CEU eTD Collection Radio FreeEurope inParis:theParadoxes of In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Submitted to Central European University European toCentral Submitted an EtherealOpposition Supervisor: Professor Constantin Supervisor: Iordachi Second Reader: Professor Istvan Istvan Rev Professor Reader: Second Department of History Ioana Macrea-Toma Budapest, Hungary Budapest, 2008 by CEU eTD Collection with such instructions may not be made without the written permission of the Author”. the of permission written the without made be not may instructions such with This page mustform a partof made.any such copiescopies Further madein accordance librarian. the from obtained be may Details Library. European Central in the lodged and Author the by given instructions the with accordance in only made be may part or full “Copyright in the text of this thesis rests with the Author. Copies by any process, either in Statement of copyright: i CEU eTD Collection the Communistthe period. in self-centered visions about todiscard or historical approach ethical,order Manichean least,itnot comprehensive but a uses comparative methodologies and last, theoretical information about a phenomenon only personally evoked, it applies a complex set of pedestal. transcendental caseour study, into repositioningit history a after classicized solemn locating a it on introduce the will Aconcentricgradually thepast. about contextualization for discourse present and canon literary a of establishment the for responsible is which interaction historical an within message Lovinescu’s Monica place will we tradition. intellectual alocal and context by international an framed advocacy liberal a of cultural type about further on Monicato Lovinescu’s weintend cultural broadcasts provide to newinsights Europe in a cold War context. By focusing on the Romanian Department of RFE and This paper explores, interprets and contributes to the studies regarding Radio Free Radio regarding thestudies to and contributes interprets explores, This paper The elements noveltyof undertakingour of it aremultifold: provides factual By resorting to communication theory, intellectual history and socio-history of Abstract ii CEU eTD Collection ILORPY ...... 115 BIBLIOGRAPHY: CONCLUSIONS: WHY DOES ...... 107 MATTER MILITANCY...... 76 ANDINTERNATIONAL NATIONAL BETWEEN RADIO FREEEUROPE CHAPTER 4. ADVOCATING ON A CULTURAL BASIS...... 76 CHAPTER 3. THE ROMANIAN DEPARTMENT...... 47 CHAPTER II. RADIO FREE EUROPE ...... 27 WITHIN THE COLD WAR CHAPTER I. RADIO FREE EUROPE: THEORETICAL ASSUMPTIONS...... 11 INTRODUCTION...... 1 2. 1. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. 4 3. 2. 1. 3. 2. 1. 5. 4. 3. 2.“E 1. R S M E S C N I D Q O P S A E E C I I T DEOLOGICAL NTELLECTUAL NTERACTIONIST PARADIGM EFLECTING ALT IN ALT YNCHRONISM UNDER ROGRAMS TATISTICS MERGENCE PILOGUE LITIST HE ONSTANTIN OMBINING UDIENCE ATIONALISM OUBLE UESTIONS RIENTATIONS OF THE FFECTS USEIFICATION S TATE OF P F E ” EDAGOGY OOD : PARADIGM XILE ’ RADICALIZATION OF BELLIGERENCE IN A REVIVALIST SCHEME INA REVIVALIST BELLIGERENCE OF RADICALIZATION …...... 49 S IMAGE ABOUT : ...... 53 /C T , R N S HREADS O ...... 112 ONSTRUCTING ESHAPING - A … TRUCTURE OICA H THE RIENTATION ...... 107 FFAIRS ISTORY AND OR ...... 29 ’ P M S ROBLEM OF ROBLEM ...... 25 ...... 16 C P ORE ...... 13 ERSONNEL ASE TABLE OFCONTENTS T , OTALITARIAN E ...... 82 F ...... 40 RFE ...... 18 VOLUTION ...... 94 ...... 89 D H ISSENT ISTORY OF L ...... 60 OST ...... 97 ...... 64 ...... 33 iii T P ERRITORIES ARADIGM I NTELLECTUALS ...... 78 ...... 92 ...... 22 ...... 102 CEU eTD Collection Liberty 1 history” in station radio oriented politically influential most “the as Considered broadcasting. Introduction the question of how is a Cold War ideology reframed or reflected by national by national exiled is how question orreflected the War ideology of a Cold reframed informing task. Choosingwithin aCold framework Warinstitutional deal with propagandisticthe and professional as a case study the Romanian section, we shall try based national news. to answer with pragmaticthe goal of supplying an audience with reliable intra-national inter-and democracy messageadvocating American managed combine theoretical the to Liberty to deal with daily local realities, disasters or thorny issues. RadioFree Europe and Radio people whofed daily news in on uncensored tograsporder worldwidemostly eventsbut Soviet Europe numbered internationalmillion Union broadcast exposed 370 to almost range of andactors institutions belongwhich communism. to societies from The Eastern thewide within moment place an respectable the retaining undisputedly at practically in freedom”,actor for “crusade important the as an acknowledged retroactively itvoice; is as and also a liberating is consecrated immanently promoted Europe notonly Free Radio Moreover, development. theory of communication asasubject least, not but last pressand, asinformative arenacounterbalancing party-dominated context, alternative Arch Puddington, (Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky, 2000), p. ix. Radio Freeholds Europe a unique in position annals the international of The target of our thesis will be that of analyzing how national-based departments national-based how analyzing of that be will thesis our of target The 1 , it played several aspropagandisticwithinroles, instrument theWar Cold Broadcasting Freedom: the Cold War Triumph of RadioFree Europeand Radio 1 CEU eTD Collection Organizations Division of CIA. See Michael Nelson 3 Forward by WalesaLech (: Brassey’s, 1997), p. xiv. 2 societies” open more satellite of USSRandimprovingthe chances countries foragradual change towards broadcasters” domestic as “surrogate act to journalistic but notprovidedoes style, information in neutral standardized It only seek to content. local a with international but content, international astrong with national not is it Therefore, what distinguishes RadioFree Europe from or BBC is that unlike the Bolshevik andin Naziregimes in- taking part global the of airwaves. war II– War World during and before interest shown not had States United the since so more the special, all Free Europe makes Radio target broadcast were the that countries the Department. and of Romanian then the Free Europe of Radio peculiarities intellectual and institutional the highlighting analysis, a concentric pursue shall we program, liberal-conservative tounderstandthe unintendedcapital.a consequencesof order such In meta- with a symbolic endowed radio medium of of ethereal bymeans the polarizations change advocating way, this In masses. the and intellectuals between communication vertical lack the insightsynchronizingcommunism, toopposition appeals to broadcasts Romanian the cultural awareness the despite argue wewill that, institution, of a consecrating the status which enjoyed of social a cultural by account which highlyand appreciated Romanian program audience the was dynamism, andeditors in what RFE’s roleactually of consist when freedom. propagating into Taking enforcing an elitist discourse and a This is Radio Free Europe’s aim as it is expressed in 1954 by Cord Meyer,chief of the International Michael Nelson, along lines the rough of Coldrhetoric War leads to Airing news not about newsnotAiring the country from originatedwhich but broadcasts the about War ofthe Black Heavens, The Battles of Broadcasting in the Cold War 3 . An inherent paradox . Aninherentparadox of history wholeCold diplomatic Warthe of , op. cit , op. 2 2 while“keepinghopealiveamong the ., p.44. endorsing existing , CEU eTD Collection more neutral ones, basic methodological differences still constitute a sore absence. The 1967 introduced a gap between the studies having a “self-congratulatory “self-congratulatory agaptone” havinga betweenintroduced thestudies 1967 Although exposurethe of radio’sthe fundingby Central the Intelligence Agency in (CIA) networking. diplomatic and evolution intricate its of institution, the of emergence with as institution Free Radio only an factual Europe count as reconstruction the of concerned far, studies the So descriptivism. beyond which goes of research within a type features foraccount its contradictory also but to scientific attention, enjoyed appropriate investigateonly further anintriguing to propagandistic didnot phenomenon which of 1956”, 5 Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 87-120. Latour, Bruno See others”. “whichis still real and objective, but is livelier, more talkative, active, pluralistic, and more mediated than lives materials have to offer”, to look atobjects as “gatherings” and to indulge in asecond empiricism detecting translations between mediators. What we retain is the urge to “get to urge the is we retain What mediators. between translations detecting insofar as do they not longer represent the object of a linear method of transporting causalities, but of object it explains”. It rather postulates the irreducible nature of nature irreducible the postulates rather It explains”. it object which is not interested in reducing complexities to social explanations, orto “substitute society forthe By this dichotomy he tries to promote a type of critical sociology defined as the ‘Actor-Network-Theory’ 4 despite its radiant tension a as as ranged been anhas topic the that seems It investigations. complex or multiple imposition as afor thehistorical challenge didflow necessarilynot either enhance as Europe object bearshistorical itsan of anintriguingenquiry strategic peculiarity: Free Radio freedom. voicing In this respect, of paradoxes the upon touch collaterally strategy, aimed fueling atraising people’s internal without consciousness upheavals. of features a contradictory acquiresthe broadcasting Thepropaganda IronCurtain. the behind in movements undergroundresistance countries support campaigns coordinated to arrangements wouldbe thatoffocusing on containmentinitiatives as well as on Johanna Granville, “Caught with Jam onOur Fingers. Radio Free Europe and the HungarianRevolution I use here the distinction formulated by Bruno Latour between “matters of fact” and “matters ofconcern”. “matters and offact” “matters between Latour Bruno by formulated distinction the here Iuse The studies concerned with the history of Radio Free Europe as a whole Diplomatic History Reassembling the Social: anIntroduction Actor-Network-Theoryto , Vol.29,No. 5(November2005). issue 4 during War the Cold era.Ourtask istherefore not 3 facts , converting them into closer to the much variegated (New York: 5 and the concerns fact , CEU eTD Collection treated intreated Western studies as havinga monolithic institution factual it a development, is morefocused If it studies. is and frustratingparadoxical scholarly that RFEas a subject is muchfor andinterest reduced scarce resources of conditions actual emerging the under Department within Romanian choosingthe Moreover, of sucha topic. assumingtask developing the RFE proves not to be an elective, but RFE. a rather natural option, monograph on insightful for existenceof an the factors hindering are the surveyed past self- a police- andvulgates andsecrecies about made bythespecific incorporated obscure Institute, reports arenot situated within eachcountry’s national archives, butin Hoover the California) internal as as over-all well the broadcasts (the access immediate lackof The analysis. and the complex comparative low of perspective from the be approached to understandingly difficult intensityis subject the that past, in their appropriating countries’ differences target because of the of interestitis because of the organization of RFE as a multi-national and multi-level institutionfor and a historymessage.liberating Secondly, and its source the inviolable theauraof thatmakes “truth” still emotionally probably from derive RFE’s institutionalown and ideological complexity. richness in terms of scientific challenge. We would suggest that inhibitingthe factors international history the of broadcasting such an enjoyed attention arid its despite why a phenomenon million affectedthat lives andof whichinscribed a new chapterin is a may intriguing it and perhaps subject of inconstitute research itself question the of diversity. It related and thematic totone are those treatment data-based only inthe shifts The precarious bibliographical situation imposes itself imposes The bibliographical situation motivationprecarious foras a primary voicing of principle legitimating highly and self-imposed is the it all, of First 4 CEU eTD Collection [The [The White Security Police Book. Literary and Artistic Histories 1969-1989] (: Presa Român Michael Shafir, 29 the RomanianDepartment withinRFE and no foundationwill aversponsor such a project (interview with same thing, stressing that nobody will be ever interested in undertaking the task of disclosing the history of April 2008, 22th Bucharest). E.H., with Aweek(conversation later,issue” Michael exhausted Shafir, an is Europe RFE Free researcher“Radio that us to in the 60s declared and 80s, editor, Europe told us almost the authorities to organize national funerals forMonica Lovinescu, afamous journalists and formerRadio Free 8 Dobrin. Nicolae player football famous the to and Patriarch Teoctist defunct the to given previously prize a of ”, “Star Order National the with B Traian president the funerals, organizations and personalities suchas Sorin Ilie 7 herfamily. She died on the 20 complex task of recuperating the memory of the exile community, of RFE broadcasts and, last but least, of Monica Lovinescu continues to monitor1990, and analyzeAfter Romanian Word]. ofthe cultural Tale life,[The while vorbei” accomplishing “Povestea a program the preparing team, Romanian RFE will share a lifelong militancy she whom forpolitical with and cultural Ierunca, Virgil freedom.figure, Since cultural Romanian 1975, Virgil another Ierunca marries She joins1948. as in well Republic People’s a becomes Romania after immediately there refuge political takes and year same the September in Antithesisand in ” and “Romanian CulturalActuality”). Awarded ascholarship in 1947, she leaves to Department as the editorof two influential cultural broadcasts transmitted from Paris from the 60s (“Theses 6 its editors neutral RFEand appliedindifference research concerning and alsobut towards adeeper canonizing heras and analystintellectual undermilitant a unique communism and after, Lovinescu yet Monica analytically is evokedandnot the audience, only objectified. topic personally RFE biggest the with countries of the in Romania, one see that to moreeven puzzling coordinated by Mihai Pelin, a dubious figure of the political and cultural arena. Virgil Ierunca stand against the doubtful collections of Security Police documents memories diaries, and Warhistory, of the GeluIonescu broadcasts Monica Lovinescu, or because of the unprofessional disclosure and publication of them.As if continuing a Cold or them underpinning intentions malevolent the of because either unreliable often quantity which,of reports although they provide can information,a rich source of are alongyears who produced namely agents, avast Police hidden interlocutors, Security the We refer to the collection of documents collection the to Werefer Whereas, for example, elite-oriented newspaper “Cotidianul” supports the initiative of several of initiative the supports “Cotidianul” newspaper elite-oriented example, for Whereas, Monica Lovinescu in1923, (born Bucharest- died in 2008, Paris) is amainfigure of Romanian RFEthe 7 6 . The only accounts about RFE’s editors belong to the main actors or to their to or actors main the to belong editors RFE’s about accounts only The . ’s recent death on the 20 th April 2008, Cluj-Napoca). Instead of agreeing with the organization of the national of the organization the with of agreeing Instead Cluj-Napoca). 2008, April th of April, 2008. ă sescu decides for a more moderate homage, awarding Monica Lovinescu Monica awarding homage, moderate a more for decides sescu Cartea albaaSecurit th of in revealedApril ageneral of promptitude 2008 ú iu, Jela, Vladimir Tism 5 ăĠ ii. Istorii literare ă neanu to convince the ú i artistice 1969-1989 ă 8 , CEU eTD Collection journalists could RFE the pose and for the circles stability literary the of that the problems regime. of type the and matters literary about had agents police that discourse of type the show they because them to reference make we will information, accurate offer not do Operations. RFE History through Security Police documents] (Bucharest: Compania, 2007). Even ifthey „Meli 1996), which is an official intelligence account of literary life under communism and to frame and moralism political of basis elitist the show politics and literature of intersection section of RFE will focus conservative grounds.by Itis our notthat casestudy accident eitheron on Romanian the Monica Lovinescu’s broadcasts department, advocating democracy on cultural obtain imageof belligerent the a highly which, by standing we from American directors, Romanian causeproblemsfor the the beginning editors the at the andspace that amongRFE enjoy programs overall largest broadcasts the overall cultural cultural the fact that the we add If harshest. becomes dictatorship when Ceausescu’s mysterious diein Romanian four circumstances aperiod directors biggest orthat under that in a countryconstitute devoid further of grand evidence cultural field. From pointthis of view, peculiarities the of Romanian the Department scale for thesocial challengingcomprehensible aninstitutional ahistorical within context, and framework a polarized movements status of ourthe typeresearch. RFE’s Itaudience sufficesofmissionary to sayisdiscourse the and critical asa its todisregardrole cultural or minimizeits importance mean weseekto that voice penetrating the not far.IronThis itdoes so has beenwrapping that discourse from eulogistic the disentangled relatingCurtain. Our goal is to withEurope field the Romanian inregards to thecultural 70s shouldbeand 80s initiate a new to The perspective political the past. symbolicFree heldbyRadio position about and Radio uncritical an streaming along documents, of andundigested aplethora personal discourse Free Europe which should render its role Ġ a” It is our primary task to fillisbetween a primary abibliographical It gap a canonizing toor our task ú i „Eterul”. Istoria Europei Libere prin documende de 6 [„Chatterbox” and „Ether” and [„Chatterbox” Opera Ġ iunile CEU eTD Collection in the 70s the privileges acquired during the liberalization from from in liberalization and 60s.Culture 70stheprivileges the the during acquired cultural anddebate seek to for civic attitudes within a cultural field iswhich still enjoying Consequently,it itsunintentionally narrows political by advocacy politicise to trying a the past and it establishesof professional autonomy. Itthe also shapes thediscursive history of the rehabilitations of authors from 1950 to1989.It actually andguides provides legitimacyparameters for cultural the fraction in search of the debate forshared militancy liberty, by andfeverishly acknowledged boycotted regimethe from on nationala beyond goes Romania in communist field literary the identity.and RFE the between relationship the literary wars, of extended micro-context of WarCold and macro-context within the “psychological warfare” itself. Because of radio’s Because the itself. warfare” “psychological of the withincontext the elaborated discourse a scientific of agenda very pragmatic interaction of paradigm The field. civic and cultural the of limits the horizontally buttransformationistverticallyinvolved partner, stretching asan and agenda, demonstrate thecultural from wewill after theory inputs as itwas developed communication turn, that the propagandistic latest the to from Romania. Resorting situation communist political cultural the and influences just or not reflects broadcasts RFE Romanian the that weargue role, liberating radio acted not asattitudes. transcendental an politics andsociety survey of 1989andfosteringeven after uncritical anti-communist tribunea schematic of contributing understanding to culture, to approach an aesthetical-ethical with a By trying liberateto RFE from the tautological Cold War discourse limiting it toa will be preferred to that as to that be preferred will communication asdomination 7 ideological and symbolical ideological and , thus subverting the communication as position CEU eTD Collection War and psychological War and by propaganda itspsychological takingwarfare uniqueness account into in Then in the first thematic chapter we subject. on studies the the other and all approach will between our difference the which makes circumscribe the radio station asortof pluriperspectivism withinin itself subjectdictates the factthat the stressing history the Cold within the meta-field of radio anthropology, communication theory and intellectual on communication theory and socio-intellectual history. be mustalso grounded theoretical mostappropriate suggest the perspectives writers) that (editors, categories intellectual tocertain or press) or (radio media certain to belonging undergirds the idea of which dialogue anongoing within policemen’s replies, Securitate the agents’ or by from is literary accompanied the country literary the the community situation or political the about the “other”:RFE’sreportingabout reports interrelated a system of RFE as a coagulating network, we would say that they distribute themselves according to press articles. If we and reports exchanges, Security Police epistolary publishedbyherself, diaries, broadcasts should characterize Lovinescu’s seriesof Monica discontinuous the representing sources secondary all these materials will Open bewith or (Budapest) Archives Archives corroborated Society from (Bucharest) the perspective Romanian in theNational either situated materials archival and researchers or editors of the RFE or writers interviews with such as sources Primary we shalladopt. that perspectives discourse. historiographic havepolitics blurredfrontiers,influencing willtothus prove thepostcommunist We excursusstart therefore shall our on by air-waving positioning ourselves theoretical asthe ascomplex are demonstration our back up will that The sources media asinteraction 8 . Other specificities of the sources, those of CEU eTD Collection 9 constellation“a as human andVirgil Lovinescu combinedIerunca the Monica authority of its tormented history,one the audience’s expectancies, the status of the cultural programs, and can concerns. In thealways second chapter we will focus on the Romanian Department by displaying invisible air-waving and rely internationalizingas an liberal voice echoing local and national on” spherethrough for creating apublic agency asanalternative paradoxes its disclose also will we Nevertheless, impact. journalistic and organization of interms efficiency its broadcasting ideology its industry, goals,efficiency and pragmatic underpinning turns more into keeping culture,tradition is molded within Wara Cold setandhow the desire toopen culture history to in a intellectual self-centered an how show will programs the of analysis chronological the and entourage way, out of history. In milieu and of intellectual exile the Parisian the of conceptual historical delineation and doing so, we West. The and between East their asaninterface role despite of RFEthe broadcasts, stakes ofinstitutional building canon positioning and willreveal national the orientation cultural ininvolvement literary institutional During affairs. the the debate, protochronist a social into – crisis political complex of conditions under – metamorphosed gradually is past the from authors the with concerned campaign rehabilitating a literary how showing by communication intra-elitist of question the develop weshall chapter nextIn the cases notbut only does result the of an represent which coverage reflect, active social movements.endorsed in the radio’sThe ’few reports cases about the ofRomanian dissidence elites’perception activism thatwithin thewe Eastern shall of thediscuss effectiveness will therefore of the broadcasts, but also the vision Gabriel Liiceanu Gabriel on on groundsof the an elitistold intra-departmental pedagogy and RFE competition. , Declara Ġ ie de iubire [Love Declaration] (Bucharest: Humanitas, 2001), p.86. 9 . We will take into account not only the 9 constructs CEU eTD Collection their transcendental moral position to a local well-defined and interactive one. interactive and well-defined local a to position moral transcendental their gloriousfrom be of figures.Therepresentatives relocated air-waving will subversive thus autochthonous and an discourse a cosmopolite between boundaries thestrict shall notonly undermine one, but we shall also dissolve a static relating to the past and to its 10 CEU eTD Collection (Basingstoke: Macmillian, 1997). 11 York: Routledge, 2002), p. 17. Postwar, 1945-1989”,Rosemary in (ed.),Wakeman Long “The Morewood, See Steven economies»”. world’s of «two concept Stalin’s echoing superpowers, respective of the might industrial the on centered systems trading separate with domain economic ideological battle propaganda winover minds of to the populations;hearts and to the try and, rival in of 1948 and 1961; military confrontation, bothconventional and atomic; a political, psychological and 10 newits asa directions for and weshall approached RadioFree Europe topic was propose pattern along“action-reaction” an unfolding involved inarelationship as partners Americans Soviets the personalized and viewing loyal struggle the befurtherundertaken, atendency they remain needto of to end the for of East-West the initiatives American roleoverseas forthe of explanations concludes and thatcomprehensive features elitistinfiltration which attitudes therefore field part of a strategicweaponry of byone postwarglobalthe utilized superpowers the of a mentioned as itis or collaterally audience onasubservient attacks conscious launching of as atribune holistically approached isFree Europe societal clashing.blocks Radio two assumptions ideological the with associated apparatus theoretical a with convergent arestill studies War and propaganda Cold the Free Europe, Radiosurrounding and within networking intellectual of dynamic the and diversity human the account literature despite thetakingintoon politics growingthe War.Without ofthe Cold Chapter I.RadioFree Europe: Theoretical Assumptions See Walter L. Hixson, L. Walter See Cold “The Warwas foughtindifferent waysby superpowers: throughbrinkmanship, inBerlin as crisis 10 . Although there are researchers who expose the frailties of Westerncultural a frailties of the expose who are researchers there . Although As we previously asserted, Radio Free Europe is still a poorly treated subject isFree Europe still Radio apoorly treated As wepreviously asserted, In the present chapter we shall make an inventory of the perspectives from from which of inventory perspectives the make weshall an chapter In present the Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture,the and ColdWar, 1945-1961 11 . 11 Themes inModern European History since1945 (New CEU eTD Collection propaganda and psychological warfare contingent to its assumptions. In this respect, this In its assumptions. to contingent warfare and psychological propaganda fosteringmilitary makesin ait engaged proactiveto acts, policy anysubjectrelated theory as it. Insofar transgress whichshould theory the embeddedness within features. We may say that our topic bearslacking motivation the and the skills beingof informed. a unique status involving social inthe and categories replacing reading arena individual the previously as well due to its implicitby partly ansphere public emotional creates which an informativebut device medium, communication mass a only not is It broadcasting. of history in the times many qualities communication requires special attention in itself, it its as demonstrated disseminating several media interplay: air waves, press and books. Radio as a medium of of a phenomenon analyzing of manner new catalyzing a as but approach, revisionist be viewedor theoretical asasubversive cannot acquisitions, our puzzle disparate autonomy from politicalthe sphere by resorting topoliticized inputs.Because it relies on its attain to field whichtried for acultural mattered broadcasting andwhy how radio insights from fieldsall these and make to them converge ina comprehensive account of enclosed fields or with transnational dealing with history either sociology literature ideas, of of concerned with propaganda, cultural networks. Ourmedia sociology, purpose radio anthropology, communication is theory, Coldto War studiesborrow usefulfrom ranging frameworks theoretical different intersection of way,atthe challenging populations itself,in influence target placesand aresourceful overthe Europe’s Free Radio of question the that from start, the noticing, is worth It “coverage”. further develops within the Cold War context as a scientific discourse legitimating or legitimating discourse a scientific as context War Cold the within develops Radio communication in itself as a subject already encapsulates intriguing encapsulates already asubject as itself in communication Radio 12 communication CEU eTD Collection Liberty 18 (London: Brassey’s, 1997). 17 University Press, 1991). 16 PraegerPublishers, 1983). 15 Mead &Company, 1963). 14 accounts ofheroic operations andSig personalachievements, Mickelson 13 of 1956”, 12 Kovrig Holt Robert whereas diversity: thematic andtone to related are those treatment data-based inthe shifts only absence.The asore constitute tone” congratulatory inIntelligence Agency a introduced (CIA) gap between the 1967 studies having a“self- diplomatic networking. Although exposureof the radio’sthe fundingby Central the and evolution intricate its of institution, the of emergence the of reconstruction factual Affairs of State 1. The 70s. towards the its contents internationalizes and itself broadens RadioFree Europe of focusedpoignancy the development, related Ina acquire featuresneeded examinations. in meta-discoursive relevant the objectifying to and implications political from them exonerate to seems which process a undergoing arealsodeveloping, itsa static “theories” is not one, Warhistory theCold because in itself,insofar as itis rooted in the history of radios piercing the . However, media sociology will not be used just as an instrumental conceptual tool, but as a subject Arch Puddington, Michael Nelson, Bennett Kovrig, Bennett Mickelson, Sig Allan A. Michie, Robert T. Holt, Johanna Granville, “Caught with Jam onOur Fingers. Radio Free Europe and the HungarianRevolution (Lexington, Ky : The University Press of Kentucky, 2000). 16 The studies concerned with Radio Free Europe as an institution count only only as count as aninstitution Free Europe Radio concerned with The studies Diplomatic History , Michael Nelson Michael , Radio Free Europe Free Radio America’s Other Voice: theRadio Story Free of Europe andRadioLiberty Of Walls andBridges:United States the and Eastern Europe War ofthe BlackHeavens: theBattles of Western Broadcasting intheCold War Voices through the IronCurtain: theRadioFree Europe Story BroadcastingFreedom: the coldWar Triumph of Radio Free Europeand Radio 12 and the more neutral ones, basic methodological differences still differences methodological basic ones, neutral more the and , Vol.29,No. 5(November2005). 17 and ArchPuddington (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1958). 