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The books losses in late antiquity (the period between the late 3rd and the late 6th century ) are an irreplaceable loss to the cultural heritage of classical antiquity dar. By tradition, loss of a large part of the ancient Greek and Latin literature is the number of works that are developed in the modern era have been preserved, extremely low. Most of the still surviving texts are in medieval preserved copies, original text testimonies of antiquity have been preserved very few.

The reasons for this massive loss are varied and controversial. An incision may be in the so-called crisis of the 3rd Reich Century can be seen. Occupies are systematic extermination of Christian writings during the persecution of Christians as well as pagan ("pagan") fonts in the course of the Christianization of the Roman Empire . Other causes are likely in the cultural decline and the turmoil of the Migration Period to be found especially in the West, to have declined as numerous book collections warlike devastation to the victim and with the educated elites disappeared the remaining cultural carrier of tradition. Changes in the media - as the description of the writing material papyrus to parchment and from the scroll to the codex - and in any literary canon and the school system were additional barriers. The tradition of works ended when they were not rewritten in the new medium and thus were eliminated from the canon.

During the Byzantine Empire the literary tradition of the ancient world until the fall of Constantinople - albeit to varying degrees - was maintained, preserved at the end of antiquity in the Latin West only a small elite of wealthy and educated the literary heritage of antiquity in reduced choice. This circle of coming from a senatorial family was Cassiodorus , in the 6th Century, yet he can reach the remains of ancient literature and collected in Vivarium the monastic book production of the Middle Ages founded. Especially in the 7th and 8 Century manuscripts, both classical authors as well as some Christian authors have been partly erased and rewritten. Under the scanty stock of these still preserved the oldest Latin manuscripts, most manuscripts with texts of classical authors only as palimpsests receive. The subsequent Carolingian Renaissance , in which the production of manuscripts of classical texts revived, for the tradition was thus all the more important. The reasons for the production of palimpsests were varied. The decisive factors were usually practical considerations such as the preciousness of the material, font conversion or altered literary interest in classical and heretical texts probably also religious motives.

The consequences of the loss of large parts of ancient literature were considerable. Only with the invention of the printing press in the 15th Century preserved ancient texts were gradually reopened to a larger readership. Many achievements of modern times were stimulated directly or indirectly through these writings. Stock figures as in antiquity reached modern libraries probably only back in the 19th Century.

1 The stock of books of antiquity and its tradition 2 The loss books 2.1 Ancient stocks 2.2 Possible causes loss 2.3 Affected topics 3 Background 3.1 The loss of books by 500 3.2 The Christian subscription 3.3 The climax of the religious wars: 400 3.4 downfall and change of the ancient city 3.5 Destruction of magic books 4 Education and tradition 4.1 Western Roman Empire 4.2 The Christian attitude to pagan literature 4.3 The monastic tradition

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4.4 Ancient Education in the Eastern Roman and Byzantine empires 4.5 Arab tradition 5 Literature 5.1 monographs 5.2 Papers 6 External links 7 comments

By tradition in libraries, before the papyri found in 1900, about 2,000 author names were of Greek literature before the year 500 known, but only by 253 authors at least parts of their writings were preserved. For Roman literature there were 772 authors' names, in which 144 authors writings have been preserved. [1] This led to the frequently encountered forecast that less than 10% of ancient literature have been handed down. [2] The nearly 3,000 names of authors make this a minimum number represents, namely those mentioned in surviving texts. In addition to many Christian, these are predominantly classical school authors, but not to the total stock of antique titles. Based on the total period of the ancient Christian authors found, however, only a relative minority dar.

An estimate of the ancient stock of titles and books is only indirectly about the library's history. The most famous library of antiquity, the Library of Alexandria , grew from 235 BC to 47 BC by 490,000 to 700,000 roles, mostly in Greek. [3] A role equivalent to about one (see book ). The title production of the Greek world was accordingly at least 1100 per year. [4] extrapolated to the year 350 would give the a stock of about one million titles. [5]

Given the significant break in the tradition history shows that statistic of library materials, to the extent known or extrapolated, from antiquity to modern times. Accordingly reached European libraries in the 19th Century again comparable large inventory figures as the libraries of the ancient world.

The scope of the Latin literature can not be exactly determined, but could be a comparable magnitude has been achieved. [6] Because rather trivial works from the provinces probably were not entered into the great libraries, [7] could be the total stock of antique titles the one million mark also very have significantly exceeded. Under the estimated assuming an average spread of 10-100 copies [8] this would be a number of roles or books in the double-digit millions. Of these millions of books from the period before 350 has been handed down in a library not a single. All sources from pre-Christian times, or about 350 before, were probably handed down only as a Christian

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editions that since 3/4 Century were created (in the West particularly in the 4th century). [9]

The number of surviving ancient texts (no finds) has not yet been precisely determined. The magnitude should be around 3000, 1,000 of them in Latin . Most of it lies only in fragments before. The entire traditional non-Christian text volume includes at least in Latin probably less than 100 codices would fit. The break in the inventory of antique titles is therefore significant and could be due to 1000 in the order of one. After this statement is only 0.1% or only one of 1,000 titles would have survived. This number is obtained when an estimated total number of titles of several million facing the some 1000 traditional titles, or if you - regardless - the last ancient library of Constantinople Opel , which burned 475 with 120,000 books, [10] known to the first Middle of Cassiodorus in the West compares the 576 about 100 codices owned. [11]

Antique Stocks

→ Main article: Ancient Book (Statistics)

In ancient times, there were a large number of libraries . Public and private libraries public libraries with 20,000 to 50,000 rollers are known, both in Rome (29 to 350 public) as well as in the provinces. In Caesar's visit to Alexandria probably did not burn the great library, but perhaps only a harborside warehouse with 40,000 roles, as annual production [12] could have been intended for export. [13] is considered to be certain that Alexandria long after a books and scholarly center remained. The Library of Alexandria already included in the Hellenistic period more than 490,000 roles, [14] that in Pergamon 200,000 rolls. At least in the imperial period, some cities are likely to have reached this level because a library was a status symbol.

About the stock figures of the great libraries of Rome no details have survived. Archeology can about the size of wall niches for bookcases at the Palatine and the Ulpia Traiana be closed at least 100,000 rolls. Probably, however, were it only the most valuable roles. Also the library of Pergamum had almost all their stocks in storage rooms. From the size of the buildings here were the main libraries of Rome, as well as those offered place in Alexandria and Athens, each million rolls. [15] In such a geographical distribution of ancient literature individual events were like the loss of a library for the tradition not a significant problem represent.

Possible loss causes

The writings of some ancient authors seem to have been destroyed prior to the Late Antiquity, as the example of Titus Labienus shows, whose writings on the orders of Augustus for lese majeste have been burned. [16] However, there is likely to be a minority.

Especially in older overviews the Umschreibungs-/Verrottungsthese is widespread, which had taken place, according to a description of papyrus rolls on Pergamentcodices to 400. In the Christian-dominated period or even earlier, the company had then lost interest in the non-Christian roles. They were therefore not copied on and during the Middle Ages rotting in libraries, while the durable Pergamentcodices survived. [17]

Also, the research literature is often not apparent how big the loss was at all. The overall presentation of the tradition history of Reynolds and Page from one of the oldest traditional Wilson (Scribes and Scholars) is no information about the size of the books, the Vergilius Vaticanus (c. 400), a libraries of Cassiodorus and Isidore of Seville . There are now lost magnificent manuscript of the seals Virgil . writings mentioned, which were still cited around 600 without discussing The good condition shows that books from whether is it quoted from the original works, or from existing excerpts, as the period prior to 300 could have been [18] has been demonstrated for Isidor. is widespread acceptance that preserved until today. alongside or even before the destruction of the migration period with the Christianization was a factor in the loss of ancient literature. [19]

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Papyrologists doubt the presumption of lower durability of papyrus. Roberts and Skeat, who studied the subject in The Birth of the Codex in 1983, found that the papyrus under normal storage conditions in his life the parchment is not inferior:

"The durability of both materials under normal conditions can be no doubt. One might here point found on the variety papyri, which have a long-lasting preservation of Scripture, but this is no longer necessary because the myth that Papyrus is not a durable material that last authoritative and - as one would hope - finally refuted by Lewis has been. " - CH ROBERTS, T. C. SKEAT: The Birth of the Codex. (http://translate.googleusercontent.com /translate_c?depth=1&hl=en&rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu /rs/rak/courses/735/book/codex-rev1.html&usg=ALkJrhjFwLhEu0YGV5ENsj8a8QhWHbZ4-Q) Oxford 1983, pp. 6f. (http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1&hl=en& rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/rs/rak/courses/735/book/codex- rev1.html&usg=ALkJrhjFwLhEu0YGV5ENsj8a8QhWHbZ4-Q) . [20]

Therefore, recent studies are based on a long shelf life of the papyrus. [21] [22] To 200 you could read a 300 year old roll of papyrus from the founding period of Roman libraries in a library in Rome. The material would certainly have to endure for over 400 years. But after 800, the many ancient roles no longer exists, as this time can be inferred from the catalogs and the copy activity. In both the Latin West and the Greek East could fall back from 800 to only codices which were written after 400. [23]

In addition, the included Codices Latini Antiquiores (CLA) at least 7 papyrus codices that survived in libraries from the period 433-600 until today, at least in parts. One, CLA # 1507 550, is located in Vienna and has 103 pages. If they could survive 1500 years that many others would have to hold at least 400 years. The loss can therefore not be explained by the lack of durability of papyrus rolls or codices.

What the definition is concerned on codices, so it looks like as if after 400 suddenly much less books and this was only produced in the form of codices of parchment. The in Oxyrhynchus found scrolls (about 34% of total papyri, 66% were records) [24] show a lively book production in the second and 3 Century (655 and 489 units) and a massive slump in the fourth and 5 Century (119 and 92 piece) and only a small production thereafter (41, 5 and 2 pieces after the 7th century, and the town disappeared). However, it must remain open to what extent this is due to a possible decrease in population.

A similar picture of the CLA for the Latin Europe. After that about 150 codices were from 400 to 700 in Latin Europe outside Italy survived. Of this total, 100 only for France. This is confirmed by the more paleography after the period of the CLA's holdings of the great monastic libraries to 900 of the monasteries of Lorsch , Bobbio , Reichenau , each containing about 700 codices, almost all date from the period after 750 and thus show the so-called Carolingian Renaissance . For many antique books the oldest surviving copies today date from this period. Probably copied at that time books from the 5th Century which are no longer preserved. The CLA knows for the period ending 800 only 56 traditional classic books, of which only 31 of the 5th Century. (For details, see the geographical distribution in the main article: Codices Latini Antiquiores )

So there was not only a selection and selection at the stage of description, but in general an extremely reduced book production. Reached them before 300 the order of at least 10,000 per year, it was 400 in the Latin West with an average of 10 per year. [25]

The description on parchment can thus be explained by the fact that, due to this low production for the cheap papyrus was no longer needed and you preferred the far more noble, but now more readily available parchment. There was a "demand conditional selection process". [26] papyrus was only used in exceptional cases for books or records and was in the Latin range from about 600 hardly available.

Affected Areas of Focus

The scientific and technical knowledge in late antiquity was certainly so extensive and complicated that an oral tradition was no longer possible. If this knowledge was associated with non-Christian names and ideas, it could stand for Christianity in competition. In the non-Christian-Roman culture also were pornographic representations of all kinds common in everyday life, [27] who were despised by Christianity. To 200 of the Christian writers condemned

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Tertullian not only philosophers, but also the actors and wished them to hell. [28] Isidore of Seville warns against non-Christian poets later [29] and introduced actors, prostitutes, criminals and robbers on a par . [30] The classical literature was also full of allusions to non-Christian gods and heroes.

Among the detectable losses in the Latin area, especially Republican historical works, poetry of all kinds and especially are tragedies to complain. Already in the Roman Empire were books dissident historians such as Cremutius Cordus destroyed. The tenth book of the Institutes oratoria of Quintilian discusses the end of the first Century AD, numerous literary works, of which a quite considerable part still preserved today, much has, however, lost. Will be reviewed at that time the most established predominantly fictional literature.

Within the tradition history of the period from 350 to 800 is the key. In the Middle Ages it was thought that Pope Gregory the Great (540-604) had to be burned the great Palatine library in Rome. [31] According to the current state of research is possible that Pope Gregory had destroyed the library, since the loss occurred before his pontificate must have. The Palatina Library , by Augustus founded and probably the largest of Rome, disappeared from history without any reference to their fate. This gave the state of research since the 1950s, after which secured appeared that the loss had occurred before 500. [32] With the completion of the CLA in the 1970s was this knowledge even further strengthened. The reconstructed facade of the Celsus In the secular dominated German research in 1900 (Germany at that time Library in Ephesus . The privately donated was a leader in the study of antiquity) was the destruction of ancient buildings comprised about 12,000 rolls, the literature one of the reasons why the Middle Ages with the highly end of the 3rd Century were destroyed by pejorative, at the time of the Renaissance and Enlightenment embossed fire. term " Dark Ages "to stigmatize. She was also the argument in the anti-Catholic Kulturkampf in the late 19th Century.

The reasons for the losses were books in the 19th Century controversial. On the one side stood the Protestant and secular-oriented historiography, the anti-Catholic intentions were imputed if they mainly Christianization attributed the books losses, on the other side stood the church's historical research, the apologetic interests were rumored when the books losses rather the general decline of the Roman culture attributed. Due to the source location of any binding consensus of the research revealed.

