2020, causing some households to go up to two weeks with- out access to water because their septic tanks were full and could not be emptied.30 The inability to wash your hands in such scenarios, coupled with the high prevalence of overcrowding in Inuit Nunangat, can place Inuit at greater risk for exposure to communicable diseases such as COVID-19. Frequent water shortages in Nunavik have also been found to compromise the quality of healthcare. The Quebec ombudsperson reported in 2019 on complaints of water shortages at Inuulitsivik Health Centre in Inukjuak, finding that water shortages compromise the quality of care at the health centre, causing interruptions lasting a few hours to several days, often several times a week. The ombudsperson notes that as a consequence, “it is difficult, if not impossible, to comply with basic hygiene measures.”31 Positive, albeit isolated, measures have been taken to improve water infrastructure in some communities. The utilidor system in Resolute Bay, Nunavut was installed by the Canadian military in the 1970s because the community is used to stage military exercises from the Training Centre. The system was slated to be decommissioned and replaced by water trucks but residents successfully lobbied to retain the system. In 2016, all the buried pipes were replaced and the system was expanded. In 2020, work began on rebuilding the community’s pump station and building a new sewage treatment plant.32

Boil Water Advisories in Inuit Communities Boil water advisories (BWAs) are the most common type of drinking water advisory issued in Canada, accounting on average for 98% of drinking water advisories issued. BWAs are intended to inform consumers that they need to boil their water in order to protect their health against the potential presence of disease-causing bacteria, viruses or parasites. In 2019, 87% of the BWAs issued by governments were issued because the equipment and processes used to treat, store or distribute drinking water broke down, required maintenance, or had been affected by environmental conditions.33 The frequency and duration of BWAs issued in a given region can therefore be an indicator of community water infrastructure quality, as well as drinking water quality.

8 Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami Access to Drinking Water in Inuit Nunangat BWAs for Inuit communities are coordinated between hamlet governments and regional governments (Government of the Northwest Territories, Government of Nunavut, Kativik Regional Government in Nunavik, and the Government of |Newfoundland and Labrador). Drinking water is treated by local governments in community water treatment plants using a variety of methods, including filtration, disinfection with UV light, and disinfection with chlorine.34 Municipal and regional governments monitor water quality in a manner consistent with statutes and regulations of application in their respective jurisdictions. Applicable statutes and regulations outline protocols for sampling and testing of drinking water. In Nunavik, for example, the Kativik Regional Government receives and processes weekly drinking water samples from each Nunavik community, in accordance with the provisions of the Regulation respecting the quality of drinking water.35 If a water sample does not meet established water quality standards, the Kativik Regional Government coordinates with municipal governments to implement appropriate measures, including the issuance of BWAs. Communities in Canada with small populations tend to be disproportionately impacted by BWAs. From 2010 to 2019, between 70% and 82% of BWAs issued in Canada were for communities with populations of less than 500 people. The Government of Canada attributes the higher frequency of BWAs issued for smaller communities to the unique challenges those communities face, including limited operational capacity that can cause delays in repairs.36 ITK retrieved and analyzed data on BWAs for each region of Inuit Nunangat. Data was publicly available for the Northwest Territories and requests for data were submitted to the Government of Nunavut, Kativik Regional Government, and the Government of Newfoundland and Labrador. Systems and approaches to monitoring BWAs differ from region to region. The Government of Nunavut, for example, does not appear to have a sufficient system for tracking BWAs across the territory over time, leading to challenges in documenting territory-wide trends in BWA frequency or causes.

Findings show that Inuit communities are disproportionately impacted by BWAs compared to other regions of the country. Between January 2015 and October 1, 2020, the combined total duration of time Inuit communities spent under BWAs was 9,367 days, or 26 years. During this time period, 298 BWAs were issued in 29 communities throughout Inuit Nunangat. Four BWAs were issued that lasted longer than 12 months, and 15 BWAs were issued that lasted longer than three months. Table 1 displays more detailed data regarding BWAs in Inuit Nunangat. This data is further summarized in Figure 3.

Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami Access to Drinking Water in Inuit Nunangat 9 Table 1. Boil water advisories in Inuit Nunangat, January 1, 2015 to October 1, 2020 Inuit Nunangat Region Item Value Inuvialuit Settlement Region BWAs issued 1 Days under BWA 6 Communities Affected 1 Nunavut BWAs issued 35 Days under BWA 1580 Communities Affected 11 Nunatsiavut BWAs issued 24 Days under BWA 3784 Communities Affected 4 Nunavik BWAs issued 238 Days under BWA 3997 Communities Affected 13

The 238 BWAs issued in Nunavik account for 80% of the total number of BWAs issued in Inuit Nunangat during this time period. Thirteen communities in Nunavik spent a combined total duration of 3,997 days under BWAs between January 2015 and October 2020. Nunatsiavut’s five communities spent a combined total of 3,784 days under BWAs, the second highest total number of days by region. The four long-term BWAs issued in Inuit Nunangat during this time period were all issued in Nunatsiavut. Communities in Nunavut spent a total of 1,580 days under the 35 BWAs issued in that region during this time period. One BWA was issued in the Inuvialuit Settlement Region in the last five years, lasting six days. The specific impacts BWAs are having on families and households in Inuit Nunangat remain largely undocumented and further study is required to determine their effects on Inuit. For example, it is unclear whether or not BWAs tend to be followed in Inuit communities, or how families and households manage and cope with BWAs. The experiences of some suggest that BWAs can have negative and far-reaching effects on families and households beyond the inconveniences caused by having to boil water for personal consumption and use, including stress, poor mental health, and economic challenges.37 The Government of Canada has recently prioritized ending long-term BWAs on First Nations reserves through investments in First Nations water infrastructure. This policy does not include Inuit communities. During the 2015 federal election campaign, Liberal party leader Justin Trudeau promised to eliminate all long-term (those lasting longer than 12 months) BWAs on First Nations reserves by March 2021. Budget 2016 allocated $1.8 billion over five years to address First Nations

10 Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami Access to Drinking Water in Inuit Nunangat health and safety needs, to ensure proper facility operation and maintenance, and to end long-term BWAs on First Nations reserves within five years. The department of Indigenous Services Canada has assisted in lifting 88 long-term drinking water advisories in First Nations communities since November 2015, yet 61 remain.38 In December 2020, the federal government announced an additional $1.5 billion in new investments for clean drinking water in First Nations communities.39 There are currently no federal policies or investments specifically directed at reducing the high number of BWAs issued in Inuit communities.

Figure 3. Summary of boil water advisory data by Inuit Nunangat region, inclusive of BWAs occurring between January 1, 2015 and October 1, 2020

Inuvialuit Nunavut affected 1 community affected 11 communities Nunavik 1 BWA 35 BWAs total days affected 6 under BWAs total days 13 communities 1580 under BWAs 238 BWAs total days 3997 under BWAs Nunatsiavut

affected 4 communities 24 BWAs total days 3784 under BWAs

Boil Water Advisories (BWAs) in Inuit Nunangat January 1, 2015 - October 1, 2020

Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami Access to Drinking Water in Inuit Nunangat 11 Household Crowding Inuit are more likely to live in crowded housing than most other , and crowded households use more water and produce more wastewater than those that are not crowded. Within Inuit Nunangat, 52% of Inuit live in crowded homes, compared to 37% of First Nations on reserve and 9% of non-Indigenous Canadians.40 Households relying on trucked water are uniquely vulnerable to either running out of water before water tanks are refilled or suddenly being unable to access drinking water once septic tanks are full. Most households in Inuit Nunangat rely on a finite supply of trucked water delivered to household water tanks for personal consumption, washing, and sanitation. Household water tanks must be refilled by water trucks once depleted. Households on trucked water also use septic tanks that must be emptied separately by sewage trucks. The size of household water and septic tanks do not tend to vary, and do not take household overcrowding into account. In Nunavut, for example, single houses are fitted with a 1,200 litre potable water holding tank, regardless of the number of occupants. Shared-access tanks are often installed in semi-detached houses and row houses.41 The high prevalence of crowding throughout Inuit Nunangat suggests that crowded households on trucked water and sewer systems likely face persistent challenges in relation to rationing water and managing water shortages. These challenges can act as a deterrence against hand hygiene. Handwashing with soap is one of the most effective preventive measures to stop the spread of diseases.42 Crowding can therefore present barriers to accessing drinking water and may also elevate the possibility for poor health outcomes, including risk for contracting communicable infectious diseases such as COVID-19 and tuberculosis. The rate of active tuberculosis reported among our people in 2016 was 38 times the rate for Canada as a whole and more than 300 times the rate for Canadian-born non-Indigenous people.43 Inuit have taken measures to enhance access to drinking water in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, including through distribution of resources to Nunavut communities to support the frequency and reliability of trucked water delivery.44 However, the continued limited accessibility of safe water for personal hygiene puts inhabitants of Inuit Nunangat at risk. For additional information on the potential impacts of COVID-19 on Inuit Nunangat, see ITK’s inaugural quarterly research brief.45