13 13 and Allan Michie Allan and 18 realize broader pictures of the pictures broader realize (New York: New York 14 provide detailed provide (New York: Dodd, York: (New 15 (New York: , Bennett CEU eTD Collection scripts of Hungarian political inabilitythe containedprograms about remarks of of evaluation the that notes only He communists. of categories abstract on down looking real individualsimpulseschange addressed the and enraged generalizing eviland to of Neitheris explored theambiguousrelationship between imperativean of gradualist politics. conceiving of way retroactive or habits journalistic parameters, discoursive as such consequences, unreported its in discussed not is It authorities. American the by perceived effects the through is examined journalists exilesas employ strategy to initial ideological Arch book, Puddington’s guidelineswith forreal example,results. In the basic alternating by shown, descriptively only are Congress) and (CIA authorities scale and with a composite staff enjoying a high degreecontradictions of a propagandistic institution erodeofaiming to communism onalarge autonomy from the American interpretation RFE’sthe of in insertion alargerlandscape. socio-cultural inner The discourse of issuesnegative outcomes.replacing positive with asofter standpointto loaded critical factually awayfrom a bymoving trend, resurrecting new a They endorse broadcasts. of the effects political the on centered account teleological moderate of sort revived a temporal distance thatthe is itversions arguable between1985-1993. News Division.Europe and Radio Liberty1976. A broadcasterin with ahigh reputation, beenhe had president of CBS the Arch19 Puddington has served as a deputy director of the radio’s New York bureau in radio the within directors (as subject the with relationship intimate their to be assigned can approach narrative-based for the causes casesthe Arch Puddington’s and Mickelson’s in Sig If them. conditioned which factors ideological and economic the into taking account andEastern Europe, between Unitedthe States diplomatic relations Sig Mickelsonis the first president of the corporation resulting from the mergerbetween Radio Free The problematic status is lively with a altogether of The problematic status RadioFree Europe discarded 14 19 ), for the other the for ), CEU eTD Collection 22 21 major companion of communication underground it as a Kuron acknowledges andJacek information” “ourministry of represented radio the Walesa Lech For figures. famous of weight symbolic testimonial the with is The history ennoblingeffectsupersedingdramatic reached through the radio’s further informingmovements, afrustrated audience and producing trouble toSoviet intelligence. in the subversive connecting radio ontherole of apologetic centered discourse lie” which institutionthe is grounded -“an dedicatedorganization totruth was founded ona moral labeling. on into themoral bluntly paradox MichaelNelson recognizes converted apprehended,inbutissuesnot Nevertheless,are thoroughly these works. examined politics ofpityand/or denounciation a of discrepancies internal the for account to try should which allegiances theoretical by tensionedthe mechanism is of psychological warfare butnever pinpointed, circumscribed 20 andinfluence is Radio that of Free Europe the between of samizdat in this sense information and mobilization through samizdat networks. Karol Jakubowicz’s distinction of channeling and pragmatic impact of radio the the betweenthecultural distinctions obscures highlightsradio’s inthan role shaping critical by consciousness blurring rather dimension analytical of devoid inventory selective a such manner, non-intentional overarchingtrajectory of histories voice.Ina blendwithin distinctive aliberating the “dirty Reds” called abstractions to not beings,human tospeak broadcasters Michael Nelson, Arch Puddington, Idem 21 - because of itsdraws back an -because still,financial to of secret his support; account , pp.158-160. One can argue that the problematic aspects of foreign broadcasting is broadcasting offoreign aspects problematic the One argue that can In this way, samizdat organization,In this oppositional way, samizdat andrepresentative dynamics op. cit., op. op.cit., p.43. p.59. . 15 22 . 20 . Thus, . CEU eTD Collection category of studies concerned with concerned studies of category in a underground organized association. movements well-naturalized dissent or The emergent“civil society” and clandestine publishing pertain to the constellation of media. of meta-capital with general approach the interactionist the of adjustments andthe terms the of overlapping established the between connection the supposed influence onthe assembling movements.we have First, of organized draw to a for field without theRomanian cultural Free Europe role the acknowledge Radio of between usual purposeis discardlinkages them our andculture”. to Indoing the to so, like by and“alternative “civil society”,Europe concepts “publicsphere”, reassessing Press, 1995), p.34. paradigm 2.“Effects” (eds.), 23 function: has samizdat an organizational media support, foreign in with comparison fundamental: Karol Jakubowicz, “Mediaas Agents of Change”, inDavid L.Karol Paletz, Jakubowicz,Pavao Novosel effects effects paradigm Glasnost andAfter. In most cases, as the Polish example amply illustrates, foreign broadcasting, foreign illustrates, amply example Polish the as cases, most In It is one of tasksin our distinguish paperthis to between the their policies. their organizationand mobilize the general public to oppose the authorities and distribution networks andbecause thecould work they guide of underground of development the and work organizational required dissemination and creation their of fact very the because function organizational made them muchpotent andeffective. performed They andadditional reporting of events of direct interest to and impact on members detailed and of societyappeal, emotional immediacy, their of course although media, And so on.and publishing houses, but also[…] alternative artistic events, “flying universities”. Theybeginnings ofindependent an public sphere, incorporating only not periodicals performedcivil society Communistin countries, whichoften than not amounted to the very much the same functions as foreign Samizdat and undergroundthe media were among mainstaysthe of . Secondly, we shall reframe the influence question by combining an combining by question influence the reframe shall we Secondly, . 23 Media and Changein Central and EasternEurope social change 16 within the passage from communism to communism from passage the within (Cresskill, N.J.: Hampton effects of Free of Radio CEU eTD Collection and Political Development 27 26 p. 31. 25 p. 87. far that communication studies are not simply contemporary with military policies, but policies, military with contemporary simply not are studies communication that far accompanyingtextual scientific cortege policies.hasColdWar so It been demonstrated isvarying. It clear though they that are still imbued with of modernizingthe discourse the Free Europe’s agency in is nourishing mobilization itrecognized, butis seen contextually hope” community of “piercing and“forginga thecognitive control” asmajor retains Jakubowicz achievements Karol reality. social of politicization the and social consciousness of detotalitarianization 24 for socialization, as socialization is, in turn, the main agency of social change” beginning of Coldthe War,which claimed that“communication ismain instrument the indoctrination, forged atthe from model departure idealistic the content-based of practices” technology and the social situation seen a as distribution “opinion,of belief,values and Manaev Oleg model. totalitarian with the and comparison mediatic the effects of the specification the approach, structural more usageof impels the a focus on communication This time, the . within nascentFreethey 1989andRadio after positive Europe that of role the reinsert and media before on a debate of potential the they recuperate that a coincidence is not to trace an evolution, rather than a disruption, at the level of autonomous societal fields. It democracy reinforce kindof inthis conceptual organizational usually order affinitiesand Daniel Lerner, “Toward a communication theory of modernization”, in L. W. Pye (ed.), L. W. in modernization”, of theory communication a “Toward Lerner, Daniel Idem Karol Jakubowicz, “Media as Agents of Change”, inDavid L. Paletz & all, Oleg Manaev, “The USSR (Republic of Belarus)” of (Republic USSR “The Manaev, Oleg , p.20. From the point of view of communication theory, these ideas represent a clear represent ideas theory, these of communication view of From point the 26 . 25 (Princeton, NJ: PrincetonUniversity Press, 1963), pp. 327-350. , but insists on the interplay between the content of the media, the media, the of content the between interplay the on insists but , 24 stresses the importance of alternative radio in radiothe of alternative theimportance stresses 17 in David L. Paletz & all, Glasnost and After…, Glasnost and After…, Communications 27 . Radio . op. cit., op. op. cit., op. CEU eTD Collection 2001) andCulture Politics in Military-Intellectualthe Complex Robin, Ron See enemy. ofthe malignity coherent and constant aimed not at subverting people’s view, but of neutrally reinforcing predispositions while simplifying the 29 Oxford University Press, 1994). Science ofCoercion. Communication Research andPsychological Warfare 1945-1960 change evolutionary behavioral modernizing visions the powerof about mediathe instimulating an may be considered rooted in this paradigm of paradigm this in rooted considered be may ruling elites to shape by consciousness, used tool not tostimulatemethodological it. a The as theory appearance of radio communication propaganda of rise the broadcasting stresses author The “communicate”. appropriatedvarious in and ambiguous order ways to in coerceand manipulate to than rather 28 in model warfare” dynamic message “psychological the rooted isdoubly abroadcast of transforming potential of the overemphasis with The convergentthem. temporal conditions at the expense of any contingencies that might be introduced by beintroduced might that contingencies any of expense atthe conditions temporal transcended that process communication the of characteristics prioritized indoctrination model insofar “hypodermic” as of the framework interpretative authentic social change it of as the recommends dynamism this approach the andmedia.culture Paradoxically, account diversity into takingin and social of everyday phenomena interdependence the link by onthecause-effect perspective non-linear a posits effects paradigm rejection of have been more and more sensitive to the non-ideological aspects of communication. The media scholars the reception, and of its production conditions of message independently one immanently beginningindevelopeda impactof of of assessing the the 1970s.Instead the pluralistic cultural the is paradigm informational or normative developmental, paradigm 3. Interactionist andvariants and soft for calls amoremodel. developed hard its both in model transportation the challenges dissent open inexistent or low a with Ron Robin places the American radio broadcasting within a psycho-sociological modernization program modernization a psycho-sociological within broadcasting radio American the places Robin Ron Cristopher Simpson’s critical insights show how the concept of “psychological warfare” has been has warfare” of “psychological concept the how show insights critical Simpson’s Cristopher In the field of mass media communication, the counter-model mass In the field thecounter-model the to media communication, of 29 . The Romanian case, with an audience exceeding all the others but communication asdomination 18 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, University Princeton N.J.: (Princeton, The Makingthe War of Cold Enemy: . See CristopherSimpson, (New Oxford: York, 28 and inthe CEU eTD Collection Communication ( 34 Imperialism Reconsidered 33 James Curran and Michael Gurevitch(eds.), 32 Michaeland Gurevitch (eds.), 31 30 innon-passive away incorporating information and interpreting capacities of audiences’ the meaningdueto mediaordering of asinstances studies see Cultural instrumentalist amore and flexible Several fruitful attitude. pathways canbediscerned. of change” than anagent as of reinforcement as anagent frequently more functioned communication was lesspersuasive battle more or waged was stable” and mass “persuasive thus the bulk of observe, Gurevitch Michael and Blumer as Jay G. Therefore, conditions. previous inthose change research “was conducted as if the societal field on which the of labeling international radio broadcasting as media imperialism media as broadcasting radio international labeling of in society rewards andof inresources distribution can affectthe organizedpotentially groups ways that of frameworks discursive the between arbitrating of a way is also it informational: purely isnever role media’sinformational the that media, arguing of capacities enlightened sociological input of perspectivethis proscribes the liberalrational valuesor of the colonialism of paradigm same by internationalthe promoting ended up to modernizingpropaganda, claimsascribed deny who,War desiring Cold the andthose of to tempers tone assumptions the Thomas L. McPhail, See Jeremy Tunstall, Jeremy See James Curran, “Mass Media and Democracy Revisited” Democracy and Media “Mass Curran, James Curran James in Economy”, Political and Communication “Culture, Murdock, Graham and Golding Peter Jay Jay G. Blumerand Michael Gurevitch In contrast with this trend, the cognitive turn promoted aless promoted with deterministic or cognitive turn In contrast the trend, this 30 34 . , recent studies prefer the notion of “framing events” rather than that of that than rather events” “framing of notion the prefer studies recent , Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1993). communication asdomination 32 The Media are American . Consistent with this view is the post-critical paradigm which paradigm post-critical the is view this with Consistent . (Beverly Hills,CA: Sage, 1980). ElectronicColonialism: TheFutureInternational of Broadcasting and Mass Media…, , “ Media Change and Social Change: Linkages and Junctures” and Linkages Change: Social and Change Media Mass Media andSociety op. cit., (London: Constable, 1977)Chin-Chuan or Lee, 19 p. 12. , . By bringing moreBy bringing this nuances . to type in Mass Media…, op. cit., (London: E.Arnold, 1996), p.121. p. 82. 33 orelectronic 31 . The . Media , in CEU eTD Collection Row, 1974). 37 Political Reality andbroadcasts Romanian other programspolitical idea endorse the of symbolic authority mobilizing the impact Thesacredness surrounding of her stance. a genuinely adversarial of a status butacquires the events, cultural-political frames it since selective only not becomes regime communist the with confrontation The incorporated modernizing ethosunfolding along the flow of ColdWar piercingwaves. interwar an of because but overlooked), be however not should merits political (whose attitude belligerent her notbecauseof power have aconsecrating broadcasts Monica Lovinescu’s In medium.this a subtle of respect, waybymeans a pervasive in channeled values, shared and incorporated in its but effects, intended its in not message frame individual’s every horizon, inputs help these locate us powerof the radiothe experience institutionalized depends on internalized and interpretation schemesof which 36 Media induced unavoidably use“unreflective by oftypifications” either biasis negativeNews coverage. forWorld self-serving Third the single argue, orto out 35 specific institutional which practices shape or and heritage ideological a historical but perversion, ideological intentional as thing such of professional and organizational routines and pressures”.conscious and deliberate efforts to convey corporate interests,In as Noam Chomskyother words,large media by arenotdelivered audiences media”.that “biased They contend to outputs there is no Erving Goffman, Erving Philo C. Wasburn, Noam Chomsky and Edward S. Herman, (London: Vintage Books, 1998). Based on the interactionist approach in approach sociology Based ontheinteractionist (Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 1992), p.92. Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience Broadcasting Propaganda. International Radio Broadcasting and theConstruction of Manufacturing Consent: thePolitical Economyof theMass 20 frame an event. ritualistic confrontation 37 which postulates that everyday that which postulates 36 or by the “constraints (New York: Harper and deprived of 35 would CEU eTD Collection Communication Reasearch Effects”, Media Mass of Model “A Dependency L. DeFleur, M. and Ball-Rokeach J. See S. resources. They argued that individuals’ capacity to attain theirgoals is contingent upon the mediatic information 39 (eds.), Szecsko T, and Katz E. in of reflexivity”, suppression the Newsand “TV Dahlgren, SeeP. information”. interpretation of the discursive framework about communismframework interpretation about ritualistic asa personalized of discursive the grounds (frame) it on iswhich and itcan constructed alsolay foundationsthe for the the detecting by RFE about vision enchanted an of contextualization historical the disguisedin due its anintangible and posture distance to cultural it capital,contributes to inducedwithin polarizations field byamedium cultural the as an which acts arbiter competitions. in within tolegitimize impartiality and cultural competence orderly themselves order alonginafter investinvolvement matters: life temporal them people aura with an of enjoy status an atemporal RadioFree Europe’s editors a contradiction that then is not mood Glasnost and After…, & all, Paletz L. David in “Romania”, Gross, See Peter carried”. they information mere the transcended that meaning important an had they Romanians, (urban) by monitored were broadcasts foreign these 38 find their way to becomemore dependent mediathe information on for and help interpretations to them theory Media dependence reality”. of political constructions alternative asseveral understand whatthey seeking be may they rather, source; selected a particular from truth the learn to broadcasting] radio [international IRB on depend not may audiences international “various interplay imbued informational the transgressing content with reverential loyalty. In this case, as Philo C. Wasburn shows, Media-system dependency was introducedfirst by Melvin L.De S.Ball-Rokeachand Fleur 1976. in PeterGross notices thesacred aura of Romanian RFE broadcasts: “Judging by the religiosity withwhich of an audience who rely on an authority perceived as transcendental itsto affairs. It Mass Media and Social Change The interactionist paradigminteractionist 39 is applicable only insofar as we add to itthe asweaddto insofar is only applicable op. cit., , No.1 (1976), pp. 3-21. which argues that in conditions of uncertainty people will tend will people uncertainty of in conditions that argues which p. 207 (London: Sage, 1981), pp. 101-104. . He is using P. Dahlgren’s idea of “significance transgressing of “significance idea Dahlgren’s P. using He is can thus fulfill multifold tasks: it can explain the explain can it tasks: multifold fulfill thus can 38 and rendering “influence” amore complex 21 ritualisticinteractionst CEU eTD Collection journalistic denunciations still frame the postwar debates which are still anchored in an anchored still are which debates postwar the frame still denunciations journalistic and militancy cultural suchaselitist intellectual dispositions We that reflections. argue crisis on basis andmanifestingcultural its energetic claimsby ardentjournalistic political interpreting elite intellectual an of activism the through framework spiritual international an a revival within integrate national to seeking emerges a new generation in when blurred Western influences. 30s, differencesare the Even these ideology open to – critical nation aliberal and of understanding ametaphysical between difference the Westernizing stands, atthat adversarialtimethe ofview traditionalist aroundthe gravitate roughly points or which do not followinterwar the demarcationdebates about the pathwaysright-left, reconstruct goal notour Itisto modernization period. datingfrom intellectual debate of modernization, but rather but it isthe relevant to mention that 41 action and thought, acquired within historical processes. consistent with their field sociology of intellectuals and a historical accountof intellectual dispositions. He elaborates the concept of 40 the struggle which reproduces inter-elite an of boundaries national temporal and physical the extends field cultural and for socio-cultural intellectual sets. Dialogical communication between RFE and the texts” significant of constitutive language usesof ofsituated “history for the interest Pierre Bourdieu’s field theory of Intellectuals History and History 4. Intellectual constraints of quick, sharp and reporting. dramatized denunciation forged under the conditions of inter-elite competition and under radio Dominick LaCapra, Dominick structural a between connection the makes he because reference useful a is (1930-2002) Bourdieu Pierre as a social arena in which people maneuver and struggle in pursuit of resources in ways that are Last, but not least, the interactionist paradigm maintains a fruitful proximity with proximity fruitful a maintains paradigm interactionist the least, not but Last, habitus Rethinking IntellectualHistory , which is anincorporated system of dispositions orschemes of perception, 40 topoi and intellectual with history inunderstood its double , oppositional stances and missionary ethos of an ethos missionary and stances , oppositional 22 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press,1983), p. 19. 41 CEU eTD Collection University of Rochester Press, 1990), p.167. cultural society within with positions intellectuals’ between linkages uncovers the andliterary political circumstances. newform different under messages,literary Westernmodels) in is an rooted intellectual is tradition which given Lovinescu’s use of a modernizing idiom artistic(by to reference intransitive novelties, internalized Monica formedcontinual ideological of and reshaping sets. diachronically interactions, by by are a horizontal constructed meanings assumptions: (synchronic) from its point interactionistview interpretive of inits what paradigm assigns frames history intellectual that say may We community. discursive intellectual an within emergent seenas broadcasts, RFEtexts a dialogical reading of (engaging) giving way to « of “analysis for the material”, legitimate concern » specificwork a ideological on done History”,in Donad R. Kelley (ed.), of Intellectual “Horizons Kelley, R. See Donald ofexperience”. “horizon-structure with but ideas”, science orderin to indicate a creative historical interpretationwith should not operatean with“immortality if appropriates individual an orintellectual “group theme”, a of how Donald R. Kelley draws attention investigation to developments inphilosophy,a non-quantitative proposes anthropology,Chartier natural a of favor in argues LaCapra dialogical intellectualDominick history at variance of knowledge. with documentary sociology factual reconstructionof the past, Roger non-reductionist and hermeneutics on grounded past, of the reconstruction imaginative towards openness an and explanations economic both atextualist immanent approach to literary or political construction and of causal deterministic socio- try to apply in ourwe analysisand history is the emphasisintellectual about on a“mode articles tothe of common inquiryfind rather thanwe nevertheless What a methodology”, 114. and pp.14 1982), a rejectionof European Intellectual History, Reappraisals and New (eds.), Perspectives Kaplan Steven and LaCapra Dominick in History”, Intellectual ofEuropean State Present The Anxieties. “Triangular Kellner, Hans and Trajectories” French The History? Sociocultural or History historiography literary and studies tobe tend and moremore blurred. See RogerChartier, “Intellectual motivationof a for search the intellectual history’sa definition, of finding loss of identity instead afterprefers, the and linguistic turn,demonstrations when their the in demarcations elusive” between“depressingly Kellner notices that eventhe most optimist supporters of the autonomy of intellectual history are and its objectassumes that “the filedor of so-called intellectual objectivehistory covers, in fact, the totality of the forms of thought conceptualist-contextualist hasmethodology the of subject is difficultThe to formulateno approaches. even for apparent the specialists.more immediately no Roger with ChartierFrance) in “Annales” , precisionEngland, in school (“Cambridge” schools national three least at a between priori than that of42 social or economic history”. Hans voicedperspective from RFE Intellectual history microphone. viewof bythe inenhanced totalitarian the ideologically drive, traumatic a modernizing Itis difficult to positionourselves within the field of intellectual history precisely because of its division We may also enter therefore the domain of socio-history of intellectuals which intellectuals of socio-history of domain the therefore enter also may We The History of Ideas: Canon and Variations 23 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe 42 in senseprovidesthis us (Rochester, N.Y.: (Rochester, Modern in CEU eTD Collection et ‘Les Temps Modernes individuals act as agents endowedwith different types of 43 of and emergence the upon by intellectuals for their self-positioning andself-definition. ethosmilitant dating from century XIXth and asetof socio-cultural worked problems We associationthe cultural upon would between a persistent (self)representations. touch 45 Europe au XIXth siècle. Essai d’histoire comparée political forces which infringe upon intellectual activities. See Charle Cristophe, then contradicting the autonomist ambitions, but derives from a necessary collusionwith religious and commonand abstract Europeanintellectual pretension”. The intellectuals’ involvement in politics is not and converging but non-concomitant historical evolutions towards intellectual 44 In Other Words for See, world-views. and practices other over violence symbolic a exert they so and truth and knowledge over prestigious ina particular field. Due to theireducation and expertise, intellectuals claim having a monopole “symbolic capital”, Bourdieu generally means any type of capital that happens to be legitimated or a Theoryand Research for Sociology of Education economy of practices. See Pierre Bourdieu, “The Forms of Capital”, in J. G. Richardson (ed.), phenomena againsta French model Sartrian of engagement forgedis journalist engagement asRFE EastEuropean political Monica Lovinescu’s autonomy. intellectual of models foreign with or condition political local a with in relation status regard, we will take notice of Central European intellectuals’ entitlement to pose as pose the to entitlement intellectuals’ European noticeCentral of wewill take regard, missionary circumscribe in aRomanian interests inorder to variouspolitics European noticing elitism to ourselves restrict shall we involvements; political with reshaped concerned classifications the by all discussion into bring not Weshall conditions Lovinescu). Eugen critic literary the father, by her embodied (best tradition critical Francophone of along from perspective the autonomy of exile and cultural demarcation. In this Pierre Pierre Bourdieu defines social “accumulated world as history”.orderto In appropriate social energy, Sartre inaugurates the model of intellectual prophetism based on excellence. See Anna Boschetti, See Anna on excellence. based prophetism of intellectual model the inaugurates Sartre different as intellectuals European century XIXth of analysis comparative his conceives Cristophe Charle example, Pierre Bourdieu, It would be interesting to discover how, inIt would beinteresting todiscoverhow, a ColdLetters, WarRepublic of 44 delineating a dramatic history delineatinghistory intellectuals adramatic of who try upgrade to their (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990),pp. 136-135. (Paris: Éditions de Minuit, 1985), p.147. symbolic capital symbolic Language andSymbolic Power 43 (Seuil: Paris, 1996), p.21. as a social asset represent specific European specific represent asset asasocial 24 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1983),p. 242.By 45 while aspiring to a Romanian while cultural aspiring to capital (Cambridge: Polity p. 230,orPress, 1990), (economic, cultural etc.) within an within etc.) cultural (economic, autonomy Political engagement Les Intellectuels en , seen as“the most Handbook of Sartre CEU eTD Collection conflicts in any particular field.” See Nick Couldry, “Media Meta-Capital: Extending the Range of Range the Extending Meta-Capital: “Media Couldry, See Nick field.” particular any in conflicts specific inthe up betaken to available are generality, their of because that, world social the understanding, for categories and of, representations of influential legitimating media's the through second, and ways: first, as Bourdieu explicitly suggests forthe state, by influencing what counts as capital ineach field; connectionwith the political field. “Media's meta-capital overspecific fields might operate intwo distinct 47 (Budapest:Central European University Press,1999), p.1. a“meta-capital” with media endowed are idea that enforce the of Lovinescu’s broadcasts imperial studies. power consecrating Monica The critical counter the developmental or within the paradigm developed “media effects” theoretical framework for asubject dealing with media effects, without subscribing tothe impression of a cumbersome theoretical apparatus. Our goal is to find a suitable Threads 5. Combining RFE cultural editors’ populism. intentions because) and (or despite its enlightening despite unintended consequences, symbolicmay ofEasternbein reintegration failurecountries seenasapartial its thus asa by project communism of dynamism.a European Free Europe subverting Radio synchronizationmovements,synchronization whilewith dissident undergoing a reverse (self)de- with prerequisites of a patriotic moralism and individualistic an freedom militancy for and for the French cultural arena and with their own country’s social 46 symbolic marginality masses a knowledge-elite andthe uneducated between gap the widening the of to backward countries inleadingmore times, anattitude “livingnation uphold democratictheir conscience” of and to valuesin undemocratic Nick Couldry applies to media field the notionof “meta-capital” whichwas used by Pierre Bourdieu in András Bozóki, András “Introduction”,Andrásin Bozóki (ed.), All the methodologicalAll issuesgive the chapter should described in the not this centrality in relation with an active and glamorous French intellectual milieu and milieu intellectual French glamorous and active an with inrelation in relation with a distant Romanian cultural field create the 25 46 . On this basis, factors like intellectual like factors basis, On this . Intellectuals andPoliticsinEasternEurope 47 influencing forms other capital of CEU eTD Collection Bourdieu’s Field Theory”, intellectuals. of socio-history the and ideas of history theory, communication methodologicalour chapter,this meansthe unfolding of basicthree theoretical threads: For intellectual agents. ideas certain of and certain power grounded combined with the struggles. The powerlocal proximity) to of and patriotic emotional the internal (because anddistance) of the radio as of physical the (because same external isatthe a time which tribune, disseminating special type of communicationfrom and set professed alegitimate of a massair-waving cultural obsessions medium be intellectual capital of on a literarylegacy denied),but cannot a recognized composed is thus existence its (although mood explicit intentional an on not draws power symbolic Their from other fields, but do not fitinto a transformationistideological or societal model. Symbolic Power: A Special Issue in Memory of BourdieuPierre (Dec., 2003), p 668. Theory andSociety , Vol. 32, No. 5/6, Special Issue on The Sociology of Sociology The on Issue Special 5/6, No. 32, Vol. , 26 CEU eTD Collection 48 that will last” fieldAmerican in statingpeople that “only of can ideas a victory the we achieveavictory Chapter II. Radio Free Europe within the Cold War RFE, while focusing on non-decorativethose andless explored cultural and social andWelistenership. random shallbeinterestedin providing descriptive ashort outline of regimes communist both official from of perspective the operation, success of a liberating efficiencythe institution of an which has no precedentin history and the perceived RFE projectandits academicagenda,the intertwinedorganization relationship with and American and Soviet evenmilitary, symbolicof economicthe utilitarianaspectsthe or positioning of powers. We shall subscribing revisionist tothe viewsin theCold Warstudies against arguing infavoror only delineate the political assumptionspersonnel acting within aWestern procedural and infrastructural framework. of the intriguingEuropean byan Eastern dynamic: of characterized institution a propagandistic purposes of our thesis we shall focus only on the structural aspects of the implementationset within a worldCold struggle of the time. In this chapterWar we intend to see how an ideologicalcontext warfare is defensemeasures and strategic (Marshall economicnotsuffice Plan) do in the engaging by means of international radio propaganda. For the Robert Holt, On Joseph June 1,1949, C. Grew introduces Free Committeethe Europe to the We are not interested therefore in outlining a factual diplomatic history or in or history diplomatic factual a in outlining therefore interested not are We op. cit., op. 48 . The former ambassador to Japan implies by these words that military that by words these Japan implies to ambassador former . The p.11. 