The scientific discussion about the reasons for the fall of the Western Roman Empire, is also run for over 200 years without a consensus in sight. While for the downfall of the Empire, the barbarian invasions at least played a not unimportant role, connect archaeologist with more culturally scientific approach, the end of antiquity to the termination of his non-Christian tradition in the year 529 . The loss to literature was particularly momentous.

The fall of Rome was by some contemporaries as apocalyptic felt. In the Old Testament, the Jewish state had to come first in highest need, before God sent his heavenly hosts, to establish the Kingdom of God on earth. [33] Also, according to the New Testament has to become a major catastrophe to happen before the paradise on earth comes and the history of humanity fulfilled. That is the prophecy in the Apocalypse of John . The belief in the imminent catastrophic end of the world is reflected in the eschatology and millenarianism .

Even though the martyr stories seem exaggerated, it is known that the Roman state since Emperor Decius (247-251), the early Christianity was phased pursue systematically. [34] The Christians turn these measures later used against the religions of antiquity. For most attacks by Christians can be an earlier example of the persecution of Christians find. [35]

The late antique "paganism" was a polytheistic variety of ancient religious communities. Still in the third Century Greco-Roman cults were widespread, [36] but were earlier by so-called "Oriental" religions increasingly displaced, including through the cult of Mithras , of Cybele and Isis , as well as by the syncretic Manichaeism . Added to this was a local folk belief . Among these religions, there was no competition, as each was attending as many cults open. Especially in conflict with Christianity, the intellectual followers of non-Christian religions were influenced by

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Hellenistic ideas. [37]

Although can be examples of conflict Wi coexistence of non-Christians and Christians find in the kingdom, the power of the religious wars is just very recently been emphasized again. [38] Religious conflicts were often socially motivated and stoked by Christian institutional or spiritual authority. Early Christianity was particularly on the literary less-educated lower classes appealing. [39] The official religious policy depended on the prevailing Kaiser, with about Theodosius I , and other Kaiser mainly intervened state only in internal church disputes, but by individual laws legitimized the religious wars . The demise of the ancient religions was a long process. [40] A work for Christianization of the Roman Empire summarizes: "bring, burn and destroy the Silence were both manifestations of theological reasoning. And as soon as this lesson was over, monks and bishops and generals and emperors their enemy of our field of vision have driven. We can not report on events that we can not comprehend. " [41]

The books lost by 500

The ancient books were in East and West from 800 safe no longer exist. They were probably in the Latin West no longer available as early as about 550. While here, authors such as Quintus Aurelius Memmius Symmachus and Boethius to 520 still able to draw on a wealth of works brought to Italy the devastating Gothic war Emperor Justinian a caesura, which ruined the educated, affluent Western Roman elite and partly exterminated, previously the main contributor to had been ancient culture and the buyers of new copies of old texts.

Cassiodorus lived from about 490-583 in Italy. He was a senator and first magister officiorum of the Ostrogoth Theodoric . During the Gothic War, he retired after a stay in Constantinople Opel [42] to 540 on his private lands in southern Italy and founded the monastery of Vivarium . He spoke Latin, Greek and Gothic , collected and translated books from Greek into Latin. His stated aim was to rescue the classical education, and he made the first copying books compulsory for monks.

Due to his wealthy position and his wide contacts in the Greek area, he was in an exceptionally good position to get the most important still available in his time in the Mediterranean books. [43] In his own texts, he describes his library, individual books and are quotes from him probably present works. Based on this information initially A. Franz and later RAB Mynors created "an interim overview of the library's collection of Vivarium". [44] The result was that Cassiodorus not much more ancient texts known as we do today. He had the only major library of the future 6 Century, the content of something is known. Based on the citations they possessed about 100 codices - especially in comparison with Symmachus and Boethius is this how massive the cultural losses had been around 550. Cassiodorus' library formed as it were a bottle neck - he could save was mostly preserved. Codex Amiatinus (700, containing the In the tradition history of the Latin West his library but had a significant Bible). Representation of an early medieval impact: "In Italy was a thin, together persons married layer of the old senatorial aristocracy, represented by the families of the Symmachi and bookcase (Armarium), which consisted of Nicomachi, the preservation of ancient authors as the evidence of its about ten codices. former Roman greatness to their making task. A member of this circle, Cassiodorus, initiated the transition of the ancient book culture in the ethos of monastic writing activity. The library founded by him Vivarium looked through the intermediate stations Rome and Bobbio far beyond the Alps. " [45]

The situation was similar at Bishop Isidore of Seville , who lived in Spain from about 560-636. He had the only library of the 7th Century, the content of something is known. Paul Lehmann undertook an investigation of Isidore's writings. He came to the conclusion that Isidore probably built at least three books of Cassiodorus. Lehmann: "Most fonts, indicating Isidore with title and author, he has probably never read." [46] Isidor has 154 titles cited. [47] His library was therefore probably much smaller than that of Cassiodorus.

The continued existence of large libraries is no longer occupied by 475. . Small monastic libraries had perhaps only a

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circumference of 20 books [48] As the very fact-rich standard work in 1955 wrote "History of Libraries," had to be the loss occurred before 500: "At the beginning of the 6th Century was the great loss of ancient texts occurred, and the supply of writers who were Cassiodorus and Isidore at hand, does not exceed significantly the circle of acquaintances also us. " [49]

The Christian subscription

A subscription was a short post-text, which described, when the book was copied and who had checked it for accuracy. The only known pre-Christian example shows the entries with multiple templates significant effort to improve the text.

In the traditional library stock subscriptions from the Christian era are the rule. It is this attempt to philological correction partially no longer be identified, Reynolds and Wilson doubt, therefore, that the Christian subscription of classical literature was an essential aid. [50] You see little evidence that the issue of non-Christian texts suggesting any opposition to Christianity , is rather unclear whether non-Christians at this time were at all involved. The authors of subscriptions from the families of Nicomachi and Symmachi Been Christians.

Reynolds and Wilson see the "sudden recurrence of subscriptions in secular texts towards the end of the 4th Century "rather associated with the transcription of the papyrus-roll for Parchment Codex. [51] And as Michael von Albrecht writes: "Authors who this will not be considered are, henceforth excreted from the tradition", [52] or in other words : they "were thus finally delivered the fate of accidental survival on papyrus." [53]

As a historically interesting Reynolds and Wilson consider but the mostly high social status of the persons who are mentioned in the Christian subscriptions: "The predominantly high rank of appearing in the subscriptions people putting it very close, that it was their stately book cabinets in which our texts were before they found their way into the monasteries and cathedrals, what their survival assured. " [54] Alexander Demandt in this connection, the merits of the aristocratic descendants of the non-Christian " Symmachus circle "around the rescue of classical literature for the Latin West. [55] It is also interesting that corrections of the text are apparently occurs even centuries after its transcription. [56]

The culmination of the religious wars: 400

In the period from 300 to 800, there have been events in which individual libraries may have been destroyed, especially natural disasters. The last known library of the ancient times, the palace library of Constantinople Opel , which was destroyed 475 with 120,000 codices by fire. The next known library again until 100 years later, of Cassiodorus with about 100 codices.

The time to 391 is often regarded as a culmination of the religious wars between Christianity and pagan beliefs. Recently, however, has Alan Cameron argues in a comprehensive study, that these opposites in the late 4th Century always so sharply defined were not as often assumed,. Whether, for example, incorrectly, that the care of classical education for Christians allegedly had less significance, and on the other hand convinced pagans which has been operated as an expression of their religious beliefs [57] The widespread competition religions of Christianity was about the cult of Mithras . [58] Although the actual attractiveness of these religions has often been doubted by the Church historians, they were distributed such that Ernest Renan ruled: "If Christianity would have died of a terminal illness in the course of its distribution, as would be the world today is a community of Mithrasgläubigen. " [59] Members of the Empire elite were often members of this "oriental" religious communities before they gradually converted. [60] Thus it was Constantine the Great († 337), even after his conversion in the year 312 the mit Mithras assoziierten Sonnengott öffentlich verehren . Augustinus (354-430) war bis zu seiner Konversion Anhänger des Manichäismus , der den Endzeitgedanken vertrat.

While Constantine the Great but few temple tore down proven, recommended the Christian convert Firmicus Maternus to 350 in his apologetic writing " About the error of the wicked cults "the sons of Constantine the extermination of all ancient religions and the destruction of their temples. In 391 Emperor issued Theodosius I. a law requiring all non-Christian temples were too close. In the concept of the time stamp but most were non-church cultural buildings, such as a library dedicated to the gods or the museum , a temple of the muse. In this context, Theodosius' edict by some researchers has been interpreted as an attempt to destroy all non-Christian libraries. [61]

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The modern historical research has evaluated the legislation of the Emperor, of course differentiated, obviously has Theodosius I. temple destructions never placed. [62]

Under Honorius , there were 399 a decree for the protection of public art works which were destroyed with the benevolent support of "authorities" by Christians. [63] A similar decree saw the avoidance of violence in the destruction of rural sanctuaries before. [64] was in the year 408 by a richly-wide law, the destruction of all hitherto remaining non-Christian works of art arranged ( iconoclasm ): "If any images are still in temples or shrines, and when they worship of heathen were somewhere today or ever, so they should be torn down." [65]

About the Serapeum , the Municipal Library of Alexandria represented, [66] is narrated that it was destroyed 391 of Christians, after non-Christians holed up in the building and had murdered for resisting the enforcement of laws Christians. From the Museum of Alexandria, which contained the famous large library and is occupied as a building to about 380, [67] there are 400 no trace. In the 5thCentury the terrain is described as a wasteland. The significant Christian Aristotle commentator John Philoponus mentioned around 520, the "Great Library", which was once [68] the pride of Alexandria. In 2003 excavations were encountered The famous mathematician Hypatia was foundations. murdered in the church of Caesarion by a mob against them applied Christians cruel. A Asclepiades was around 490 one of the few non-Christian scholars in Alexandria . He and his circle considered themselves the last priest of Painting by Charles William Mitchell , 1885. Osiris and used hieroglyphics in ritual acts. Haas [69] but assumes that this circle hieroglyphs could no longer read. Because Asclepiades' son, Horapollo , wrote the only surviving late antique work on the meaning of the hieroglyphs. But therein is no reference to the phonetic feature. Only imaginative allegorical and mystical described functions. Up to 4Century were used hieroglyphs, and there were certain then appropriate books to present. Even a seasoned expert thus seems to have had no such book by 500 in his private library at the center of learning Alexandria.

The Res Gestae of Ammianus Marcellinus (about 330 to about 395), the main source for this period, the persecution and execution remark clearly educated people to whom the possession of books was accused with prohibited content. Your codices and scrolls were publicly burned in large numbers. In the books it is said to have allegedly acted to "Magic Texts". Ammianus meant but, more than anything it works the " liberal arts "in the classical sciences have been. Had Consequently, according to Ammianus, "the owner burned in the" eastern provinces "for fear of similar fates their entire libraries". [70]

Ammianus also criticized the superficial entertainment pleasure of the Roman upper class and adds this one: ". Libraries were closed forever, like tombs" [71] This was in the 19th and the greater part of the 20th Century by most scholars interpreted as the great public libraries of Rome would have been closed. In recent times, some suspect, the statement could only have referred to the House Libraries and the pleasures of the Roman nobility. [72]

A little later, around 415 attended the Christian scholars Orosius Alexandria. He describes that he had seen there, even in some temples empty bookshelves. This had been "plundered by our own people in our time - this statement is certainly true." [73] Also in Rome seem from the 400 large libraries to be closed or been empty. Even assuming that the building would have 455 Trajansbibliothek stood still, [74] there is no indication that they or others were there still open or still contained books.