12 Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami Access to Drinking Water in Inuit Nunangat Climate Change Climate change is diminishing the availability of freshwater in Inuit Nunangat as year-over-year temperatures rise, permafrost melts, and precipitation and evaporation patterns change. Multiple climate-driven factors are contributing to the shrinking surface and disappearance of freshwater ponds and throughout the Arctic.46 Recent analysis of lake counts and lake surface area in western from the 1960s to present found that the region is becoming hotter and drier. Lake counts decreased by 21% and surface area by 2% during the study period, with smaller ponds and lakes being more prone to disappearance (28%) and surface area reduction (15%).47 Similar patterns have been observed between 50 and 70 degrees northern latitude in Canada, an area that includes most of Inuit Nunangat.48 Permafrost melt coupled with precipitation and evaporation patterns are driving reductions in freshwater lake size and surface area. Permafrost beneath freshwater lakes and ponds is melting as temperatures warm, causing lakes and ponds to drain. Warming trends are causing precipitation to increase in the Arctic but largely in the form of increased snowfall during winter, followed by hotter and drier summers that cause stored precipitation to evaporate. Many Inuit communities are either built on top of permafrost or adjacent to areas underlaid by permafrost. The implication for Inuit communities is that existing reservoirs and nearby sources of freshwater may become vulnerable to the effects of warming trends that deplete available sources of drinking water.

Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami Access to Drinking Water in Inuit Nunangat 13 Conclusion

Too many Inuit struggle to access drinking water and to enjoy our human right to water. The barriers many Inuit households are forced to navigate in order to secure access to drinking water likely constitute human rights violations. This problem may worsen without further research and intervention, as Inuit Nunangat becomes hotter and drier, and as community population growth further strains aging water infrastructure and places greater demands on available housing and community water supply. Further investigation is required to fully understand the depth and breadth of drinking water quality and accessibility issues throughout Inuit Nunangat. It is unclear how BWAs are impacting Inuit households on a day-to-day basis, or whether they tend to be adhered to. It is similarly unclear whether PWDUs in Nunatsiavut have helped remedy water infrastructure challenges and concerns related to drinking water access and quality in those communities. Further research is also needed on the on-going and potential impacts of climate change on community water supply in order to inform municipal planning and development. Challenges in relation to drinking water access among Inuit remain largely overlooked by researchers and governments, contributing to limited data and information that could inform coherent and effective policy responses. The frequency and duration of BWAs issued throughout Inuit Nunangat in the past five years alone are indicative of the profound infrastructure deficit between Inuit Nunangat and the rest of Canada. These challenges can likely only be remedied through coordinated, major investments in Inuit Nunangat infrastructure.

14 Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami Access to Drinking Water in Inuit Nunangat References