27 CEU eTD Collection century century reaction”. a project in of in aswell in theparadoxes the reasons, therefore interested Wefield. are international which democracy a intellectual within politicized émigrés of question positioning tothe the one of and freedomrhetoriclocal modernizing to discourses, weshall envisage one this introductory as an areWar Cold of focus adaptation on the to lastchapter of task is the the As it freedom. of beamed “through a model toitstraditions own transatlantic involvementon whichadapts a European scene the voices decadeas andminds of hearts postwar being of a complex the American part of 19 Themes…op. cit., sustained the Coldand ultimately War brought and it to a conclusion.” See Rosemary sparked Wakeman (ed.), which counter-initiative, and initiative West, and East between interaction the emphasizes, Lundestad as was, It dimension. security the of because welcome receptive amore finding generally Asia, Southeast and Europe Western into culture and power its project to States United the allowed also War Cold The weaponry. advanced and development and research on expenditure military vast justify to administrations oftenfound American itconvenientSuccessive […] to pay wall. the governments on as to writing exaggeratethe then the extent change, to of began the Soviet West of the threat perception of the sacrifices lowand standardtolerant it ofmake living and prevalent under population the the communist unite to system. helped force Once,evil however, an as West the the of portrayal the Union, Soviet 51 strategies. warfare cultural motive powers must the be that sought argue within awide range Post-revisionists of securityUnion. considerations,Soviet the and economicStates United considerationsthe parties, and major two the between revisionistsUnited States and the Origins ifthe Cold War 1941-1947 who lay50 theRees, Wyn blame on 49 one of the sides, Gaddis pleas for the observance of an interaction Westthe ideas individualism about over acollectivistic backward thinking triumphal rhetoric aboutthe ColdWar which envisages its ending as finalthe victory of paradigm the mediainteraction,of weshall notplace as of within ourselves trend the theoreticaluniversalistic basis. valuesonintra-national approach to our an Since pertains aspects ofits existence which theparadoxes freedom configure of airing and rather to the post-revisionist school post-revisionist the to rather “Itisapparentfor that of Cold much the duration War’s its existence suited theopposing sides.For the emergence The of post-revisionismCold trend in Warstudies is markedby Gaddis’s bookJohn David Armstrong andStuart Croft,“The Individual Level. Individualism in European Relations”,in G. International Politics in Europe. The New Agenda p.31. 50 in WarCold studies 28 (London: Routledge, 1993), p. 49. (1972). Unlike the traditionalists orthe 51 , we look at the battle over 49 . Adhering The th CEU eTD Collection Europe. The Freedom CongressforEurope. Cultural an integrated valuesto inAmerican interested cultural network promoting official-private European countries subdueda by-product byBolshevism,but of actionsthe of an operations” (NSC 4-A).and Central Intelligence Agency, whose responsibility is “overseeto covertIt psychological is not only in 1947) American collaboration close Council Security the between National (created a propagandistic device for the benefitallegiances. of East- and experiencing power with thwarted endowed symbolic networks intellectual vast trans-national spreadingof the for and project a pedagogical articulation of the for responsible both warfare’, ‘psychological the of component elitist the manner its duration– were considerable. Atits peak, the Congress forCultural Freedom offices had thirty-five in Culturalfor Freedom, by run MichaelCIA agent Josselsonfrom 1950 till 1967. Its Congress achievement the was – least not campaign covert this of centerpiece The Agency. Intelligence Central the arm, espionage Europe] was toadvance the claim Western that to itdid propaganda not exist. It wascultural managed, [of ingreat secrecy, programme of the by feature America’s “A central 1950. June 26 on Conference 53 War inWestern Europe 1945-1960 State-Private Network and in the Culture Cold to War”,Approaches inGiles Scott-SmithControl: Beyond and HansFreedom, Krabbedam,“Beyond Lucas, Scott See W. examined. alone let 52 sphere and private the state the between networking RFE within abroadcrusade with sponsorship a covert “culture” of andintellectual Ourcase study diplomatic interests. framedhistory urges us byintellectual placeas to by staged warfare mediatic within asimply of RFE emergenceandevolution the wantnotto trace We do liberal democracy. values about American welcomed passively andAmerican inEurope process whichdisenfranchised people as one-way activism Pedagogy 1. Elitist Congress Congress forCultural Freedom anti-Communist isan advocacywhich groupsprang on a W. Scott Lucas highlights the fact that this type of culturalist approachto Cold War is rarely portrayed, RadioFree Europeis large anintegral part of subvert scalepolicy by tyranny to In other words, we will try to avoid the tautological discourse about Radio Free (London: Frank Cass, 2003), p. 53. 29 53 , the National Committee for aFree Europe, 52 . We would like to stress inthis stress to like We would . The CulturalCold CEU eTD Collection American Committee of the Congress forCultural Freedom. later special adviser to Eisenhower on psychologicalwarfare. In1954 he becomesboard a member of the 56 Saunders, 55 from orwin decisions political concession, purchasing change,“manage social extract on theory how modern couldconcentrated by beused technology to in elites the order ideologically enforcement tothe circumscribed ofamodernization communication and worldwidepatterns” doctrinaire thought “brake is in“Packet” designedto down codenamed whoseprogram (created 1951), linked partly called through a governmental department theStrategy Psychological Board 54 and the World of Arts and Letters Saunders, Stonor See Frances way’.” American of ‘the accommodating away from itslingering fascinationwith Marxism and Communism towards a view more musicians and artists rewarded withand prizes and publicconferences, performances. international Its missionwas high-profile to nudge the intelligentsiaorganized service, of features and news a owned exhibitions, art held magazines, prestige twenty over published personnel, of dozens employed countries, tight circle of power of the invisible government (C.D. Jackson national elites who are offered to serve theirstaff countries consists from of afar.Easternmaneuver the Free Europe and for Radio aFreeEurope Committee caseof the National The common émigrés strategic who became usein culture, with as mustcompatible bepresented liberal whom democracy to intellectuals of disenchanted with is Western public focus group thatof Freedom the for Cultural case Congress the of real Communism and through local opinion leaders,in a way reminiscent of Vilfredo Pareto’s theories. Ifin the as pervasive scheme.Functionally, are devised a machinery they pressure exerting and of“Winning World WarIIIwithouthaving tofightit” Crusade for Freedom represent organizational bodies aimed atcountering Communism the Movement, Moral Rearmament the overseas, projected labor organizations “free” the A graduate from Princeton, C. D. Jackson is president of the National Committee for a Free Europe and These are the words of Charles Burton Marshall quoting from PBS doctrinal plan. See Frances Stonor Idem , p.148. op. cit., of of projects two the tothe initiative canbe attributed of a keypersonin the p. 149. p. (New York: New Press, 2000), p. 1. 55 30 , to promote American truth through a The Cultural ColdWar. TheCIA 54 . Institutionally they are they . Institutionally 56 ). It can also be intra- CEU eTD Collection Schramm’s The Achieving Society role of communicationin development, clearly influencing subsequent workas David such McClelland’s democracy in these regions.” See Philo C. Wasburn, communicationto the Third World encouraged economic development and, subsequently, political 59 communicationsystem.” political movement) throughexploitation of atarget audience’s cultural-psychological attributes andits the ideological, political or military objectives of the sponsoring organization(typically a government or 58 57 The and studies. elite between psycho-culture fusion theoretical an action-oriented way to behavior (Harold Lasswell, Walter Lippmann,Daniel DanielKatz, Lerner human in shaping meta-capital media’s about converge with research powers totalitarian by apprehension humanof general the declineregarding rise autonomy and the of studies influential of (PaulLazarsfeld) concurred concerning symbolicprimary The power groups the theory). (modernization democracy rational to rule authoritarian from bringasupposedlynatural means about (communication as domination)evolution andto communication mass by it influence and master to in order (behavioralism) behavior its mathematize athuman andby scientificholisticproduces turn drives produced to it’s communities inside The theUnited urgency managing States. of adismantling world from of immigrant foreign chargedagents recruitment of Services] with the Strategic Opinion Quaterly” and the chief of the founder“Public propaganda, the of Departmenton Foreignanti-Communist expertis aState Nationalities Branch of the Committee, Free Europe OSS and War strategy of Cold the architects the of one for example, [Office C. Poole,Witt De inmanaging empires. interests strategic military and communication regarding academic federal preconceptions between sponsorship, research audiences” targeted “Lerner’s book [ “Psychological warfare can be best understood as a group of strategies and tactics designed to achieve to designed tactics and strategies of group a as understood be best can warfare “Psychological CristopherSimpson, Mass Media and National Development The Passing ofTraditionalSociety (1961),Lucien Pye’s op. cit 57 Idem, . The concept of “psychological warfare” “psychological concept. The of ., p. 62. p.11. Communication andPolitical Development 31 op. cit., , 1958]long servedparadigm forstudies ofthe asa (1964). These studies suggested Western that p.92. 58 arises at the juncture arisesthe at (1963), and Wilbur 59 ), thusgiving CEU eTD Collection Praeger, 1982), p.30. personnel composition assessment. and audience personnel composition organization, its of grounds the on efficiency its if inference the warfare’, ‘psychological background of the of political-cultural be, the sketchingwould out the approach after the local cultural or politicalmaking” policy in role any plays broadcasting radio “international if unclear still is though It elitesdiplomacy”. or evenUniversity in broadcasting 1967,international was “instrument called an of public on the largeforeign policy.” In a conference on international publicpublic diplomacy held at Tufts political scientistitself. Robert Holt referred tothe station “nonofficialas a instrument of [U.S.] A reasonablesponsorship of CIA. R.Browne Donald notices in Radiothat writing about Free Europe, between by onedivided imperative andanobjectifying tempered revealed one, the an 61 Ideology and Power 60 enticing Warengine: Cold the create legitimization mutual and mobilization political and academic interlinked Staughton Lynd, “How the Cold War Began”, in Norman A. Graebner (ed.), Donald R. Browne, Donald In this context, the discourse about RFE’s role in eroding Communist power is We also cannot measure, as was fashionable in the 50s, the impact of impact radioon 50s, the of in as wasfashionable the measure, cannot We also jostling of diplomatic intercourse. ordinary the with than rather societies of whole transformation the and empires inJapan 1941;itisthekind of challenge breakupassociatedthe with of or 1914 in by Germany represented that than challenge potent and complicated powerto be ever-present an political and military threat. Itis farmore of authoritarian socialism to democratic was backed by sufficient 61 . (Toronto: D. C. Heath and Company, 1976), p. 16. Why did the Cold War start? Because for the first time the challenge the time first the for Because start? War Cold the did Why International Broadcasting. The Limits of theLimitless Medium 60 32 The Cold War.Conflict A of (New York: CEU eTD Collection becomes chancellor in1933, Germany expands its operations.radio See Philo C. Wasburn, colonized subjects contactin with their mothercountry by means of a low investment. When Adolf Hitler Britain lays foundation the of BroadcastingBritish Company purposethe (1927) for of herkeeping communism throughout world the broadcasting (Lenin fromAurora cruiser in1917) andto solve illiteracy. 63 Office. Publication and Research the 62 “no other mediumWW II, and during period inter-war the state-sponsored if not even evidencethat, also changedis foreign There of policies. effects with worldwide concern and political mass warfare the everydaystate-sponsored lives propaganda, of thebut it is Americansalso a fact that World Waras II opensquickly o new era of and as Europe Free fora Committee theNational of divisions thefour of as one emerges Europe Evolution Structure, 2. Emergence, international radio broadcasting in the same manner as expansionist powers expansionist manner as same inbroadcasting the international radio to resort officials American is thatthe It irony from an East. the people captive the subvertsend hope to totalitarian themselves them inorderto amessageof to powers and by perfected mass-communication device Americans usea the Berlin Blockade, asa created livinginradio(1946) service forarea before the theGermans andafter that of Berlin Sector American in the theRadio model of of the model Relyingthe on power. Communist by spreading bethe to subdued last the and tradition democratic longest Czechoslovakia, country the with the to begins July the on 4,1950 broadcasting Europe of influence calls on the establishment of a radiant anti-imperialistic platform. RadioFree mapping spheres of time atthe culture American the with them familiarize and to ethos findEastern émigrés. Theurgency suitable for exiles’to the outlets anti-Communist Russia communication uses radio as apropagandistic and educative centralized agency spread able to The other three divisions are: National Councils Division, the Divisionof Intellectual Cooperationand 62 Universally heralded today as a key element of psychological warfare, Radio Free warfare, Radio psychological of as akey element today heralded Universally , an organism devised in collaborate 1949 to with National the Councils of 33 op. cit., op. 63 with long with p.3. CEU eTD Collection listed three objectives: three listed and formation the announces he which during conference press a holds later, weeks two chairman elected 67 Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty merge in 1976. difficulties of fighting against Bolshevism in acountry where Communism represents a home-grownaffair. changes from Radio Liberation from Bolshevism to Radio Liberation andthen Radio Liberty because of the 66 65 University of CaliforniaPress, 2002), pp.1-3. 64 outputs intentional but features, just consubstantial not message are the of and accessibility the intellectual strata. of circles the sphere beyond their solitary brooding over the written news and which stretches the realms of the public of peoplea “friendly” and “personal”medium of from which uproots communication Lazarsfeld (Paul sociologists a wartime environment. radio” the as irrevocably Besides the developmental potential of the radio, American early rhetoric with the belligerent ethos of the emigrant editors. The tendentious mood tendentious The editors. emigrant the of ethos belligerent the with rhetoric early confrontational in theirimperialism, stand political against supplying a general Cold War home-land to andfamiliar realities inbe approach their domestic to They prove radios. surrogate as acting USSR), and Romania Bulgaria, Poland, Hungary, (Czechoslovakia, countries target about the andnews and comments airLiberty Radio RadioFree Europe news international includingUnion, on professional tone, countries, adetached Soviet the After the creation of the Committee Radio Liberty emergesfor 4days before Stalindeath as a radio stationa targeting SovietFree peoples. Its name Europe is created on June 1, 1949, Joseph C. Grew, GerdHorten, Idem 3. 2. 1. , p.25. 67 brought”. See Michael Nelson, SeeMichael brought”. that they couldso “testify action to what in the trial democracy of freedom experience to and and democracywork at in the United States seedemocracy to has leaders exiled the enable To tone”. familiar the in languages, own their “in Europe, in back peoples own their to addressed air, the on leaders exiled Europe. the of voices the put Eastern To from come had who exiles democratic those for occupations suitable find To In the case of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty and Radio Free Europe Radio of In thecase . Unlike Voice of . UnlikeAmerica the Voice beaminto of BBCwhich (1942) or several Radio Goes toWar. The CulturalPolitics ofPropaganda during WWII 64 and so was able to transform the public and cultural arena into 65 ) acknowledge as early as 1939 the unusual attractiveness 1939the unusual as early ) acknowledgeas op. cit., op. p.42 34 66 , the friendliness of the tone the of friendliness , the (Berkeley: CEU eTD Collection Subfunds 20, Series 1, Box 176. MonthlySurvey See Music”). and be Mukane Malki “Sketch: Commentaries”, “Political (“News”, …4 have Bulgarians the and etc.) Music” “Light Program”, Bochenschi’s “Father’s “Messages”, Program”, Program”, “Artisans”,“Book Review” Polishthe etc.), department 10 (“Swiatlo”,has “Religious “Workers’ Reports”, Bell “Col. Present”, and “Hungarians’Past (“Youth Book”, “Black programs “Reflector”, of 43 Cabaret”, number an impressive has one Hungarian the etc.), Curtain” Iron the without “Europe (Kohout), My Notebook” “From Talks”, “Peroutka Commentaries”, “Political “Messages”, from onedepartment toanother.1955 theCzechoslovak In has16programs department (“News”, (political comments, news, domestic affairs, international affairs, entertainment, listeners’ mail), they differ 69 affairs with the astuteness of a domestic radio (interview Andraswith Mink, 29.05. 2008,Budapest). intended to prove that the American radio is in fact a national and familiarone, paying attention to home 68 rebuke inventory and personalized between intersection transcendental investigation at the journalistic posits which account counter-nomenclaturistic atypeof illustrate “Black Book” buteventually only individualpinpointing to cases onmoralizingbasis. The Hungarian aregime, intentionally objectifying features, “listing” with programs realization of to the predispose of intherhetoric denunciation domestic the indulgence regards toand affairs becoming the blueprint of the abrasive style of RFE journalism. Its omniscient status with with other international broadcasting radios. A certain radiophonic formatfollows, unique contrastive make sharply Free Europe and project Radio politically colored strong comments (RFE’s most distinctive programs) and largest the audience ever enjoyed by a in its unintended effects. derives from highlya patriotic anti-Communism, praisedbut bylisteners, self-destructive monitored and interpreted. The complex monitoring system insures the prestige of theprestigeinsures of RFE Thesystem monitoring complex andinterpreted. monitored very orpropagandisticbroadcasts official dailies, whicharecarefully publications The range of the programs is wider, however. Even if they can be divided into six main categories main six into be divided can they if Even however. wider, is programs ofthe range The Andras Mink, OSA researcher, suggests usthatbroadcasts “The like Black Book” involuntarily are 69 The intra-national content of reports, the hard-hitting timbre of political of the timbre hard-hitting the of reports, content intra-national The . Itis abit primary the of surveys arethe minutely paradoxical sources these that , February OpenSociety 1956, in Archivesreferred [further to 300, as OSA], Funds 68 or the Romanian “Shameful Inventory” compiled by Virgil Ierunca best Ierunca Virgil by compiled Inventory” “Shameful Romanian the or 35 Audience Analysis CEU eTD Collection 2008). almost as parallel publicationsemerge to the progressively They flow of political editors. sarcasms the to use (interview of real are with Michael reports” Shafir, 29 “background April the decade seventh the 72 aired broadcasts for the support areonly informing) only energizingthe Theresearch reports tribune. (not 71 the Galeria Centralis, OSA (4-7 June 2008). 12.000 waste publications, which are recycled bybeing bound inconcrete to mark Weekthe of Books at 70 in bondage” those for voice encouraging and “comforting a as RFE of role the regarding testimonies campaign publicof financing, employment the of émigrés and flowthe ofimperative such a differentiation is Though, the irrelevant. CIA disguisedsponsorship undera making dependentfactors, “framing”contextual a certain supposes ofon event report the propagandistic From point programs. of groundedview,our on any assumption the that versus is percentages of news-based the of suchasubject dealing assessment with the quarters are in München),sources (from withvisitors of defectors) does notinvest RFE, despitean the physical distance (itsobjective stand. andinformation of from a largeamountacquired processing official and unofficial In fact, one of the difficulties when archival funds, inevitably consisting of both valuable and waste materials programs as being well-informed alternative sources and in produces time its own ample support. change while continuously demonizing the enemy and retrieving any sign military of incremental in as Communism from liberation urge is to agents with disenchanted of help the performed militancy anti-Soviet an of problem constant One moderation. War Cold Michael Shafir, a RFE researcher in the 60s and 80s for the Romanian Department, declares to us that in usthat to declares Department, Romanian the for 80s and 60s the in RFE researcher a Shafir, Michael De Witt C. Poole, cited in Arch Puddington After the filtering of a huge inheritance from the RFE library, OpenSociety Archives are still left with Havingits own providingresearch institute andreports recurrent audience surveys 71 , spreading and reinforcing the democratic values, distinguishes RFE as an as RFE distinguishes values, democratic the reinforcing and spreading , 72 , whose spontaneity sometimes transgresses the limits of a required of limits the transgresses sometimes spontaneity , whose , op. cit , op. 36 ., p.26. 70 . CEU eTD Collection nationalistic overtones nationalistic corps belonging to a homogenous institution, with a strict package of rules and its own “voices” (Voice of Free Hungary, Voice of Free Romania,…etc.) intosimple departments fivethe from languagesections arenominally afterwards autonomous transformed ally andemotional asastrategic impact RFE’s November coverage 3-4,1956,the of Revolution Hungarian the stands as for evidence journalistic style. Considered tohave contributed to the Soviet crackdown on Hungary on exuberant support to the Hungarians’ unrest and to introduce a more responsible the counter devised approach, of but to articulation period, the a tempered Stalinist intensity of the confrontationalWe mayargue that history the of radiothe is underpinned by fluctuationsthe in the mood. 1956 marks in this sense not only the end of the 1956”, Granville, “«Caught withJam Fingers». onOur Radio Free Europe Hungarian and the Revolution of Communist leaders that Soviet troopsHungarian) were(and neededSoviet tofill the security convincing thus vacuum inHungary.” (ÁVH), police Seesecurity Johanna Hungarian of the disbandment the withdrawal from the Warsaw pact long ofbefore Nagy himselffaith announced it,three 3)of them, viewingthe RFEbroadcasts as image-creatingan medium: “1)the broadcasts contributed contributed to Moscow’s lack in to have been acausal factor inthe denouement of the RedImre Army’s intervention. Johanna Graville identifies 74 Nagy’s ability to control the situation, 2) they aroused Soviet fears of Hungary’s of the least attractive representatives Russian has ever produced. “Konstantin Pobedonostsev, “Konstantin produced. ever has nationalism Russian representatives attractive least the of a yearon abroadcast operationthat dollars not only million airs hundred the one views to close of the anti-Western spending are States movement, United “the but that quotes points someShanor Donald Slavophiles, and Westernizers between conflict re-emergent the inside feel could you that noticing While example. 75 involvement (asactive a transmissionand advice belt tactical between with the filled rebelliouscoverage groups). inciting the stressing in convergent rather are Kovrig) 73 There are several reasons (and not redundant in the historical accounts) for which RFE is considered to considered is RFE which for accounts) historical the in redundant not (and reasons several are There Radio Liberty’s messages are very problematic due to the conservative mood of its personnel, for personnel, its of mood conservative the to due problematic very are messages Liberty’s Radio Bennett Kovrig, . Evenif of code this neutrality is often broken by sarcastic, pamphleteering or Diplomatic History faced hopeless odds? cold- To bloodedly continue rebellion? withof incitement? event To the belatedly in warn theirorgans listeners that they propaganda the of role proper the security of the west by sustaining political instability the enhanced in thepresumably East. that one But whatand waseasy task an was freedom for desire and regimes their of abhorrence Europeans’ East of the Reinforcement warfare. op. cit., op. This wasThis be dilemma arecurring to ofthe foragents psychological p.61. , Vol.29, No. 5(November2005). Otheranalysts (Philo C. Wasburn, Bennett 75 , inflammatory , inflammatory incitement upheavals to not anissue is anymore. 73 37 74 . In a gesture of humble . In of a gesture repositioning, esprit de CEU eTD Collection 167. BureaucracyTruth. of How Communist Governments Manage the News $17.5 million, which was the equivalent of worldwidethe VOA budget.” See Paul Lendvai, international broadcasts! […] When thePoles temporarily stopped jamming in 1956, they savingsput the at it was estimated that the alone spent about $300 million yearon jamming six timesestimated the cost 1,000 of an millioninstance kWhfor ayear using in the block effort, as costly wholea atatime anenormously is of a deepening jamming that energy agree crisis. experts all In 1971, vary, estimates Though Unionalone 3,000transmitters are engaged in Soviet round-the-clockthe in jamming with a total staff that of some 5,000. estimate is “It RFE/RL. for Americans the by invested amount the than more represents 77 Shanor,Donald an organized army and Nazis the with collaborated who Vlasov, A.A. againstGeneral WWII The ideologist». conservative great «the the as broadcast one in described is III SovietAlexander Czar to adviser anti-Semitic reactionary the forces, is given a favorable image on RL broadcasts, Christianson says”. See analysis” if commentary, wise newsreporting, expert combination and comprehensive of cautious “anis impressive overthecrisis During Spring,performance RFE’s the 1968Prague 76 Press, 1985), p. 139. undesirable poignancy wholethe operationof efforts financial heavy displayed The way. rapid and efficient an in East the and West the covers and by the Sovietprofessional news support writers a dynamic institution which acts as a unitary system Unionand analysts political researchers, in editors, of cohort a mobilizing order division thematic and to jam the foreign multi-lingual, complex The impressive organization. research system, departmental the radiosmulti-level albeit monolithic, a as function can institution the cells, language-based attest to the of asrelics ideology).a Cold(perceived War RFE/RL towards hostility leftist aLiberal with associated reformism Communism lines muscular moreEuropeanism after adistressing period and of on détente message of the redirect to seeks which regime, by Reaganite the cautioned actually In order to jam RL, the Soviets spend in the late 70s in between $750million-$1.2 billion, which Arch Puddington, The temperamental evolution of RFE discourse points to the fact that, despite its 76 . When it becomes confrontational again in the 80s, the style of RFE is Behind theLines: the Private War against Soviet Censorship op. cit., op. p.151. 38 77 . Considering that as early as 1951 there is (London: Burnett (London: Books,p. 1981), (New York: St. Martin’s The CEU eTD Collection Curtea Veche, 2007), p. 43. Ioana Ioana M See crumbled.” finally had country, the and us between regime communist the by erected silence, and fear 79 78 experience personnel insidewith radio RFE nobody practically being applicable to the other departments aswell: tothe departments other being applicable message, convertible a has testimony editors’ Romanian the of one that infer we view, of de corps bickering, ornationalist petty counterweightpolitics are by deviations a missionary both pernicious for andadvantageous institution’s the ownexistence. Theinevitable of predispositions a personnel “in an inside American exile” can wartime institution be andemotional intellectual, political The initiative. ofaheterogeneous outcomes War story in causing the downfall of communism. We rather seek to detect the structural as a forbelt the1956, rescueappeals. transmission in ones in Hungarian manner asthe same act, the editors Romanian The Police. Security listenersthe thewithin Romanian unit horizontal a newtype ininaugurates of with earthquake communication 1977 practically checking of two official sources the of mandatory despite 1977), Romanian earthquake devastating (the calamities before airingof that as quick is as the Sakharov) news.Andrei dissident the of honor in The ceremony Prize Nobel coverage of the Romanian in Wojtyla1978, the newPope asthe year, election Cardinal from of the riots same the Poznan the 1956, from discourse “secret” (Khrushchev’s events political of coverage press. Communist the The hard censored to time givinga immediacy thus of reporting, that RFE gains in time the popularity not justfor its critical attitude, but for the “We stopped being, under the harsh Ceausescu dictatorship, the scarecrow everybody feared. The wall of wall The feared. everybody scarecrow the dictatorship, Ceausescu harsh the under being, “Westopped Arch Puddington, ă We do not intend, by giving this selective account, to stress the success of Cold a stress thesuccessof to account, selective intend,by this giving not Wedo gur , replacing staggering professionalism with political motivation. From this point this From motivation. political with professionalism staggering replacing , ă -Bernard, op. cit., op. Directorul postului nostrude radio p.47. 79 , dissolving the walls offear by interposed the 39 [The Director of our Radio Station] (Bucharest: Station] Radio of our Director [The 78 , itis surprising rather esprit CEU eTD Collection Romanian section. Romanian 81 comparison between RFE or other Western radios to the regime media. Asweencounter regime the to radios Western other or between RFE comparison isthe statements majority of the is to typical What reception. the of qualities technical habits the clarity and the and listening listeners’ the preferences of messages, the analyses. They provide information useful as they gauge, try questionnaires,through to mattersthrough resonating broadcasts. the cultural enforcement of the international debates aswell of cultural stakes the political demonstrates image disproportionate This time. the of battles literary the within party third mere a Lovinescu,is she exaggeratedly as perceived an Americanagent of imperialism,and not Monica of in case the see shall message. Aswe of the component national the minimize its butimplicitlyradio they adversary influence), also station as an (thus recognizing RFEinsofar propaganda imagesnot only about arerevelatory asthey do objectify the counter- it. Communist The towards positioning and regime’s the meta-capital media’s sections Hungarian andthe Bulgarian the it isrecording to interaction, somereactions RFE (by worth the comparing performances as ismedia overall paradigm our Since asimmediate evaluation. as itis reported least RFE about image 3. Audience’s 80 The audience surveys for the Romanian section will be discussed in the chapter dedicated to the to dedicated chapter the in be discussed will section Romanian the for surveys audience The Gelu Ionescu, The resonating power of the broadcasts represents a main concern for RFE survey for RFE main concern a represents broadcasts of the power The resonating at too, intense ispretty “experience” their are concerned, As farthelisteners as temperatures and in different styles. different in and temperatures UNIQUE inthe history of emigration- together, albeit – atdifferentexperience captivating and seizing this lived we because it, forget never We will listeners. by our remembered less and less today success, remarkable a with forward everything pushed which force financial impressive and the instinct of the “importance” of our work. There also was a waste of means Covorul cu scorpioni Something kept us together, beyond rivalries orsympathies, maybe [The Carpet with Scorpios] (Bucharest: Polirom, 2006), p. 152. 80 40 81 ), for doublethe highlightingof purpose CEU eTD Collection 83 Funds 300, Subfunds 20, Series 1, Box 179,p. 7. 