Destruction and transformation of the ancient city

Many cities in the west of the Roman Empire and especially in Gaul (though less in the southern part) and Britain virtually disappeared in the fifth century as a result of wide-ranging invasions. Trier , until the beginning of the 5th Century seat of the Gallic prefecture , for example, was repeatedly looted and burned. A local business, such as the

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Chronica Gallica but managed to survive. The new Germanic rulers in the West tried other places (Spain, Italy, partly North Africa and southern Gaul) continue the ancient structures. Ammianus Marcellinus , in his historical work about the fact that many Roman officers of Germanic origin were interested in the classical culture and often also trained to . Even at the end of the 5th Century praised the Gallo-Romans formed Sidonius Apollinaris the Germanic and Roman officer Arbogast younger , the Trier against Germanic invaders defended, for his education. [75]

In the individual areas of the empire, however, the ancient city was restructured over a wide area. The maintenance of public buildings, including public libraries, leaning in antiquity largely on volunteers, most wealthy citizens. As early as the third century, there are complaints that more and more citizens were no longer willing to support individual institutions or no longer voluntarily competed certain offices. The honors obtained thereby seemed obvious the burdens of public office do not outweigh. Up to 6 Century disappeared the old structures in many places almost completely. The cities now organized themselves rather to the bishop as the main character. [76]

An exemption from these financial burdens offered especially the connection to the clergy . Constantine the Great was still trying to prohibit such migration law, [77] but he preferred already at the level of cities, the local Christian elites. [78] In exchange for the expulsion of a non-Christian community, or to establish complete conversion spoke the Christian emperors cities privileges or status increases from, where tax relief played a special role. Reached its climax in this process probably towards the end of the 4th Century, with the result that urban elites were only able to keep in non-Christian strongholds without baptism their social status, especially since in principle punishable by death in the cult exercise in public temples since Theodosius I.. In the private sector non-Christian cult activities could initially be practiced in complete safety. In addition to spiritual and material interests are likely to have made the conversion to Christianity of many noble families appealing. [79]

The epigraphic sources, the urban forms of entertainment, such as theater, music and sporting events testify continuously since the first millennium BC, dry up during this time. [80] The Greek gymnasiums and other active sites of the non-Christian teachers and philosophers were abandoned, partly because the practiced there male nudity in the eyes of Christians, homosexuality favored. The Christian writer Theodoret wrote one of the last ancient writings against non-Christians (430) in which he shows that these events had been replaced by Christian Alternative items: [81]

"Verily, their temples are so completely destroyed, that one can not even imagine their former site, while the building material is now dedicated to the martyr shrines. [...] See, instead of the feasts of the Pandios, Diasos and Dionysius and your other festivals, public events are now celebrated in honor of Peter, Paul and Thomas! Rather than maintain lewd customs, we now sing hymns of praise chaste. " - Theoderet, cure for the disease Hellenistic 8.68 f According to P. Canivet (ed.): Theodoret de Cyr, Thérapeutique of malades Helléniques . Vol 1, Paris, 1958 (Sources Chrétiennes 57), translated by Rominator (2007)

Similarly mockingly writes John Chrysostom also in a apologetic and polemic:

"Therefore, although this devilish farce has not yet been completely wiped from the earth, so that's already happened enough to convince you about the future. The greater part destroyed in a very short time. Henceforth, no one will want to argue about the remains. " - John Chrysostom, over the blessed Babylas against Julian and the heathens 13, according to Migne, PG, 50.537, translated by Rominator (2007)

The Notitia Dignitatum , a catalog of the official administrative post in the Roman Empire by 400, gives no indication that anyone was still responsible for libraries. From other documents and grave inscriptions but we know that the responsibility for one or more libraries was considered before 300 as an important and honorable office. Had there been even given the large libraries after 400, so its management is of paramount importance would have been. Because the administrator would have determined which books after the Christianization could be still available and which are not.

Destruction of books of magic

The ancient literature was also in small and very small private libraries spread (such as the Villa of the Papyri ). The loss of large public libraries could therefore probably not even relate to half of the holdings. The complete loss of

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millions before about 350 created books must have been a lengthy process. Apart from the descriptions of books persecutions in Ammianus and John Chrysostom is known that so-called "magic books" were persecuted. This literary genre was at the beginning of the first millennium rather rare (at most 0.3% in Oxyrhynchus ). It was in the 4th since the official recognition of Christianity Century much more frequently the target of persecution. Since Ammianus reports about the burning of books of the classical sciences in the context of spell books pursuits, it is possible that other non-Christian literature was destroyed in this context.

An extensive work by Wilhelm Speyer in 1981 devoted to the subject of antique books annihilation. On the question "The destruction of the pagan literature" took Speyer references to the destruction of enemy christians writings of pagan ritual books, lascivious literature, and magic books. After Speyer view of classical literature and science journals have never been destroyed deliberately. Prosecution of magic writings, probably curse - and harmful spells / rituals, there were already non-Christian time. Educated as Pliny the Elder , held magic simply for fraud. [82] In popular belief was magic but always more or less present.

Whether a book Magic or Science contained, you could only find out by reading the book. Even then, you needed some education to recognize the difference in each case, and not every Christian, who was involved in books exterminations, probably has a sufficient education. A non-Christian book could be seen as a magic book when it is dedicated to a famous non-Christian or a deity or only cited a now respected as a magician scientists. The accusation of magic was very broad and was total used against ancient religions. [83]

The burning of magic books by Christians go to Speyer on a passage in the Acts of the Apostles back. [84] It is told how Paul demons cast out to heal the sick. He was successful than the "sons of a Jewish high priest Sceva," which are called "itinerant Jewish Summoner". [85] After the triumph of Paul in the city : "But many of those who had believed came, confessing and proclaimed their deeds. But many of those who had used curious arts brought their books together, and burned them before all: and they counted the value of them and found it fifty thousand pieces of silver "(Acts 19:18-19).. In this passage, one can only assume from the context that books are meant by spells. [86] The large amount of destroyed books here makes it unlikely that there has been only spell books in the modern sense.

Apart from this passage there until after the 4th Century evidence for the burning of so-called magic books in the context of Christian conversion. From about 350 to the Middle Ages, there are descriptions that spell books were visited and destroyed. Between 350-400 were owners of such spellbooks also be punished with death: From Paul in Ephesus converted "Wizard" when burned their books. Bible Illustration "In this time was made with the utmost severity against the owners by Gustave Doré , 1866 of magic books. From John Chrysostom tells us that soldiers his hometown of Antioch just searched for magical writings on the Orontes. As he walked along at this time with his friend on the Orontes River, they saw an object on the river to swim. They pulled it out and realized that they were a forbidden spell book in his hands. At the same moment appeared near her soldiers. But they succeeded yet, unnoticed to hide the book in the garment and throw it again a little later into the river. So they escaped the danger. As Chrysostom further reported an owner of a magic book had this thrown out of fear of the pursuers in the river. He was observed to convicted of witchcraft and sentenced to death. " - Speyer (1981), p 132

Besides Ammianus, there are other sources, according to which at this time to find not Christian books house searches were carried out. [87] About 100 years later (487-492), there is another report of house searches. Students in Beirut found in a "John, whose surname, Walker 'from the Egyptian Thebes" magic books. After he had burned them, he was forced to specify the names of other owners. Then the students started "supported by the bishop and the secular authorities," a larger search. They found with other students and some well-known people such books and burned them in front of the church. [88]

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In an imperial law "their books to burn before the eyes of the bishops, failing which it had to drive from Rome and all the churches." Were since 409 "mathematician" obligation [89] Usually, mathematicians were in late antiquity with astrologers equated, however, could in antiquity among mathematics also essential parts of the classical sciences are understood. Only in simple language use among astrologers (Magi) were understood. [90]

In 529 Emperor had Justinian the Academy of Athens close. In the year 546 he announced a ban on teaching for non-Christians and ordered the persecution of non-Christian " grammarians , rhetoricians , doctors and lawyers "and in the year 562, the public burning of" heathen books "to. [91] Possibly had been confiscated during the persecutions of those books. A recent Review of Books annihilations in the Roman Empire summarizes:

"Book burning became a salient aspect of religious violence in the late ancient Roman Empire. Religiously legitimized violence in late antiquity, for which the combustion of a banned book is just one example, were understood as acts which satisfied God fundamental and therefore brought the practitioners of spiritual benefit. Since the book burning satisfy God, it was often performed, from persons who acted as representatives of Christianity, and near churches. By acting thus, fit bishops, monks, and even religiously committed lay an ancient ritual that has always served the dual purpose of extermination and cleaning, to meet your needs. [...] The abundance of such occurrences in this period can be a gradual process of transformation come to the fore. " - Daniel Sarefield: Book Burning in the Christian Roman Empire: Transforming a Pagan Rite of Purification . In: HA Drake (ed.): Violence in Late Antiquity . Aldershot, Hampshire 2006, 295f.

See also : Paideia

The ancient world probably had a relatively high literacy rate. Pliny wrote his encyclopedia specifically for farmers. Papyrus finds from Egypt confirm that evidently poor farmers could read and write in the provinces. A found in Bavaria grave, to set up a slave for a fellow slave, even points to literacy rural slaves in the provinces. [92] For urban slaves that was occupied for some time.

Since the late 4th Century were increasingly pushed back from the Education Services non-Christians. Emperor Julian had 362 through the Rhetorenedikt still trying to actually eliminate the Christians from teaching. This government intervention suggested later back to the non-Christians. Representation of a Roman studying a roll of papyrus in his Western Roman Empire private library

The loss of ancient papyri as well as public access to literature immediate impact on the educational attainment of the total population in the Western Roman Empire. At the end of this process, literacy goes largely and the historical information is more than sketchy. In regard to the tradition judged Herbert Hunger this period: "Worse is [as the Germanization] for the Roman culture of the final victory of Christianity." [93]

The preservation of non-Christian traditions focused on the Senate deposed aristocracy, such as the members of the so-called Symmachus circle. Alexander Demandt writes: "A large part of Latin literature has been rescued by members or employees of the Senate sexes." [94]

At the beginning of the sixth century worked at the court of Theodoric the Ostrogothic Italy, the learned Boëthius . He translated and commented on the works of Aristotle and the Isagoge of Porphyry and wrote the first Christian textbooks to the artes . Since he was accused of treason and executed, he was able to open up his big project, the major works of Plato and Aristotle through translations of the Latin West, not complete. After all, remained its transmissions to the 12th Century the only available in the Latin-speaking world writings of Aristotle. Since Greek knowledge was available almost nowhere else in the West since the early Middle Ages, it is thanks to him a part of the ancient Greek philosophy to the Latin Middle Ages to have received.

The Christian attitude to pagan literature

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The attitude of the Christian to non-Christian literature was transformed over time. Often cited is the nightmare of Jerome (347-420), in which the young scholar turns away from his beloved secular books.

The church father Augustine indeed (354-430) argued for the preservation of the non-Christian literature, but just wanted to see stored closed in principle in a library there and it should not be distributed or taught. He spoke out against the doctrine of ars grammatica and everything that goes with it, from. Only ecclesiastical writings were used. [95]

Pope Gregory the Great (540-604) took a very negative attitude to the ancient education. He avoided classic quotes and tolerated this even in its environment. He also forbade the bishops by law to teach grammar and spoke personally complaints from this, with the fear of a profanation of sacred texts may have played a role. [96]

Also Isidore of Seville was in his rules for monasticism consider that there should be very well-established students allowed to read non-Christian writings. "One Rococo -oven of 18 Century representation of works of feels after Cassiodorus," says Manitius, "transported to Christian dissenters from antiquity to the early modern period. another world: mysticism, superstition, and the miraculous The tape: Bibliotheca Vulcano consecrata ("The the Vulcanus now overgrow the earlier often so logical and proper consecrated libraries ") representation '". [97]

As a result of this cultural policy and the clergy could not hold the literacy rate. Cassiodorus wrote a textbook on ancient grammar. EA Lowe ruled it: ". Among the rules of spelling and grammar, which he laid down, one can judge how deep the scholarship had already fallen in his time" [98] For the Latin West "is the 6th Century, the darkest phase in the cultural decay that time, in which the copying of classical texts so much diminished, that it was dangerous to discontinuation of continuity of pagan culture close. The Dark Ages irretrievably threatened the tradition of classical texts. " [99]

The letters of St. Boniface , in which he laments the education crisis of the clergy in his time, also point to the decline, according to the Laudage and other [100] 5 on the Century back. At the time of Isidore, a law was enacted which illiterate by the Office of the Bishop excluded - the highest office, which had awarded the church at that time. According to the letters of Alcuin , who strove to raise the level of education in the Carolingian Empire, this law had hardly success.

The monastic tradition

Quite a few monastery occupant of the Middle Ages were at least on the continent illiterate. Even some writers of codices painted only the textual image of the original from. [101] This also had the advantage, that the copies of this period are very true to the original - you do not dare to "improve" the template. It is mainly the copying activities of the monks to thank for that of the remaining part of the ancient literature was obtained, which is now on the nobler parchment was handed down. Since this writing material since the early Middle Ages was maintained by force, we are still approximately in the possession of those texts that were Cassiodorus available: "The very poor tradition of classical culture in these Dark Ages then gives the Carolingian Renaissance particular importance in the basis of ancient manuscripts that have survived the collapse of the Roman Empire, in turn, ancient authors come to light that of the Dark Ages likely to damnatio memoriae would have been convicted. " [99]

"It is one of the most amazing paradoxes of history that just church and monasticism, which had once fought so fiercely and are totally against liberal, erotic literature of pagan antiquity of deep religious conviction, the main transmitter even of texts of this kind were. Was it the same vivid aesthetic appeal that enabled their survival in monastery libraries or was it the now more freer spirit of the Middle Ages towards a bygone cultural tradition that no longer had to fight the victorious Christianity as a threat? In any case, it led to a really lustful acquisition of the very secular, ancient heritage, which they had tried

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once to exterminate as diabolical counter-world. " [102] - FREDERICK PRINCE : the intellectual origins of Europe

From the 16th and 17. Century back reckoning is coming (in 1250) to a literacy rate in continental Europe from about 1% for the beginning of the Late Middle Ages [103] indicates that roughly this means that the 90% of the rural population were illiterate, of the 10% urban population, it was then again only 10% could read and write. However, the regional differences could be significant: In Scandinavia, this was the saga-time with a very high literacy rate. The median age was from 700 to 1500 but evidence of a steady increase in writing. In the 6th and 7 Century must therefore have been very low, the spread of literacy in the West.

Ancient Education in the Eastern Roman and Byzantine Empire

In the Greek East of the Roman Empire recognized the lines of tradition, especially as compared to the Latin West, much less breaks on, both in what regards the tradition, the tradition of education. At least until about 600 existed here still an educated elite, who took care of the maintenance of the traditional literature. It should be noted that until the late 6 Century in the Eastern Roman upper class were read alongside Greek texts also Latin works and handed down. [104] Not just wrote here, authors such as Jordanes and Corippus still around 550 Latin works in the classical tradition, but there were also texts by authors such as Cicero or Sallust copied. Only after 600 went out in the East, knowledge of the Latin language and literature.