1 U.N. Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No. 15 (2002): The right to water (arts. 11 and 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights) (Geneva, Switzerland: November 2002), accessed November 24, 2020, https://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/water/docs/CESCR_GC_15.pdf. 2 Ibid. 3 Office of the High for Human Rights, “Human rights treaty bodies – General Comments,” accessed November 2, 2020, https://www.ohchr.org/en/hrbodies/pages/tbgeneralcomments.aspx. 4 U.N. Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, “General Comment No. 15: The Right to Water” (Arts. 11 and 12 of the Covenant), 20 January 2003, accessed October 30, 2020, https://www.refworld.org/docid/4538838d11.html. 5 U.N. General Assembly, “Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 28 July 2010: 64/292. The human right to water and sanitation,” 3 August 2010, A/RES/64/292, accessed October 30, 2020, https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N09/479/35/PDF/N0947935.pdf?OpenElement. 6 , Canada’s Core Pubilc Infrastructure Survey: Potable water and stormwater assets, 2016, November 1, 2018, 2, accessed November 4, 2020, https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/daily- quotidien/181101/dq181101a-eng.pdf?st=1kpo634E. 7 Infrastructure Canada, “Inventory distribution of publicly owned potable water assets by physical condition rating, Infrastructure Canada,” 2016, accessed November 4, 2020, https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3410019601. 8 Stephanie L. Gora et al., “Source water characteristics and building-specific factors influence corrosion and point of use water quality in a decentralized Arctic drinking water system,” Environmental Science and Technology, 54(2020), 2192. 9 Ibid. 10 Stephanie L. Gora et al., “Microbioligcal water quality in a decentralized Arctic drinking water system,” Environmental Science Water Research & Technology, 6(2020), 1865. 11 Town of Inuvik, "Water, sewer and utilities," accessed November 17, 2020, https://www.inuvik.ca/en/ living-here/Water-Sewer-and-Utilities.asp. 12 Mackenzie Scott, "Inuvik's utilidor, nearly 65 years old, will cost $80 million to replace," CBC News, December 11, 2019, accessed November 17, 2020, https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/ inuvik-utilidor-replacement-1.5391835. 13 Government of Nunavut, RFP 2017-63 Feasibility Study - Rankin Inlet Water Infrastructure-Treatment, Rankin Inlet, NU, October 12, 2017, accessed November 2, 2020, https://assembly.nu.ca/sites/default/files/ TD-18-5(2)-EN-Feasibility-Study-Rankin-Inlet-Waster-Infrastructure-Treatment.pdf. 14 Ibid. 15 Michael Bakaic and Andrew S. Medeiros, “Vulnerability of northern water supply lakes to changing climate and demand,” Canadian Science Publishing, 26 November 2016, accessed November 3, 2020, https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/10.1139/as-2016-0029#.WT_1DOsrJQI. 16 Ibid. 17 Sara Frizzell, “Iqaluit resident maxes out insurance dealing with sewage backups; says city is to blame,” June 8, 2018, accessed November 3, 2020, https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/sewage-backup- happy-valley-utilidor-1.4695650. 18 Jackie McKay, “City of Iqaluit declares 2nd water emergency in 2 years,” CBC News, August 6, 2019, accessed November 3, 2020, https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/lake-geraldine-city-iqaluit-water- emergency-1.5235383. 19 Michael Bakaic et al., “Hydrologic monitoring tools for freshwater municipal planning in the Arctic: the case of Iqaluit, Nunavut, Canada,” Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25(2018), 32913-32925. 20 Jackie McKay, “City of Iqaluit declares 2nd water emergency in 2 years,” CBC News, August 6, 2019, accessed November 3, 2020, https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/lake-geraldine-city-iqaluit- water-emergency-1.5235383.

Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami Access to Drinking Water in Inuit Nunangat 15 21 Jackie McKay, “Leaks and more time at home due to COVID-19 cause high daily water usage in city,” CBC News, April 16, 2020, accessed November 3, 2020, https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/ iqaluit-water-supply-pumping-1.5533308. 22 Dustin Patar, “City of Iqaluit moves closer to long-term water storage solution,” Nunatsiaq News, 3 September 2020, accessed November 3, 2020, https://nunatsiaq.com/stories/article/city-of-iqaluit- moves-closer-to-long-term-water-storage-solution/. 23 Lisa Gregoire, “Igloolik water reservoir frozen and dry, says Nunavut hamlet’s SAO,” 10 June 2015, accessed November 6, 2020, https://nunatsiaq.com/stories/article/65674iglooliks_water_reservoir_frozen_and_dry/. 24 CBC News, “Tough times in Hopedale has mayor musing about resettlement,” March 24, 2015, accessed November 6, 2020, https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/tough-times-in-hopedale- has-mayor-musing-about-resettlement-1.3007319. 25 Jim Tuttauk, Parliamentary Report: Third Assembly of Nunatsiavut: 7th Session of the Third – First and second sittings September 22nd and 23rd, 2015, 73, accessed November 6, 2020, http://www.sivunivut.ca/home/files/hansards/ng_hansard_september_2015.pdf. 26 CBC News, “Hopedale’s archaic water system causing frustration in Labrador town,” , 2015, accessed November 6, 2020, https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/hopedale-s-archaic-water- system-causing-frustration-in-labrador-town-1.3018475. 27 Sarah Minnes and Kelly Vodden, Exploring solutions for sustainable rural drinking water systems: A study of rural Newfoundland & Labrador drinking water systems (Memorial University), 47, accesed November 18, 2020, http://www.mun.ca/harriscentre/Rural_Water_Report.pdf. 28 Derek Neary, “A single water truck separates Kinngait from having to fly in bottled water,” Nunavut News, July 29, 2020, accessed November 3, 2020, https://nunavutnews.com/nunavut-news/a-single-water- truck-separates-kinngait-from-having-to-fly-in-bottled-water/. 29 Jane George, “Nunavik teachers union deplores state of region’s water supply,” Nunatsiaq News, 29 August 2019, accessed November 3, 2020, https://nunatsiaq.com/stories/article/nunavik-teachers- union-deplores-state-of-regions-water-supply/. 30 Jane George, “During COVID-19 pandemic, Nunavik community suffers from water woes,” Nunatsiaq News, November 24, 2020, accessed November 24, 2020, https://nunatsiaq.com/stories/article/during-covid-19- pandemic-nunavik-community-suffers-from-water-woes/. 31 Le Protecteur du Citoyen, Intervention report: Intervention at Inuulitsivik Health Center (, QC: January 7, 2019), accessed November 3, 2020, https://protecteurducitoyen.qc.ca/sites/default/files/ pdf/rapports_d_intervention/intervention-report-inuulitsivik-health-center.pdf. 32 Jane George, “Resolute Bay set to see more water and sewer upgrades,” Nunatsiaq News, June 9, 2020, accessed November 2, 2020, https://nunatsiaq.com/stories/article/high-arctic-communitys-piped- system-undergoes-additional-overhaul/. 33 Environment and Climate Change Canada, Drinking water advisories: Canadian environmental sustainability indicators (Gatineau, QC: 2020), 6, accessed November 13, 2020, https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/eccc/documents/pdf/cesindicators/drinking-water- advisories/2020/drinking-water-advisories.pdf. 34 Government of the Northwest Territories, 2014 GNWT Report on Drinking Water, December 2014, accessed November 12, 2020, https://www.maca.gov.nt.ca/sites/maca/files/resources/maca-drinking- water-report-2014.pdf. 35 Nunavik Regional Board of Health and Social Services, “Environmental health,” accessed November 13, 2020, https://nrbhss.ca/en/nrbhss/public-health/environmental-health. 36 Environment and Climate Change Canada, Drinking water advisories: Canadian environmental sustainability indicators (Gatineau, QC: 2020), 6. 37 Lalita Bharadwaj and Lordi Bradford, “Indigenous water poverty: Impacts beyond physical health” in Northern and Indigenous Health and Healthcare (Saskatoon, SK: 2018), 54.