82 inAndlife people entireto the their and deathstruggle although Hungarian the world». fighters freedom the -of any results without messages -though the broadcast come, and them. «The radio was united with us in our helplessness to get Western aid, which did not felt for them,RFE them,sorry with theironlyfriend, encouraged remained who cried freedom, for fight their in alone left were people Hungarian the “when that show surveys audience The station”. radio “their of performance in the disappointment international the persons) asearly as 1951.After Hungarian the revolution, Hungarians the donotshare 100 approximately of (comprised staff Hungarian large a assemble to Americans the for difficulty is no there in since 1950s, the be of strongest one the seemsto from States the station beshould assumedby defectors the TheHungarianthemselves. exile community America. and in England Poles the as such West in the living Bulgarians exile exile. Thisispartly explainednon-existence by the of a large well-organized body of identification with émigrés,isit is it importance” of a Mustafa, no such as that expressedbe willing to helpby them in polishthe fight for freedom – asrefugees long as it is not a communist- , wouldeven who with anyone “that Bulgarians welcome would the source, one according to great, the Poles in isliberation Thefor is so longing thusoverlooked. are weakand component patriotic the theexilecommunity is with the ties that audience Bulgarian for the aspect problematic The will forsakethem”. imagine that theWest cannot broadcasts…they Western news” of source in one Bulgarian report, RFE,in contrast to regime press and radio,is“the only complete Idem Bulgaria audienceresponse to Western broadcasts (August 1954-July 1955), Nov.21,1955, , loc. cit., In contrast with the Bulgarians, the Hungarians suggest that the leadership of the of leadership the that suggest Hungarians the Bulgarians, with the In contrast p. 4. 82 . The dependency pattern is also stressed: “people have confidence in “people is haveconfidence stressed: . The also dependency pattern 41 83 . Conspicuously absent is the emotional in OSA, CEU eTD Collection 1969, in OSA, Funds 300, Subfunds 20, Series 1, Box 179. 88 87 86 85 84 as “Budapest III” is to Free referred Voicethe Hungary of that retain evaluations muchexpected morefrom RFE, they appreciated gettingleast at this much” programs programs Western dealing with cultural life: music,movies, theater, etc.” books, in interested are People have inHungary at home. they enough commentaries, of which and dull fewer political and ones political have far programs, more entertaining culture. In1967 analyses audience dwell the recurrently “to upon Hungarians the desire airingbutWestern about those internal problems, arenotthose broadcasts longed the or programs favored the ironic twist, Inan taste. of audience’s the a redirection about brings Hungarians) the (for “Black Book” or “Reflector” as such programs political the would think that the West “wrote them off” becausein wouldcut Hungarians greatconsequences, have broadcasts, length the the of a even or discontinuance, the that great isso expectancy and reliance listeners’ the that listeners in order to deceive them moredeceive them easily” to in order listeners the win of confidence the andto of audience size increasethe the “to as anattempt andmusicis programs” described sports, of number “thescientific, increased loyalties: of market the on mediatic competition a capitalist to itaccordingly interprets and same shift counter report from the Bulgarian Communist press on the evolution RFEof registers the surrounding publics moreare much oriented. mass-culture As itlooks inat least a whereasthe matters for political appetite listeners keeptheir Romanian the that mention Michael Costello, Item No. 2178/ 1967, in OSA, Funds 300, Subfunds 40, Series 4,Box 8. Item No. 11188/1953, inOSA, Funds 300, Subfunds 40, Series 4, Box 8. Item No. 11189/ 1953, in OSA, Funds 300, Subfunds 40, Series 4, Box 8. Item No. 10604/ 1956, in OSA, Funds 300, Subfunds 40, Series 4, Box 8. The stringent dependency seems to soften in the late 60s, when the weariness with 60s,when weariness the in late soften the to dependency seems The stringent A Special Report on the First ‘Modern’ Bulgarian Attack onRFE 86 42 . 88 . It is relevant for our case study to , Bulgaria, 14 March , Bulgaria, 84 . Other 85 loisir 87 and . A CEU eTD Collection Series 1, Box 179. 89 out. burnt is tube radio message targets a similar audience (Figure 3), who can produce its own“noise” when the decadent bourgeois the when one, tothemore rigid is opposed period habits, this caricaturing listeners’foolishness and superficiality (Figure 4).In termslistening of reversed War phasetotalitarian Cold is thinking. “entertaining” The atby simply mocked with the accordance in perfect isanyagency, denied TheRFE staff cartoons. these in comprised schematization extreme perceive the to in order transcripts written centrally within asuppressing Itis environment. know notnecessary to RFEthat never used are RFEmere editors puppets of American propaganda, voicing their restless belligerence resting uponthe decomposed ofFascismrelics 1and(Figure is 2). What is suggested that oppressive, stifling butfinancially by manipulation rewarding Americanthe power, RFE and listeners.The“political its is fought againstphase” by unveiling of the the between interaction the of mood changing the to is sensitive counter-propaganda official criticism. and vengeance from living standards70s late callingon, the reinforcementmandated forth of the be found inthe social audience’s composition lowering andin(less urbanized) the of lengthy political thanmusicprograms more Hungarians- – unlike the research from Romanians demand 1978, the dating East European Area Audienceand Opinion Research Although itAlthough for expresses apedestrian contempt foreign broadcasting,the the 89 . The reasons for this distinctive preference might preference for this distinctive reasons . The 43 , July 1978, in OSA,, July1978,in Funds300,Subfunds 20, CEU eTD Collection Source: OSA, the Bulgarian Unit of freedom”. breath deep a take listeners, dear Mai 1955. The caption reads: “Just amoment, Figure 1:CartoonfromGerman a 19 newspaper, . 44 Curtain AllanA. Michie, Source: inventions." slander, lies, provocations, baseTheir loudly. croaking love toads old two these Europe, Free Radio and Liberty "Radio reads: is Efimov,Plakat, moscow, Captionthe in1985. called cartoons an F old rubbish bin co igure 2:Cartooigure , 1963. n from a boo from n A Shattering Blow Voices through the Iron k of anti by - Western ntaining Boris CEU eTD Collection through the Iron Curtain song”. Source: Allan A. Michie, should swallow the lies and sing aforeign you that still, Worse flapping. ears rubbish, reads: “Bad enough you should believe that listeners to Western radios. The caption Figure 4: Aposter attacking Russian burnt. We have to produce the sound ourselves”. 1959. Source:11 April OSA,“Urzica”, daily Bulgarian Romanian the from Unit. Caricature 3: Figure , 1963. Voices 45 The caption reads: “The tube is tube “The reads: caption The CEU eTD Collection modernizing drive. of toavulnerable itself “close distance”andre-emergent public underconditions intellectual agency exposingbutto the complex War struggle,pervasiveness of a Cold influence over the discourse Tendentious reporting, of accumulation outsideand capital symbolic RFEquarters. about the communist past interaction insideand andsocial ideological with the minute studies of target concerned cannot only be attributed whereasfor thepresentof andcounter-propaganda, itblatantsimplistic shouldbe the to the itit asource in represented past that humancapital,the contend controversial wewould In conclusion, if we look at the history of RFE from the perspective of its 46 CEU eTD Collection but also the things that distinguishes her: the length of the broadcasting time, extreme time, broadcasting the of length the her: distinguishes that things the also but regime), the towards stand adversarial if dissent, cases reflecting constructing/ militancy, (casuistic departments other with common in has it that things the highlighting activity, Monicato wewillpointnational chapter the intra-elitism. Lovinescu’s Throughout a of framework the within populism literary or analyses political its airs which Voice, of both transcendental status the and militancy The case-based discourse. political personalized and of an ethical arbiter and immanentfor the development and society” “civil forethereal an the rise of station, radio with the player are specific communication vertical a of establishment for the reasons the therefore understand better for the Romanian Free meanings.traditional andof Weshall classifyingempowerment elites with producing a itto ascribe shall we and station” as “our radio to is referred which transmission and we stress testimonies peculiarthe dependency will Romanian the of publica on data Through advocacy.of managementpolitical personnel and of political composition aspects relevantfor case our study, such as audience andprofiles, program social and in bethose wewill interested chapter, Asinthe previous Romaniansection. the account into by taking operation of contextualizing scope the the shrink captive we world, well the institutionalas characteristics general of a a project of truth to propagating Romanianof Department RFE. After strategic outlining andintellectual the as grounds the within program distinctive a as criticism political and cultural Lovinescu’s Monica Chapter 3.The RomanianDepartment A introductory second is chapter needed in understand to order importancethe of 47 CEU eTD Collection 90 “ghetto” unit-sections and micro-universes. semi-autonomous The whole institution being a can onthe borderline five becontrol, the situated departments between institutionally tradition. an intellectual publicleaving dialogue, next for the one discussionthe on conceptual the interaction with of elites- the parameters sociological the and “media as interaction” of part institutional regime and is very which fearedby the atypeadvocacy andcultural-political of exemplifies shealso much tastedstation theradio of popularity the of thecauses of is one She peculiarities. representative by the its condensed dueto thismake background “naturally” to also case, butagainst itemerge public. We comparative manner. Ourpurposeis reconstruct the institutionalto set circumscribingcover her thereforein a chapter last “real inthe her wayforappearance” the smooth we intend to as her, for subdivision ina special creating of instead chapter thisthe along position discursive chapter and institutional her disseminate to We choose political). social, (cultural, aspects the its all in regime communist the of definition overall the on authority symbolic popularity, therefore simply displayed: it will constitute the setting for the socio-historical inputs socio-historical the for setting the constitute will it displayed: simply therefore empirical background for the discussion on dissimilarities. The statistical data will not be regarding listernship,length, program and preferences set couldthe programs therefore be denied. data cannot Quantitative cultural and social departments, differentiation all features be common can andanti-Communism to considered bickering, patriotism internal If integrated. missionary and nationally but diverse, stylistically character, family Gelu Ionescu, Because of the language-based division of RFE and because of the loosely central loosely the becauseof RFE and of language-based division the Because of 90 for its for 1,200 employees from branches divisionary the München, develop a op. cit., op. p.146. 48 CEU eTD Collection Europei Libereprin documendede Securitate, op. cit., between RFE and Romanian intelligence. See Mihai Pelin, See Mihai intelligence. Romanian and RFE between international communicationof signing agreements. consequence a as ether He also the states that thedisinfest liberalizingto policies obliged was Romania acted that like an idea armistice the advances Pelin Mihai 93 April, 2008. 29 Shafir, Michael with Interview years). ofseveral a range within results same the approximately give unless the criteria public ofmade “continuous not were sampling” results the isfulfilledvisitors), (that or is the on defectors recurrent (applied statistical sampling operationsof the should character representative institutions, not byRFE,basisthe on ofquestionnaires elaborated byRFE. Becauselow ofthe by independent made were They conducted. were surveys audience these ushow to explained he 92 which had jamming stopped in because1963 ofthehigh cost of operationthe should take notice of the fact that, unlike Poland orUSSR, Romania was the first country Romanian audience to RFE on top. Before resorting to a sociological explanation, we the surveys were conducted surveys the were considered to have a low degree of reliability due to the difficult conditions under which increased 64%.Although mayParis. be By1982-83,RFE’saudience sources all to these Romanian-language 22%totheBBC,Radio broadcasts, 18%totheVOA to and 14% RFE 1971-1972RFEsurvey which 59%Romaniansconcluded that its listened to a Hecites is by it in radio. and Romania is recorded media foreign of penetration greatest 91 in Czeckoslovakia in 35%, Hungary 50%) 49%, Poland in 32%, itregistered inBulgaria (whereas 55%of adultpopulation the audience counted of movements.social Paul in that Lendvai inestimates 1978-1979 Romania RFE number smallest the with country the is also broadcasts alternative to listeners of number 1. Statistics… capital. political concerning the relationship between elites and masses and the value of cultural and In a book in which he collects many documents belonging to the security police and relating Michel Shafirworked for Researchthe Department within RFE (between1965-1967to and 1985-1987) and RFE, Paul Lendvai, Conspicuously from the beginning is the paradox that the country country the from biggest isthe paradox with that Conspicuously beginning the op.cit. , p. 158. 92 , what they recurrently have in common is the positioning of 49 p.56. Opera 91 Ġ iunile „Meli . Peter Gross remarks that the Gross that remarks Peter . Ġ a” ú i „Eterul”. Istoria 93 . RFE . CEU eTD Collection two directors tried to educate directors them tried educate two much to as as they could” veryothers much still lived in TheseRomania. ones were keen on pamphleteering. The rhetorical excess: “The problem was that Noël and Vlad were very westernized, while the bedifficult againstvituperation from and violating restrainedAmerican to the strictures the followers of insofar ofview,complementary points indeed and asNoël are Bernard Georgescu Vlad an objective type arethese We arguethat would Noël byboth Georgescu). Vlad and Bernard (undertaken of journalism,his camarilla and Nicolae against Ceausescu campaign poignancy a restless of but the staff under sarcastic out the points Arch Puddington theRomaniandistinctiveness section, of their directionfor account the to professionalism Bernard’s on stress Shafir Michael Bernard and is 95 1966-1981). journalist,forBBC thenfor and Radio Free Europe (whose leadership heassumes inbetween 1954-1958, March 2006). Born to a Jewish family in Romania, he leaves the country in 1940 to become a reputed became the most popular department (See Nestor Ratesh, “In memoriam: Noël Bernard”, Noël memoriam: “In Ratesh, Nestor (See department popular most the became Department. NestorRateshcontends thatunder leadership, his Romanian the language department of RFE 94 Bernard Noël popularity of wide tothe the attribute andcould professionalism audience also additionally had much ample coverage of local events through national radio stations. We could be thus listened toin better conditions than in the other countries, which presenting). The Western perspective is in this respect schematic: whereas Ioana M schematic:is whereas in this respect The Western perspective presenting). in style Anglo-Saxon exact and dry sources, from official verified twice information timesnumber of listeners, in the changes by introduced the news the programs (accurate years Within leadership, Noël broadcastingin time. of two three raising succeeds Bernard of a radio which enjoys the same success as that of VOA or BBC for a 12 times bigger Interview with Michael Shafir, 29April 2008. In all testimonies about RFE, Noël Bernard (1925-1981) is held to be the best director of the Romanian 94 , who reassumes leadershipthe in 1966 andtries toincrease thefeeble impact 50 95 . Revista 22 ă gur , 4 ă - CEU eTD Collection 100 99 98 97 overtly and obsessively political and propagandistic” (interview with L., Hungarian listener, 1 June, 2008). 96 popularity special salience of the Romanian political programs might be a reason for the top sympathies rightist with predominantly 50s, the in community exile little the to due assembled, consider the fact that the Romanian staff, as well as the Bulgarian, was hard to be sponsored by sponsored musicalclubs, andgroups soon many being 20signatures, carry moreletters them of mailthan the inflow (some by inisat least asit is attested (Figure 6), thestrongest RFE 1965 communication with the Nevertheless, stations. radio foreign other of style tendentious less the prefers its butbroadcastingaudience longest time, the by is Americans Europe the allotted Central-Eastern in tradition democratic longest the with country The one. revelatory is a very Romanian case,which discrepancy between the Czechoslovak and the hours in andhours in Romanian eightBulgarian thirteen in Hungarian, and hours Polish nineteen Czechoslovakia, to Slovak Czech and in daily hours half and twenty broadcasts Europe Free (Radio shortest the is among Department Romanian tothe is allotted which time broadcasting the fact that the despite overthrow of Ceausescu inlead-upfactors influencingtothe of the public opinion the Paul Lendvai, Michael Nelson, Arch Puddington, “less – –paradoxically them find they as station Romanian the into tune who Hungarians even are There Audience Mail The combination The combination and sarcasm, promptitude dedication of the insures which 96 97 of the Romanian Department. The performance is not ordinary if we if ordinary not is performance The Department. Romanian the of . The Romanians tune in the most to RFE and 33% consider that RFE is one op. cit., op. , January 1-June 30, 1965, in OSA, Funds 300, Subfunds 20, Series 1, Box 176. op. cit., op. op. cit., op. p.149. p.190. p.37. 51 100 ). 99 ). In the Figure 5 we canperceive the ). InFigure 5we the 98 CEU eTD Collection 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 Lendvai, Figure 5 Source: OSA, Bulgarian Unit. Figure 6 500

Romanian 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 0 : Mail Received from Eastern Europe January 1 January Europe Eastern from Received : Mail Paul Source: Departments. ofRFE’s Time Broadcasting and : Audience The Bureaucracyof truth Bulgaria

Bulgarian of BroadcastingRFE's and Time Audience 19 Mail Received fromEast-Europe 1-JuneReceived 30, January Mail

Hungarian Poland 193 Departments in 1979

Polish , 1981. Czechoslovak Romania 808 52 1965 Hungary 1440 - 0 5 10 15 20 25 June 30, 1965. Czechoslovakia time Broadcasting Audience 2390 CEU eTD Collection 101 masses andthe elites the between distance alsoa growing but capital, cultural of is an overestimation result the resources: middlemodernizationas lacks period a during a class sufficient which economic saying thatRomanian inhistorians converge Sociologists mandate. and symbolic internal strong a very but lobby, external much so enjoy not do elites whose and in modernization, alate havingdramatic is experienced support a country greater media external on thereliance data: among these acausal determinism) (not correlation hold befar-fetchedmoreis Itwouldn’t audience. atomized to there that animplicit is farallotted less space,airing which is hungrily absorbed by a more dependent and legacy, afeeblerdemocratic with instead, Romania information. for theneed diversifies sametime the and at of clubbing) by tradition civic the communication (screened to detect the type of interaction between RFE’s Departments and especially detect interaction their between Departments public, the to RFE’s type of 2. Programs solicitmail, asthe do. others notdirectly does Department because the Polish from analysis comparative extracted this be really can case Polish Only the traditions. lacking democratic atomized society censorshipis not only restrictinga factor mail butalsooutflow, another symptom of an of being harsh). We censorshipthe Bulgarian (the say harshness would one the that of Sorin Antohi, Sorin The communitarian spirit of an urbanized culture enhances a collective epistolary acollective enhances culture urbanized spiritof an The communitarian Mail inflow, audience and broadcasting time are not sufficient, however, if we try if we however, sufficient, not are time broadcasting and audience inflow, Mail Civitas imaginalis (Bucharest:Litera, 1994), p. 258. 101 . One would argue that the data isbecause data the irrelevant . Onewould arguethat 53 intelligentsia act CEU eTD Collection involved in involved of literary time,the struggles butseen from heardand However, distance. a very local into progressively field program, cultural turn one, Western with the “synchronize” the Romanian Monica designed to programs, irony Lovinescu’s that an outlet for channelingforeign broadcasts, eagerly consuming politicalfrustrations and cultural items. They provide for them and programs findin themeducational entertaining),(be Romanians listening or the refuge a wide range of updated information. It is an 176. 103 February 1956, p. 9, in OSA, Funds 300,Subfunds 20, Series 1, Box 176.) (See months.” 18 last the in regime the by advocated tone liberal and Furthermore, the programs of theCzechoslovak stations improved inkeeping withthe increasingly cultural broadcasting radios because it’s impossible to listen all the time to strongly jammed Western radios. […] 102 proportion of Romanian the audience (28%) while (72%), the almostof asmall Hungarians satisfy they the overall appreciation only 39%, respectivelyappreciate themmoreNative (17%, music 26%). enjoy programs Slovaks and Czechs the and Hungarians the Poles, the while interesting, programs entertaining programs. Only findhome and 4%Bulgarians 12% Romanians cultural and cultural concerning differences aresignificant there Slovaks), Czechs and Romanians(44% Bulgarians, detestthem,Poles, 60% 50%Hungarians, 28% 48% local early inthe 60s abhorrence tothe andpolitical programs constantpropagandistic with tothe home listeninghabits the If inversely show radios. correlated publics all again elusive, butit can offer some hints. useful The listening habits RFE to could befirst datais Atthisour point by broadcasts typerealizedthe length department. every of and of and preferences thematic of analysis comparative the to resorting by allegiances our if they do not contain serial data from successive periods. We should therefore back up Data extracted from Astudentreports thatRadio Prague playedbig inhisradiolistening a role “Hehabits. preferred home It is not surprising that, being offered such a small quantity surprisingis notsuch beingofferedIt quantity that,asmall qualitative of Audience Research , April 1963,OSA, , April in 300, Funds 20,Series Subfunds 1, Box 54 103 . Audience Analysis Monthly Report 102 , CEU eTD Collection departments - the “News” program, the “Political Program”, “Censored News from from the News “Censored Program”, “Political the “News” program, -the departments trustworthy in data correlating lack curiosity and (some thediligence editors aura. agency human and visitors) by delivered information unofficial or press (Romanian The most appreciated seem to be, - as in the case of the other updated analysesupdated news and file containing hundred page dailya200 receives editor (each cross-monitoring impression omniscience.of Thisis an due to assiduous system self-informingof and by objectivity the and authority and projected of information underscarce conditions forged, is credibility enormous Its message. anddemocratic as national of a conveyor of depressing teleologicalthe value intelligentsia,torpidity RFE increases Romanian of background andagainstthe intelligence support), its revealed secret RadioStation (due to Gelu Ionescu, mistakes”. and errors of source constant a was which country, the from events the with updated not were orderto extract our sources subjects.and This ordeal meant that some of the editors from otherprograms directorsthe Few read. intook reading pains this “mendacious” until’89,but press weto readitin had magazines and to the Romanianpublications – whichmostly the editors from “RomanianActuality” and much, practically inexhaustible. And thenthere were the subscriptions to international dailies and 106 Veche 105 2. 104 abandoned andsothey upmorals keep not is people the that impression the leave also they ideas; his with and West free the with maintainof andthecontact theflameRomanianism broadcasts These people. […] majority Romanian of the food of the daily intellectual the constitute broadcasts “RFE’s consciousness: Romanian inthe rooted being its with in combination evoked is station detailed analysis and for its informed respected highly being IV”, of “Bucharest status the RFE acquire about local realities. The supreme efficacy and impact of the radio “There was a lot of information, picked up by a central bureau for lung the“Memoria whole Hurezeanu, Emil radio station, there was so About RFE’s programs and their audience [The Old Dilemma], No.212 (2008). op. cit., 105 p. 150. ) which,although notfaultless because of secondary sources ă a undei scurte” [The Long Memory of the Short Wave], Short of the Memory Long [The scurte” undei a , 6Jan. 1972, in OSA, Funds 300, Subfunds 30, Series 2, Box 104 ”. Under the threat of the dismantling of the 55 106 ), is invested with ), isinvested with a Dilema CEU eTD Collection the young ones) to tune to the political ones as well or Music) play their role in opening thelisteners’ horizon and attracting them (especially “Women Actuality”, Chronicle” (“American programs RFE,concerning massculture the arelesscited inthe eulogies Although they PredaBunescu,Ion Haralamb).Ionescu, 108 Star],No. 6(12 Febr. 1983). sum impressive first andof minutes since hour one twenty weekly of 1967, transmission minutes of her own program of with of cultural minutes Together program. the total the 50 50 the of actuality out (“Theses and Anti-Theseseverything beingdonefrom from not Paris, München. Sheprovides minutes of 35 from Paris”), this willinsures forShe the tableslobby round and , events,organizes the analyzes make an indictment. political and reviewing literary between East, the about and criticism West Romanian isDepartment 80hours aweek (insured with 80 persons) Silvestri, “Pseudocultura peunde scurte” (III) [Pseudo-culture See Artur On Short Waves],example. for one, Hungarian the as level entertaining the at excel did not department Romanian are attracted through music to pay attentionto the “intoxicated news”. We noticed howeverthat the that the 32% time of news is paralleled by the 27% time of the entertaining programs because the listeners Hurezeanu, “Political Program” is reflected in thelong-run fame its of editors (N. C. Munteanu, Emil the or Actuality” “Romanian of the The popularity of Bernard. Noël collaborator 107 leadershipMihai Cism of constancy in the professional stand of newsprogram the isin reflected long the compositea is which Actuality”, “Romanian the by followed are They Romanians”. the by seen program covering“The Occident Week”, “Editorial the of the Listeners”, the “Talking to R.S.R.”, Press of internal affairs, with a composite staff of editors. The Mihai Pelin, Mihai The denigrating The campaignled by Silvestri“Luceaf 1983 inArtur in Monica Lovinescu’s programs lie at the intersection between coverage of of between the coverage intersection the lie at programs Monica Lovinescu’s ù op. cit erban Orescu, Gelu Ionescu, Monica Lovinescu, respectively Vladimir respectively Lovinescu, Monica Ionescu, Gelu Orescu, erban ., p. 58. ă rescu (30 years, (30 aclose until alias Radurescu Gorun, 1983), 56 107 . The total broadcasting time of the ă rul” magazinerul” starts by noticing that 108 Luceaf . ă rul [The Morning CEU eTD Collection Box 176. Anti-BulgarianWave, Zhurnalist, Bulgarski Issue No.1969, 1/ inOSA, Funds 300, Subfunds 20, Series 1, coverage of the Writers’ Union is considered tendentious, but no special program ismentioned. See on 112 111 Box 8. Gallicus, FarmerBallint, PalJulian). See Item No. 53/1967 inOSA, Funds 300, Subfunds 40, Series 4, 110 Series 2, Box 2.) vague arerather programs cultural the to references the while Press”, Bulgarian the of Review is morelistenedmost even broadcast revealing: the be in1969is “The to cited Critical department Bulgarian the with comparison The dissidents. for the role protective political a plays and 1989 after and before canon literary internal the molds which broadcasts, of befrom Monica Lovinescu’s character different“institutional” appears to the broadcast “On the Waves of Tomorrow”) literature samizdatthe (especiallyin the andunderground Ujsag” 80s,with the support or and “Irodalmi “Latohatar” periodicals, literary issues fresh Hungarian the émigré two of Szabo, Gyula Borbandi and LazsloKasza. Moreover, Hungarian RFE usually report on alias Candidus Marai, within RFE (Sandor editor cultural have avery popular apparently Hungarians do background of wholethe RFE,Monica Lovinescu’s iscase even more The distinctive. Against“personalized” Bernard). the personality asthe cultural Noël the one (besides of this senseeven if that, they are very political the popular, programsarenot performance that no other cultural editor attained within RFE. We should further stress in public.”(See 109 important Noël after editor Bernard as secondmostis the recorded often spread around weekandthe in then gathered weekends.the Itisnowonder then she that The The official criticism towards Bulgariansection of RFE does not mentionany cultural broadcasts. The Informationprovided by Andras Mink in a questionnaire,2.06.2008. Candidus is thefirst in atop of most appreciatedthe from editors 1967(Candidus, Albert Vajda, “She admirably flogs the vices of the regime and her broadcasts are very appreciated by the Romanian by the appreciated very are broadcasts her and regime of the vices the flogs admirably “She 112 . In . In 1954 About RFE’s programsAbout audience andtheir 110 ), but he shares the monopole over the cultural matters with Zoltan matters cultural the over monopole hebut sharesthe ), 113 there is no cultural program among the different accounts of 111 57 . The profile of . The involvement profilethus cultural the of , 6 Jan. 1972, in OSA, Funds1972, in 300,Subfunds, 6Jan. 30, 109 , a CEU eTD Collection by the security agents within the operations “Chatterbox” and “Ether” provide within rich by “Chatterbox” operations security the agents the in made by assault Carlos The reports helpofinternational the terrorist organized 1981). to reality) and even arrangingalways which its programs, data not personnel evidenceof keeping do correspond (with offensive RFE’s monitoring in activity routine) internalized an of (because superficial operationssometimes against and theheavy, systematic a deployed Police Security Romanian that nevertheless, secret, radio station (the abroad” bomb state of the activities repressive expand the to sultanistic regimes of tendency “the about idea JuanLinz’s weretruth, Security Police the of involvement the about allegations the all case In case. Goma Paul the of coverage Police. Monica Lovinescu is also thevictim a criminal of inassault avivid1977, after 116 2007. Liber Europa la spion in Georgescu 1985 Security Police in the 80s furnishing the plans of Vlad Georgescu’s house. See Mirela Corl See Mirela house. Georgescu’s ofVlad plans the furnishing 80s the in Police Security that aprominent intellectual and liberal senator(Constantin B Last year, the most important daily targeting anelite public from Romania led a campaignin orderto prove 115 Linz, Juan and Chebabi E. the weakness of traditional is them and legal-rational characterizes what ways,legitimation in many be modern and tha can lack of regimes ideologicalsultanist justification. Although See collaborators. H. his to 114 series 1, Box 176. 80s (Noel Bernard in 1981, Mihai Cism in the directors four RFE of endings serial dramatic the arguethat Some commentators 113 wecan “sultanistic fact, byitanecdotic regimes” about verify theories Juan Linz’s note of distinction of Insteadof Romanian the department. itdeliveringas adark Communists –To and About, Youth etc.). Speaks, Matzankieff News,Doctor (International affairs national and international As three of them die of cancer, it is supposed that the Security Police rewards and fear devised between mixture a on based a rulership a having by plan characterized is to regime irradiate Asultanistic them. Idem Audience ResponseAudience toWestern Broadcasts , p.25. Speaking about dissimilarities, we cannot refrainfrom morbid dissimilarities,noticing wecannot arather Speaking about ă 115 : dovada” [Stolnici, a Spy at Free Europe: the Proof], the Europe: Free at Spy a [Stolnici, dovada” : ) can be attributed to the secret operations of the Romanian Security Sultanistic Regimes (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), p.7. , August 1954-JulyOSA, Funds 1955, in 300,Sibfunds 20, ă rescu in1983,Emil in Georgescu 1985, Vlad 58 116 ăOă would to be thus tested. It is no ceanu Stolnici) collaborated withthe Cotidianul [The Daily], 3 Dec. 3 Daily], [The ăĠ an, “Stolnici, an, 114 . CEU eTD Collection 118 Pelin, Mihai See sector”. agrarian or industrial the from made up baffling statistics, operation “Ether” the veryin ofteninvolved not conformingservices withDifferent the truth, regime. but thoroughly political the of similar levels all to at the statistics practice generalized a being this reply, no with them accepted chiefs the and another, to semester one from another, to month one from copied were they reality, in but, force, remarkable with endowed beimpeccable, to seemed 117 her and impact end scene cultural the (1971) on the after liberalization period the is of a threat to the regime’s effort to promote a new path for the construction of socialism at as is seen asshe As soon aspects. political and cultural social, in its all power communist monopole over the definition of is programs, sinceshe a symbolic asdetaining perceived political than to the MonicaLovinescu’s case more to Police attention Security paid isnoan invincible that the demonizing wonder about enemy. over-powerful It discourse sides battleon both forge a the that and isinfactreciprocal assessment schematic knowledge of what exactly against should fightone insignalinga meantimefact that was led combat the proper the broadcasts, the without surprising in thatonly read required1981 thechiefagentsare totranscriptsthe of the is listening It broadcasts. the superfluous of proper schemes which classificatory render isupdating triumphal slow, ritualistic process or and of action. Most of RFE’s productthe of a political and interaction social schemesdriven byvitiated of perception editors are presentedis as if italsoseen but regime), o totalitarian aspects traumatic the about by the discourse as being fascist hard-liners, (privileged only not transcendental malefic of impressive perspective endeavor from the a and the fromPolice against Europe RadioFree 1951untilis29 October 1989 22 December thus fought bythe Security society. Thewar over influence – spheres of tracingtherefore (explorative butalso imaginary) of a typesurveillance of informing aimedat and – questionable)(though information, scope(large)the disclosing and the profile "The working "The plans of operational the group « Ether »,which coordinated activitythe of RFE inthe 80s, Idem , p.325. 