By Paideia , the classical form of education, were distinguished from the barbarians and the ordinary citizen and was proud of it, quite as a Christian. In the year 529 (531?), Although that was Platonic Academy in Athens by Justinian I closed, but others were not originally Christian education centers such as Alexandria continued to exist. However, this lost in the 6/7 Century in importance and were partly closed abruptly. In Alexandria, the most important center of ancient formation, it came unlike Athens to a substantial compensation between classical tradition and Christianity in the works of Christian authors such as John Philoponus and Stephanus of Alexandria , and probably also in the greater epic of Nonnus of Panopolis . The local college first went to 600 as a result of the Persian invasion and the subsequent Arab conquest basis. [105]

In the east, there were cracks and crises involving book stocks likely to be lost; insbesonderes presented in the 7th Century the great Persian War (603-628/29) and the subsequent Islamic expansion a first distinctive incision dar. [106] However, this did not turn out as radical as those of the Latin culture of the West in 6th Century had affected.

Because the existing culture in Byzantine continuity was the reason that the (Greek) classic literature here even after the end of antiquity in the 7th Was further rezipiert century and after the turmoil of the early Middle Byzantine period. [107] After the Christian iconoclasm in Byzantium (8 and, as recent research, especially early 9th century), there is rarely reliable evidence of significant rejection of classical Literature in Byzantine authors. So the monk Maximus Planudes from his 1301 edition created the Greek Anthology such epigrams deleted, which seemed to him objectionable. But this censorship remained an exception.

In the Byzantine Empire even those authors who in the description of role on Codex from 3/4 could Century, no consideration was given, at least still survive in part, in compilations and secondary references. Probably at the beginning of the 11th Century there arose the Suda , a glossary of references to many now lost works. The authors of the Suda attacked well for the most part on said secondary references, especially on previously compiled encyclopedias, back.

In 9th Century were the Patriarch Photios apparently the other hand some ancient and late ancient Greek texts in full before that are now lost completely or to a large extent, including works by Ctesias , Diodorus , Dionysius of Halicarnassus , Arrian , Cassius Dio , Dexippos , Priscus , Malchus of Philadelphia and Candidus (the part already Christians). [108] This he read together with friends without making a distinction between pagan and Christian authors. Emperor Constantine VII was in the 10th Century evaluate (mainly Byzantine) historian and summarize which are partially lost today, and in 12 Century used the historian Zonaras for his Epitome also older Byzantine historical sources whose content is known only by his conclusions. In particular, in Constantinople Opel it must therefore have given libraries where lost Byzantine works were still kept in the High Middle Ages today.

The reason for the break with older literature in the Byzantine Middle Ages, the declining importance of Paideia from the late 11th Century thought, but especially the military and social turmoil that marked the spätbyzantische time. Still

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could Byzantine scholars such Plethon the West after the fall of Byzantium in the 15th Century at least a nucleus of ancient Greek culture and literature convey that there had survived the Middle Ages.

Arab tradition

Despite the sometimes heavy fighting as a result of Islamic expansion is in the conquered Muslim former territories of the Eastern Roman Empire, as in the following period, Palestine and Syria , unlike in the Latin West to observe a relative cultural continuity: "Since the interest of the invaders to of Greek culture was great, many texts were translated into new languages and also structures and libraries still existed that could guarantee a higher education. " [109] Some texts about by Aristotle and his students are only transmitted via this route in modern times been. More recently, the destruction of books was brought during late antiquity with the basics of Christianity in connection even in the Arab world. [110] The scientific progress of Christian Europe in the 10th and 11 Century, not least due to the Arab knowledge.

Monographs

Michael von Albrecht : History of Roman literature . Dtv, Munich 1994, ISBN 3-423-04618-X (2 volumes). Mostafa El-Abbadi: Life and Fate of the Ancient Library of Alexandria . 2 Edition.Unesco, Paris, 1992, ISBN 92-3-102632-1 . Hans Gerstinger: inventory and tradition of the literary works of Graeco-Roman antiquity . Kienreich, Graz 1948. Angelika Haese: Medieval Books directories from Lorsch Abbey. Introduction, edition and commentary . Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2002, ISBN 3-447-04490-X . Michael H. Harris: A history of libraries in the western world . Scarecrow Press, Lanham, Maryland, 1995, ISBN 0-8108-3724-2 . Wolfram Hoepfner (ed.): Ancient libraries . Philip of Saverne, Mainz 2002, ISBN 3-8053-2846-X . Herbert Hunger, among others: The textual tradition of ancient literature and the Bible . dtv, Munich, 1975, ISBN 3-423-04485-3 (edition of History of the textual tradition of the ancient and medieval literature , Volume 1, Atlantis, Hersching 1961). Elmer D. Johnson: A history of libraries in the western world . Scarecrow Press, Metuchen, New Jersey 1965, ISBN 0-8108-0949-4 . William A. Johnson: The literary papyrus roll. Format and conventions; on analysis of the evidence from Oxyrhynchus . Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut in 1992. Manfred Landfester : history of ancient texts. Authors and works Encyclopedia . University Press, Darmstadt 2007, ISBN 978-3-476-02030-7 ( Brill's New Pauly , Supplement Volume 2). Max Manitius : history of Latin literature of the Middle Ages . CH Beck, Munich 1974 ff (reprint of Munich 1911)

1. From Justinian to the middle of the 10th Century. In 1974.

Fritz Milkau, Georg Leyh (eds.): Handbook of Library Science . 2 Edition. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1952-1961. Edward A. Parsons: The Alexandrian Library. Glory of the hellenic world. Its rise, antiquities, and destructions . Elsevier, New York 1967. Egert Pohlmann : introduction to the history and tradition in the textual criticism of ancient literature (The Classical Studies). University Press, Darmstadt 1994. Wayne A. Wiegand (ed.): Encyclopedia of library history . Garland, New York 1994, ISBN 0-8240-5787-2 . Leighton D. Reynolds (Eds.): Texts and transmission. A survey of the Latin classics . Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1990, ISBN 0-19-814456-3 . Leighton D. Reynolds and Nigel G. Wilson : Scribes and Scholars. A guide to the transmission of Greek and Latin literature . 3 Edition.Clarendon Press, Oxford 1992, ISBN 0-19-872145-5 . Colin H. Roberts, Theodore C. Skeat: The birth of the codex . Oxford University Press, London, 1989, ISBN 0-19-726061-6 . Eberhard Sauer: The archeology of religious hatred in the Roman and early medieval world . Tempus Books, Stroud 2003 ISBN 0-7524-2530-7 . Wolfgang Speyer: Books destruction and censorship of the mind in Pagans, Jews and Christians . Hiersemann,

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Stuttgart 1981, ISBN 3-7772-8146-8 ( library of the book trade , Volume 7). Edward J. Watts: City and school in late antique Athens and Alexandria . University of California Press, Berkeley, California 2006, ISBN 0-520-24421-4 .

Papers

William EA Axon: On the Extent of Ancient Libraries . In: Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature of the United Kingdom . Second Series, Vol X, London 1874, pp. 383-405 Robert Barnes: Cloistered Bookworms in the Chicken-Coop of the Muses. The Ancient Library of Alexandria . In: Roy MacLeod (ed.): The Library of Alexandria . London 2000. Karl Christian , Anton Kern: The Middle Ages . In: Georg Leyh (eds.): Handbook of Library Science . Band 3.1. history of libraries . Wiesbaden 1955. Dieter Hagedorn: Papyrology . In: Heinz-Günther Nessel Rath (ed.): Introduction to the Greek philology . Teubner, Stuttgart 1997, ISBN 3-519-07435-4 . George W. Houston: A revisionary Note on Ammianus Marcellinus 14.6.18: When did the Public Libraries of Ancient Rome close? . In: Library Quarterly . Vol 58, No. 3, 1988, pp. 258-264 Robert A. Kaster: History of Philology in Rome . In: Fritz Graf and others (ed.): Introduction to Latin philology . Teubner, Stuttgart 1997, ISBN 3-519-07434-6 . John O.Ward: Alexandria and its medieval legacy. The book, the monk and the rose . In Roy MacLeod (ed.): The Library of Alexandria . London 2000.

Frederick Prince: The intellectual origins of Europe . (http://translate.googleusercontent.com /translate_c?depth=1&hl=en&rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http://www.zeit.de/reden /gesellschaft/200229_prinz/seite-3&usg=ALkJrhheJKDNAwQO1UqNFjM89N_Wkpi5Sw) In: now online , 12 June 2002 H. Rösch: Lecture Notes for Library History (http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1& hl=en&rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http://www.fbi.fh-koeln.de/institut/personen/roesch /Material_Roesch/Folien-WB-Bibliotheksgeschichte.pdf&usg=ALkJrhhRSJZAvROxjvnteVKUDK1BUXaSPg) , University of Applied Sciences Cologne (PDF, 880 kB; May 2005, copy in the Internet Archive) The disappearance of ancient books . (http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1&hl=en& rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http://www.livius.org/gi-gr/gospels/disappearance.html& usg=ALkJrhjKByg5JRvApoAyIK_QWK60oSOpHA) Livius.org (English)

1. Gerstinger (1948). 2. Although much Greek literature HAS BEEN preserved, the amount Actually Brought down to modern times is probably less than 10% of all that what written "Although much has been handed to Greek literature, the proportion of what actually get to modern times has remained below 10% of what was written. "(Johnson 1965). The same book was by a new author 30 years later a significant change in this passage: Why do we know so little about Greek libraries WHEN search a Relatively large amount of classic Greek literature HAS BEEN preserved? It is estimated did Perhaps ten percent of the major Greek classical writings have survived. "Why do we know so little about the Greek libraries, if such a relatively large inventory of classical Greek literature has been passed? It is estimated that nearly 10% of the larger classical Greek writings survived. "(Harris, 1995, p 51). 3. For example, the traditional inventory figures on the death of the library headman Callimachus (ca. 240-235 BC according to Parsons) to visit Caesars in Parsons (1952). 4. The library is likely to have mainly consisted of individual copies. Through the travels of the first book fundraiser, Demetrius of Phalerum, came to about 280 BC 200,000 rolls together ( Flavius Josephus , Jewish Antiquities XII, 2.1). Until the death of Callimachus about 235 BC there were then 490,000 (Tzetzes at Parsons). These were also procured by different peoples. If you want to multiply the stock only through copies, this procurement by travel would not have been necessary. You could have copied a foundation as often in Alexandria, given enough papyrus spot was. Additional resources for this purpose at Parsons (1952). 5. Parsons (1952) estimates over one million. Der Kleine Pauly estimates under the heading of Alexandria without justification 900,000. Another possibility is a decline during the so-called "crisis of the 3rd Century ". 6. The remaining intact inventory of Latin texts is compared with Greek texts from the circumference about