16 Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami Access to Drinking Water in Inuit Nunangat 38 Indigenous Services Canada, “Ending long-term drinking water advisories,” accessed November 13, 2020, https://www.sac-isc.gc.ca/eng/1506514143353/1533317130660. 39 Indigenous Services Canada, "Government of Canada announces $1.5 billion in new investments for clean drinking water in First Nations communities," December 2, 2020, accessed December 4, 2020, https://www.canada.ca/en/indigenous-services-canada/news/2020/12/government-of-canada- announces-15-billion-in-new-investments-for-clean-drinking-water-in-first-nations-communities.html. 40 Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, Inuit Statistical Profile 2018 (2018), 13, accessed October 5, 2020, https://www.itk.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/20191125-Inuit-Statistical-Profile-revised-1.pdf. 41 Kiley Daley et al., “Municipal water quantities and health in Nunavut households: an exploratory case study in , Nunavut, Canada,” International Journal of Circumpolar Health, 73:1 (March 2014), 23843. 42 United Nations Water, “Handwashing/Hand hygiene,” accessed October 20, 2020, https://www.unwater.org/water-facts/handhygiene/. 43 Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, Inuit Tuberculosis Elimination Framework (November 2018), accessed October 20, 2020, https://www.itk.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/FINAL-ElectronicEN-Inuit- TB-Elimination-Framework.pdf. 44 CBC News, “Nunavut hamlets to delivery water to Inuit households daily for hand washing,” March 30, 2020, https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/nunavut-inuit-see-new-money-for- water-security-during-pandemic-1.5513252. 45 Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, “The potential impacts of COVID-19 on Inuit Nunangat,” Quarterly Research Briefing Series (June, 2020), accessed November 19, 2020, https://www.itk.ca/the-potential-impacts- of-covid-19-on-inuit-nunangat/ 46 Chelsey Harvey, “Arctic lakes are vanishing by the hundreds,” Scientific American, December 18, 2018, accessed November 11, 2020, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/arctic-lakes-are-vanishing- by-the-hundreds/. 47 R. A. Finger Higgens et al., “Changing lake dynamics indicate a drier Arctic in western Greenland,” Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences, 124(2019). 48 M.L. Carroll et al., “Shrinking lakes of the Arctic: Spatial relationships and trajectory of change,” Geophysical Research Letters, Vol. 38(October 2011), accessed November 11, 2020, https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2011GL049427.

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