Les Manuels Scolaires De Littérature Roumaine, 1859-2009

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Les Manuels Scolaires De Littérature Roumaine, 1859-2009 CATINCA ADRIANA STAN DES HÉROS POUR RÉFÉRENCE IDENTITAIRE Les manuels scolaires de littérature roumaine, 1859-2009 Thèse présentée à la Faculté des études supérieures de l’Université Laval dans le cadre du programme de doctorat en histoire pour l’obtention du grade de Philosophae Doctor (Ph.D.) DÉPARTEMENT D’HISTOIRE FACULTÉ DES LETTRES UNIVERSITÉ LAVAL QUÉBEC 2010 © Catinca Adriana Stan, 2010 Avant-propos La réalisation de cette thèse est due en grande partie à Bogumil Koss, mon directeur de thèse. Ses conseils avisés, le guidage dans la recherche tout au long de ces quatre années d’études doctorales, sa patience, sa disponibilité, sa confiance et ses connaissances intellectuelles m’ont beaucoup aidée et m’ont motivée à continuer la rédaction de ma thèse. Je remercie l’École Doctorale Francophone en Sciences Sociales de Bucarest, notamment madame Dolores Toma, son ancienne directrice, de m’avoir fourni la chance de poursuivre mes études doctorales au Québec. Ma reconnaissance va aussi à l’Agence Universitaire Francophone (AUF) et au Département d’Histoire de l’Université Laval, qui m’ont soutenue financièrement durant cette recherche. Je remercie les doctorants du Département d’histoire de l’Université Laval qui ont analysé les différents aspects de l’histoire du communisme en Roumanie. Leurs recherches m’ont aidée à mieux comprendre ce régime et ont servi de vérification à ma propre réflexion. J’exprime aussi ma gratitude envers madame Margot Kaszap, professeure à la Faculté des sciences de l’éducation, pour m’avoir prodigué ses conseils et ses connaissances sur l’introduction au système scolaire québécois. Une partie de ma recherche repose sur un sondage réalisé par Viorica Darabaneanu, professeure au lycée Hristo Botev de Bucarest. Je la remercie, et j’exprime ici toute ma reconnaissance à Gérard Latulippe qui a eu l’amabilité et la patience de procéder à la correction linguistique des chapitres de ma thèse. Je remercie ma famille qui m’a toujours soutenue, et notamment ma mère qui a fait des efforts pour que je poursuive mes études. Je remercie aussi les membres du jury pour l’amabilité de m’avoir fait part de leurs observations. Ma thèse est un modeste hommage à la mémoire de Dan-Horia Mazilu, professeur à l’Université de Bucarest, qui a eu l’amabilité d’accepter la codirection de ma thèse. Son décès est survenu quelques mois avant que j’en commence la rédaction. Spécialiste en littérature médiévale, il m’avait appris à étudier des textes à la fois historiques et littéraires; cette dualité caractérise certains passages des manuels de littérature. 2 Résumé La comparaison des manuels scolaires de littérature roumaine depuis le XIXe siècle jusqu’à la période post totalitaire permet d’identifier et de suivre les transformations de la représentation de l’identité nationale en fonction des réalités politiques de l’État roumain. En observant les changements survenus dans le panthéon national, il est possible d’identifier le modèle de comportement et les valeurs proposées aux élèves. Une comparaison avec les manuels scolaires d’histoire pendant la période du communisme et après la chute du régime aide à mieux saisir les mécanismes de la mémoire et de l’oubli imposés qui accompagnent alors la construction de l’identité nationale. L’analyse des héros nationaux permet également d’observer les continuités et les ruptures entre les différentes périodes qui ont marqué l’État roumain. La thèse aborde aussi la façon dont la population s’approprie cette construction identitaire proposée dans les manuels scolaires et souligne les différences entre l’identité nationale qu’affichent les adultes et l’identité individuelle privilégiée par les jeunes. La lecture comparative des manuels scolaires constitue la principale méthode utilisée pour analyser la représentation de l’identité nationale. Le recours au schéma actanciel et au carré sémiotique de Julien Greimas est mis de l’avant étant donné que les héros font l’objet du discours des manuels en tant que personnages. Pour caractériser la représentation nationale spécifique à chaque période analysée, on utilise les notions de « bon Roumain », de « bon communiste » et de « bon européen ». 