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one-third dar. It is unclear whether this should be justified by the much poorer in Early Medieval tradition conditions of the Latin West, or whether the title production was actually lower. This would have been for at least the Roman Republic in comparison to the Greek and Hellenistic poleis the case. 7. For the Early Empire can be assumed that it was an honor for authors to be represented in the major libraries. The disgraced Ovid in exile complained that his writings were rejected by the guardian of (Palatine) library. (Ovid, Tristia 3,1,59 et seq.) 8. Among the literary papyri a garbage dump in Oxyrhynchus were about 20% of texts of Homer . Extrapolated to the Greek part of the empire by 200, this indicates million copies in circulation. The great libraries did not take any title (Ovid, Tristia 3,1,59 et seq.) A title that made it into the Library of Alexandria likely to have far-reaching pre-set in several copies. Many of her books based libraries from publishers with which it had a Subskriptionsverträge. In Rome there were two neighborhoods that were known as the site for publishers and booksellers. Extensive book trade is also attested in some provincial towns. From Horace , Carmina 2,20,13 ff and Martial 7.88, 11.3, a distribution of their works is said to in the border areas of the empire, for Varro, this is by Pliny the Elder confirmed (Pliny, Naturalis historia 35.11 ). By 100 AD in Rome, the initial print run for a private memorial volume of 1,000 copies occupied (Pliny, Epistulae 4,7,2), suggesting a significant production capacity. See Julian Krüger: Oxyrhynchus in the imperial period . Frankfurt am Main, 1990, Horst Blanck: The book in antiquity . Munich 1992. 9. List preserved manuscripts recently with Manfred Landfester: history of ancient texts. Business lexicon . Brill's New Pauly, Supplements 2 (2007). 10. Theodosian Code 14,9,2; Johannes Zonaras 14.2. 11. At the palace library of Constantinople Opel see Pohlmann (1994). The estimate of 100 at Cassiodorus is based on the title list by Franz and Mynors (see below) and about 4 titles per Codex, which was more typical at 800. The codices in the 5th Century but were usually much larger than at 800 12. A role with 83,300 character requires about 23 hours writing time at 1 character per second. Along with the production of papyrus and some drawings this is feasible well within 4 working days. With 400 people ( Alexandria had by Diodorus 52) (17, more than 300,000 inhabitants, with the unfree it could have been over 1 million be [ Brill's New Pauly Vol I, Sp 464]) would be an order of 40,000 rolls then within 400 days to complete. 13. customed from Alexandria were considered to be of high quality and clearly presented a commercial product dar. under Emperor Domitian (81-96), the loss was a public library at Rome are compensated with a ship from Alexandria. (Pohlmann, 1994). 14. Tzetzes , Prolegomena de comoedia Aristophanis 2.10. 15. For evidence see also the above-illustrated description of library statistics . 16. Seneca the Elder., controversiae 10, praef. 8 17. About Pöhlmann (1994). 18. The authors mention several now lost ancient writings that were still cited around 600 and conclude: " The bulk of Latin literature which shut extant " (p. 81, German: "The majority of Latin literature was still there"). From the existence of some older books is also not close to the continued existence of the majority of the ancient stock. The fact that the libraries of Cassiodorus and Isidore but about 90% of us involved now known ancient works, shows that the decisive selection process to 1: 1000 is probably already done before. Reynolds and Wilson (1991) exclusively represent Umschreibungs-/Verrottungsthese to discuss without possible alternative views. They doubt the spread of the codex in the 1st Century and keep the above-mentioned by Martial Codex editions of the classics for an unsuccessful attempt. Although the archaeological parts of a parchment codex from Martial's time ( De Bellis Macedonicis ., P. Lond ref 121, by an unknown author in Latin around AD 100) just suggesting an early spread - even if much more expensive Codex was certainly less numerous than the role. Claiming the Codex " june have cost rather less to produce " (p. 35, German: "may have been more expensive to produce than the papyrus roll") is not occupied. Papyrus pages can be bonded to the adhesive itself derived from papyrus to any long rolls. As the findings of Oxyrhynchus show, this was even part of the ancient office work. The work to create a Codex with wooden boards is considerably more extensive. The generation of a parchment page from sheep skin requires many tedious steps and a multiple of technical effort and to work towards a papyrus page. With reference to Galen (see below) is said a roll of papyrus could be up to 300 years old (p. 34). But Galen mentioned the study of a probably 300 year old role only to prove the care of his text edition. He did not mention the age of the papyrus as something special. Therefore it can be concluded from his quote on an achievable minimum age for roles. The assumption that the average life of the rolls is lower, is not occupied. 19. The New Pauly 15/3, sv tradition, in 2003, approximately cites as reasons for the book loss "victory of Christianity, decay of material culture and the pagan education, transition from roll to codex" (col. 725) and "For the Weitertradierung the pagan Greek literature was the establishment and official recognition of the Christian religion of sustainable impact. "(col. 713)" The copies of the classics were neither publicly

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institutionalized '[...] were still pagan texts for the purpose of copyists from the monastery area. "(ibid.) 20. The durability of Both under normal condition is not open to doubt. Many instances of long life of writings on papyrus Could be quoted, but this is no longer Necessary, since the myth did papyrus is not a durable material Has at last been authoritatively and, one would hope, finally refuted by Lewis (Naphtali Lewis: Papyrus of Classical Antiquity .. Oxford 1974) From: Roberts and Skeat (1983), pp. 6f. The here and elsewhere published result went to the investigations by the CLA back. 21. C. Mango, trans. (Ed.): The Oxford History of Byzantium . Oxford University Press 2002, p 217: "Papyrus, produced uniquely in Egypt, what Relatively cheap and durable" 22. BP Powell: Homer . 2 Edition, Oxford 2007, p 11: "papyrus, at astonishingly durable and transportable material". 23. With the exception of about 10 codices (whose dating up to 80 years varies) are all that exist today (in fragments) codices from the period after 400 The "Abmalung" of text and images has made possible this dating. The statement, by 400 the archetypal our tradition (East and West) had arisen, going to Alphonse Dain: Les manuscrits . Paris 1949 back. Doubt on Karl Buechner , in: Herbert Hunger: History of the textual tradition of the ancient and medieval literature . 1 Ancient and medieval book and type beings. Zurich 1961). When Karl Buechner collaborated in 1960 on hunger compendium of Greek and Latin tradition, he saw in Latin much more open lineages than in Greek (hunger, 1961, pp. 374). The agreement especially for the Greek East testimony of Dain could be confirmed on the basis of the CLA for the West. 24. Julian Krüger: Oxyrhynchus in the imperial period . Frankfurt aM 1990. 25. This value applies to the Latin area based on the CLA The CLA shows an average rate of surviving manuscripts 1-2 per year for 400 to 700 A production rate of an average of 10 books per year for the Latin West results from a stochastic calculated loss factor 5 to 10 For particularly based on the basis of the linear development of the surviving manuscripts in Italy loss rate, see the article CLA . 26. This term is used Lorena de Faveri, sv tradition . In: Brill's New Pauly , 15.3 (2003), Sp 710 27. Pornographic images or statues were far more widespread than it show most of today's collections. A lot of stuff was locked away in special collections or the 19th Century even hidden at the site again. Also pornographic writings made probably get a greater share in the ancient world than in the tradition. 28. Sauer (2003), p 14 Tertullian: De spectaculis 30 29. Christian and core (1955), p 306 30. Hans-Joachim Diesner : Isidore of Seville and the Visigoth Spain . Berlin 1977, p 38 Ilona Opelt treated in their very detailed Habilitationsschrift the subject of Christian apologetic swear words. (Ilona Opelt: The polemics in the Christian Latin literature from Tertullian to Augustine Heidelberg 1980.). 31. So John of Salisbury (1120-1180) in Policraticus ( De Nugis Curialium et vestigiis philosophorum , 1 ii. c. 26). 32. Cassiodorus' library collection was reconstructed in 1937 (see below), the. library of Isidore by a French author in the 1950s 33. More clearly than in the Old Testament, this end-time expectations are to be found in the writings of Qumran. Probably these writings represent rather thinking in Judea in the first Century as the Old Testament. After known in the 1990s had become interpretation of Eisenman these end times thought might have been a motivation in the Jewish revolt against Rome. One may even wanted to provoke the downfall of the state, so that the prophecy could be fulfilled. 34. WHC Frend: Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church . Oxford 1965; Glen Bowersock : Martyrdom and Rome . Cambridge 1998. 35. Especially Speyer (1981) refers to these parallels. 36. G. Alföldy: The Crisis of the Roman Empire and the religion of Rome . In: W. Eck (ed.): Religion and Society in the Roman Empire . Cologne, 1989, pp. 53-102. 37. See M. Beard, J. North, S. Price (eds.): Religions of Rome . 2 vols, Cambridge, 1998. F. Trombley: Hellenic Religion and Christianization . 2 vols, Leiden 1993/4. 38. Michael Gaddis: There Is No Crime for Those Who Have Christ. Religious Violence in the Christian Roman Empire (Transformation of the Classical Heritage). Berkeley, CA, 2006. Bzgl. the circumstances of the time in the 4th Century see about Arnaldo Momigliano (ed.): The Conflict Between Paganism and Christianity in the Fourth Century . Oxford 1963. 39. On the social stratification of early Christianity most extensively P. Lamp: The city of Roman Christians in the first two centuries . Tübingen, 2 Ed in 1989. 40. The scope of conversions among the aristocracy was last compiled by M. Salzman due to the literary findings: Michele R. Salzman: The Making Of A Christian Aristocracy. Social And Religious Change In The Western Roman Empire . Cambridge, MA, 2002. 41. Ramsay MacMullen : Christianizing the Roman Empire AD 100-400 . New Haven: Yale UP 1984, p 119 42. Kaster (1997), p 15 43. Christian and core via Cassiodorus' library: "In tireless collecting and searching, supported by the copying of his

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monks, he has united them. From all over Italy, from Africa and various countries the codices had come, and the rich resources of Cassiodorus, the reputation of his name had the acquisition allows "Christian and core (1955), p 287. 44. RAB Mynors: Cassiodori Senatoris Institutiones . Oxford 1937: "a provisional indication of the contents of the library at Vivarium". 45. Paul Klopsch, sv tradition, Brill's New Pauly 15.3 (2003), Sp 721 46. Paul Lehmann: Exploration of the Middle Ages, Selected treatises and essays , Vol II, Stuttgart 1959. 47. Encyclopedia of Library history (1994). 48. "The more important libraries of antiquity disappeared around 600 AD, and early monastic libraries could have included the 20 books." Ward (2000) believes that even without reference to Cassiodorus the loss before 500 being able to prove. 49. Christian and core (1955), p 243 50. The philological as well as the historical Significance of the activity did the subscriptions record is similarly disputed. Generalization is CLEARLY impossible. Some texts were corrected by students as part of Their training. Others Appear to amount to nothing more than the correcting of one's own copy for personal use. Persius which twice revised by a young officer, Flavius Julius Sabinus Tryphonianus, while he what on military service in Barcelona and Toulouse, he worked "sine antigrapho" ["without critical character"], as he disarmingly tells us, and "prout potui sine magistro "[" if possible without a teacher. "] Search protestations inspire little confidence in the quality of the product, but did suggest june Nevertheless correction against to copy and the help of a professional was what one might also reasonably expect. (...) Whether the practice did anything to promote Significantly the survival of classical literature is doubtful, and the value of synthesis subscriptions for us june lie more in Their historical interest. Reynolds and Wilson (1991), p 42 51. A more probable hypothesis is did the process had been givenName special point and impetus by the transference of literature from roll to codex, as works were Brought together and put into a new and more permanent DOCUMENT But subscriptions continued Even When did process which complete and must, whatever the original motivation, have become a traditional practice. Reynolds and Wilson (1991), p 42 52. "is particularly at risk the survival of certain works at the stage of transcription of Roman literature from Papyrus rolls on parchment codices. This process is about the 4th Century AD completed. Authors that this will not be considered henceforth are excreted from the tradition. " Michael von Albrecht (1997), pp. 1383rd 53. "authors who were the Weitertradierung not perceived (for klass reference from the 3rd / 4th century) worthy were thus finally delivered the fate of accidental survival on papyrus." Lorena de Faveri, sv tradition . In: Brill's New Pauly , 15.3 (2003), Sp 710 54. The predominantly high status of the men recorded in surviving subscriptions' strongly Suggests did what it upon Their stately shelves so that many of our texts had resided before finding Their way into the monasteries and cathedrals did Ensured Their survival. Reynolds and Wilson (1991), S . 42f. 55. Alexander Demandt, Late Antiquity, Munich 2007, pp. 489f. 56. This testifies to a subscription from the 7th Century Codex Sinaiticus. The Sinaiticus is a middle of the 4th Century. written Bible and is generally considered the oldest surviving book at all. At this subscription: Pohlmann (1994), p 81 57. Alan Cameron: The Last Pagans of Rome . Oxford University Press, Oxford-New York 2011, pp. 783ff summary; ibid. p 801. "There was no pagan revival in the West, no pagan party, no pagan literary circles, pagan patronage of the classics no, no pagan propaganda in art or literature ... " 58. See, for example, more recently R. Beck: The Religion of the Mithras Cult in the Roman Empire: Mysteries of the Unconquered Sun . Oxford 2006. 59. On peut dire que, si le christianisme eut été arrêté dans sa croissance par quelque maladie mortelle, le monde eut été mithriaste . 60. Quantitative Evaluation at Michele R. Salzman: The Making Of A Christian Aristocracy. Social And Religious Change In The Western Roman Empire . Cambridge, MA, 2002. 61. Johnson (1965), p 77; Wendel and Goeber see this motivation at the local level: Handbook of Library Science . 1, p 79 62. See about Hartmut Leppin : Theodosius the Great . Darmstadt 2003, pp. 124 f, p 165 ff The awareness of these laws was limited: Robert Malcolm Errington : Christian Accounts of the Religious Legislation of Theodosius I , Klio 79 (1997), pp. 398-443. 63. The text of the relevant Act of 29 399 January is: Sicut sacrificia prohibemus, ita volumus publicorum operum ornamenta servari. Ac ne sibi ALIQUA auctoritate blandiantur, qui ea conantur ever tere si quod rescriptum, si qua lex forte praetenditur. "Just as we prohibit victims, so we want but also that works of art be saved in public buildings and that those who try to art to destroy, are not intended nor invited by an authority by a decree or a law is on a certain occasion as an excuse. "(Theodosian Code 16,10,15). 64. Theodosian Code 16,10,16 of 10 July 399