59 op. cit., op. p.20. 117 118 , benefiting from the same the from benefiting , . We would argue that the CEU eTD Collection to Alexandru Solomon in his movie about Radio Free Europe, entitled “Cold Waves” (2007). Waves” “Cold entitled Europe, Free Radio about movie in his Solomon Alexandru to Romanian cultural matters, together with Monica Lovinescu and Virgil Ierunca. His key testimony is given 121 Paris. or München from those and Bucharest from environment cultural the between channels “communication as acting possibly contacted, and praised both were who persons and Paris to visits their in Ierunca Virgil and Lovinescu Monica contacted 120 119 refused by sayingequates that “being RFE being director aprime-minister inexile; he was asked in the latemilitant 80s, to become the directorbeto prevailed one’sbeing hired anti-Communism a democratic overas aRFEeditor, of the Romaniantestimony in Department,this sense, that of Gelu Ionescu, who draws attention to the fact that in order he is key one There tradition. national a the/ and set American the between tension ideological and a conceptual of existence the highlight be ableto habits to andcultural Warrhetoric Cold between interference on the discussion isit for our same time, crucial Atthe intellectual by agents. the possessed of capital with type the judgedin correlation precisely because they constitute the Personnel objectof the 3. Orientations of a symbolic combat in regime. which arestricting within mobility institutional actions and transnational are intuitand influencingthe that they potential a circleenjoyof of persons who conspicuous time the of networks intellectual the recreate help they that sense the in in them relevant by in black departments concocted the RFE lists general andlisted There down. is something paranoiac aboutthese inventories which resemble Guard)and interwarherthe fascistIron peoplethe screened arecarefully surrounding hierarchy of the Writers’ Union), she is ranged among the “legionnaires” recognized (the promotion Marin andof Ioan Sorescu Alexandru within the internal Gelu Ionescuwas aRFEeditorworking Münich in quarters foryears,12 since 1983. He covered who persons broadcasts, Lovinescu’ Monica in praised are who persons lists: of types 3 are There Idem , p.71. It is difficult categorize to the social and political backgrounds of the staff of RFE 121 . Michael Shafir backs up this affirmation, secretly declaring to us that, when us secretly that, to declaring . Michael affirmation, backsupthis Shafir 60 120 . There is something also . There 119 (the adepts of CEU eTD Collection his youth (he first publishes in the review “round tables” organized by many in Monica Lovinescu.part Horia Stamatu (1912-1987) Hetakes Guard. Ironhas Guard sympathies Iron in the of a member been has he that allegations the following it, receive not Nazis in wins 1944.In 1960he thePrixGoncourt for his novel Carol King during II’sauthoritariangovernment, but rejectsGuard andistaken Iron prisoner by the ambivalent commitment to pro-fascist ideology.He is appointed member of the diplomatic mission to Nichiforaround Crainic’s idea of ‘ethnocracy’.Vintil 1930s and 1940s. The review was supposedbridge gap the to betweenfascist pro-fascist and movements Crusher], ananti-Semitic daily, laterweekly monthly and newspaperpublished inRomania late duringthe also a regular collaborator of Monica Lovinescu’s programs. Lovinescu’s of Monica collaborator aregular also He is Ionescu). Eugen and Eliade Mircea Cioran, Emil with together Sorbonne within Research for Institute with whom he will keep close relations during his exile years (he is one of the founders of the Romanian 125 124 cit., dealing with adversaries with a mixture of polemics, vituperationand deception. See ArchPuddington, authorities, due to their way of “treating exile affairs as a small scale version of politics back home ofand 123 122 type of in Romanians that suggests, ArchPuddington the émigrétrue tothe 50s,as the added the 80 persons of the leader” have aJewish for RFEto want Romanian not he does therefore, Department had rightist affinities. It is though maybe 1949), Alexandru Gregorian resigns in because heallowed1954 isnot tospeakabout the publications andmember a prominent of Italianthe foundedexile association inRome (in 29 the on broadcasting starts (which director Department of first Romanian the fordeath The thesamereasons. condemned to of the RFE Romanian department responsible with the evaluation of information, is director future the Gheorghe, Nicolae Ionel father of the Gheorghe, Ion General life. The Alexandru Gregorian,in 1946during ashow trial for helping “the penetration ideas fascistof into the country”.Horia Stamatu and authorities by communist the arecondemned Vintil evendirectors or future collaborators its of some started, activity RFE’s that before fact that isa also It trends. of reactionary actors rules recruiting the contradicted which movements, Alexandru Gregorian and Vintil American the for a problem represented general in émigrés the that mentions Puddington Arch Interview with Michael Shafir, 29. 05.2008. Idem p. 36. , p.36 petty politics 123 their background of problematic partially assupporters rightist ă Horia belong to the editorial staff of the review Floareafoc de th of October 1951), a former collaborator of rightist 61 [The Fire Flower]) as his generational colleagues, generational his as Flower]) Fire [The ă ă (1915-1922)Horia is an interesting case of Horia 124 God is Born in Exile and recommended themselves as themselves recommended and 125 arecondemned toprison for 122 . This isnot tosay that all Sfarm in 1960, in but does he ă -Piatr ă [Stone- op. CEU eTD Collection Enciclopedic Documente1951-1975 Calafeteanu, See Ion Maniu. Iuliu leader national-peasant the Europe network on the grounds of their repentance, patriotism, anti-Communist resistance and loyalty to government and withthe NationalAmerican Committees with of relations Émigrésthe with to allow charged the legionnairesCommittee to National joint the Romanian Freeof the member and minister 128 pp. 180-183. 1945-1989 1955, attracting the Americans’ disapproval.SeeManolescu, Florin until rupture double a cause organization the inside frictions The Department. State US the and Europe Free imposistion of democracy in Romania. In thissense they collaborate with the National Committee for a Romanian nation until liberation” and with“indulging into activities which should lead to the re- officials of the National-Peasant Party theand Liberal Party; they are charged with“representing the emerges in New York on the 6 127 1994), p. 19. . Monica Lovinescu, Noël Mihai Georgescu Vlad Bernard, Cismarescu, Noël Monica Western Lovinescu, culture. tothe acquired byexposure ethos, democratic nationalism and aprogressive ethnocentric metaphysical a between one, an easy not is it although adistinction, make should one questions the bysayingthat to to givetwo Weanswers sources? partial couldattempt and collaborators “garden” andRFE’s RFE’s between And boundaries arethe where country’s nationalism democratic tothe revival? pernicious type the intense of patriotism, harboring community exile an within differentiate, to possible itis how elsewhere: Romanian National Committee National Romanian infiltrate by help network legionnairesto themselves intheFree of want the Europe evaluation of the inside institution.the degree extremism Albeitof it that is true insidedetecting solve not therefore legionnaires the RFEdoes problem the the of nation the of continuity spiritual in the faith the without dissidence authentic an writings ametaphysical understanding of the Romanian essence and who cannotenvisage 126 Nicolae director the Stroescu-Stîni Romanian lost territoriesAnother the after War. hard-liner benationalist prove to would On the 13 The RomanianNational Committee is the government of the “democratic parties inexile” after1945. It Nicolae Stroescu-Stîni [The Encyclopedia RomanianLiterary ofthe 1945-1989] (Bucharest:Exile Compania, 2003), ă , 2003), pp. 58-59. th of February 1951, Hora [The Romanian Exile. The Erosion of Hope. Documents] (Bucharest: Editura (Bucharest: Documents] of Hope. Erosion The Exile. Romanian [The ú oar ă th , Înzodiaexilului of April 1949, being confirmed by the King Mihai. It is composed of ex- 127 at the beginning of of beginning 50s the atthe Ġ iu Comanciu addresses aletterto Grigore Gafencu, ex-foreign ú oar ă [Under the Signof (Bucharest: Exile] JurnalulLiterar, (1988-1994), who manifestswhohis throughout (1988-1994), 62 Exilul românesc. Erodarea speran Enciclopedia exilului literar românesc 128 , the real question lies , thequestion real 126 . By . Ġ ei. CEU eTD Collection publication of Westernizing patriotism.Appraising in dissidence 70s,the Solzhenitsyn’s after (Left/Right orientation), showing howaliberal mood can be drapedin anachronistic dichotomistHer case of classifying West. habits disrupts Romanian culture with the , whowasavivid of modernization promoter and synchronization of critic of interwar as the daughter the herheritage modernism despite liberal progressive of framework the into fitexactly not do from Paris broadcasts cultural Lovinescu’s Monica views. As see inthenextchapter, we will extremist of identification the moreframework problematic than andare intriguing Communist and the anti-Soviet or/ easily to be subdued by “total becontrol”. easily subdued by“total to masses, the of “volatility” the about apprehension European the of out born paradigm in by discovery Arendt’s the 70s,same fueled, after works the Hannah of totalitarian cultural revival of and the elitist moralizing mood continuouslyan conservative discourse legacy bearsthe casesof of anddissidence paradigm. constructing a cyclic Reflecting totalitarian the of terms political the in imperatives cultural national its disguises which from means adapting1975, aninternational idiom alocal to discourse, protectionist within RFE (Mihai Cism its adherents of percentage and the positions the with ideology party national-peasant possible challenge inthis corroborate sense be a would tonon-extremist andmixed A spiritual category. thefirst universalism), in of combinations a type with different or collaboratorsthe gravitating them around might in illustrate, quantities different (and employees of the some while category, second the illustrating RFE personalities are top The mild and intricate political predispositions and their fitting into the anti- the into fitting their and predispositions political intricate and mild The The GulagArchipelago ă rescu, George Cior in 1973 inFrance and after Helsinki agreements 63 ă nescu etc.). CEU eTD Collection hospitals are some of the measures applied to the members of the unofficial free SLOMR or to or SLOMR union trade free unofficial ofthe members the to applied measures the of some are hospitals penaltiesextra-legal againstand human rightslegal of activists. range wide Imprisonment,a using corrective were laborauthorities and confinement Romanian to that psychiatric reveal reports International rights questions and friendly attitude towards RFE (which is not jammed). On the other hand, Amnesty 132 (Washington: Regnery Gateway,1987), p.307. political support and money.” See Mihai Pacepa, favored nation status. I don’t want tosay thatsay the Americanthat CongressCarter, is lying Vanceabout Radio Freeand Europe, Brzezinski because I need the ourCongress are for the lying, sovereigntymost because I need their do Freewith Europe. Iwantand to discredit it asa CIA operation that its has spies insideindependence. Romania undermining But131 I don’t wantauthorities with regards to Ceausescu’s politics (interview with Gelu Ionescu, 7.06.2008).the words to come 130 out of my mouth.Romania 1968-1984(IV), I don’t want to 129 support in solitaryhis resistance RFE’s from benefiting while Romania towards policy American criticizes Botez, Mihai dissidents, Romanian the of One dissent. articulating of and revival national official the diplomatic relations with toforge grand-scale isischange. The societal situation evenmore supposed complex, as the United States are amicable disruptinglocal authentic valuesis duringnot theonly aspect of problematic institutionan which the 70s, the time of Dissent 4 Reflecting/Constructing of the breach of Warsaw Pact solidarity Pact Warsaw of breach the because especially diplomats, American bythe useful areconsidered services diplomatic his while rule, domestic oppressive Ceausescu’s the towards critical objectivity basic rights basic conclusions of surveysthe byAmnesty conducted International concerning violations of between Jimmy Carter’s positive assessment of Romanian andpolitics disturbing the staff against RFE attack criminal and defamatory a staging while Americans the with relationships his spoil to In hissemiannual report in 1980, Jimmy Carterappreciated Romania’s willingness to deal with human “In order to destroy our enemies”, Ceausescu went on, “we have to discredit them. That’s what I want American to the and Georgescu Vlad director the between frictions the about testifies Ionescu Gelu His essays are read at RFE microphone in 1986. See OSA, Static and moralistic understanding of communism as an alien phenomenon 132 . In this case, patriotic advocacy takes the turn of human rights discourse rights human of turn the takes advocacy patriotic case, In this . Domestic Bloc Nr.804/ 13.02.86, Funds 300, Subfunds 60, Series 3, Box 6. 131 . RFE reports do not hesitate to record the discrepancies 129 . At the same time, RFE editors have to maintain their 130 . In his turn, Nicolae Ceausescu takes care not Red Horizons. Chronicles ofaCommunistSpy Chief 64 The Relations between USgovernmentand CEU eTD Collection 1987, in OSA, Funds 300, Subfunds 60, Series 1, Box 4. 134 Paradoxes of Modernization. Elements fora Sociology of Romanian Elites] (Cluj-Napoca:Limes, 2002). 133 National Historical Central Archives], “Gabanyi”Funds, File 159, pp. 59-61. minersthe going onstrike in 1977.See Romanian Situation Report/ 10,22 July ANIC1980, in [Romanian movements, opposition comparing because,when points arecritical These discourse. political problems from pointan ethical and cultural of inview, draped democratic localmodernizing continuesamodernization through drive upon elites of trend reflecting in ofreal Cold War continueeconomic reforms, argumentbysayingthat absence the the society” of Romanian fiber “moral the of asthedegeneration interpreted economic is individual community than andthe that to situation disastrous rather the tothe thatrelate values emphasize figures and groups thatallknown dissent reports by an elite on urban cultural grounds is nation of promoted reborn the spiritual when the elites andsociety, interwar between thegap low also potential the reproduces It horizontal of one. keeping a communication, avertical facilitate media support external on pervasive over-reliance the networking, intellectual of a tradition of devoid society in a that implying more is It discontent. vertically coordinated. phantom finally produces resultswhich inform the ofindividuala constellation attitudes, its replacingwith broadcasts, standardized open belligerentdissent ofRomanian attitude romance with Helsinki (which benefited agreements from stormy Jimmy administration Carter’s human rights). idiom of international new the borrow who and regime of Ceausescu the supporters nationalistic the from We themselves differentiate to try would who journalists RFE the for argue that all these conditions amplify the Vladimir Socor, Vladimir MariusLaz This is not to say not This isto hindered they that stimulatedislands rather existent than of ă r, Paradoxurilemoderniz Dissent in Romania. The Diversity of Voices ă rii. Elemente pentru osociologie aelitelor române 133 . Vladimir Socor also notices in one of his RFE 65 , RAD Background Report/94, 5 June Report/94, Background RAD , 134 . We might We . ú ti [The CEU eTD Collection Communist Eastern Europe (eds.), JanWielgohs and Pollack Detlef in “Romania”, Petrescu, Cristina protest and the syndicalist petitioning to Radio Free Europe orto political and cultural leadership. See communism, the local peasant partisangrouping with the workers’ unrest, the attempts of human rights 136 suggested, byhaving orbyinheriting involvementin a an public imbued arena with status on “marketof the anti-communist isfueled, belligerence”.Theirimpetus as we on of loyalties”, “marketthe Price asMonroe but wouldfor suggest, gaining symbolic beingfor productive necessarily not cases oppositional Romanian the andadvertise count researchers within Romanian the haveResearch Department been detect, to struggling underground structures by movements underground acquisitionsof explaining latest the regardless of perpetuated, isstill revolts” “counting style of over-imposed is thatthe moreeven telling is Whatadvocacies. abstract cultural with familiarized audience, atomized of community a on morality politics dirty of the and of emancipation thediscourse over-imposes 1976) in the USSR. Politics, Ideology, and People Howard L. Biddulph, “Protest Strategies of the Soviet Intellectual Opposition”, inRudolf L. Tökes,understandable that the Soviet civil rights activists would be strongly influenced by this tradition.” See of political conflict betweenthe leaders are publicized selectively only following their resolution. It is except where criticisms of individuals can be used to serve the goals of political socialization. The results 135 conflicts resolving locally of the rule breaking the of because dissent broadcasting on overemphasis flourishing circuits clandestine of andbooks political leaflets can collide with an positioning through RFE are overlooked in most studies. The Russian case proves that the andinternational conditions structural traditions, intellectual with concerned differences, communities how big many thesocial dissenters, were (how Qualitative upheavals). ofdissenting is quantitative aspects there thetendency only the pinpointing of Cristina Petrescu, for example, amalgamates, when it comes to discussing the Romanian resistance to resistance Romanian the discussing to comes it when amalgamates, example, for Petrescu, Cristina “One of the first principles of soviet politics is ratherthat conflict and grievances are not aired publicly , p. 104. From its early years of existence, the Romanian editors of RFE and the 135 . For the Romanian case, the radicalization of protests from above 136 (Budapest: CEU Press, 2004) pp. 141-160. . (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, University Hopkins Johns London: and (Baltimore 66 Dissent andOpposition in Dissent CEU eTD Collection 139 138 137 retain the tightest controls to be foundCOMECON plans,adopting aneutral in Sino-Sovietthe position […]andyet conflict, almost anywhere in the bloc over all areasrespectsimportant break sharply its ownpastwith –openly theSovietuniondefying of the it many Romanian considered an of regime the enigma that something could inso “Indeed, isfurtherliberalization some have Western promoted: observers Romania’s of status The forexceptional example”. Hungary, or in Czechoslovakia been observed due not any to notable changeson domesticthe scene which comparable tothose have “independent certainly within Soviet bloc and observed position the hasan Romania that assessment a negative to subjected first literature, Western of import formula, fictional modernist and style formal and position takings, but by only such diverse attempts as “de-politicized literary evasion, countries unlike inother literature recent is“nothing of attitudes” nevertheless generalopinion will the out remain the and that recognized that the so-called revisionism “is present only in literary works, not in writers’ because of beginningat the in arejust but “suchgestures that Europe, Romania the Eastern throughout regime’sappear, itis signaled first thatEvtushenko’s and Nekrasov’s isnoncomformism spreading determinacy whichfor theirliving.depend they in suppressing on theParty to concessions have makelatter certain to the but regime, tothe also opposed any majority the speak regime.[…]Theintellectuals is and to of opposition possible of writers nascent dissent.”spiritual activism. ItSo, beginningis also with the 50s, it is acknowledged that “it is difficult to See Item No. 2537/ 1963, in OSA, Funds 300, Subfunds 60, Series 1, Box 109. See Item No. 2625/ 1963, in OSA, Funds 300, Subfunds 60, Series 1, Box 109. See Item No. 4545/ 1958, in OSA, Funds 300, Subfunds 60, Series 1, Box 110. 138 ”. In the same year the RFE researchers conclude that in Romania, that conclude RFEresearchers yearthe ”. In same the [my liberalization[my underlying], is not accompanied by criticism 139 ”. In 1964, on another very itis another ”. In closeconcerned scrutiny,1964, on 137 ” In 1963, when the signs of liberalizationbegin ” In1963,when of to signs the 67 CEU eTD Collection are not rarities at that time. The desire to have a constellation of subversive casesdrives of havesubversive to aconstellation time.The desire rarities atthat are not Romanian notice oneshould inventories they all dissent, take about that contemporary expectations themselves. of dissidents the most If arethe prominentandthese survive in exceedsthe whichsometimes by broadcasters, RFE them around agitation the created without actions different Tudoran’s Dorin Cornea’s, Doina Botez’s, Mihai Goma’s, Paul imagine of One thefate cannot “cases” of dissent. becomes specialized inconstructing 60, Series 2, Box 1. is itway for the regime,but to exploit no there failure a evidently constitutes regime.Thisfact the hostile to are fundamentally intellectuals one thing is surethough: after somany years of indoctrination,Communist most partof no help from anybody. is […]There nopassivemanifested or organized resistance.[…] they receive will regime andthat againstthe undertake is to nothing there that convinced anyideal They ortarget. without “Intellectuals profoundly arethus are disheartened, intellectuals: of mass whole the of mentality fossilized the and harshness regime’s the between anassociation forges also It of passivity. estate general the with resonance in only enter could inhibitinga lostsense of wellas causewhich analystthe an as of participation emotional the discloses involuntarily presentation the of style apocalyptic body) arewearied andconvinced hopelessness the about mobilizingof The any endeavor. to asacompact (referred intellectuals Romanian that an tone on alarmist broadcasters revolution” confirmdiminishliberties, destined confidential to forreports RFE the 141 Series 1, Box 110. 140 lifeincluding ifthe people, culture The Evolution of the Romanian Intellectuals’ State of Mind Winds of Change on the Romania Literary Scene?, The outcry for help is assumed. RFE does not only advocate for liberties, but 140 ”. In1972,after Ceausescu indulges a “cultural 68 4 Dec. 1964, in OSA, Funds 300, Subfunds 60, , 3 May,1972, in OSA,Funds 300, Subfunds 141 ”. CEU eTD Collection 237. Lovinescu, political analysis a and by Bernard Emil Georgescu,Noël director stressing by the the lackeditorial of an judicial dedicated criteria is he forGoma, arrest. Seeof Paul Monica arrest confirmed the after 144 France. in exile into went and Romania left family his and Goma the Writers’ Unionand forfrom Romanians Romania to sign and Charter was arrested77 was read on byRadio the Free Security Europe. As a Police.result, he wasOn Novemberexcluded from 20, 1977, Paul coverage of eventthe of coverage prominent French intellectuals and, last but not least, insures multi-facetedfrom testimonies concentratedlegitimating obtains Goma, Paul liberating of in favor in Paris held manifestations the to subjectivity”) “doubtful with endowed (asawitness participates the dialogue between the signatories and keeps them informed about each other, mediates declarations, Goma’s broadcasts novels, censored Goma’s reads RFE activism: “Charter bymulti-level 77”,is constructed of promoter adherenceof a movementto likeof Goma Paul A that case satisfied. largely and therefore legitimated movements findin echo Romanianthe literary field, urge the to find similarities is fully evidence whichis anddisplayedcarefully considered in communism, competition Unionof against Writers’ the rough precious the constitute, novel arrested forsubversive acts, heisexcluded1971 from in communist the Party havingfor published his 143 atRFEmicrophone. read were they but because contents, letters addressed to the Communist Party did not draw on himthe attentionof Security Police because their 142 Romanian to eyes their close to tend authorities American the since general and common movementbegan is all morethe excitingpersonal ashis first areletters disregarded as too Drago Aurel thatof authorities Romanian or addressed to letters C. Bratianu’s Ion or Briscan’s Teodor the radio. through voiced dissent epistolary RFE journalists to advertise and conflate more obscure situations, on the basis of Monica Lovinescu acknowledges thatin 1977 RFE transformed into “Radio-Goma”.Within one day (bornin 1935) isaRomanianwriter and leading anti-communist dissident. Several times See OSA, 300, Funds Subfunds 60, Series 1, Box 4.Ion C.Br Ostinato La apaVavilonului in . In1977, his public letter calling for respectfor human rights in Romania 144 . Making Paul Goma the engine behind which a human rights Vol.II [On of theBanks Vavilon] the (Bucharest: Humanitas,1999), p. 69 ú ă Munteanu sent to the presidentthe Munteanu sent to tianu acknowledges hiscritical that 142 . When broader Eastern . When broader 143 , thefamous CEU eTD Collection the the Romanian writers’ bad consciousness”. See Monica Lovinescu, Monica See consciousness”. bad writers’ Romanian the the 147 146 Hood to . Resistance andDissent in Communist Romania indeed theofficial view, reflected paid government no attention by the to the Goma financed rights anagency protest”.as which See Cristina Petrescu, America, of Voice the that telling is it respect, this In Moscow. from independence Ceausescu’s supported administration American the since record, right human bad Romania’s about was it when regimes European East other of case the in than more powerful since those dissident voices were not so numerous. To its part, the agency wanted to close its eyes 145 like the Hungarianwith Solzhenitsyn, his placing individualprotest within rangethe of collective upheavals revoltmovements from of 1956political developedunder had before communism revolutionary the rule of not or traditions or the renewal. Czechoslovakian ina Romanian all, after acountry which, that appeared very “itdissidence isimportant Even the moderated ofdisobedience acts Charter Eugen Ionescu 77 compares Goma 149 loc.cit., facing all insults, injuries and traps. See “Theses and Anti-Theses in Paris”, No. 460, 4May 1977,Goma’s in OSA,misadventures as a dissident. The final image is that of besiegedfighter cleverly and heroically 148 broadcast from 16 December1977, in OSA, himself will discard “David the againstGoliath” dramatic forged aroundhim his moral capital Monica his Writers’the Lovinescu Union artistic and prose, quality doubles denies the of from him expels field literary Romanian the Because with dimension. aesthetic an movement a symbolicLovinescu reinforces this elective proximity,artistic adding to the moral scope of Goma’s one professional privileges (including the right to travel) after refusing in 1979 to perform the in to travel) 1979to professional refusing after privilegestheright (including in heloses ofhis institute a university Bucharest, andmathematician,researcher director story by agood required devices thetheatrical cause with all profferedjudgments by inactivean intellectual milieu, taking pleasure in a promoting “His talent canbe proved by the publication of his novels1977, in the West. November His lack21st of417, No. talent is testifiedProgram by Political more the all was regime Ceausescu the against spoke who those all support to will broadcasters’ “The Monitoring of French press, 24 November, 1977, in OSA, In May 1977, Monica Lovinescu realizes a program in which she chronologically narrates all Paul Box 129. Mihai Mihai Botez’s istrajectory sustained also andinfluenced by RFE. Asuccessful 145 . After heit is is andreleased, imprisoned generally that realized loc. cit., loc. 70 Box 129. loc. cit., loc. 147 Box 129. loc. cit., . She defies in this way any value any way in this defies She . Box 129. (Budapest: CEU Thesis, 2003) p. 78. Puncte de vedere 148 . Finally, Paul Goma [Points of view], [Points 146 From Robin . Monica 149 . CEU eTD Collection 151 150 Mail” “Listeners’ called aprogram on criticism, as public not letters, as private read messages are The protection. dissenter’s the andfor audience of benefitRomanian monologue conversationfor intoprivate voiced the dialogue/ through apublic RFE, a convert to in order interlocutors distant two the by played artfully and conveniently in is fashion Department ofclaiming the period 1983-1988.Theepistolary rights one’s special friendshiphas been who VladGeorgescu, of with director Romanian the almostyears on of for by 10grounds a the isunique because it radio the covered station dissidence solitary and “steady calls he emigrate,preferringhebut what to constantly declines Police and offered apassport, published by French the “L’Alternative”). Heisreview by interrogated Security the microphoneRFEis but only a criticalto thoroughly (which letter readat partially ordinary ritual of agreeing with the party theses. He draws attention to him after sending 152 free circulation problem of the insist on (“please, me tocite directly not behow (“try advertised to about journalists livewhileinRather, RFE to he continuing to the givesinstructions country,the situation.challenge Hedoesnot either the authorities byindulging inillegal actions. belong either to the camp of those leavewho or of those who stay passively accepting the want legal Hedoes not to impact. his caseinboth orchestrating psychological and terms toRFE.On sending texts otherthe hand, Botezskillfullyhis Mihai defends causeby order not to offer to the Romanian authorities the evidence of accusing Botez of directly people could keep up moralsfail”,people byhearing“please, sabotage don’t Idid keepup not could that to keep on defendinghimis for(“it your own good, too, pronounceto myname because Letter from 8 Oct. 1985, in OSA, See “Listeners’ Mail”, 13 Jan. 1985, in OSA, Funds 300, Subfunds 60 Series 3, Box 6. Letter from 18 July 1985, inOSA, idem. idem. within the country”an to appealing exile. His case is 71 152 ”), congratulates them and asks them 151 ”), about what to say 150 , in , CEU eTD Collection microphone whenever needed; in Doina Cornea’s case, whose physical disparition the at cases these about We’ll talk theregime. of enemies public the become have talent intimidates her whoalso respects andapoetess pensioner them; faithful adignified and it existence, intellectual and civil their of them deprives and them isolates Cornea, Doina sometimes annoyed andrevengeful:“the regimewages war against Ana Blandiana and business of people should stop and the interference of the rule of law should begin domestic in the noninterference Constitutional that time high is it Cornea; Doinea Against sentence judicial no is (“there ultimate and sarcastic sometimes stand, protective subject, , grows more and more attached to it and takes a paternalist- reach the League for the Defense of Rights of Human Defense for the League reach the wrappedup letters in a hand-made plush tobe doll, broadcastby one RFE, otherthe to two over them handing and Cluj in journalists foreign two approaching timidly creature biblical fight with the Goliath regime. She is presented in an emotional reportage as a tiny in a engaged being human outstanding) morally (but fragile a of status symbolic the 155 154 is not for rendering him a star, but “to make our dear cause triumph flowin party press to answersthe continue indirect 159 Subfunds 60, Series 3, Box 7. 