3 Table des matières Avant-propos 2 Résumé 3 Table des matières 4 Introduction 8 1. Cadre théorique 10 1.1 La nation 10 1.2 Le roman 13 1.3 L’apparition d’un nouveau lecteur : l’enfant 19 1.4 L’usage de la littérature 22 1.5 Les héros nationaux 27 1.5.1 Le héros fondateur 29 1.5.2 Le « grand homme » ou le héros moderne 30 1.5.3 Le héros totalitaire 31 1.5.4. Les représentations ou comment agrandir la grandeur 33 1.5.5 La grandeur des héros roumains 37 1.6 Les manuels scolaires 41 2. Aperçu historique 43 3. Les objectifs de la recherche 46 4. Bilan des études précédentes 48 4.1 Les manuels de littérature 48 4.2 Les manuels d’histoire 49 4.3 L’histoire de l’éducation 51 5. Les sources : présentation 52 5.1. Cadre chronologique 52 5.2. Sources principales 53 5.2.1 Aperçu sur les manuels de littérature 53 5.3 Les sources complémentaires 55 6. L’approche méthodologique 56 7. Division de la recherche 58 Première Partie 61 Chapitre 1 : Former un bon roumain : les manuels de littérature avant le régime communiste (1859-1940) 62 1. La situation de l’enseignement avant et après l’Union de 1859 63 1.1 La situation en Valachie avant 1859 63 1.2 La situation en Moldavie avant 1859 65 1.3 L’enseignement dans l’État roumain après 1859 67 1.4 La situation de l’enseignement en Transylvanie 69 2. Les manuels scolaires 70 3. Le mythe de l’origine noble du peuple roumain 72 4. La « terreur de l’histoire» 76 4.1 L’histoire pré étatique 76 4.2 L’aube de l’État : la révolution de 1848 86 4.3 L’union de 1859 et la constitution de l’État roumain 88 4 4.4 La guerre d’indépendance (1877-1878) 89 4.5 L’instauration de la monarchie 94 5. Le royaume et ses habitants ; traits identitaires des Roumains 98 6. Conclusions 105 Chapitre II : Former le bon Communiste : les manuels de littérature pendant le communisme 109 1. La réforme de l’enseignement de 1948 109 2. Comment enseigner d’après le manuel de littérature 112 3. Le héros de type historique 114 3.1 Les voïvodes roumains 115 3.2 Le soldat roumain 117 3.3 La femme combattante 121 3.4 Le héros soviétique 121 4. Le héros du travail 124 4.1 L’ouvrier 124 4.2 L’élève 125 4.2.1 L’enfant pauvre 125 4.2.2 Le Pionnier 129 4.3 Les femmes héroïnes 130 4.3.1 La femme ouvrière 131 4.3.2 La jeune fille ouvrière 133 5. Le héros négatif 134 5.1 La grande étendue de terre 134 5.2 Les koulaks 135 5.3. Les boyards 136 5.4 Le surveillant 140 5.5 Le métayer 141 5.6 Les Allemands 142 5.7 Les Turcs 143 6. Le héros politique : les leaders politiques et le culte de la personnalité 143 6.1. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej 143 6.2 Vladimir Lénine 145 6.3 Joseph Vissarionovitch Staline 147 6.4 Marx et Engels 150 6.5 Ana Pauker 150 6.6 Vasile Luca 151 6.7 Nicolae Ceausescu 152 6.8. Le Parti et la Patrie communiste 153 7. Conclusions 153 Chapitre III : Former un bon Européen : les manuels de littérature après le régime communiste (1990-2009) 158 1. La situation de l’enseignement après 1989 158 2. L’identité européenne 161 3. Les manuels scolaires de littérature 164 3.1 « Apprivoiser » l’Europe 165 4. L’histoire nationale ou le long chemin vers la démocratie 168 4.1 L’origine du peuple roumain 169 5 4.2 Les voïvodes roumains 175 4.2.1 Mircea le Vieux 176 4.2.2 Vlad l’Empaleur 177 4.2.3 Étienne le Grand 180 4.2.4 Michel le Brave 183 4.3 Un État né démocratiquement 185 4.4 Les guerres 187 4.5 D’une union à l’autre vers l’Union européenne 189 5. Les valeurs de l’Union européenne 194 5.1. La culture 194 5.1.1 Stefan Luchian 194 5.1.2. Nicolae Grigorescu 195 5.1.3 George Enescu 197 5.1.4 Ciprian Porumbescu 198 5.1.5 Mihai Eminescu 199 5.1.6 Nicolae Balcescu 200 5.1.7 Traian Vuia 201 5.1.8 Emil Racovita 201 5.1.9. Constantin Brancusi 202 5.2 Le patrimoine 204 5.3 La tolérance 205 5.4. La préoccupation pour l’environnement 208 5.5. La religion 210 6. Conclusions 211 Deuxième Partie 218 Chapitre IV : Les enjeux identitaires du manuel d’histoire 217 1. Le manuel unique d’histoire durant le communisme 217 2. Les manuels d’après la chute du régime communiste 221 3. Un manuel d’histoire du régime communiste : O istorie a comunismului in Romania 223 3.1 Contexte de la parution 223 3.2 Un manuel optionnel 225 3.3 Un manuel construit autour des sources historiques 226 3.4 Le communisme d’entre les deux guerres 228 3.5 La prise du pouvoir 231 3.6 Le Parti Communiste Roumain (PCR) 232 3.7 Les institutions de l’État 235 3.7.1 Les institutions répressives 236 3.8. L’ « Autre » dans le régime communiste 239 3.8.1 Les minorités 240 3.9 La destruction de la société civile et la répression politique 242 3.9.1 Le monde carcéral 244 3.10 Le monopole idéologique 246 3.10.1 Le culte de la personnalité 248 3.11 L’économie 249 3.12 La vie quotidienne 252 3.13 La politique externe 254 6 3.14 Résistance et dissidence pendant le régime communiste 257 3.15 L’année 1989 261 4.
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