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65. Theodosian Code 16,10,19; Watts (2006), p 199 66. For example, the interpretation of spiral and Goeber (see above), further supported by the statement of Aphthonius of Antioch , who end of the 4th Century visited. He described the rooms full of books, which are accessible to everyone and "the entire city attracted to internalize the wisdom." (Aphthonius, Progymnasmata 12). 67. The large library existed at that time probably, of Caesar, she was certainly not destroyed the current state of research, see Sylwia Kaminska, in: Hoepfner (2002). The historian caesar critical Cassius Dio , according to the fire destroyed only stores the harbor, the grain and books contained. This is also the result of the analysis of Barnes (2000) and the extensive source criticism of Parsons (1952). The Museion, the building of the library and has been proven to around 380, so Mostafa El-Abbadi (1992): "Synesius of Cyrene, who towards the end of the 4th Century studied under Hypatia, saw the Mouseion and described the images of the philosophers in it. We have no later proof of his continued existence in the 5th Century. As Theon, the renowned mathematician and father of Hypatia, who was a recognized scientist himself, testified the last academic member was (380). "[33 Synesius, Calvitii Encomium 6], [34 Suidas, sv Theon]. 68. Milkau and Leyh (1940): History of Libraries : Volume 1, Chapter 2, page 80 69. Christopher Haas: Alexandria in Late Antiquity . London 1997, pp. 129 and 171f. Haas refers to the circle on Damascius : Life of Isidore , Fr. 174 (ed. Zintzen, p 147). 70. "were then compiled countless books and many piles of scrolls and burned before the eyes of the judges. They had been located in houses because of their allegedly illegal content, and now they should serve to obliterate the bad impression of executions. These were for the most part but only works on the various liberal arts and legal issues. "(Ammianus Marcellinus 29,1,41). After the executions, which were justified by the possession of "magic text": "And so it happened in the eastern provinces, that for fear of similar destinies owners burned their entire libraries, for such horrors had all recorded." (Ammianus Marcellinus 29,2,4). 71. Bibliothecis sepulcrorum ritu in perpetuum Clausis : Ammianus Marcellinus 14,6,18. 72. The clearest in Houston (1988), indicating older literature: After Houston there was no further evidence of closure, and at least the Trajansbibliothek was opened proven to 455. The edict Emperor Theodosius I. of 391 for closing the temple is not mentioned by him, which was considered in the rest of the literature to be essential to obtain Ammianus' text on the closure of libraries in Rome. Houston argues, instead, a Draconitus should towards the end of the 4th Have read and edited a text in the "scola" of Trajan's Forum in Rome century. If this was before 390, the document is not relevant. Even then, should schools Trajan's Forum, which was a commercial center of Rome, to be expected for a long time. About the existence of the library it says nothing. Another argument in Houston is that Sidonius Apollinaris wrote, it was 455 a statue been awarded. They had been placed on the Forum of Trajan "between the authors of the two libraries." The Trajansbibliothek was distributed in two buildings (Latin / Greek), and the statues of the authors stood before it. Because the statues were still standing, includes Houston, the library building had to have still been there - and they would be even also been opened. What he concluded that, Houston did not write. 73. Paul Orosius: Historiarum Libri septem contra Pagano 6.15. (Text by Migne , Patrologia Latina 31.1036 B): Unde quamlibet hodieque in Templis exstent, quae et nos vidimus Armaria librorum; quibus direptis, exinanita ea a nostris hominibus, nostris Temporibus memorent, qod qidem verum est '. 74. because of Sidonius Apollinaris , as Houston. 75. Sidonius Apollinaris, Epistulae , 4.17; online (http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1& hl=en&rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/~db/bsb00000797 /images/index.html%3Fid%3D00000797%26nativeno%3D68& usg=ALkJrhhvSC3uLWfaDoVBSofF6g2nlQ6Egg) . 76. JHWG Liebeschuetz : The Decline and Fall of the Roman City . Oxford 2001, pp. 104-136. 77. Constantine forbade the 320 "Kurialenflucht" in the clergy: Elisabeth Herrmann-Otto : Constantine the Great . Darmstadt 2007, pp. 164f., 182f. 78. To this end, more recently, Mark Edwards: The Beginnings of Christianization . In: Noel Lenski (ed.): The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine . Cambridge 2006, pp. 137-158. The edicts of Constantine were particularly frequently discussed on the community of Orkistos (Monumenta Asiae Minoris Antiqua 7.235) and at Hispellum (Inscriptiones Lattinae selectae, edited by Degrassi , 705). Relevant also is the representation of Eusebius of Caesarea ( Vita Constantini , 2,45,1), whose interpretation is controversial. Cf Elisabeth Herrmann-Otto : Constantine the Great . Darmstadt 2007, pp. 171f., The view expressed by a minority presumption, so is a general prohibition victims have been connected refuses. 79. According to Salzman, the conversion took place in two stages, eventually Christianity and senatorial life did not represent more contrast: Michele R. Salzman summary: The Making Of A Christian Aristocracy. Social And Religious Change In The Western Roman Empire . Cambridge MA 2002, pp. 135-137. 80. Epigraphic evidence for the decline of Greek agone in Christian late antiquity, most recently with Michael Lehner: The agonistic Ephesus in the Roman Empire . Diss Munich 2005, Digital Theses, LMU Munich

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(http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1&hl=en&rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de& tl=en&u=http://edoc.ub.uni-muenchen.de/archive/00003261/01/Lehner_Michael.pdf& usg=ALkJrhgCHatHeMyV6EPSzLdCjmVouNrBng) (PDF, 1.1 MB) The possibilities Roman stage equipment as well as for their cruelty authoritative essay by Kathleen Coleman: Fatal Charades. Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments . In: Journal of Roman Studies 80 (1990), pp. 44-73. 81. According to P. Canivet (ed.): Theodoret de Cyr, Thérapeutique of malades Helléniques . Vol 1, Paris, 1958 ( Sources Chrétiennes 57). For Christian attitudes about Roman spectacle see also Magnus Wistrand: Entertainment and Violence in Ancient Rome. The Attitudes of fhe Ancient Writers in the First Century AD . Gothenburg 1992, p 78f. 82. Pliny the Elder wrote in his 30 Book of the "natural history" is also a brief history of magic. In it, he railed against from the beginning the "empty and unsinigen believe in the magic". He calls it fraudulentissima artium , deceitful of all the arts'. (Fritz Graf: closeness to God and harmful magic: the magic in the Greco-Roman antiquity, Munich 1996, p 48.) 83. Sarefield, Burning Knowledge, Diss Ohio State 2006 (http://translate.googleusercontent.com /translate_c?depth=1&hl=en&rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http://www.ohiolink.edu/etd/send- pdf.cgi%3Fosu1092663236&usg=ALkJrhhyyfz-I3vsThucIAdh8P9N42iLgA) , p 86 84. Speyer (1981), p 130 85. Acts 19.13-14, NKJV translation, as well as the following. 86. Even the Jewish-Hellenistic author of the pseudo-Phocylides from the 6th Century thought they were magicians books. 87. Speyer (1981), p 34 suspected "ritual books". 88. Biography of the Monophysites of Antioch Severo , written by Zacharias Rhetor (d. before 553). Speyer (1981), p 132 89. Theodosian Code 9.16, 12 (= Codex Justinian 1,4,14): mathematicos, nisi sint parati codicibus erroris proprii ... Speyer (1981), p.170: "... astrologers have to burn their writings before the eyes of the bishops , failing which it had to drive from Rome and from all communities. " 90. mathematics is "the totality of the information required by the philosophy of learning material, ie, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music (theory), still under the empire fell grammar (elem. grammar and philology) as rhetoric with including ... In Latin Gell. 1,9,6 the arithm. and geometr. Operations Needing sciences, in coll. Parlance simply Nativitäts astrology ... "The Little Pauly, vol 3, p 1078th 91. Speyer (1981), p 136 92. Wolfgang Czysz : The Romans in Bavaria . Stuttgart 1995, p 237 93. H. Hunger et al: History of the textual tradition of the ancient and medieval literature . Volume 1, Ancient and medieval book and scholarly journals, Zurich 1961, pp. 362 94. Alexander Demandt: Late Antiquity . Munich 2007, p 489 95. Kaster (1997), pp. 14 f 96. Corpus iuris Canonici 1,86,5: Sacram scripturam, non licet grammaticam Exponere episcopis. "the bishops are allowed to teach the Scriptures, not the grammar." These Horst Scheibelreiter: The barbaric society . Darmstadt 1999, p 41: "Pope Gregory the Great touched the [sc the teaching of Desiderius of Vienne] uncomfortable, and he forbade him to grant such pagan teaching "; RA Markus:. Gregory the Great and His World . Cambridge 1997, p 36: far from condemning grammar as search, Gregory condemns what is grammar as a, Means of sterile ising the word of God ' ("far from condemning the grammar itself, damn Gregor rather the grammar, thereby cleaning the Word of God. '"). 97. Max Manitius: history of Latin literature of the Middle Ages . Vol I. Munich 1911, p 94 Quoted from Hagen Dahl (1983), p 114 98. EA Lowe: Handwriting . In: The Legacy of the Middle Ages . Oxford 1926, p 203 99. Lorena de Faveri, sv tradition . In: Brill's New Pauly , 15.3 (2003), Sp 712 100. John Laudage, Lars Hagen eggs, Yvonne Leiverkus: The Carolingian period . Darmstadt 2006, pp. 106ff. 101. According to Hunger (1961) one notices it because all the lines were missing and were be added by corrector. 102. Friedrich Prinz: The intellectual origins of Europe . (http://translate.googleusercontent.com /translate_c?depth=1&hl=en&rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http://www.zeit.de/reden /gesellschaft/200229_prinz/seite-3&usg=ALkJrhheJKDNAwQO1UqNFjM89N_Wkpi5Sw) In: now online , 12 June 2002 103. For example, the estimate of Carlo M. Cipolla: Literacy and Development in the West . London 1969. It is supported by the sample of Montaillou in southern France. In this village every 250 inhabitants in 1308 were over the age of 12 years by the Holy Inquisition arrested. From the files of the Inquisition shows that only 4 people could read (1.6%). ( Montaillou: The Promised Land of Error . LeRoy Ladurie Emmanuel (1978) Reproduction in Harvey J. Graff: The Literacy Myth Literacy and Social Structure in the Nineteenth-Century City. New York 1979, p 46f..) At a value of 1.0-1.4% in England in 1300 to get there when the first statistically

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detectable values of 1530 (David Cressy: Levels of Illiteracy in England, 1530-1730 In:. Historical Journal 20, 1977, page 1 -23, here p 13: Chart: Illiteracy of Social Groups, Diocese of Norwich, 1530-1730) with the number of schools from 1340 to 1548 (AH Jo Moran: The Growth of English Schooling 1340-1548 . New Brunswick, NJ 1985 ) back calculated and corrected with the population distribution. 104. See Averil Cameron : Old and New Rome. Roman Studies in Sixth-Century Constantinople . In: P. Rousseau et al (eds.): Transformation in Late Antiquity . Aldershot 2009, pp. 15-36. 105. See Watts (2006). 106. See especially to John Haldon: Byzantium in the seventh century . 2 Edition. Cambridge 1997. 107. See H. Hunger: The highly profane language literature of the Byzantines . Munich 1978. Therefore, it is also the part used term "Renaissance" in connection with Byzantium inappropriate, see Peter Schreiner: Renaissance in Byzantium . In: Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages . Vol 7, Sp 717f. 108. See Warren Treadgold: . The Early Byzantine Historians New York 2007, p 18 109. Lorena de Faveri, sv tradition, Brill's New Pauly 15.3 (2003), Sp 711 110. Mostafa El-Abbadi (1992), pp. 165

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1 tradition history of ancient literature 2 destruction and tolerance phase (ca. 350-800) 2.1 The stock of antiquity and tradition 2.2 The Christian subscription 2.3 Selection criteria for the tradition 2.4 When lost the bulk of ancient literature? 2.4.1 The fire a library 2.4.2 Rewriting / Rotting thesis 2.4.3 Limiting the period: before 500 2.4.4 Limiting the period: 350 to 400 2.4.4.1 The quote of Chrysostom 2.4.5 The archaeological context 2.4.6 St. Lawrence 2.4.7 The role of the "magic books" 2.5 The worldview of Chrysostom 2.6 The context of Late Antiquity 2.7 The books of the barbarians 2.7.1 Ireland and the classics 2.7.2 The missionary work in Ireland 2.7.3 Columban and the classics 2.7.4 The Irish Church and humanism 2.7.5 The result of the mission 2.8 Causes of decline of ancient culture

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2.8.1 A consequence of the power struggle? 2.8.2 defending the faith against the secular knowledge? 2.8.3 End time expectations? 2.8.4 Typical fundamentalist? 2.8.5 A question of brain structure? 3 Glossary - Quantitative 3.1 The book 3.2 The role 3.3 The Codex 3.4 number of titles in web and Codex 3.5 Frequency of magic books 3.6 Remark on Skeat (1982) 4 comments 5 Literature

The ancient culture had with its peak during the early Roman Empire reached a level of civilization that Europe in essential points (agricultural productivity [1] , transportation, medical and sanitation services, literacy, library collection [2] ) only after 1800 could reach again. Had the traditional ancient literature, directly or at least as an inspiration, a substantial proportion of this resurgence.

The classical "pagan" antiquity had (before 350 AD) around 100 million books. Of these, not one has survived. Around 400 AD there was a now hardly known books destruction throughout the Christianised Roman Empire. Of the several million titles only approximately 0.1% were delivered in versions from the Christian era. These basic data of the tradition history have a cultural catastrophe that is unprecedented in the history of mankind.

Between the secular cultures influenced by the ancient and modern were over 1000 years of extremely religious in the Hereafter-oriented Middle Ages . A time in which the personal will of God was prescribed as an essential mechanism for all things of nature and of human destiny. To please God, you made the Christian doctrine (theology) for conducting scale mandatory for every human being. Dissenters threatened imprisonment, torture or even a cruel execution. [3] Other worldviews, and the rational worldview of the ancient texts, it was mostly hostile. The destruction of ancient books as well as the survival and resurrection of their few residues are the essential elements of the tradition history.