158 156 153 audience is growing me 157 Tudoran’s or engineer Puiu’s engineerTudoran’s Puiu’s situation or Letter from 6 Febr. 1980, in OSA, Letter from 13 Aug. 1985, in OSA, Hurezeanu’s program, Domestic Bloc, 1June 1989, in OSA, Letter from 4 Oct. 1979, in OSA, Letter from 4 Aug. 1985, in OSA, Letter from 4 Aug. 1985, in OSA, Doinea Cornea’s case in Actuality 153 ”) and other solitary oppositionists (he tells Vlad Georgescu to resolve Dorin Unlike the male dissenters who can sturdily stand upright, Doinea Cornea enjoys Doinea Cornea upright, stand can sturdily who male dissenters Unlike the 155 ”, “you were fantastic, the bomb has exceeded all expectations, the idem. idem. , in Hurezeanu’s Program, 21 Dec. 1988, in OSA, Funds 300, idem. idem. idem . 154 ). He measures the increase of rating (“my 72 156 158 idem. ”) but he always specifies that this that specifies always he but ”) . The RFE editor in charge of the 157 ”. 159 ”), CEU eTD Collection the regimes those who, in different ways,indulged in forms of resistance. to whicharewoefully supporting writers the counter-poses she style, dramatic narrative with is impregnated larger, ofpaternalistic still butwhich rebuke tone the mentioningin that sameyear,the MonicaLovinescu makes herinventory,own which is harshness of the regime without going beyond a tautological discourse. It is worth Box 7. 160 Romania in Stepan citewhile and has movements Bulgaria 13 27 Czeckoslovakia the written Europe” by Jiri Pehe, Romania only figures with items,3 one being Hungarian, same studycomparing. Survey In1989,ina“Annotated of RFE in Movements Independent Eastern in orderlast but not least, byto the RFE’sprove culture of and,denunciation, byRomania’s paradoxical with relations unitedthe States own internal competitional internalized an by conditioned posture, motivated thehighly in a but means, all by dispositiondissent combination for counting and tragedies canhinderencounters other of sultanismsuch Romanian-Hungarian I amsurethatbut private persons, metas because wetwo and necessary continues to provokeinternational indignation, aredetermined we toresume itdaily if 164 and Post-Communist Europe 163 Report, 13 June 1989, in OSA, Funds 300, Subfunds 60, Series 3,Box 5. 162 161 Kossuth andB of compare encounter to that our “Imegalomaniac cannot thrills: Hurezeanu’s Program, 3 January 1989, in OSA, Monica Lovinescu, Monica Stepan, Alfred Linz, J. Juan An Annotated Surveyof Independent Movements inEastern Europe Letter addressed to Doina Cornea by Eva Cseke Gyimesi, 11 March 1989, in OSA These few samples stand for what we would consider an ethical policy of making 160 ”. The letters of sympathy are not forgotten either, some of them attaining Dignity and Intellectual Degradation (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), p. 352. 163 Problems of DemocraticConsolidation, Southern South Europe, America, . Consequently, they reproduce vulgate about the same the . Consequently, reproduce they 161 ”. idem. 73 , in OSA, Funds 300, Subfunds 60, Series 3, , by Jiri Pehe,, by RADJiri Background 162 . Juan Linz and Alfred , idem. , 164 ă . In a lcescu CEU eTD Collection Romanian public (ranging from mass audience to dissidents and Security mass dissidents agents) andPolice Security from Romanian audienceto public (ranging assymptoms interaction manner,insightful thedata a complex of with reading the staff). We and audience time, broadcasting (programs, Romanian department about the triedaccount to cover as a factual her framework of we understood which activism, establish institutional the the Romanian to wewanted chapter In thepresent militancy. Lovinescu’s Monica of development section not in a descriptiveshape. way, but in an engaged agent, thanks to whom,an thanks to agent, engaged full- a to reflector adomestic from it transforms which networking active its to as well induced) as and preserved its(historically is authority impact due to Its warfare” theories. “psychological the by envisaged way in the not but agent, emancipating an is RFE the simply informational input, denying media’s informational or rational message rational or informational media’s denying input, informational simply the transgresses of source the of The significance messagealone. the indoctrinating power the “hypodermic” aboutthe whichsubverts within theories cognitive turn the the objects of its own investigation. In terms of communication theory, this pattern fits 165 Mass Media and Society, op. cit James Curran, “Mass Media and Democracy Revisited” Democracy and Media “Mass Curran, James In the next chapter we shall analyze the social intellectual background of the of background intellectual social the analyze shall we chapter next the In We can take her words as emblematic for a casuistic militancy, which constructs for asemblematicWe acasuistic hermilitancy, cantake which words Ceausescu? liber “Romania it be possible not to mentionthe recent case of the three journalists from syndicate, orthe courageous tenacity of MarianaCelac-Botez.Or, how would “Libertatea” of the leader the is who Filipescu, Radu forget not We should protest. the of signatories only the not are Cangeopol Liviu and Petrescu Dan vexations he is willing to protest energetically? […] Of course, Doina Cornea, is supporting her to suchextent that if she is anymore he that subjectedwho declared to any Petrescu, Dan Or figure? emblematic an become has who Is there any need to remind, within the opposition, Doina Cornea, ă ”, who were arrested for preparing a manifest against a manifest preparing for arrested were who ”, ., p. 82. ., p. ethereal opposition 74 , in JamesCurran andMichael Gurevitch (eds.) , not a civil society, is taking society, a civil not , 165 . CEU eTD Collection “Solidarity”. 77”or as“Charter such upheavals collective orauthentic figures likeSolzhenitsyn concerned, Romanian thaneditors do notthose have thean succeedsinsmall fundstoit, appealingwhich are allocated audience to muchlarger chance of to advertiseotherdespite the be thefact Department, theRomanian overlooked tothat something isnot international sections,It departments. other among case interesting an Department popularRomanian the renders which even though, as far as the dissident movements are 75 CEU eTD Collection op.cit., 168 167 starts in 1983 (interview with Gelu Ionescu, 7.06. 2008).collaboration Ionescu’s Gelu Department. Romanian of the offer high-culture rich the constitute Ierunca) Virgil by (realized Word] ofthe Tale [The Vorbei” “Povestea Ionescu), Gelu by (realized Perspectives” “European Lovinescu), by Monica (realized activity” Cultural “Romanian Paris”, in Anti-Theses and 166 Ionescu by the securityis in numberthree public considered if Lovinescu enemy 1980Monica that considers one authorities American the to convincing police, do sobecauseto againstseems hermotivationscorruption inusingculture cultural after cultural actuality thefrom inside and outside Romania. In1967she is grantedthe permission dissidentDepartment at that moment, to allow her to increase the space of her comments about Paulthe of Romanian the director Bernard,Lovinescu the persuades Noël programs, Monica Gomainmilieu wasthe smallest wholethe bloc.After Eastern 5yearsminute of 10-15 and the departments other of programs playwright cultural the in with comparison largest was the Free Europe within Radio broadcast Eugen Militancy Radio FreeEuropebetween Nationaland International Chapter 4. Advocating Democracy on A Cultural Basis. militancy,isit that arguing embedded within apolitical-intellectual tradition which still Mihai Pelin, tool. propaganda efficient most bethe to supposed was culture regime communist the “For “Theses RFE. in largest the were programs cultural elite Romanian the usthat to confirms Ionescu Gelu p.281. It is one ofthe paradoxes ofRomanian cultural history that the Romanian cultural It is worth therefore discussing the discoursive parameters of this unusual cultural 168 . Opera Ġ iunile „Meli Ġ a” 166 ú , while the dissidence from the Romanian intellectual i „Eterul”. Istoria EuropeiLibere prindocumendeSecuritate de 167 . The efficiency herof endeavors is appreciable 76 CEU eTD Collection features of her nationalism as it is refracted by her entourage and her“close-distance” byher entourage is asit refracted nationalism her of features the discuss shall We community. exile the and Paris of milieu intellectual the within position Lovinescu’s Monica we shallcontextualize by then drive, a liberal patriotic paradigm of totalitarian transformation the of question the byre-launching shall proceed dissidence,freedom andWe Marxism.of evil referencesto application homogenizing than redundant the discourse an isanti-Communist to more there that consider subversion, we wouldlike know to disclose the impose) or reflect than (rather construct can medium interacting an which in way contingentto it. If we sociologicallyin delineated previousthe chapter institutional the affairs mundane literary in the and canon national the of construction in the involved being by era, modernizing a of reminiscent communication public intra-elitist of a type them in aconceptual and political way (media as interaction). Moreover, it can reproduce interact with but people, onthe Eastern as values domination) (media liberating impose Warradio cannot message, thataCold showing RFE’scultural mergeelements within progressive and andpeople. Theconservative elites between onthedistance grounded but masses, the WeRFE’s arguethat message cultural doesnot only emerge opposition right/left, autochthonism/ and to draw a correlation between an disruptideas between delimitations strict to preconceived perspectives, regarding the Warlocal cultural and rhetoric Cold between case, interpenetration the relevant and concrete by this exemplify, to want we aims: several therefore has Our undertaking shapes theinteraction publicof in communication Romania and writingthe ofhistory. (existing through (existingair-waving) through and an on the authoritative mandate historically constructed in this way and way in this constructed historically mandate authoritative the 77 intellectual ethos ethereal war fought on cultural basis. against behind itbecause we behind the immobility of immobility the ethereal CEU eTD Collection someone’s ideological embodying evolution. corpus unitary a as them considers one if relevant nevertheless are They collections). but selective reconstructions, serial not are (they identity an building of way a retroactive represent Waves] [Short the of volumes five the as problematic, therefore are and “case” a constitute also They 1989. 171 Protochronism ] (Bucharest: Cartea Româneasc glorioasa. Dosarulprotocronismului românesc Ceausescu’s Romania 170 undertaken bibliographical (from as well reasons contextualizingprevailsbe analyticalwhich is part overthe one, thoroughly hardto the that therefore We acknowledge nationalism/internationalism. lineof dividing the follownot do andautochtonists Westernizers between battle the fact that reveal the itisimportant moredisclose to its discursive (going roots back tothe60s) which will initspedestrian real andit analyzed as has been deployment us before developed 70s late from andin continuing 80s.As the thisfight literary is rather Radio Free Europe", Free Radio à littéraires Critiques politique: et esthétique Entre consentie. » “« L’impureté Popa, Ioana See broadcasts. 169 the from space, and time it across sheadapted see how isto problem the broadcasts; Paradigm Totalitarian Reshaping 1. Questions: country Cold War weapon, butathirdparty of apolitical-literary game withinfrom the would(as whenwanted Noëlhe have Bernardperhaps thoughtaboutthe a or program) France interface between Romaniaand eitheran Paris donotconstitute broadcasts from (Cold War, double exile, interwar intellectual modernizing credo), described conditions under the that, world).We shallsee Western the with synchronized being of urge internalized an (as internationalism and nationalism between relation tensioned the understand to beable shall we perspective, from and, that from country the Our “sources” are the published transcripts of the broadcasts, edited by Monica Lovinescu herself after herself Lovinescu by Monica edited broadcasts, of the transcripts published the are “sources” Our Verdery, SeeKatherine Ioana Popa intuits the same thing, but she does not analyze the intricate “nationalist” characterof the It is easy to guess why Monica Lovinescu adopted in totalitarian isthe her paradigm guess adopted MonicaLovinescu It why easyto 169 . From reasons of space we shall give only some glimpses of the literary war Sociétés et Représentations (Berkeley:University of California Press, 1991) and Alexandra Tomi National Ideology under Communism: Identity andCultural Politics in ă , No. 11(février 2001), pp. 55-75. , 2007). [A Glorious History. The File of the Romanian 78 171 ). 170 , we contend that the cultural Ġă Unde scurte , O istorie CEU eTD Collection Humanitas, 2000), note from 31 June 1949,p. 64. nepierdute historical historical understanding. failure. See Virgil Ierunca, See Virgil failure. notes in hisdiary that a political crusade forfreedom devoid of intellectualan dimension would be a 172 totalitarian paradigm of inRomania.the persistence The of influences theunderstanding communism in which it is inscribed circumscribingworth message andunderlying still thea militantof complexity which is one of the effectsis it Therefore of past. the interpretations for present also but contemporaries, for the of the static becomes areference that cultural of discourse atype frame commentators daily as experienced sociological training, urgencyof the mission the and the contingency history of literary exiletormented divided between patriotism and cosmopolitanism and lacking fosters andan ethicalandnon-contextual Withinactions upon a and texts. perspective imperatives for intellectual the andundifferentiated artistic)introduces elites (political of it point view, ispolitics. From spotof another culture communist a/thevulnerable Last, but no least, literary activism. type of of this consequences unintended the about some hypotheses we canlaunch also can we and answers find can we relatemilitancy her of evolution the and conditions it to Carlo Ginzburg’sthe West isreflections voiced agents with anti-modernist drives in their pastandhowprogressive synchronicity with outabout of inin modernist survives answered ethos a community are: how with this thesis peopled a Western be thatwill Theintriguing questions power. and consecrating intellectual authority hostile milieu.Romanian communism),but whoeventually becomes “institution”,an gaining By determiningtribune of observerpassionate is who doubly exiled (from leftism andfrom Parisian the nature, the When he hears about the constitution of a National Committee for Free Europe in 1949, Virgil Ierunca The intellectual embodiment of for freedom of crusade the embodiment The intellectual [The Years Have Passed...Diary Excerpts. Statements and Accents. Non-lost letters] (Bucharest: letters] Non-lost Accents. and Statements Excerpts. Passed...Diary Have Years [The Trecut-au anii…FragmenteÎntâmpin dejurnal. 79 172 ă ri demonstrates that ú i accente. Scrisori distance in CEU eTD Collection Philantropy, Academy and Diplomacy 174 173 order Western butan apology the of 30s, as in the justflourishesnot between acritique1947-1960, being against communism orFascism, asatheory “totalitarianism” TraversoAs suggests, Enzo exiles. of assimilation European the after academia inAmerican occurred which changes the and to West in the literature of society by an isoverimposed inflowpower fashionable thankstothe of testimonial idea “total the control” from when atatime of microphone, RFEthe advocated criticism paradigm brings back the familiar theme of the “volatility” of masses of the “volatility” the of theme familiar backthe brings paradigm Manichean way or cyclic projections. National and international advocacy intermingle in intermingle advocacy international and National projections. cyclic or way Manichean in a aretransposed concerns and democratic from past the of reference framework its inwhich acomplex takes objectivity ethos modernizing and enhances discourse the time. and space both in communism, of framework the Theoutside values of a set to proximity combination spiritual apassionate scene and literary from contemporary the critical detachment a for prerequisites conceptual and spatial the creating thus literature, of andautonomy of the two modernism critic of interwar the joinsheritage daughter asthe whopromoted herliterary attitudesan untarnished conscience and writing well. Physical distance as a RFE journalistin Paris invalidates having between determinism unconditioned the of perspective ethical behaviorthe within fiction moreintegrate and precisely,artists’ performance freedom, but or, writing artistic the for political militate to in order beyond aestheticism necessarily go not do programs notion of distanceintelligentsia. as bourgeois modern the repositioningpossible of a and aesthetics of therevival VolkerBerghahn, R. Enzo Traverso (ed.), Situated within Situated literature andpolitics, MonicaLovinescu’sbetween interval the Le Totalitarisme: le XX siècle en débat America andthe IntellectualCold ShepardWars Europe. Stone in between (Princeton Oxford:and PrincetonUniversity Press,2001), p. 93. 80 (Paris: Seuil, 2001), p. 51. 173 . In subsidiary, totalitarianism subsidiary, In . 174 , making , CEU eTD Collection patriotic political aestheticism without embracing pastoral nationalism or contempt for nationalisma contempt embracing pastoral or without political patriotic aestheticism into turn intellectualism critical and conservatism progressive above, from imposed as underaregime it how, shows seen because is Heractivism provocative level). collective of of confronting a history iswhich doubly feltas in urgency the trust interwar an with journalism embraces she radically career, academic orientation 177 1926-1927). traditionalism anddueto leadershiphis of “Sbur the recognition, he is one ofacademic the pylonsgained of never interwar had he criticism Although due to his adversarial imposition. stand militant of against freed religiousliterature of a idea the and 176 Fayard, 1999), p.207. ofnational language the moralism and the fight re-appropriating by for the French spirit. See ofliterature Gisèle Sapiro, autonomy the defended later zone, South the 175 fatherhercentrality of andcapital symbolic the the reproduces evolution: she thesame undergoes paradoxical garments of involvement. Whatpoliticalis isinteresting her professional evolutionthat literature of autonomy the of acquires, defense The phenomenon. retrograde alien an by threatened as as in the case of some moralism ofnational features the attain sake” can for art’s of the French writers of ideasperspective history the of intellectuals andsociology thatthedefenseof of“art under Occupation, from the shows, Monica Lovinescu of The case the aestheticism. ofmodern test the is still seen its milieuas but salvation,longerthe of productions no areonly submitted to Later, when the idiom of human rights requires a strong connection to the present, culture nation. the of identity authentic the bear to is considered which a time from extracted comparisons, with butretroactive synchronicity as Europeanization, promote a wayto Herparents’ house is nationalized and her father’s library is devastated by the communists. 178 Ioana Popa, EugenLovinescu (1881-1943) istheRomanianliterary andcritic historianwho theorized modernism In France under Occupation those who advanced “art for art’s sake” as a reaction to the moralists from Her mother dies in communist prison in 1960, being arrested in order to force her daughter to return. 177 art. cit., art. . Having arrived in in Paris a young1947 as destined researcher toan p. 58. 176 within theliterary field, but she betrays his esthetical 81 ă torul” [The Flying Spirit] literary club (1919-1921, La Guerre des écrivains 1940-1953 traumatic 175 when literature is when literature perceived (on the personal the (on 178 (Paris: and CEU eTD Collection 180 (Autumn, 1994), pp. 46-60. with breaks warandthe his upwith Sartre friends conservatism, academic from the disillusionment against cure bohemian asa existentialism embraces generation a whole While and Russophilia. between anti-academism association existentialism, contradictory and largely a appealing entourage, Sartre’s Paul Jean enhanced, within modernism,and capitalism of degenerative embodiment Americanism, asthe about reservations cultural culture” American challenge communist as Freedom Congressthe for Cultural secondart isheldin(whose edition in Paris 1952),“to but also the disdain massapprehension towards society required evenin an anticommunist organization such in which West Europeans European anti-Americanism is continuously from rising McCarthyism1952-53 on. and tended to hold andcollaborator then ajournalist American an for propagandisticradio working while “Killing a Chinese Mandarin: Ginzburg, The MoralSee Carlo Implications closeness. ofwith Distance”, concerned is it when even devastating is indifference that realizes of proximity. Yet, by looking at the self-destructionpotential of the second half of the XXthcentury he moral implications of distance, reaching the conclusionthat moral indignationis circumscribed to a sense 179 Aleksandr Solzhenitsyin’s by brought publication leftist his affinitieswhichof until preservesthe revelations the milieu intellectual an within communism, against fight distant and obstinate in an engage More Exile…or 2. Double empathy-proximity Cold the superposition the detachment-distance, Warcomplicates inversely spatial proportional is distance with empathy.The exile configuration during logicCarlo of it paradoxical reflections how Ginzburg’s on because distance shows alsointellectualism. exemplifying,internal the by It uncovers, better certain self-centered VolkerR. Berghahn, By bringing together Bybringing Artistotle, Balzac, Chateaubriand and Hume,David Ginzburgreflected uponthe It was not easy,for Romaniantwo immigrants in Paris after World War IIto 180 op.cit., . The swift dissociation from the Vichy regime and the deep seated deep andthe Vichy regime from the swift. The dissociation p. 134. p. The GulagArchipelago 82 ineasy ws not be either to a 1973. It Critical Inquiry , Vol. 21, No. 1. 179 . CEU eTD Collection and a distorted one and adistorted theexisting world of ascritique Marxism an autonomous between make difference the same matrix, in FranceMonica Lovinescu andfor Virgil whom Ierunca, Marxism and communism the belong to even those who acknowledgeSolzhenitsyin’s repression inin the existence of SovietUSSR camps and in 1963 signs the preface of the Frenchare translation of prone to Emmanuel)in hypocriticalbelieve Daix, still and (Pierre not repulsive or who 1950 does (Pierre honorable areeither actions whose intellectuals those among recognizable concentration 183 the long run, of justice itself”. because to do so would provide ammunition for use181 against a cause which is that of proletariat and thus, in comparison with but peculiaritieswhich exhaust,Nazism, andas overshadows tends to the possible makes which genocide of rhetoric auniversalistic with intelligentsia French provides in 70s atrocities the of recognition decades.The inlater remains unchanged capitalism and imperialism). From one point of view, that of schematization, the situation of critique (the of Revolution the future the and camps) in (the USSR the aspect between repressive the inthe 50s of debates the heart wasatthe tension which the detect de le marxisme,d’hommes. Essaisurconcentration lescamps l’Etat, of existence the acknowledges about a classless society does not transform him into a counterrevolutionary even after he his dream Camus)because utopian and Albert Merleau-Ponty “résistance” (Maurice 182 André André Glucksmann, Sartre went so far in saying that “it would be wrong to speak out against injustice in a Communist state See, for example, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Maurice example, for See, During the 60s, disillusionment with communism is still rare or controversial.is It (Paris : Seuil, 1975). One Day in the Life of Denisovici Ivan Life One Dayinthe 182 La cuisinière et le mangeur d’hommes. Essai sur l’État, le marxisme, les camps de camps les le marxisme, sur l’État, Essai d’hommes. mangeur etle La cuisinière . Even in in 1975, Andre Glucksmann’s Idem , p. 120. gulagi 181 Humanisme etterreur . 83 (Paris: Gallimard, 1947). in 1963). In contradiction with La cuisiniere etlemangeur 183 , one can still CEU eTD Collection 184 and“indifference apathy” Jospeph Amato put it, the reserves of indignation and to give way to another type of scurte profession, neithera risk, but only a throne, the mosta comfortablebeing which of in all.” See Monica landscape Lovinescu,intellectual Western the within perfected is identity 186 Lovinescu, Monica See everywhere.” first the be to used were who Russians, the vexed programs our complexity, technical and length By their a necessity. but luxury, a represent not did home at Working […] tables. round at home afterwards,it meant typewriting thetextsof broadcastsseveral for hours, recording editingand the actuality, alot of journals (from bothhemispheres as well), going to concerts, spectacles movies.and And 185 mockleftism ’68discard which ashaving and pretensions to French revolts whimsical critiqueentitles Eugen andherprofessional mission as RFEjournalist, herto Lovinescu) mother diesin in communist prison 1960),cultural heritage father(her is literary the broadcasters other among the well Theiras their inbeing diligence informed require. singles dedication them out as broadcast of weekly formatthe asthe matters, focused on particular concern, ending never a Romanian realities, to distance” “close of their nature by the preserve, journalists blindness of their abstract or purely literary purely literary or blindness of activism their abstract action,a symbolic allto condemning and others the confinement dueto exile the therefore convertedis milieu intellectual aglamorous within marginality Lovinescu’s Monica criticism. into a lucid centralityMay on’68, the andstage sees of Simonehistorical from before events the from andHistory “outdated” excluded Sartre Jean-Paul declares de Beauvoir criticismLovinescu Monica rivalry, intellectual as unconscious by Driven entangled militancy. and hollow Western even in the rigidity of sample evident most the asto relate which seldom they to couple other from landscape of (anti)-bourgeois J. A. Amato, “Throughthem, figure acertain of intellectual the numbed by beyondhistory recognizing his own 20’of and “One weekly hour meanttransmissions reading 2-3 booksandFrench (from Romanian both [Short Waves] Vol.I, (Bucharest: Humanitas, 1990), broadcast from 14January 1967, pp. 218-220. In contrast with the generalized trend of stereotypical denunciations, the two RFE two the denunciations, stereotypical of with trend generalized the In contrast Victims and Values La apa Vavilonului 184 . (New York: Praeger, 1990), pp. 175-201. 185 Vol. II, and distinguishes them within the broader Parisian broader the within them distinguishes and op.cit., 84 p.206. 186 . Her biographical capital (her capital biographical Her . leftist censor is neither a neither is censor Unde CEU eTD Collection a contestation driven by luxury and gorging.” See broadcast from 9 June 1968, p. 284. p. 1968, June 9 from broadcast See gorging.” and luxury by driven contestation a 190 Mih 188 the factthe French that intelligentsiais bewildered in is1975 when Saharov the awarded either overlook not does Stolojan Sanda censorship. totalitarian and intolerance French leftistbetween inlittéraire” whichhe in (19May 1973) resemblances “LeFigaro draws an article hepublishes lessvirulentwhen no is Ionescu Eugen perspective, From another 189 1993), note from 13february 1976, p.220. same language whenshe the compares Prague spring tothe French studentuprising by revolution welfare generated May ’68 anabsurd and as as Western explaining decadence symbol of the seeing Sartre intellectual, a French to shepherd Romanian a 70s in the as well as 50s in the preferring etc.” Freudists Marxists, leftists, by is dominated culture French all when moment a in a structuralist inhenor no sincehe Paris isneither a University academicand “has connections Marxist 187 is awardeda understandnot whyhe does Eliade Mircea MonicaLovinescuandIerunca. gravitating Virgil personalities around under communism”. she camefrom herfather where suffered Bulgaria that remember to order in communism of implosion the for wait shall who semiotician “textualist-psychoanalyst- the is as she altogether becomes caricatured, Julia Kristeva to are based on a“total lack imagination” ideological “While in the East youth’s revolt is rooted in a socio-political intolerable reality, in the West we assist at Eliade, Mircea , Emil Monica Lovinescu, Monica ă ilescu (Bucharest: Humanitas, 1995), pp.55 and 208. The estrangement from the French intellectual scene is felt by the majority of majority the by felt is scene intellectual French the from estrangement The Scrisori c 188 Jurnal . Emil Cioran preserves his ambiguous apocalyptical. Emil hisambiguous Cioran preserves anti-modernism La apa Vavilonului [Diary]II, Editioncoordinated Vol. by Mircea Handoca (Bucharest: Humanitas, ă tre cei de acas 189 . It is noticeable that Monica Lovinescu uses almost the Vol. II, ă [Letters to those from home], Editioncoordinated by C. Dan op. cit., op. honoris causa honoris 85 p. 136. 187 . In this context, the only reference only the context, this In . doctorate in by doctorate Sorbonne 1976 190 . CEU eTD Collection 195 194 ” andinvertebrate in “vanities, elements enmeshed opportunist businesses andpetty self-entitled spacerigorous immigrant “second exile”,group of a smaller cleansed within whichto bringethically is together “Ethos”, an designed newperiodical cultural American authorities. In 1973, Virgil Ierunca and Ioan Cu with communication difficult the by or itself community exile the inside corruption disposal.” exiles’ Romanian the at be to arrange will itself History Now, flow. History’s imperatives synchronicity. “In of theirtimes, Romanian fortyeight-ists were within culture. Itis asif,for instant, an Romanians are aheadof goingtheir time, the beyond of internalizedthe a peripheral complexes making transparent recorded, emphatically exile become inhoped whatthey of 40s:areiteration the momentis1848. The München in topersuade order movethem to there another 800political immigrants visit, Virgil Ierunca packs his things as he expects to be deported to Corsica together with they feel exiled from Paris. In 1960, when Khrushchev political refugee comes to France on an official 193 192 Slavescu (Bucharest: Humanitas, 1996), pp. 8-10. 191 Nobel and mentionsprize Dumitru See the manifesto opening the first issue from 1973, p. 5. Monica Lovinescu, Monica See Virgil Ierunca’s diary from 1960published “Ethos”,in No.1 (1973), p. 215. Stolojan, Sanda Idem , p.160. The victory of ideological issynchronization nevertheless eclipsed by moral the In Virgil Ierunca’s and Monica Lovinescu’s cases, it is not just conceptually that 194 195 191 . “Ethos” is also an attempt to enforce solidarity among those who would Nori pestebalcoane . La apa Vavilonului 192 [Clouds over balconies] Translation from French by Micaela French from Translation balconies] over [Clouds Vol. II, . In May 1968, Noël especiallyfrom Bernard. InMay1968,Noël comes ğ epeneag’s difficulties in beingassimilated as a op. cit., op. 86 p.137. 193 . Only does 1975, after Romanianthe ú a assume the directorate of a CEU eTD Collection the positions of a traditional right legionnaireswhoodes wrote Antoinedefends to the inthe30s, Zigmund-Cerbu, all who mostcases, prominent butfindwe can in also entourage figurestheir likeHoria Stamatu, occasionally sided with extreme rightmovements. Emil Cioran and are the generation which had aconflicting the relation with outcomes ofmodernity and even Monica VirgilLovinescu or AmongIerunca. their friends, closest somebelong a to animates that motivation political the lack group or homogenous democratic modernizing the circle surrounding them does not necessarily fitinto the profile of a pro-Western warfare psychological the within relationships a of power real towards reversal indifference directors’ American the regarding rules American all inresorting break insupport, kinds effort to ofstrategies to a collaborative order air through only Noël Bernard’s with aresometimes voiced texts Monica Lovinescu’s sympathies. socialist harbor still to believed is he because is censored Ierunca Virgil issupport notalways easy well.as his During collaboration sporadic inwith RFE 1960, American Relyingon the borders. lobby outside patriotic thecommunist strengthen 198 emigrant. an become interview with Eugen Ionescu, when the playwright addresses ironican invitation to Nicolae Ceau aftershe has beenattacked in1977 by two Security Police agents infront of her house in Paris and after an 197 196 new magazine inrefuse publish cultural the to trustworthy, though. See Mihai Pelin, SeeMihai though. trustworthy, wholly not are sources Theses youth. their in legionnaires been having and group of Paris fraction old the to 200 199 Sanda Stolojan, Sanda She has to threaten atleast twice theAmericans with her resignationorder in Anghel. by Paul to led get is it her message and through Tribune] [Romania’s României” “Tribuna called is It In the security police files, Theodor Cazaban is associated with Jean Pârvulescu as members belonging members as Pârvulescu Jean with associated is Cazaban Theodor files, police security the In Ierunca, Virgil Even from Even from pointthe of view of andsupportive collaborators positive networking, Trecut-au anii…, op. cit., 197 Nori peste balcoane . During. Mihai Cism the 80s, op. cit., op. , op. cit., 199 p. 24. , Theodor Cazaban Theodor , p. 76. p.140. 