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288360963.Pdf I • Loughborough • University Pilkington Library Author/F•Iing Title ..... :;:[~ .~ ~ ~.c:-:J...................... ···························································· ...... Vol. No....... ..... Class Mark ...... T. ............... Please note that fines are charged on ALL overdue items. I i 'I Ill~ CIVIL SOCIETY, SECOND SOCIETY AND THE BREAKDOWN OF COMMUNIST REGIMES IN CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE: POLAND, CZECHOSLOVAKIA AND ROMANIA By Tracey Judson A Doctoral Thesis Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy of Loughborough University September 1999 ©By Tracey Judson 1999 L:tughooroogh U UniVe;--:ity l",t • ',. .lJimy Dlll£ ~ro t--:---.. ·~ CllllOS Ace • IN 0 '1..'1-'t-1..11 No. , Civil Society, Second Society and the Breakdown of Communist Regimes in Central and Eastern Europe: Poland. Czechoslovakia and Romania. Abstract This thesis proceeds from the premise that the demise of the Communist systems of rule in Eastern Europe is not fully explicable using ''traditional" theories of transition or democratisation. This thests Is, therefore, concerned irutially with the limitations of existing theoretical frameworks. It proposes a line of enquiry that accounts for the breakdown of Communism through an analysis of a domestic variable: second society. In particular, it addresses the question of why the former European Communist regimes expenenced differing modes of breakdown in 1989. The thesis adopts a comparative approach and focuses on the three different cases of Poland, Czechoslovakia and Romania. By comparing them, 1t analyses the extent to which variations in the modes of breakdown can be explained by the second society variable. The case studies are divided into three sections. The first considers the historical issues and factors that conditioned the nature of the Communist regime and of emerging opposition. The second analyses the development of second society within each country and the third sectiOn considers the impact of second society on the mode of regime breakdown in 1989. The thesis concludes that the case studies , demonstrate a causal relationship between the second society variable and the mode of breakdown experienced by the Commurust regtmes. --------------------------------------------~ TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures V List of Abbreviations vi Acknowledgements vm Chapter I Introduction: The Regime Breakdown and Transitions Literature 1 (1.1) Existing Theories of Democratisation/Regime Transition and Their Predictive Limitations 2 (1.2) Prerequisites Approach 3 (1.2.1) Economic Wealth and Development 3 (1.2.2) Social Structure and Cultural Context 4 (1.2.3) The External Environment 5 (1.3) Processes 7 (1.3.1) The Elite Factor and Delegitimation 8 (1.3.2) External Influences and the Gorbachev Factor 11 (1.3.3) Civil Society 13 (1.3.4) The Mode of Regime Breakdown 20 (1.4) Conclusion 23 Chapterll Civil Society and a Framework for Analysis 27 (2.1) The Concept: Civil Society 28 (2.1.1) The Historical Evolution of the Concept 28 (2.1.2) Contemporary Definitions 35 (2.2) Civil Society in Eastern Europe 38 (2.2.1) Totalitarianism 38 (2.2.2) Totalitarianism and Civil Society 41 (2.2.3) How to Measure Civil Society in the East European Context? 42 (2 2 4) From Civil Society to Second Society 43 (2.2.5) The Second Society: A Definition 44 (2.3) Conclusion 54 Chapter Ill Poland Case Study 56 (3.1) History and Pohtical Traditions 57 (3.1.1) Western Orientations and Traditions 57 (3.1.1.1) History of Anti-Russianism/Sovietism, and Catholicism 58 (3.1.2) The Establishment of the Communist Regime in Poland 61 ii (3.1.3) June 1976 Workers' Unrest 63 (3.1.3.1) Gomulka's Regime 63 (3.1.3.2) Gierek's Regime 67 (3.1.4) Summary 70 (3.2) The Development of Second Society 70 (3.2.1) The Evolution of Second Society 71 (3.2.1.1) Change From Above 71 (3.2.1.2) Change From Below 74 (3.2.2) 1976-1980 80 (3.2.2.1) KOR 80 (3.2.2.2) The Polish Catholic Church m the 1970s 83 (3.2.2.3) Student Movements 85 (3.2.2.4) Education 86 (3.2.2.5) Peasant Movements 87 (3.2.2.6) Independent Publishing (Samizdat) 88 (3.2.2.6.1) Spotlight on "Robotnik" ("The Worker'') 90 (3.2.2.7) Summary 1976-1980 92 (3.2.3) August 1980 93 (3.2.4) August 1980- December 1981 98 (3.2.4.1) The Crisis Within the PZPR 99 (3.2.4.2) The Further Development of Second Society 101 (3.2.4.3) Declaration of Martial Law, December 13th 1981 106 (3.3) Second Society and the Breakdown of Communism in 1989 107 (3.3.1) Underground Structures of the Opposition Post-December 1981 108 (3.3.2) The Development of the Underground 110 (3.3.2.1) Solidarity's Underground Strategy, Tactics and Programme Ill (3.3.3) 1983-1986 116 (3.3.4) 1986-1989: Protracted Death 118 (3.3.5) The Role of the Roman Catholic Church in the 1980s 124 (3.3.5.1) August 1980-December 13th 1981 124 (3.3.5.2) December 13th 1981-July 22"d 1983 (Suspension of Martial Law) 125 (3 3.5.3) July 1983-1989 126 (3.3.6) Mode of Breakdown. D1stmguishmg Factors 126 (3.4) Conclusion 128 Chapter IV Romania Case Study 131 (4.1) History and Political Traditions 132 (4.1.1) The Romanian Setting 132 111 (4.1.1.1) Orthodoxy 132 (4.1.1.2) Nationalism 134 (4.1.1.3) Autocracy 136 (4.1.2) The Establishment of Communism in Romania 137 ( 4.1.2.1) Politics 139 ( 4.1.2.2) Economics 141 ( 4.1.2.3) Society 142 (4.1.3) Ceausescuism 150 (4.1.3.1) Liberalisation 151 (4.1.3.2) Nationalism and the Western Connection 152 (4.1.3.3) The Party and the State: The Cult of Personality 155 (4.2) The Development of Second Society 160 (4.2.1) Introduction 160 (4.2.2) Worker Perspectives 160 (4.2.2.1) SLOMR 165 (4.2.3) Intellectual Dissent 166 (4.2.3.1) Romanian Socialism 169 (4.2.3.2) Human Rights 170 ( 4.2.4) Religious Dissent 172 ( 4.2.5) Mmority Dissent 174 ( 4.2.6) Technocrats 176 (4.2. 7) Peasant Dissent 177 ( 4.3) Second Society and the Breakdown of Communism in 1989 179 (4.3.1) Economics 181 (4.3.2) Socio-Cultural Sphere 182 (4.3.3) Politics 185 (4.3.4) Revolution 186 (4.3.4.1) The Events 186 (4.3.5) The Mode of Breakdown: Distinguishing Factors 189 ( 4.4) Conclusion 190 Chapter V Czechoslovakia Case Study 195 (5.1) History and Political Traditions 196 (5.1.1) The Czech Lands and Slovakia 198 (5.1.2) Religion and the Role of the Church 200 (5.1.3) A Submissive Nation 201 (5.1.4) 1945-1948: Institution of Communist Dominance 201 (5.1.4.1) The Establishment of Communism m Czechoslovakia 201 lV (5.1.4.2) The 1948 Coup 205 (5.1.5) 1948-1962: Implementruon ofStahrusm 205 (5.1.6) De-Stalinisation 209 (5.1.7) The Prague Spring 211 (5.1.8) Summary 214 (5.2) The Development of Second Society 215 (5.2.1) NormalisatiOn 215 (5.2.2) Immediate Post-Invasion Opposition 219 (5.2.3) September 1969-Summer 1972 220 (5.2.4) Summer 1972-August 1976 222 (5.2.4.1) Summary 225 (5.2.5) The Impact of Charter 77 226 (5.2.5.1) Charter 77's Anti-Political Stance 229 (5.2.5.2) Charter 77's Moral Foundations 231 (5.2.6) Independent C1vic Action 232 (5.2.6.1) A Second Culture 232 (5.2.6.2) Committee for the Defence of the Unjustly Persecuted (VONS) 234 (5.2. 7) Regime Repression 235 (5.2.8) Slovakia 237 (5.2.9) Summary 239 (5.3) Second Society and the Breakdown of Communism in 1989 243 (5.3.1) Events of1989 248 (5.3.2) Mode of Breakdown: Distinguishing Factors 251 (5.3.3) Conclusion 252 Chapter VI Conclusion: The Impact of Second Society on the Mode of Breakdown? 257 (6.1) Overview of Case Study Chapters 259 (6.1.1) Historical Factors 259 (6.1.2) The Second Society- Level of Development 262 (6.1.3) Recognisable and Coherent Leadership 265 (6.1.4) Cross-Class Appeal and Directional Progranime 267 (6.1.5) Nature of the Developed Communist Regime: Reaction to Opposition 270 (6.1.6) Mode ofBreakdown 273 (6.2) Concludmg Remarks 275 Bibliography 278 V LIST OF FIGURES 2.1 Modes of Breakdown- Second Society Classification 52 6.1 Modes of Breakdown- Second Society Classification in 1989 273 VI LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ALRC Romanian Committee for the Defence of Freedom of Religion and Conscience CC Central Committee (of the Communist Party) CCP Czechoslovak Commumst Party CIA Central Intelligence Agency COM Workers' Council, Romarua COMECON Council for Mutual Economic Assistance CSCE Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe GDR German Democratic Republic (East Germany) ICPA Information Centre for Polish Affairs KKW National Executive Commission of Solidarity KOR Committee for the Defence of Workers, Poland KOS Circles ofSocml Resistance, Poland KSS-KOR Social Self-Defence Committee- KOR, Poland MKS Interfactory Stnke Committee, Poland NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation NPP National Peasant Party, Romania NSF National Salvation Front, Romania OF Civic Forum, Czechoslovakia OKO National Resistance Committee, Poland PPN Polish Coalition for Independence PPR Polish Workers' Party PPS Polish Socialist Party PRON Committee ofNational Salvation, Poland PSL Polish Peasant Party PZPR Polish United Workers' Party (Communist Party) RCP Romanian Communist Party RFE Radio Free Europe RKK Regional Co-ordinatmg Committee, Poland RMP Young Poland Movement RPR Romanian People's Republic RWP Romanian Workers' Party SAP Short Action Programme (28'h October Manifesto), Czechoslovakia SKS Student Solidarity Committee, Poland SLOMR' Free Trade Union of Romanian Workers SMCC Socialist Movement of Czechoslovak Citizens TKK Provisional Co-ordinating Committee, Poland Vll TKN Society of Academic Courses ("Flying University"), Poland TNC Transnational Contact USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics VONS Committee for the Defence of the Unjustly Persecuted VPN Public Against VIolence, Czechoslovakia V111 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My greatest debts are to Mark Webber for his invaluable advice and constructive comment, and to Mike Smith for his constant help and guidance throughout the research.
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