The tradition history is closely connected with the textual criticism in classical philology. While the textual criticism is always accepted only single track, plenty of lineages were able to date [4] are reconstructed to sketch a history of transmission of the total available today ancient literature. Was primarily due to findings from a variety of other areas such as archeology, Papyrology, Palaeography, Codiologie and accompanying technical advances such as especially the photograph. [5]

The tradition history can be divided into 4 phases:

1. Construction phase (before 350) 2. Destruction and tolerance phase (ca. 350-800) 3. Maintenance phase (ca. 800-1400) 4. Dissemination and impact phase after 1400 (http://translate.googleusercontent.com /translate_c?depth=1&hl=en&ie=UTF8&prev=_t&rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http: //de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benutzer:Bibhistor

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/%25C3%259Cberlieferungsgeschichte_der_Wissenschaften&usg=ALkJrhh--P8tirfJ1L2T5_X- YXi5KqAhzg#Die_Wiederverbreitung) 5. Revision phase?

This part of the tradition history is certainly the most important, because of the far-reaching implications but also the most controversial. In the secular dominated German research in 1900 - Germany at that time was a leader in the study of antiquity - was the destruction of the ancient literature of the reasons for the term "Dark Ages". Since the Middle Ages was the marriage of the Catholic faith, this was also an argument in the anti-Catholic Kulturkampf end of the 19th Century. [6] The anti-Catholic Theodor Mommsen (1817-1903) was a key player in the academic field in this dispute. He was already in his lifetime as the greatest historian of ancient Rome in the 19th Century, [7] followers of the ancient empire (particularly of Caesar), holding the tradition of the imperial period for falsified. [8]

The state of research already in 1900 appeared clear. After the takeover of Catholic Christianity ancient literature disappeared, and even in the Middle Ages was attributed to the destruction of even Pope Gregory personally. He had let the great Palatine library burned in Rome. [9] This was further supported by the state in the 1950s, after which secured appeared that the loss had occurred before 500. [10] With the completion of the CLA in the 1970s, this was strengthened even more. [11]

In the meantime, however, the situation of the researchers had changed somewhat. While Mommsen in 1900 still denouncing the occupation of historical chairs by theologians as a scandal, it was not uncommon in later times. Together with the concordat chairs this resulted in a certain amount of re-Christianization of German historical research, especially in the second half of the 20th Century. A similar trend was also evident in the Anglo-Saxon countries. [12] The resulting consensus of a peaceful coexistence of ideologies arose for the tradition history a bit precarious position. A presentation of the important Late Antique phase would mention things that makes the Christianization of Europe appear in a slightly accented light [13] and must be particularly hurtful act for Catholicism. [14]

In order to preserve the consensus despite this legacy, therefore, confined themselves to the history of individual texts and avoided an overall view of the critical late antiquity. Where did it nevertheless, the Rewriting / Verrottungsthese was presented. Thus, the ancient books have passed, but has not been actively destroyed. [15] In addition, in all these recent works, each quantification is avoided. [16] Even in this respect interested student can do so hardly a picture of how big the loss was ever . This is most evident this issue in Reynolds and Wilson "Scribes and Scholars", which is an overall presentation of the history of tradition. [17]

The empty roll of papyrus in ancient times was cheap and usually cost one to two simplest daily wages. [18] The description cost about the same. [19] This allowed even a simple day laborers buy at only 1% of the reserve at least one scroll per year. Reports of thousands of scrolls with wealthy citizens are therefore very plausible. The other treatment of the roles corresponding to this image. [20]

By tradition in libraries, before the papyri found in 1900, about 2,000 author names were of Greek literature before the year 500 known, but only by 253 authors at least parts of their writings were preserved. For Roman literature there were 772 author names, but only from 144 writings were preserved. [21] This led to the often accommodated forecast that less than 10% of ancient literature has been passed. [22] However, the nearly 3,000 author names represent only a minimum number dar. It is only to authors that are mentioned in

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traditional texts. However, the traditional texts are quite selective and have been chosen for a large part of Christian authors, which represent only a small and radical minority in ancient times.

An estimate of the ancient stock of titles and books is only indirectly about the library's history. The most famous library of antiquity, the Library of Alexandria , grew from 235 BC to 47 BC by 490,000 to 700,000 roles, mostly in Greek. [23] A role also corresponded to about one (see Glossary - Quantitative ) . The title production of the Greek world, therefore, was at least 1100 per year. Extrapolated to the year 350 [24] would result in the a stock of over one million titles. [25]

The scope of the Latin literature can not be exactly determined, but could have been as big. Considering that rather trivial works from the provinces probably not included in the great libraries held, [26] one can estimate the total stock of antiquity on several million titles. Assuming an average spread of 10-100 copies [27] , these are around 100 million rolls or neutral circumscribed, books (see Glossary ). This extrapolation is supported by a Untersuchuung of Naphtali Lewis about the extent of papyrus production in Egypt of the early imperial period. He came to the conclusion that production "was undoubtedly in the millions of rolls per year." [28] Also on this basis we arrive at a round of the order of 100 million scrolls. [29]

Of these millions of books from the period before 350 has been handed down in a library not a single. All sources from pagan times, or about 350 before were just as Christian editions (compiled 400) survived.

About the number of surviving ancient title (no finds) have been published yet no exact figures. [30] The order of magnitude is expected to be at about 3000, 1000 of them in Latin. Most of it is available only in fragments. Covers the entire traditional pagan text volume, at least in Latin, would probably fit in less than 100 codices. The break in the stock is in the order of a factor of 1000. In other words, only 0.1% or 1,000 book titles was handed down. This number is obtained when the estimated total number of tracks of a few million to some 1000 traditional tracks faces; or - completely independent of - the last ancient library ( Konstantin Opel , 476 with 120,000 codices) with the first medieval ( Cassiodorus , 576 with about . 100 codices) compares. [31]

These basic data of the tradition history have a cultural catastrophe that is unprecedented in the history of mankind. In the following, an attempt is made to compile the most important information about this process. These are usually indirectly inferred information from figures, quotations and title lists or description seemingly regional events by eyewitnesses. The low number of unique information is probably due to the tradition itself. If you predominantly contained texts of Christianity, The central problem, the extreme break in the which won by 400 in the fight over paganism and also tradition story, this statistic shows the libraries. Since determined which texts of paganism are preserved. the Middle Ages, about 90% of the stocks was only contained theology of the loss of knowledge even by a factor of 10 larger than it appears here.

Probably almost all of us traditional books, there was a Christian subscription. This was a brief post-text, which described, when the book was copied and who had checked it for accuracy. Such subscriptions were probably in pagan times, at least for valuable books usual. They confirmed the origin and the accuracy of the copy.

With one exception, all subscriptions received from the Christian era coming, starting towards the end of the 4th Century. [32] Reynolds and Wilson, [33] who discuss the topic from a traditional point of view, hardly see evidence that the publication of them testified and correction activity in pagan texts on some kind of opposition suggesting to Christianity. On the contrary, Christians were certainly involved in the subscripting

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pagan texts. [34]

It is unclear whether more Gentiles were ever involved. The Subskripienten from the Nicomachi and Symmachi families were already Christians. Reynolds and Wilson see the "sudden recurrence of subscriptions in secular texts towards the end of the 4th century," rather associated with the transcription of the Codex. [35] And as of Albrecht writes: "Authors, which in this case will not be considered, are henceforth from the tradition excreted. " [36]

The one above was shouldered pagan subscription of Statilius Maximus (c. 180 AD) witnessed significant activity to improve the text [37] and points already to a Codex. [38] Reynolds and Wilson noticed that the of them separately discussed subscriptions in Christian times, at least was partially no longer as before focused on text improvement. They doubt, therefore, that the Christian subscription of classical literature was an essential aid. [39]

However, for historical interest they see the mostly high social status of the persons mentioned in the Christian subscriptions. [40] Interesting also that corrections of the text are apparently occurs even centuries after its transcription. [41]

From a letter of the Bishop Synesius of Cyrene (c. 400) but it is evident that there is a class of books was in his time that were considered "unüberarbeitete copies". You have to be was a significant accusation. [42] This suggests that the Christian subscription could have affected not only spelling errors, but also differences in detail. These were probably about changes that needed to be for the Christian ideology to 400 in the battle against the paganism or other fractions of relevance. Pure formal things, such as font or even a prohibition of images, can be excluded for this time.

By tradition are of Greek literature before 500 about 2000 author names known, but only by 253 authors the books. Of these 253 authors, all titles were only fragments of 127, 136 retained. In Roman literature, there were 772 names of authors, of 144 writings were received, including 37 from which all scriptures have survived. [43] These figures, especially for the Greek, a high proportion of authors who are completely preserved. Compared to the well-known authors fragmentary or only by name, this can not be explained by a random selection. Obviously, certain authors, probably Christian propagandists were specifically preferred.

This also shows the thematic weighting of the literature. At the beginning of the imperial period , the (lost) had 493 rolls of the Encyclopedia of Varro following distribution: 34% Entertainment (poetry and satire), 39% Science (Philosophy and Applied Science, technology), 27% History (8% literature and theater, 16 % Famous People and nations, religion 3%). [44]

The 1900 in the Egyptian provincial town Oxyrhynchus papyri found came from an ancient garbage dump from 100 to 600 They seem to represent a large spectrum of the population. [45] were found including roles with literature. Has The resulting readable taste of the people still similar to the weighting of Varro: 56% entertainment (33% epic, 12% tragedies, 5% Bukolik), 44% non-fiction (21% history, 18% Philosophy, 5% speeches). [46]

In contrast to antiquity, the book production shows an extreme increase by 400 religious, christian theological titles up to 80-90% of the stocks in the Middle Ages. [47] The secular share of 10-20% consisted primarily of word explanations and grammaticality. Entertainment, History, and any kind of science had in the Christian libraries of the Middle Ages a share of less than 5%. In the low inventory of most libraries could such books only in the few great monastic libraries (about 10-20 after the year 800) among stocks expected by some 100 codices. [48] What were the consequences of this collapse for the culture, shows the

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history of tradition of Sciences (http://translate.googleusercontent.com /translate_c?depth=1&hl=en&ie=UTF8&prev=_t& rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http: //de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benutzer:Bibhistor

The contents of the libraries of the past 2000 years. With the Christian takeover an extreme break came in the interest and ability of Western culture. Only after 1800 a secular state was achieved as in antiquity again in some countries ...

/%25C3%259Cberlieferungsgeschichte_der_Wissenschaften&usg=ALkJrhh--P8tirfJ1L2T5_X- YXi5KqAhzg)

The fire of a library

The antiquity possessed a large number of libraries. Public and private Stadtbiliotheken with 20,000 to 50,000 rollers are known. They existed not only in Rome (29 to 350 public), but also in the provinces. In Caesar's visit to Alexandria did not burn the great library, but a warehouse at the port with 40,000 rolls, probably an annual production [49] which was intended for export. [50] The Library of Alexandria in the Hellenistic period included more than 490 ' 000 roles, [51] that in Pergamon 200,000 rolls. At least in the imperial period are likely some cities, especially for reasons of status, have reached this level.

About the stock figures of the great libraries of Rome no details have survived. Archeology can be concluded about the size of wall niches for bookcases at the Palatine and the Ulpia Traiana at least 100,000 rolls. Probably, however, were it only the most valuable roles, including the library of Pergamum had almost all their stocks in storage rooms. From the size of the building would have the main libraries of Rome, as well as in Alexandria and Athens, had space for each million rolls. In such a geographical distribution of ancient knowledge individual events were like the loss of a library for the tradition is not a major problem.

The Rewriting / Rotting thesis

Some historians suspected to 400 a description of papyrus scrolls on parchment codices had taken place. In the Christian-dominated period or even earlier, the company had then lost interest in the pagan roles. They were therefore not further copied and rotted during the Middle Ages in libraries, while the more durable parchment codices survived.

This assumption is especially doubted by Papyrologists. Papyrus is in life not for the parchment. Roberts and Skeat, which examined the topic itself, explain this in 1983 in "The Birth of the Codex" very clearly. [52] and by 200 it was no problem to read in a library in Rome, a 300 year old roll of papyrus. [53] The material would thus have to endure for over 400 years. But from 800, the many ancient roles certainly no longer exists. From the catalogs and the copying activity this time we can close this safely. You could from 800 only to fall back codices were written after 400.

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Moreover containing CLA at least 7 papyrus codices in the libraries from the period 433-600 until today, at least in part, survived. One, CLA # 1507 550, is in Vienna and has 103 pages. If that could last for 1500 years that many others would still have to maintain at least 400 years. The loss can therefore not be explained by the durability of papyrus rolls or codices.

Rather, it looks like as if after 400 suddenly much less books and these were only produced in the form of codices. The Oxyrhynchus found in book rolls (approx. 34% of total papyri, 66% were records) [54] show a lively book production in the second and 3 Century, (655 and 489 units) and a massive slump in the fourth and 5 Century (119 and 92 at most) and only small production thereafter (41, 5 and 2 pieces after the 7th century and the city disappeared). Page from the traditional book perhaps A similar picture of the CLA for Europe. Thereafter, from 400 to 700 the oldest, the Vergilius Vaticanus (c. in Europe (except Italy) handed down only about 150 codices. Of 400). The good state of preservation this amount, nor even only 100 on France. This is confirmed by the shows, at least from a technical point more paleography after the period of the CLA. The holdings of the of view, that the tradition of the books great monastic libraries by 900 (Lorsch, Bobio, Reichenau, all around would have been possible before 300 700 codices) came almost all from the period after 750, and thus also. show the so-called Carolingian Renaisance . For most ancient books, the oldest surviving copies today date from this period. Probably copied as books from the 5th Century which are no longer preserved. The CLA knows for the period ending 800 only 56 traditional classic books, of which only 31 of the 5th Century

What initially appeared as a phase of transcription from roll to codex, apparently was only the result of an extremely reduced book production. Reached them before 300 is probably the order of 100,000 per year, it was 400 at under 10 per year. This value applies to the Latin area based on the CLA. The CLA is a tradition 1-2 per year for 400 to 700 This indicates a low production because of the cheap to papyrus was no longer needed. They preferred the far more noble, but now more readily available parchment. Papyrus was only used in exceptional cases for books or records and hardly available in Latin range from about 600.