87 198 196 . created by the Romanian officials to ă rescu expresses his expresses rescu disappointment 200 , amember of the Legionnaire ú escu to CEU eTD Collection of a novel depicting, as in Eliade’s and Vasile Voiculescu’ prose, the insular spaces insular the prose, Voiculescu’ Vasile and in Eliade’s as depicting, novel a of by the communist plague. It is not a coincidence either that Leonid M Leonid that either a coincidence not is It plague. communist the by impossibly tobedefiled identity, Romanian an favorsof archetypical rediscovery 60s the in terms of As nostalgia.patriotic weshall see, Monica Lovinescu’s campaign during the review which hisalmost disrupts friendship with Eugen Ionescu, most the detached of all nationalist inapoetical Blagain 50s publishes the exile and Lucian Ierunca discovers Trotskyite in his youth, preferring Michaux and toNichifor Montaigne Crainic, Virgil build nourished anidentity by values attackedby the communism. Acosmopolitan to and field intellectual Parisian the of allegations universalistic decadent the challenge national credo,whichisbroughtprotectionist emphatically the surfaceto by needto the a in rooted is journalists RFE two the of liberalism alleged the that attest affinities defy existentialism to Sartrian inorder nationalism” “transcendental of dor”, who is a social-democrat in the and in exile emerges as the theorist Romanian people represent an “ontological reality”. “ontological an represent people Romanian would be that of be Am would of that Constantin prize with winningGoncourt after the Monica Lovinescu isone whenhisof supporters isa whole campaign staged against him 202 Literary Exile], (Bucharest: Compania,2003), p. 138. “Sfarm rightist the at his collaboration during never member) of Iron the Guard anda critic of Lovinescu’smodernism persistent Eugen Spain, of “Dacianthe We myth”.forget shouldVintil not from and apromoter, “Gândirea” revue founder traditionalist of the a Busuioceanu, 201 in brotherhood 1938 See Constantin Am SeeConstantin Florin Manolescu (ed.), ă riu 201 Ġ and close collaborator of RFE from 1958 to 1987, Alexandru from RFEof 1958 to andclose collaborator ei, “Caete de dor”, de “Caete ei, Enciclopedia exilului literar românesc ă riu Ġ ei, Ierunca’s collaborator for the review “Caete de for thereview“Caete collaborator ei, Ierunca’s Dieu est né enexil est né Dieu Caete de dor de Caete 88 ă -Piatr , No. 4 (1951). He argues there that the ă ” review. Paradoxically or not, or ” review.Paradoxically [The Encyclopedia of the Romanian of the Encyclopedia [The ininteresting 1960.An case ă Horia, asympathizer (but ăPă lig 202 ă , the author the , . All these CEU eTD Collection 206 205 204 Amarcord, 2000), pp. 29-45. in literature Arcade’s M. L. on comments Ungureanu’s Palade’s interview L.with M.Arcade, in“Revista[22 Review], 22” p.3.See 17(1995), No. also Cornel others” be sensefor common cause Lovinescu will precisely the the of “total of dedication accounts” of settling sign underthe “essential feels he entered of he because kind of routine any Heabhors muchliterary circle. a too and theatmosphere resembles that soft” are “too Octavian Stamatu, Nandri Badescu, Horia Lucian Eliade, Mircea Cioran, Emil with meetings the that exile his of beginning the notices at Virgil Ierunca appetite. proactive Ierunca’s Virgil and Lovinescu’s 0ăPă [Leonid Arcade L. M. 1953-1958. inbetween performance of any type encourages sohe ”, new discover to is solution only “our that is idea Eliade’s Mircea Research. of Academic Center Romanian 203 ” two its with itisdecidesbe that hightime“integrally to tothestudy devoted horrificthis of century any in of kind performance, narrating a perennial mythical experience participate, allowof bring through exilesandthe to asmallparteverybody to together which from modernity’sescaped aggression,hosts in hishouse a literary circle destined Communism (Jean Duvignaud, Raymond Aron, Edgar Morin, Pierre Fougeyrollas). Morin, The CommunismAron, Duvignaud, Pierre Raymond Edgar (Jean and Marxism between discrepancies the 60s the in denounced heroically who authors the to attention pays first She French? in available not are work Arendt’s Hannah Orientation 3. Ideological Monica Lovinescu, Monica Ierunca, Virgil The gatheringsfirst The (1950-1953) are patronized by Mircea Eliade within the framework of the Idem, lig 205 p.195. Reclusionary meetings are vividly attended, but they do not satisfy Monica not do they but attended, arevividly meetings Reclusionary Which are - then - the theoretical coordinates of her devotion in a period when ă ] revives Eliade’s initiative since 1963, inviting also visiting writers from the country. See Rodica . Whenhermotherin dies prisons thecommunist in1960,Monica Lovinescu 204 . What will seal his affective and ideological companionship with Monica with companionship ideological and affective his seal will What . Trecut-au anii…, La apa Vavilonului 206 op. cit., op. . , Vol. I (Bucharest : Humanitas, 1999), p.208. note from 16 February pp.1949, 20-21. ú 89 , Constantin Virgil Gheorghiu, Morcovescu Virgil , Constantin La Vest deEden [West of Eden] (Timi of Eden] [West 203 . ú oara: CEU eTD Collection 209 posits the reflectingand Self “affective” the as the and site of “rational” absolutethe contradiction. between boundaries the transgresses which philosophy energetic Energy because his studies are considered non-classifiable. His candidacy at Collège de France is also rejected in In 1952. his rejected also is France de Collège at candidacy His non-classifiable. considered are studies his because where willspendhe all his life.Working as a researcher CNRS at (1946-1956), he is forced to leave 208 morbid she ideas,of although paradoxesof enchantment recognizestheand opportunism the with communism equates she way, aschematic In ideas. totalitarian of power the to accorded same the –credit – reversed philosophies, andherinrelativistic of appraisal intellectuals French for of revelations status attain the marginalized, which,though native exiledvalues cautions it Moreover, thinking. Existentialist and Romantic of mists deep the and even, scientific the gap between the aberrationsphilosopher whoperfected aphilosophy contradiction from of 30s the until 60s,fillsthe of a political Stéphane inclusionof Lupasco contradiction. of discovery the The reasoning which pretendstraditional Aristotelian logic through a new epistemology to based on bethe logic of the rational,logic also brings forth a reconsideration of marginal philosophies which challenge only a revival mythsof would constitute a real alternative. Themistrust in the capacity of Ideology is seen as the ultimate metamorphosis of an ultra-rational paradigm, to which 207 “royal yet“nonconformist” unknown of contemporary of thinking” an path prophets the seen as Jung and C.G.are Eliade Mircea debate. international honorable but feeble, a of core the at thinkers place Romanian andto perspective critical her own legitimize French intelligentsia at the beginning of the 7 theoretical part is thus destined to prove that the revisionist trend is not foreign to the Monica Lovinescu, Monica On his Onhis native name Monica Lovinescu, Monica (Paris: Hermann, 1951) and One can detect, though, in Monica Lovinescu’s ardent condemnation of ideology of condemnation ardentin MonicaLovinescu’s though, Onedetect, can Logicand Contradiction Unde scurte Unde scurte ù tefan Lupatefan 209 (for Edgar Morin,for example). Vol. I, [Short Waves], Vol. I (Bucharest: Humanitas, 1990), p. 34. ú cu (1900-1988), isbornRomaniain he leaves and 1916,for in France (Paris: PUF, 1947), The Three Types ofMatter Types Three The op. cit op. ., broadcast from 19Sept. 1961,p. 27. 90 th decade. At the same time, she attempts to The AntagonisticPrinciple (Paris: Juillard,1960), develops he an 208 and the , the Romanian Logicof the 207 . CEU eTD Collection analysis of a practice or fustigate a manner,if to inconcept by the as ideology binary thesame communism of as if to beat Marx with Marx.Monica Lovinescu borrowsThe from Jules criticalMonnerot the distinction between sociology andinvestigation of the 212 itsmust it for of counter-attack” atonce, assailed fronts ubiquity a kind on achieve all inway:“Whenis but spirit perspective, a belligerent the all detached encompassing 1949, in scientificwhich mobilizes investigation interdisciplinary research, notin a in 1961,she isstill by attracted Jules Monnerot’s acid study on communism inpublished sufficientorganism evolving over theyears entity. as a monstrous In1970 Lovinescuin isalso interested one idea general the of communism asaliving self- in Time. and inHistory fall thrilling the after present eternal a paralyzed into fall humanity’s bemoans and destiny his country’s as well about givesdreams uphismegalomaniac East West, the with why sheisin interested afresh lecturing of Cioran who,becoming disillusioned with the (Boston: BeaconPress, 1960), p. 22. 211 210 arevolution” than important a ismore tree literature, his us inwhoknew totalk to inessential way about this futility the of Onlyin our gestures. fallingKazakov’s prey prose, another to typeispastoral of utopianism: “It onlyPasternak in asitappears in nature, life idyllic Romantic Soviet realities the to counterposes ultimatethe andagainstis by promises modernity.she of decaying It chance not that against anoverpowerful “ideology”of belligerencedirected andsometimes unalterable to thesamevocabulary idiom shethen resorts militant In her trajectories. many individual Jules Monnerot, Jules Idem Idem , broadcast from 9 April 1970, p. 405. , broadcast, from 29August 1964, p. 125. From the field of sociological theory, the author most quoted by Monica Sociologyand Psychology ofCommunism 91 , Translated by Jane Degras and Richard Rees Richard and Degras by Jane , Translated 210 . It is understandable as well 211 , as well as 212 . CEU eTD Collection setting up of state Romanian settinga up of 215 214 “true”. and of“justice” notions of the lack the “poisoning of the spirits” and about the contemporary atmosphere which is filled with “miasma” becausetalks of about “the clinical case of the intellectual who fallenhas prey to ideology”, about ideology as the 213 making aninventory bannedof materials the (from 1948 on)dealingwith from topic,this “desc a second with be compared Russians can Basarabia mention occupying Soviets the to (Beniuc forgets by materializedomissions either Mihai Beniuc Arghezi and for Tudor are rebuked theirfalse historical allegiances, Territories of Lost Problem -the 4. Nationalism enterprisesa about period which is nevertheless asincomprehensible.posted recuperatory arethen aswell hermemories, as broadcasts, Monica Lovinescu’s past. terms in pathological to referred understanding of whichrevolt, massifies passivity in the search for cases. Communism is Friedrich’sZbignev andCarl study of Brzezinski’s is followed1956, bya standardized relation with exemplary models of subversion. Static understanding of Stalinism as in seen as a slight variation is of de-Stalinization circumstances, these Under power. of an mechanism the of understanding evil design, while local responsesintellectual at the endto of theit Stalinist are period alsointerpreted predisposes to a transnational,yet by aFrench static developed in a scheme of liberalization the endof atthe usage The society. depict darkcomplexity although the goal is the of to predictable discourse, a radiant a circular “Campaign” is and society communist totalitarian and bounded the to thus The clinical idiom that she uses reminds about the interwar apprehension regarding “degeneration”. She “degeneration”. regarding apprehension interwar the about reminds uses she that idiom clinical The Idem Idem , broadcast from 12 June 1962, p. 40. , broadcast from 8 May 1962, p. 38. The confiscation of space concerns the RFE journalist asmuch as the loss of time. 214 ) or by emphatical representation (Arghezi considers that the arrival of the 215 213 ). The problem of territorieslostby ). The problem isof also approached , consecrating a traumatic view about a confiscated viewabout atraumatic , consecrating Idem, pp.44, 58 and110. 92 ă lecare” [dismounting] and with with the and lecare” [dismounting] CEU eTD Collection the Problemthe of Basarabia], “Ethos”, No.3 (1982), pp. 199-217. See Mihai Cism See Mihai 219 218 primejdii,care-i asigur unitate, un fel de suflu gâtuit de animal fug animal de gâtuit suflu de fel un unitate, in the middle of a the late nationalist restorative developments latein restorative nationalistof middle a the the forgotten be nevertheless the not should a chapterwhich attention to anddraws annexation towards critical more and more becomes politics official the when moment a in Mihai Mihai Cism 217 territory” beRomanian and will was “Basarabia trial: latter’s the Antonescu during editorial “Românul”,from Iuliu Maniu’sfamous when words shaking hands with Ion 216 F through Mihai from he records, his1960, diary concern for topic.In the once again that the communist regime is a foreign one, not a revolutionary one. biggest tabooof but days, the that interdictionthose mourningitsof loss over proves an almost physical presence […]” landimmense of Russia’s secret, is spectrum dark the thebook, hauntingwith throughout used to separate big Romania which borderland ontheriver of Nistru, fate situated prophetic the apprehension the of from Russia. The textGirl]is not an considered for itsuncomfortable book pervasivefor eroticism, butthe is retroactively reinterpreted:Basarabia is“torn off” “Thebefore he dies because precisely man fortunate asa is seen , of co-founder the Stere, Constantin Sadoveanu). (Mihai stories writers’ official to works Eminescu’s The article is published in 1982 in the exile magazine “Ethos” directed by Virgil Ierunca and Ioan Cu Ioan and Ierunca by Virgil directed “Ethos” magazine exile the in 1982 in published is article The “Ethos”, No.1 (1973), p. 183. “Pamântul imens al secretului negru, Rusia apas Rusia negru, secretului al imens “Pamântul Idem, broadcast from 2 July 1973, p.79. Virgil Ierunca and a part of the exiled entourage surrounding RFE share thesame RFE surrounding entourage of exiled the apart Virgil and Ierunca ă rescu recapitulates in 1976 the history of Basarabia concerning in versions the history of 1976 the recapitulates rescu ă rescu, ă Rela un loc aparte în literatura român 216 Ġ iile româno-sovietice from the motherland. Gib Mihaescu’s from Gib motherland. the 217 ă . The conclusion is that Basarabia is not only the rit, de om la pând la om de rit, ú i problema Basarabiei ă 93 peste întreaga carte, cu o prezen cu carte, întreaga peste ă .” Idem ă , broadcast from 30 July 1963, p. 90. 1963, July 30 from , broadcast , o exasperare a aten o exasperare , 219 [Soviet-Romanian Relations and . Rusoaica Ġ Ġă iei ca in fa ca in iei aproape fizic aproape [The Russian ă rc Ġ a marilor ăú anu’s ăú 218 ú i o a. . CEU eTD Collection replying to him, dissolves the dichotomy East-West transforming it into it transforming East-West dichotomy the dissolves Noica Constantin him, to replying criticizeand canbetter in thus thename equality of utopian and vitality. spiritual When cohabitates Cioran whom with peoples Western distant the with siding when blindness biased of him accuses Cioran 1957, In ideas. of closeness on the or destinies of disparity highlighting the distorting or enforcing influence of space and historical time on the proximity dissension, and political of thecontradictory tones cultural therefore RFEthe journalists and (Monica Lovinescu, collaborators Stolojan)bears Sanda and Cioran) Emil Eliade, (Mircea colleagues generational his of composed community stand apolitical never took and undercommunism of self-fulfillment regime possibilities becausehesawthe the with compliant even and non-dissident also but themes, and bypractice ideology Marxist official the challenging of view of point the from resistant be considered can on 60s late promoter of Romanian spiritual values atthe peak ofliberalization. His from activity the in 50s latethe self-discipline and self-centeredness of one who contributes, from within the culture, to the revival of his revival the to culture, the within people. from contributes, who one of self-centeredness and self-discipline 222 until 1964. 221 distant role in articulating elites’ the the organic preaching feeling paradoxical, of is a nation. involvement communitarian his time, that at Even society. corrupted assimilates legionnaire ideas, seeing the spiritual qualities of the movement inbringing redemptionto a prominent members Mircea Eliade, Mihail Polihroniade, Haig Acterian.between In 1938-1948 he 220 ethos of cultural revival in interested ideology legionnaire amissionary intellectual and imbuedwith generation interwar of in manythe As a representative ways. caseisrelevant Noica’s Constantin Case Noica’s 5. Constantin Inthis sense, he is loyal to youthhis beliefs the in solitude of theparticipatory intellectual and inthe 1949 is sentenced In he toforced residence Câmpulung-Muscelin 1958. imprisoned He until is then Noica Constantin (1909-1987) was amemberof “Criterion” Association, whichcounted among its When we ponder over the two journalists’ patriotic advertisement of journalists’of patrioticWhenRomania, advertisement weponder overtwo the 221 , but also acultural capital as the mentor of “the Paltini 220 , he acquires under communism a political capital as a prisoner a as capital apolitical communism under he acquires , 222 . The relationship between little exile him and between . The the relationship 94 ú school” and as a CEU eTD Collection 225 everybody hison visit Paris in to pointsthe thathe1972, although made were legionar remembrance of somebody” athrilling such had rarely so also I and somebody with fights intense so had had“I rarely “resistanceadvocate culture”: through to until 80s the philosopher continues the though even respect, mutual and solemnity with filled is Noica with meeting in deconstructed of of1956 the lightthe social andthe 1968.However, upheavals envisages hasten to – asin hisyouth mobilization – byself-confined elitist a into integrated broader philosophical field universality from can beachieved invaded even aculture within byMarxism,but disclosure of questions his optimist assumptions inof taking part “majorhistory” onlyby the political for destiny becomes exemplary both his dissentand expulsion, forced she interrogation“reintroduces intoRomanian thinking”. In Solzhenitsyn’s 1974, after Lovinescu his salutes on return publishingthe scene with that a “fundamental text” 1970, when anti-communism is in conducted national protectionist terms, Monica understandin behavior. not In Paris cultural community Noica’s does the destiny that which he between Noica’slinks belief inthe redemption of his country and the books that he writes under communism, in thegenerational credo in the creation of a new societyproblem through mystical communion. There is also a continuity 224 of nation to that of personal destiny. See , See Emil Cioran, See Emil Cioran’s answeris not published by Cioranfor fear not to harm its collocutor. Bothletters are republished in Emil 223 spaceof a concentric Monica Lovinescu, Monica There is a conceptual convergence between the Communist ethos of building a new world and interwar and world anew building of ethos Communist the between convergence conceptual a is There “Lettre á un ami lointain” is published by Emil Cioran in“Nouvelle Revue Française” in 1957. Noica’s ă It is the ambiguity of “collaborating” with Marxism for the sake of fulfilling a History andUtopia [Noica and Legionnairethe Movement] (Bucharest:Humanitas, 2007), pp.37 and 182-183. apriori Istorie La apa Vavilonului transcendental transcendental landmarks.in His trust his evolution nation’s he that ú i utopie ideas whichis translated into Romanian byHumanitas publishing house after 1990. flowing from the center to the margins of Europe. In this way, [History Utopia]and (Bucharest: Humanitas, 1992). 225 . Cioran agrees that Noica left a deep impression on impression lefta deep Noica agreesthat . Cioran , Vol II, , Vol op. cit., op. 95 223 . p. 187. Noica Noica ú i mii 224 ú carea is CEU eTD Collection 230 229 Humanitas, 1996), p. 148. (Bucharest: Cazacu Matei by Preface Correspondence], Stolojan Noica-Sanda Constantin of Distance. Sign two perspectives. bothtribunes,of two those realism political Liiceanu’s reverence towards tower ivory an from in lecturing naïveté his exposing and Romania” imaginary an with one the admonishhim local callinghim“enlightenedto intellectual time, this an crowned Westernthe world ina way resemblesthat viewsfrom Cioran’s 1957. Virgil Ierunca is of decadence the preaching fiercerconservatism, with his convictions old heto returns activist and the other Noica’s collocutor Noica’s other the and activist rights human the being one persons, two into her divides Noica with correspondence SandaAs perhapshave Lovinescuwould Monica Stolojan thather stated, admits about the inauthentic his life or Western Paul against diatribes Goma andSolzhenitsyn. well hisarguments world”come as as from “seem another letters to Noica’s movement, possibilities” within a culture controlled bycensorship.After Charter 77and Goma “creative the doubts concerning hishis serious oh political and expresses present country 228 226 30yearsover harmful” is “the path that denialandderision followedof resistance, by passive for Romanians the heviewin exiles’of the point acknowledges finally 1983,when becomes receptive to debatable sectors which are tolerated”. See Mircea Eliade, Mircea See tolerated”. are which sectors political conditions from nowadaysthe accept to in Romania prepared and to more – concentrate –especially and on activity ordeal his this after and creation profound more within and those richer Hebecame it. Noica succeeded inassimilating the experience of prison, to reconcile withit and to find ajustificationfor the spell of Noica’s visit. There are so many enigmas that they cannot solve. One thing is sure: Constantin 227 Virgil Ierunca, Virgil Stolojan, Sanda Sanda Stolojan, Emil Cioran, “In the evening Eugen, Rodica, Marie-France, Cioran, Virgil and Monica come to us. They are all under 230 The third party involved in this dialogue, Noica’sis disciples, divided not by the . 226 . Eliade gives an explanation Scrisori…, Dimpotriv Nori peste balcoane, op. cit Sub semnul dep op. cit., ă , 229 op. cit., . Yet inin. Yet essay 1987, in“Via published an p. 100. ă rt p. 267. ă rii.Coresponden , notationfrom 19March 1983, p.162. Jurnal 228 96 227 . There are nevertheless signs that Noica , Vol II, ofNoica’s puzzlingin confidence the Ġ a Constantin Noica-Sanda op. cit., notationfrom 5July 1972, p.69. Stolojan Ġ a Româneasc [Under the ă ”, CEU eTD Collection her biased position as the daughter233 of such a personality,232 but she promises 231 to act as a defender as long as meetings literary on” rely always can one that constellation is his unquestionable, adoration of Virgil and Lovinescu, Monica “ahuman Ierunca Noica to devotion his If criticism. pedagogical and anti-communism elitist of imperative and illustrates apolitical possibilitythe askesis, mergerof a between under two the the message, and witness the of theirperformance unforgettable during “Sbur the distant their of conveyor the is she as affectively, also but field, modern international inan insertion their dueto not only theoretically whom she relates to values, interwar literature autonomy of 19 from the critic conservative Maiorescu, the Titu norm. retroactive but valueof a noble, pastandthe the flavors of in acquires -the pastthe this–paradoxically case, a nation.of Synchronicity, to also but present, the to only not connected strongly somebody of presence emotional fromcan be ethos but advocatedwith wrapped innationalist when abroad, terms the howademocratic illustrates case dramatically decades.Her in postwar the reconfigured Monica Lovinescu bears a specialintellectual legacy and a willbeboth duty which creed, his modernism despite conservative of the zealous promoter history as literary communism under 6. Synchronism them. between incongruence the dissolves medium ethereal inan proximity museal whose into itpieces, by transforming past the personalizes that discourse When she discusses the process of rehabilitation of interwar writers, Monica Lovinescu acknowledges Lovinescu Monica writers, ofinterwar rehabilitation of process the discusses she When Liiceanu, Gabriel Idem , broadcast from 5 November 1970, p. 447. p. 1970, 5 November from broadcast , As the daughter of literary of Lovinescu,interwar As retainedcritic by daughter Eugen the the the 233 Declara th century is century considered actual all along of communismas promoter the . Even the ideological enemies of Eugen Lovinescu are remembered 232 Ġ . A long campaign will be dedicated to the undistorted revival of ie de iubire [Love Declaration] (Bucharest: Humanitas,2001), p.86. 97 231 , is characteristic of a type of eulogistic of type a of characteristic is , ă torul” CEU eTD Collection 238 scurte friend of EugenLovinescu, also is nicely evoked, despitehis socialist productions after 1945.See 237 cit., op. Lovinescu, See Monica poetry.” as of time test the pass poetry Cervedia’s and Gyr’s historyto belong and -electivelyclashes - to ideological the literarythe and past history. the of Thetexts battles - to literature.“The poets: All we talented as need to know retained are is if Crainic’s,Crevedia) sympathizers persecuted and thenused by the communist regime (NichiforCrainic, Radu Gyrand Nicolae 236 235 communism. apatriotic advertise to destined country], the of Voice [The Patriei” “Glasul periodical, propagandistic imprisoned (1947-1962) andthen released undertoassume the condition leadership the of anationalist is he 1945 After state”. “ethnocratic bean should Romania that idea of the and tendencies religious 234 monotonous voice, Ion Barbu’s fluctuating mood, ’s fighting with her over a felt cat. See cat. felt a over her with Unde scurtefighting Petrescu’s Camil mood, fluctuating Barbu’s Ion voice, monotonous and artificial Papadat-Bengescu’s Hortensia personality: somebody’s mark adolescence and childhood from images which with naturalness the with them remembers she Barbu), Ion Papadat-Bengescu, Hortensia Petrescu, (Camil concerned are writers other the as far As one. authentic an becomes recuperation the morethus positively evoked as figures Nichifor Crainic inademocraticunfolding debates key era. intellectual of criteria of ethical/ aesthetical unity aesthetical of ethical/ criteria after his death at 79 years, he is considered younger and more actual youngerthan any and more actual he his years, isconsidered after at 79 death magazine is “Contimporanul” between1922-1932) avant-garde republished several days meanings esoteric with Bucharest) of (that landscape native lost a infuses reversely he when 60s, the in novelty which hefurther brings in in 30sandgrace original itsOriental absolute themes) the foris example, Eliade’s Mircea in both profile, its evoked European synchronicity (to influenced models,was not bybutwas outward uninhibitedly communicating with them. difficult odyssey theirof bringing posterity, a additional aura to normative pastwhich craftsmanship and the interwar mundane civility over the postwar compromises Unde scurte, VictorEftimiu (1889-1972), last the president of non-communistthe Writer’s Association best andthe While Arghezi isconstantly admonished as a case disfigured by intellectual prostitution, the IronGuard Monica Lovinescu, Monica NichiforCrainic (1889-1972) isEugenLovinescu’s ideological enemy promoteras the of traditional , Vol. II, broadcast from 27 February 1969, p. 341. 1969, February 27 from broadcast The memory of the ephemeral human beings is emotionally highlighted by the by highlighted emotionally is beings human ephemeral the of memory The Vol. I, Vol. op. cit., op. Vol I, Vol op cit., op. cit., broadcast from 7 December1972, p. 38. Unde scurte pp. 54-55. broadcast from 4 January 1964, pp. 112-114. 238 235 . In of . In 1964,whenIon the animator Vinea (the , Vol. II (Bucharest: Humanitas, 1993), p. 29. than , than for she whom Tudor applies ruthlessly the 236 . The traumatic capital prevails over the literary the over prevails traumatic . The capital 98 Unde scurte, 237 . Vol I, 234 Unde is CEU eTD Collection is seen inHenri Michaux’s proximity. See articleSorescu the “Ethos”,in Marin as Nr. 3 (1982), p. manner 302. same the in Gracq, Julien with associated He is too. space in parallel the extends Blaga. See 242 241 240 Romanian way he offers us unknown realms that we somehow guessed that they they we somehow guessedthat always realms usunknown Romanian that wayheoffers begins recuperation by anational space uncovering in Romanian (“in and essential a without past”, renouncingthe ofmodernism. imperatives the Theidentity process of nobody’s “cancelingis landwith hyper-Romanian andrelinking re-appropriated, space semantic surrealist Gracq’s Julien and spaces conceptual construction%ă of a vital realmsamples of restorative literature iswhich one permeated with myths, not with truths. In remindsisgiving she offeredasprimary in case, qualities, uptheartistic as Solzhenitsyn’s what of – at the and“character talent”, namely concerneda literature with denouncingwithout the present same time - ’smanner pressure the tensioned of under time same in the from Romania younggeneration the appeal to to isgeneration expected Mircea Eliade’s process. mythical rejuvenating features of a the borrows cowardice”) Stalinismagainst youth andits agents(betweena“moral and alazy,premature often emancipating develop pattern virtues “eternal withinof atraditional Thebattlereturn”. attempts in liberalizingthe period of 60s.the In this way, synchronicity and its morally account mobilizedfor is inorder to cyclic imagery fragile therefore the modernizing replace which the to years absencecurrentsupposed and void” “senility,of 20 are 239 poet contemporary ù Idem Idem, Idem, nulescu’s absencethe prose, of valuepolitical is supplanted by fantasticsophisticated tefanB , broadcast from 18 December 1966, p. 214. broadcast from 16 October 1966, p. 205. 1966, October 16 from broadcast broadcast from 1 It is ironical that, despite her understanding of her asacombination despite real literature It isironical of understanding of that, Unde scurte ă nulescu is not compared to the compromised contemporary , but to Lucian 239 I, st . Freshness and youth become the attributes of any innovating any of attributes the become youth and Freshness . August 1964, p. 119. op. cit., broadcast from 6 November 1966, p. 206. Later, Monica Lovinescu Monica Later, p. 206. 1966, November 6 from broadcast 99 241 . 242 . By such referencing, a ù 240 tefan . A CEU eTD Collection resorting to a legendary a legendary pattern to resorting Constantin respective Buzura, the (Augustin topic havingillustrated unanimously of recognized decade” and the “obsessivehave understood Mircea Eliade depicted in isuphold 1981to better novel ’s realist even appropriations, of wishful string same the essences.In poetry of Alexandru’s and Ioan theater existential generational impetus generational confined acertain sculpture) Apostu’s to geography. (Bucharest: Humanitas, 1994), broadcast from 11 September 1981, p.233. 247 F from afarirrigating banned from localthe space,publishing Lovinescu Monica sees him as a model, which shoulddisregard not native spirituality. During liberalization, his when name is phenomenological universalismis bestsuited for a kind of non-Marxist Europeanization anti-communism invisible his despite defended being worth 246 the most appropriate, as in interwar period. See broadcast from 9 December 1967, p. 241. 245 Virgil Ierunca, Dimpotriv 244 as simplenotspirituality, and decorative (Ion forms is -asin world treated - asacognitive filled Eliade’s Mircea universe with theory archaic the whenever art, of type every in praised be will modernism and traditionalism and passivity, of corruption in 70sbeaccused the 243 us” belonged to Monica Lovinescu, Monica She recognizes that the usage of the term is imperfect, but the “urgency” of rebuilding a culture makes it VirgilIerunca deplores his absence from the UNESCORomanian commission constituted in1975.See Idem, Idem, broadcast from 3oJanuary 1969, pp. 333-334. p.302. Mircea Eliade’s cultural Eliade’s Mircea in leadershipcultural is a moment reasserted thus when 247 in his fantastic short stories, to the detriment of the writers who are ğ oiu, D. R. Popescu). 243 ) and an evolved artistic technique. Although his generational team will 245 ă Unde scurte.Posteritatea contemporan [On theContrary] (Bucharest: Humanitas, 1994), p.85. ă is rediscovered as a chance for spiritual rebirth and when his nu ú Neagu’s and Neagu’sand 246 . Even insofar as Stalinist realities areconcerned, realities as Stalinist insofar . Even 100 ù tefan B tefan Intrusul ù tefan tefan B ă nulescu’s prose, Marin nulescu’sSorescu’s prose, ğ ă [The Intruder] is by [TheIntruder] interpreted uculescu’sGeorge paintings or [Contemporary Posterity]III Vol. ă nulescu will constitute acase will constitute nulescu 244 . The strange mixture of mixture strange The . CEU eTD Collection Zacharias Lichter 249 Matei intoland C distant culture. the of confinement “transparent” new the therefore narrativerepresent construction without rhetoric philosophical poetical- in expressed lucidity of Glimpses styleliterature. testimonial of mass vast of writing, a produced had already USSR the from colleagues their same when atthe time writers even thoughcharacterize imaginary to theleapby Romanian performed the “evasionism” inorder into it is term more the more and waves the she generation, young the of in camp the compromise result of another type of self- 248 Stalinism of exposure feeble its of minimized too – in comparison with the of based police the procedures rhetorically non-evidence the eulogies in the national literary press isD. R.Popescu heldup be braverto than justBujor Nedelcovici becausehe questions – because in intentions. Oneyearlater, fantastic theauthor’s prose into of spite deviate style which anti-StalinstRadu Popescu’s baroque symbols appraising his civic andmodern courage does not question Stalinism thanks to its refuge in aesthetic writing, she overbids Dumitru literature Romanian that admitting sorrowfully After fantastic. collaterally isonly which of transposition bymeansof the real buta code atrocities transparently camouflaged, inalterable in virtues of seek is inherent the fantastic anymore literature which reality multiplication testimoniesof Soviet about camps and trials, MonicaLovinescu doesnot this After stage. Praguespring, Soljenitsyin’s publication of Idem Idem , broadcast, from 27September 1970,pp.428-429. , broadcast from 27 May 1971, p.487. Towards the end of the seventh decade, after noticing the contagious stretch of But being synchronic requires at a certain moment an original transgression of is valued for his modernism as“mistrust(defined in devoid Word”) the 249 . 101 ă linescu’s 248 The FirstCircle . Alexandru Ivasiuc is Life and Opinions ofLife and the CEU eTD Collection daily existence” our horrifying tragedies the of any see not » does asnail seen have I «today notes who for thedespite intellectual appreciation the (“the potential youngof authors author their arediscarded From aesthetic purely diaries this perspective, of by only word. power the and exile endorse the possibility intellectualof opposition which shakes a diabolic system Doesn’t it depend also awaited. is something still a classical dictatorship to transition the “Convalescence, on the writers? Or especiallyfractions: notcommunist from comeliterature, revisionist expected from to on them?” major whilechanges are still genericbasedon the “exceptions allusions”, category of to arerelegated braveOld in experiences wascensored political 1971. about the prisons in novel favor of ten in whose Goma, Paul featuringin top are eclipsed apersonal 1970, 253 252 p. 380. censorship” 251 250 literary works. D. R. politicalthe standof exigenciestowards magazineMonica Lovinescu’s in1973sharpen Popescu, system and Solzhenitsyn’s firstchapter of scheme a revivalist in belligerence of radicalization 7. Epilogue: evasionism. and criticism faint images of picturesque Monica Lovinescu, Monica Monica Lovinescu, Monica Matei C Matei Idem , broadcast from 9 October 1969, p.375. The publications (in French) of Hananh Arendt’sstudy totalitarian the about ă linescu, Ion Vianu, Ion linescu, 251 as the victory as in victory the publishingin it 1969proves he that embraced thesame 253 ) and fictional investigations about the domestic aspects of Stalinism or Unde Scurte Unde scurte 250 . Later, the author himself will submit his own text to “post- Amintiri îndialog Vol. II, Vol. III, Vol. ù tefan B op. cit., op. op. cit., ă [Remembering throughDialogue] (Ia nulescu and Matei C broadcast from 15March1973, p.61. 102 broadcast from 7 March 1980, p. 122. p. 1980, March 7 from broadcast The GulagArchipelago ă linescu, the authors still 252 . Solzhenitsyn’s case in “L’express” ú i: Polirom,i: 2005), CEU eTD Collection to provide sociological explanations for the literature writtenunder Communism. 255 257 256 January 1981, p. 176. urban class. See class. urban an into of peasants transformation the describe to attempt his in fear” of predominance “the transparent French intellectuals’ disenchantment with communism. However, this “awakening” this However, communism. with disenchantment intellectuals’ French decade of structuralism and newlinguistic methodologies, Monica Lovinescu salutes the whole a of impact the and scope scientific the overlooking After context. intellectual failing comprehend to complexities the and tobe authentically synchronized with an neascult appreciated by Monica Lovinescu. See Lovinescu. by Monica appreciated deliriously praised by the critics forits depiction of dailythe life of a middle-class communist is not 254 risk.” appeared atthis with encounter truthandthe history, the with her words revitalized bythe works, thus their through it convertingconfront to how knew – history same the –by history by overwhelmed it into an ally. […] similarly capitals – Eastern from other “the writers history: with and confrontation truth And, as in a fable endingbeing international synchronic, all and for thewithin framework of quest a standardized with a moral, art of mingles obsession the with classification lack of Essentialist anxiety and prominence. poetic flavor when she tries to account, for example, for the ’s paradigm. totalitarian in the with accordance past, atraumatic about testimony communism sociological interpretations, in critique Mild relevance. testimonial of standards ethical with criteria aesthetic the upgrading and country the from chorus critical the outside herself placing recurrently reality social She admires , but abhors his resorting to “presumptuous sociocritique” when trying when sociocritique” to“presumptuous resorting his abhors but Manolescu, Nicolae admires She Monica Lovinescu, Monica Nicolae Breban’s Nicolae Idem 256 , broadcast, from 21June 1981, p. 210. ă It is no wonder that her sociological inputs are also schematic and imbued with a with imbued and schematic also are inputs sociological her that wonder no is It tor The [The [The Disobedient Disciple] (1977)isalso minimized because does author the not make 254 Unde scurte belligerent in general are seen as irrelevant. She embraces a univocal approach to approach a She embraces univocal asirrelevant. are seen in general Unde scurte Bunavestire Vol. III, and Vol. II, [Lady Day]although (1977), it stands as a censored work andis revivalist op. cit op. Unde scurte op. cit., op. ., broadcast from 19 May 1978, p.32. 255 schemeis applied to other phenomena as well, or prose, are not valued if they do not bear the broadcast fromJune 25 1977, p.222. 103 Vol. II, Vol. op. cit., op. p. 234.George B Idem , broadcast from 2 ăOăLĠă ’s Ucenicul 257 CEU eTD Collection Monica Lovinescu, Monica See her. against of forces a deployment such of causes of the be unaware to pretends condescendingly She twelve. number reaches serial the until it of notice taking from refrains Lovinescu Monica “Luceaf (from campaign denigrating collaboration with the Security Police (interview with Gelu Ionescu, 7.06.2008). It follows the that 260 August1980 published in 259 determined by the crisis in possibilities forupward movement within the literary establishment. seen by sociologists (Katherine Verdery) as the ideological output of adisguised literary factional struggle conspicuously adhere to the nationalist-communist ideology and are loyal to the regime. Protochronism is protochronist writer and a Securitate agent and aSecuritate writer protochronist “Luceaf (Pompiliu Marcea, Mihai Ungheanu, Dan Zamfirescu, Ilie Purcaru, Artur Silvestri, Ion L communist prisons (1961-1964). His idea is embraced by less prominent literary critics and sociologists intellectual figure (Edgar Papu), who tries to compensate, through hisassiduous studies, the years spent in criticizes cosmopolitantendencies. It is ironical that the person who coins the term in1974 is an erudite assumes the universalit As priorityones. Western of the the Romanianwith culture, relation itopposes in values EugenLovinescu’s cultural Romanian synchronismof the and it precedence temporal of the idea 258 literar magazine, “România official and Writers’ the Free Europe fires Union between beingthe them about Radioof caught more and herattention more. monopolize literary internal affairs thetumultuous because literature, or incinema “new waves” moreassessthe closely prompt her not to does Europe (Adrian (Adrian P Europe between Monica Lovinescu’s noticing the first explicit articles against her and Radio Free lapse of time is ashort There field. cultural the from machinations all with the listeners the updates and writers’ conferences the attitudesduring courageous appraises the plagiarism, literary against Writers’ resolutions Union the cause,reveals national by group uncovering the political institutional and stakes of theirto the commitment protochronist the fustigates bitterly then She implication. total her demands nationalism 70s of polarized the from bythefestiveon, late cultural the promotion amateurism Gelu Ionescu declares to us that ArturSilvestri came to him in the 70s and told him that he signed the See the record of the encounter between a group of 22 writers and Nicolae Ceausescu on the 26th of “Protochronism” isan ideological trend developed inRomania inthe 70s whichseeks to promote the Theriseof protochronism ă rul”) and the protochronist writers’ complaint to Nicolae inperson Ceausescu to complaintwriters’ protochronist the and rul”) Short Waves ă unescu’s Adev ă Vol. III, Vol. rul literar rul literar To theCountry’sBetrayers ă rul”) might have been ordered and paid by the Security Police. Security by the paid and ordered been have might rul”) op. cit., 258 ú ă i artistic ” [Literary Romania] ” [Literary , the tensions within a literary increasingly field aliterary , the within tensions broadcast from 29April 1983, p.42. 260 104 [Literary Aristic and Truth],No. 757,1 martie 2005. , begins a three-year serial chronicle against chronicle serial a three-year begins , from from 30 Decemberin 1975, 259 . In 1983, Artur Silvestri,Artur . In1983, a ă ncr ă jan etc.) who CEU eTD Collection Luceaf 261 undermined arealso cosmopolitanism autochtonism/ Rightism/Leftism, regime. autarkic international historically overthe and internationalism by abyssal updated permitted an side product of ColdWar cultural militancy which toimposetries urgencythe beingof is theby- It perspective. atlooked from another main focus of canbe the RFE, therefore imperativesthe history).of Thepolitical coverage of dissidence, usually tobe considered imposes different uses ofthe international cultural canon references and forsuppressed desirefor parts. both Intra-national for competition elitist the monopoly theover (withintemporal a timelessand spatial time definition span or under of the national patrimony and exile Europe magazines) Free (Radiocultural tribunes from persons different by same activism covered the smallscaleof scene aredundant the by and observing intellectual on French the commentators two the of prominence lack of the by asserting from Paris RFE the auraof the in pointdeconstructing have alegitimate might Silvestri Artur isWhat intriguing isthat inside theliterary community. protochronisthavoc the serial towards tendentious relativethe is indifference deniedbyherfocus on exclusive MonicaLovinescu’s in while proves contrary, livingParis the actually exile community little impactof force andthederisory programs of Monica Lovinescu’s the symbolic minimization developed onboth sides. Silvestri’s Artur struggles in demonstrating the by consideration not only), rhetoric wholethe literary community (and the of despite interaction Waves”. All this on Short entitled“Pseudo-culture from Paris Free RadioEurope competition is a very vivid competition the that nevertheless shows he whom represents) those of concern the (and concern See Artur Silvestri, “Pseudoculturape unde scurte” (I, II, III) [Pseudo-culture onShort Waves], ă rul , No. 6-8 (February 1983). proves that both parts’ both ofview thatparts’ points proves reciprocally under are taken internal one and that the international representativity is a is representativity international the that and one 105 261 . His . CEU eTD Collection relation. withinbroadcastintellectual RFEand the smallest having buta homological dissidence, cultural having thelargest between determinism is no direct There waved advocacy. air- “close-distant” a of conditions the under dramatized and preserved is thus masses and elites between cultural distance Historical activate. should of which intellectuals itisbut notexempt of of stigma the being an manipulatedunconscious body in thename “volatility” and passivity of a largemass iswhich bemoaned asbeing “disenfranchised” against Dissidenceand background issought of constructed sometimes the the intellectualism, condemning no regard tosocio-economic politics with aspects. filter of individualistic liberal and throughphilosophy spiritualistthe drive of interwaran attentionpaying without to change social societal upholds mood proactive and retroactive Its militancy. based dynamism. The “Human aculturally fosters paradigm lenses totalitarian of enlarged the as endangeredthrough rights” idiom is appropriated through the in spanned in space time. stigmatizing labelsa usedwithin as theyconstitute Literary journalism oriented towards defense towards valuesthe journalism of seen Literary national cultural oriented 106 national literarycompetition only CEU eTD Collection “indebtedness” of of literary community,Civil “indebtedness” feel response. society, politicians to obliged hero. national Lovinescu, toathird resort way formal solution of awarding her a posthumously as who, under the civil society’ pressures of funerals national organizing for Monica mournful chorus, surfeited or eulogistic, ironically contrasts with the officials’ reactions typical Romanian style, by surrounded ignorance,indifference our and oblivion”. This one onwhose hundreds words of thousands people before clang to 1989 has ina died Ceausescu Nicolae to odes shameful indulged in who 1989also before appraisalsfrom figures shereceives that preposterous by is the tarnished Monica Lovinescu memory of the and nowadays public that debate no was there 2006 in died Ierunca Virgil when that observes sadly and briefly Jela Doina helpnoticing celebration. the paradoxes of the contradicting ones,cannot the previous Observatory], No. 420-421, 24 April 2008. 263 262 that she has “the aura of an illustrious posterity” Hurezeanudeclares andEmil last intime” createdbyherwill values “theof hierarchy Lovinescu as“the institution of public moral”, Alexandru Solomon acknowledges that Monica and Virgil Ierunca characterizes Patapievici H.-R. resistance. Communist intellectuals figures evoked prominent by someRomania’s anti- of top of the of asone 1. Museification Conclusions: Why Does Monica Lovinescu matter Doina Jela, “Intolabilul s-a produs” [The Intolerable Has Happened], Has Intolerable [The produs” s-a “Intolabilul Jela, Doina See Passionate, sad or cordially reverent, the echoes have in common the common in have echoes the reverent, cordially or sad Passionate, After her death on 20 the on After herdeath [Daily Event], 22 April 2008. th of April year,this Monica Lovinescu is unanimously 263 . Gabriel Liiceanu sorrowfully stresses that “the that stresses sorrowfully Liiceanu . Gabriel 107 262 . There are also voices which, without Observator Cultural [Cultural CEU eTD Collection classical literary works - and its propagation of an ethereal medium of civilized public civilized of medium ethereal an of propagation its and - works literary classical due toits incorporation valuesuniversal of made– resembling those transparent by voice asan unchanged later emerges retroactively “noise” distinctive RFE’s concerned, less is moreAsits or faras battle stable. waswaged which reception persuasive the omnipotent ideology seen as evil, promoted a type of inquiry as if the societal field on in of features its fossilizeda redundantbecause, militancy attempt tofightagainst an posterity. is acquires Asfar concerned, asits RFEdiscourse production intime the solemn schematically own its fosters credo acultural-elitist and scheme totalitarian War the Cold message, shapedby rhetoric, RFE the awakening.Theschematic mass of insightsocial even though they are voicedfrom a microphone designed toappeal to culturally elitist,anddevoid show, Monica owninputsare oriented Lovinescu’s tried to is aswe is What that, interesting modernization. economic) anda late (not institutional scrutiny. This is typical of a vertical type of a public communication within a society with an relatinga statuary to elite pantheonas whichkeeps away to piece any comprehensive influence overenormous and hearts the minds of a large public. characterized by by a characterized are evocation aspassionate well as Cold respect are overlooked. contingencies and hercondition as evolutionary an intellectual trajectory mingling human and historical buther as legacy conceptual a RFEa widely institutional status commentator, cognized has Monica Lovinescu things: of isa few indicative museal contradictory the celebration Warfading of scope broad cause,apious mustbemaintained.a Cold relationship The has a figure whom,homage although the dialogueceasedbecauseof the pay with their to We argue that the canonization of Monica Lovinescu is the product of a typical is product the ofLovinescu Monica canonization the We that argue distant look ontoa look phenomenon iswhich hold upofhaving an 108 CEU eTD Collection 265 somethrough personalities, either viewed astraumatizing). (either glorified past the about dualistic discourse present the and period) in postwar in history and interwarmalevolent towards period Lovinescu’s (benevolent dual attitude Monica between There ismoreover acorrespondence past. the towards attitudes present forensic museification, between a standardized cultural Cold War discourse and the interaction schematizing Cold Warhabits, distancing intellectual andmissionary Thereethos. is an media-capital, transcendental such as factors catalyzing of because posterity its own influences casetheobject in this particular that however Wecontend of ritual celebration. beside a post-factum two betweenthe isnoconnection there andthat subject andobject can always rely on” from Paris: in Gabriel Liiceanu’s view, they constitute a “human constellation that one lung “Memoria Hurezeanu, See Emil or 1987. in 1955 happened it if matter no Pavese, Cesare or Hamsun Knut adds, listening to“ourradio” during communism resembled intimate to the exercise of Chekhov,reading politeness and nourished by freedom instincts and a common set of values and friendships”. In this way,RFE he broadcasts always landed ona field of “personal normality built onthe platform of reciprocal constraints”. The flow of commentaries, information, explanations which constituted foryears the body of listeners tuned into the American radio, without receiving a message through“the filterof ideological 264 interaction Gabriel Liiceanu, Gabriel Emil Hurezeanu, who was in the 80s a RFE journalist, points out the undisturbed naturalness with which ă a undei scurte” [The Long Memory of the Short Wave], Short the of Memory Long [The scurte” undei a One could argue that any solemnization posits a sacralizing distance between a distance sacralizing posits any Onesolemnization argue that could 264 , although itis, although as conceived . The classicization of messagejoinsthe theperennial status of couplethe Declara 265 . Ġ ie de iubire, op.cit., p.86. 109 domination Dilema Veche and although itis obscured by , no.212, 2008. CEU eTD Collection worshipped image is thus insulated from precisely flow from isinsulated worshipped despite historical the against or image thus because hermilitancy of as an understood belligerenceabsolute againstevil. The Monica Lovinescu attains the a purifiedof dimension museal and transcendental piece annihilation. or dismissal thanatic versus museification erotic language: Freudian into be obsessive which can converted waysof objectifying, in they symbolize two thissense: in being1977 near attacked agents) herhouseare in by Securitate symptomatic Paris two her after (immediately history aggressive an of assaults the recording physically maturity of Liiceanu’sher canonizingbook), majesticyouth untarnished and and thatof polluted 266 were my great love from love my great were mature beauty, intellectually ripe, whichproduces in me an intense joy,by looking at hereffigy, asif In she volume. second declaration of the cover front onthe picture the posts Liiceanu everybody!”), of stock protests (“Gabriel, don’t you see, itlooks like a Hollywood picture…We’ll make ourselves the laughing I-II [NearVavilon Waters] (1999-2001), as a picture coverforbook. her Despite Monica Lovinescu’s The first picture is chosen by the author, who is also the editor of her memoirs The two picturesThe two(Figures 7 Declara Liiceanu, Gabriel Source: 34. aged Figure 8:Monica Lovinescu1957, in we encounter the description of the image and - indirectly - the explanation of this choice: “a choice: of this explanation the - - indirectly and image of the description the encounter we Ġ ie deiubire another , 2001. [Liiceanu’s underlying] life.” (from 266 and 8) of and 8)of Monica Lovinescu (from Gabriel 110 Gabriel Liiceanu, Gabriel Source: assault. criminal Securitate ofthe marks Figure 9: Monica Lovinescu in 1977, bearing the Declara Declara Ġ ie de iubire Ġ ie de iubire La apa Vavilonului , op. cit., op. , 2001. p.107) Vol. Love CEU eTD Collection Change 269 Matter], 268 [Stalinism for Eternity. APolitical History of the Romanian Communism] (Bucharest: Polirom, 2005). 267 Stalinism an ongoing about vision coincidence Romanianhistorian thatthe upholds and traumatic who awidely consecrated a not is It ethos. belligerent War Cold internalized an by enhanced both are and tradition because texts theyboth developinsideeulogistic andhistoriographic aspecific cultural Manicheanviews RFE within aboutcommunism are perpetuated local Manichean minute victimization reconstruction needof of through past. spares the idealization or through Abstraction history. fatidic and overwhelming an of message the conveys conversely image victimizing The blows. traumatic swiftly as well as temporal slowly its the absence of RomanianJewish origin) or to his broader insightdissidence in social phenomena. He addresses the question of from a isof (he minority ethnic as an an internalized complex to non-ethical be attributed majority can pointpolitical) and ofeconomic (sociological, view and he also can favorRomanian apluriperspectivist communism this who epoch approach to matters. - acknowledge to Interestinglyprone history), fierce in a her immersing or (abstracting sacralizations dark or light these enough, against voices, Therearevery from rare history. abstraction cultural through achievement oneisMonica Lovinescu, also ferventthe disciple of a school promoting of thought self- of them dailies is also onein Monica of political Lovinescu an the one serial appraising to posthumously dedicates of the few analysts of the See Michael Shafir, See Michael See Vladimir Tism Vladimir See VladimirTism (London: Pinter Publishers, 1985). 268 Evenimentul zilei . It is no coincidence either that Gabriel Liiceanu, a passionate admirer of ă neanu, cum granosalis ă neanu, “De ce conteaz “De ce neanu, Romania: Politics, Economics and Society: Political Stagnation and Simulated , 22April 2008 - 4 June 2008. Stalinism pentru eternitate. 267 - the key influence of Monica Lovinescu on cultural on Monica Lovinescu influence of key -the in communist Romania is also the only person who person only the also is Romania in communist 269 ă Monica Lovinescu” (I-VII) [Why Does Monica Lovinescu Monica Does [Why (I-VII) Lovinescu” Monica . His “reactionary” stand against a worshipping against . Hisstand “reactionary” 111 O istorie politic ă acomunismului românesc CEU eTD Collection Demonstrations, Lightening Rods], 271 270 advocacy (be it more cultural avirulentandimportance RFE’s or weacknowledge of thanconstant assiduous the tone, political), but we try to relate embracing accorded Withoutactions. atotal support revisionist to anti-communistfor the to it in and canon an national literary the of construction the for programs cultural RFE Romanian 2. Salt in Food afterinterpretation 1989 interventions Lovinescu’s of Monica in and reflection of revealing errors articles the a set Monica Lovinescuwith of evocations serial the to he contributes least, not but Last, Lovinescu. Monica by Chimet) Manea, Iordan (Norman “omissions” the perceive how authority is actually constructed when being transcendentally claimed. We can also We can claimed. transcendentally being when constructed isactually authority how national howbeingtraditions, is synchronic being dependent also upon anachronistic, filtered are international through understand how politics actuality.better Wecan their and dynamism their reveal other” “the about labels in which image, moving a as stands reconstruction resulting The messages. of interpenetration the and metamorphoses and from within institutions own images, theirstandardized weuncover the the stakes, So, instead lookingin of Cold Warresulted static picture. at a rather discourses polarized vivid againaphenomenon byasetofparadoxeswhosetensionedunderpinned proximity interactionist theory and the socio-historical purposein circumscribing serveour making living pieceasa ofhistory,fossilized not item of debate. an The antagonistic intended a is emerge makethesubject as which to approach contextualist comprehensive Our way. in eulogistic a passive not See Shafir,“Paradigme,Michael parademonstra Interview with Michael Shafir, 29April 2008. We place ourselves within a similar analytical trend when discussing the role of role the discussing when trend analytical similar a within ourselves We place Sfera politicii Sfera cum grano salis cum grano Sphere[The of Politics], No. 84-88 (2000-2001). 112 Ġ ii, paratr attitude can be understood as a can be understood attitude ă 270 snete” (I-IV)[Paradigms, Para- in the cultural forged in canon cultural the 271 . interacting , CEU eTD Collection Romanian Conscousness),Vol. 13(2007), p.48. 1989]1989after in „Caietele Echinox” [Echinox Notebooks] (Special Issue: Holocaust Gulag and in construirea memmoriei democratice dupa delimitationfrom “neo-communists”. of“symbolic See actions as be catalogued can and communism” of process “the target main a as have descriptive accounts (books of documents) of repressive institutions is their main focus. The institutions with the memory of communism and the quality (not quantity) of their achievements. Publishing despite its ghostly omnipresent figure. There is a contradictionbetween the numerous institutions charged 272 mandatory garnish: salt. an requiringan palliatives, usageof but the accidentwith banquetappealing sweet a isnot History flavor. familiar seminal new a adding by epoch) anterior an of (reminiscent listing or classifying dry of ritual a refresh could we concerned, is communism of condemnation Asfarasthe obsessive larger debate. a scientific can alsoenter and we interactions social of motivations inner tothe closer get wecan communication, elitist By past. the the roots of disclosing perpetuationthe of a totalitarian, Manichean and discourseabout view atraumatic and position peripheral by a exacerbated complexes the without we haveposition ourselves in a much more friendly way in our own and worldwide historythe chance of stepping outside of a vicious pattern of We canspeak about afervorof static display, inwhich reenactment of the past as a living past is absent [“Gulag”, “Holocaust” and the building of Democratic Memory of Democratic building the and “Holocaust” [“Gulag”, Florin Abraham, „Rezisten 113 Ġă ”, „Gulag”, „Holocaust” 272 ú i CEU eTD Collection : criminal assault. Source: Gabriel Liiceanu, Figure 8: Securitate the marks of the bearing in1977, Lovinescu Monica Figure 9: Declara Figure aged 34.Source:in7: FigureGabriel Lovinescu 1957, 8:Monica Liiceanu, Bulgarian Unit. (p.52) JanuaryFigure 6: OSA, Mail Receivedfrom Eastern Europe 1-June 30,1965.Source: truth of The Bureaucracy Figure 5: Audience and Broadcasting Time of RFE’s Departments. Source: Paul Lendvai, Iron Curtain Michie, A. Allan Source: song”. foreign a sing and lies the swallow enough you shouldbelieve flapping. rubbish,ears that Worse you still, should that “Bad The caption radios. Western Figure 4:A attackingreads: listenersto poster Russian Bulgarian Unit(p.45). OSA, We produce thesoundreads: “The Source: have toourselves”. tubeisburnt. from Figure 3:Caricature Romanian the “Urzica”, 11 April daily caption 1959. The through theIronCurtain containinginventions." lies, Allan provocations, slander, A.Michie,Source: is thesebase bin oldloveloudly. inan Their two Europe, toads rubbish croaking old Free and Radio "RadioLiberty 1985. reads: Caption the moscow, Boris Plakat, Efimov, called from book cartoons Figure 2:Cartoon a of anti-Western (p.44). Unit Bulgarian OSA, the freedom”. Source: of adeepbreath take listeners, dear moment, Figure 1:Cartoon from Mai 1955.The newspaper, a German “Just caption a 19 reads: List ofFigures: Ġ ie deiubire , 1963 (p.45). , , 2001(p.110) , 1963(p.44). , 1981., (p.52) 114 Declara Ġ ie deiubire , 2001. A ShatteringBlow Voices through the Voices by CEU eTD Collection (Bucharest), “Gabanyi” Funds (Bucharest), Arhivele Arhivele Na Bulgarian Hungarianunit, unit Records: Romanian Unit, Europe RadioFree Archives (Budapest), Open Society b. Archival funds: Observator Cultural Ethos Revista 22 Caete dedor Cotidianul politicii Sfera zilei Evenimentul Dilema Veche Luceaf a. Publications: sources:2. Written 6,7interview with Macrea-Toma’s June2008 Ioana Ionescu, Gelu interview Macrea-Toma’s with Andras 29MayIoana Mink, 2008 Macrea-Toma’sIoana interview with Michael Shafir, 29April 2008 1. Oral sources: sources: Primary I. Bibliography: (Paris),1-3, No. 1973-1982 ă rul [22Review] No. 17 (Bucharest), ,1995 [The Morningseries, (Bucharest) Star] 1983-1984 [The Daily] (Bucharest), 3 Dec. 2007 [Nostalgia Notebooks] [Nostalgia(Paris),4 Notebooks] No. 1951 [The Sphere of Politics] , (Bucharest) No. 84-88,2000-2001 Ġ [The OldNo. Dilema] (Bucharest) 212,2008 ionale Istorice Centrale [Romanian National Historical Archives] Historical [Romanian National ionale Centrale Istorice [The Daily series, (Bucharest)Event] 22April 2008 -4June 2008 [Cultural [Cultural 420-421,Observatory],24 No. April 2008 115 CEU eTD Collection Communication theory, intellectual history: II. Secondary sources. Thematic Bibliography: LaCapra, Dominick and Steven Kaplan (eds.). Kaplan and Steven LaCapra, Dominick Kelley Donad R. (ed.). Katz, Elihu and T.Szecsko (eds.). Goffman, Erving. “Killing Carlo. Moral Ginzburg, of aChineseMandarin:Implications The Distance”, Curran, James and MichaelGurevitch (eds.). Cristophe, Charle. Cristophe, Couldry, Nick. “Media Meta-Capital: Extending the Range of Bourdieu’s Field Chomsky, Noam and Edward S. Herman. András(ed.). Bozóki, Bourdieu, Pierre. Anna. Boschetti, Ball-Rokeach, S.J. and M. L. DeFleur, “A Dependency Model of Mass Media Effects”, Latour, Bruno. University Press,1990.of Rochester 1981. HarperYork: and1974. Row, Critical Inquiry Arnold, 1996. comparée. 2003). of Symbolic Power: A Special Issue in Memory Pierreof Bourdieu (Dec., Theory”, Economy ofthe Mass Media. European University Press, 1999. Communication Reasearch New York: Oxford University 2005. Press, Reassembling the Social: an Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory. Social: anIntroductionto Reassembling the Theory andSociety Sartre et‘LesTempsModernes. Language andSymbolic Power. Seuil: Paris, 1996. Frame Analysis:AnEssay onthe Organization ofExperience. Les IntellectuelsenEuropeau siècle.XIXth Essai d’histoire Intellectuals and Politics in Eastern Europe. , Vol.No. 1. 21, (Autumn, 1994). The History ofIdeas:Canon andVariations. , No.1 (1976). , No.1 Mass Media and Social Change. , Vol. 32, No. 5/6, Special Issue on The Sociology London: Vintage Books,1998. Manufacturing Consent: thePolitical 116 Mass Mediaand Society. Modern European Intellectual History, Paris: Éditions deMinuit, 1985. Cambridge: Polity 1990. Press, Budapest:Central London:Sage, Rochester, N. Y.: London: E. New CEU eTD Collection Communism, Cold War, Radio Free Europe: Rees, G.Wyn. Puddington, Arch.Puddington, Wasburn, Philo C. Tunstall, Jeremy. Tunstall, Simpson, Cristopher. Sapiro, Gisèle Sapiro, McPhail, Thomas L. Lee, Chin-Chuan. Dominick. LaCapra, Robin, Ron. Richardson, J. G. (ed.). Pye, L. W. (ed.). 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