The delimitation of the period: before 500

As already mentioned, the ancient books from 800 were certainly no longer exists. They were probably also from just 500 no longer there. Cassiodorus lived from about 490-583 in Italy. He was initially Senator and Secretary of the Ostrogoth Theodoric . During the war with Ostrom ( Gothic war ) he retired, after being in Constantinople Opel, [55] 540 back to his private lands in southern Italy and founded the monastery of Vivarium. He spoke Latin, Greek and Gothic , collected books and also translated from Greek to Latin which. His stated aim was to rescue the classical education, and he explained the first copying books compulsory for monks.

Due to his wealthy position and his wide contacts in the Greek area, he was in an exceptionally good position to obtain the most important still available in his time in the Mediterranean books as well. [56] In his own texts, he describes his library, individual books and quotes from him are probably present works. Based on this information initially A. Franz and later created RAB Mynors "a provisional indication of the contents of the library at Vivarium". [57] The result was that Cassiodorus not much more ancient texts known as we do today. He had the only major library of the 6th Century, the content of something is known. It commanded about 100 codices.

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The situation was similar at Bishop Isidore of Seville , who lived in Spain from about 560-636. He had the only library of the 7th Century, the content of something is known. Inspired by his famous teacher grape undertook Paul Lehmann an investigation of Isidore's writings. He came to the conclusion that Isidore probably at least three books of Cassiodorus built without this even mentioning in one of his works. Lehmann: "Most fonts, indicating Isidore with title and author, he has probably never read." [58] Isidor could cite only 154 titles. [59] His library was probably much smaller than that of Cassiodorus. The great libraries were thus disappeared before 500. . What remained were small monastery libraries of 20 books [60] As the very fact-rich standard work "History of Libraries" in 1955 wrote, had the loss occurred before 500; "Already at the beginning of the 6th century the great loss of ancient texts had occurred , and the supply of writers who Cassiodorus and Isidore were on hand exceeds, not significantly the circle of [61] acquaintances also us. " Cassiodorus in Vivarium, Codex Amiatinus. Haas [62] refers to a specific case of loss of knowledge in late antiquity, based on books. A Asclepiades was around 490 one of the few pagan scholars in Alexandria. He and his circle considered themselves the last priest of Osiris, and hieroglyphics used in ritual activities. Haas assumes, however, that this circle hieroglyphs could no longer read. Because Asclepiades son, Horapollon, wrote the only surviving late antique work on the meaning of the hieroglyphs. But therein is no reference to the phonetic feature. It can only be described imaginative allegorical and mystical features. Up to 4 Century hieroglyphics were used and there were certain then appropriate books to present. In 500 apparently had himself an expert in his private library at the center of learning Alexandria no such book.

Horapollon was a professor at a school of philosophy in Alexandria. He was to have offered accused pagan sacrifice [63] and an investigator came for 488 from Constantinople Opel [64] The following procedure was described by a contemporary historian as "Inquisition", [65] Horapollon and other teachers were tortured [66] . Probably this book is narrated with other "pagan" texts in the archives of the Inquisition in Early Byzantium. In the 9th Century seems to have then spotted Photius this late antique material [67] .

The delimitation of the period: 350 to 400

Looking at the period from 300 to 800, so there were always events in which individual libraries may have been destroyed. However, there was only a short period of about 380 to 400, in which the existence of all the libraries of the Roman Empire was threatened at the same time. Only a single large library, we know that she has survived this time: the palace library of Constantin Opel was only 476 with 120,000 codices destroyed by fire. The next known library again until 100 years later, of Cassiodorus with about 100 codices.

The period 370-400 was a high point in the violence of the state now dominant Christianity against paganism and its entire culture. In the year 391 the Emperor Theodosius I enacted a law requiring all pagan temples were too close. In the concept of that time were pagan temples but most non-church culture building. About a library dedicated to the gods or the museum, a temple of the muse. In this context, Theodosius' edict was interpreted as an attempt to destroy all pagan libraries. [68]

So we know from the library in the Serapeum , the library of Alexandria, the city posed [69] that it was destroyed in 392 by Christian fanatics. From the Museum of Alexandria, which contained the famous large library and is occupied as a building to about 380, [70] there are 400 no trace. Early as the 5th Century is the area described as wasteland. John Philoponus mentioned around 520 AD the "big library" which was once the pride of Alexandria. [71] It was not until excavations in 2003 found foundations.

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As John of Nikiu reported 412-425 radical Christians have "collected large quantities of wood and burned the place of the pagan philosophers." In Alexandria [72] A place of pagan philosophers was always a library or a building, such as the museum, which a library contained. What is remarkable about this episode that the library was apparently already empty. Because otherwise you would not only need to gather wood, the codices and roles there would have done it.

Ammianus Marcellinus (ca. 330-395), the main source for this period, the persecution and execution mentioned apparently educated people to whom the possession of books was accused with prohibited content. Your codices and scrolls were publicly burned in large numbers. In the books it is said to have allegedly acted to "Magic Texts". Ammianus meant but it was above all the work of the "liberal arts" in the classical sciences. As a result of "terror", as Ammianus literally, "the owner for fear of similar destinies burned their entire libraries" were in the eastern provinces. [73]

Reference is also reminiscent of another place in Ammianus. He criticizes the superficial entertainment pleasure of the Roman upper class and adds this one: ". Libraries were closed forever, like tombs" [74] This was in the 19th and the greater part of the 20th Century by most scholars interpreted so as if the great public libraries of Rome closed. Recently, some suspect that it could only refer to the house libraries and the pleasures of a decadent Roman nobility. [75]

A little later, around 415 attended the Christian propagandist Orosius Alexandria. He describes that he had seen there, even in some temples empty bookshelves. This had been emptied "of our own people, were looted to our time, as this temple." [76] Also in Rome seem to be from 400 closed the large libraries or been empty. Even assuming that the building would have 455 Trajansbibliothek stood still, [77] there is no indication that they or others were there still open or still contained books.

The Notitia Dignitatum , a catalog of the official administrative post in the Roman Empire by 400, showed no indication that it should be someone in charge of libraries. [78] For other documents and grave inscription, we know that the responsibility for one or more libraries, 300 as important and honorable office was considered. Had there been even given the large libraries after 400, its administration would have been of extreme importance. Because the administrator would have determined which books should be available even after the victory over paganism and which are not. The closure of large libraries was the easiest solution to work around this problem, because their content was more than 99% from pagan books.

The quote of Chrysostom

There are from around 400 but an even more pronounced, rarely mentioned reference to the targeted destruction of ancient literature. John Chrysostom (349-407) was bishop of Constantinople Opel, active in the fight against paganism and one of the greatest Christian scholars of his time. In one of his writings, he looks back to the period after the "battle" with paganism. A fight he could be regarded as won his death.

He writes the philosophers and orators of the Gentiles would then only have been even more ridiculous as stupid children and had no one can convince you:

"Her writings were so despised that their books long ago disappeared, most were destroyed on their first appearance. If you find any yet received anything from them, so you will find it stored at Christians. " [79]

The quote was first translated for this Wikipedia article into German. The only known contemporary source was a book of the Catholic University of America [80] . It appeared with the imprimatur as officially correct font of the Catholic Church. Since the English words used were not entirely clear, the Wikipedia user "Rominator", a professional historian decided to examine the original Greek version. He found:

"Her writings were so despised that their books were wiped off the globe recently, most have been

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instantly destroyed, as they showed up."

The discussion of the discovery here (http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1&hl=en& ie=UTF8&prev=_t&rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http://de.wikipedia.org /wiki/Diskussion:B%25C3%25BCcherverluste_in_der_Sp%25C3%25A4tantike/Archiv& usg=ALkJrhhlzGt2HCk0bGWynXlJ5CVCrwpjPQ#Kommentar_des_Erst-Autors) and the original here (http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1&hl=en&ie=UTF8&prev=_t& rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http://de.wikipedia.org /wiki/Diskussion:B%25C3%25BCcherverluste_in_der_Sp%25C3%25A4tantike/Archiv& usg=ALkJrhhlzGt2HCk0bGWynXlJ5CVCrwpjPQ#.C3.9Cbersetzung_des_Chrysostomos-Zitates) . Where was the original "wiped off the globe recently" been "disappeared a long time ago" in the modern version. Thus, the most important quote in the loss of antique of an eyewitness statement was an allegory. Just as an allegory then also mentioned Speyer in 1981 this site:

"But when John Chrysostom makes it seem as though his time almost forgotten the literature of antiquity and such writings were only sporadically found among Christians, so should he have exaggerated apologetic and missionary zeal (20). (20 ) John Chrys. Babyla de S. et contra Iul. 2 (PG 50.536 f) "(Speyer, 1981, p 124)

Although Speyer often the sources quoted directly, sometimes even the original Greek with German Überrsetzung brings (egp 34), he omitted a quote here. Perhaps precisely because it represented the most explosive part of his whole book. Because the basic message of Speyer's book, secular pagan writings were never destroyed deliberately, is hereby refuted. Speyer can be accused rather a failure, but not a fake here. The latter may, however, be assumed in the genesis of the modern version.

A more recent translation by Rominator which also makes the context clear:

"The tyrants and emperors who unbeatable in her speech sophists and philosophers, charlatans, wizards and demons have made it [Christian doctrine] to destroy. [...] The Philosophers and earned speakers were highly regarded by the majority due to their dignity or their speech ability. After fighting us they were ridiculous and had no effect other than stupid children. [...] So large the ridiculousness of their writings that their scrolls were wiped out recently, most have been destroyed as soon as they . emerged If anything at all it is kept, so you can find them stored at Christians. [...] Although this satanic ridiculousness has not yet been completely wiped out of the earth, but that already happened can you be a lesson for the future . the majority has been destroyed in a very short time. Henceforth no one will want to argue about the remains. " John Chrys. de S. Babyla et contra Iul. 2 (PG 50.536 f). Translation: Rominator 5/2009.

The archaeological context

Could it accounts involve exaggerations or only local events at Ammianus and Chrysostom? According to the current state of research, one can detect both an understatement. To 380 Libanius described in a letter to Emperor Theodosius I. systematic destruction of a variety of pagan temples by "gangs of black-clad monks". [81]

This destruction was soon officially organized by the church. John Chrysostom wrote that he had monks specifically supports it. He made sure that they got enough clothes, shoes and food. And he gave them "money for supervisors and workers to demolish the temple." [82]

A law of 397 ordered to use for public works, the stones of ruined temples. Around the repair of roads, bridges, Aquedukten and fixings. The historian Pierre Chuvin saw this as a safe indication of the extent of the destruction. [83] John Chrysostom boasted about 405 looking back on his life's work: "Only ruins of the temple remained Even the ruins are difficult to detect.." [84] A little later, around 430, wrote the Christian writer Theodoret one of the last ancient writings against non-Christians. Here even the extinction of ancient

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philosophy was directly linked to the destruction of the Temple:

"Why do we still speak of the philosophers, emperors and generals, but because the martyrs in the memory of people who were followers of them, who were called gods. Truly, their temples are so completely destroyed, that one can not even imagine their former site, while the building material is now dedicated to the martyr shrines. " [85]

For this destruction of pagan cultural heritage ("Ikonoclasmus") there is direct archaeological evidence. If we see somewhere an antique head with severed nose today, so these were almost certainly Christian violence perpetrators of late antiquity, probably to 400 In the year 408 the destruction of all hitherto remained pagan works of art is a wide-ranging law arranged. [86] The archaeologist Eberhard Sauer presented to Ikonoclasmus Late Antiquity the first time a major work: The Archaeology of Religious Hatred (2003).

Sauer is the destruction of pagan temples of this period, especially in the West. But this is only because that here (especially in Germany), the excavations were numerous and careful. The latter was crucial to determine from Beifunden like coins the approximate period of the destruction of the Temple. Sauer was able to clearly demonstrate that the destruction was excessive and the whole empire included:

"On the basis of written and archaeological evidence there can be no doubt that the Christianization of the Roman Empire and the early medieval Europe was accompanied by the destruction of works of art to an extent as you never saw in the history of mankind before." [87 ]

This destruction was apparently accompanied as mentioned by Ammianus connection with the burning of books as "terror" of cruel executions. There are direct archaeological evidence of this terror against pagans.

In a sealed and backfilled with rock temple of Mithras was found the skeleton of a lanky man with bound hands behind his back. He had apparently been buried alive in the underground room. [88] In another temple of Mithras was found the skeleton of an impaled man appears to have been put to death in the room before you zuschüttete him. [89]

If Chrysostom did not mention such acts of violence, so most likely because the former wanted to present Christianity as a peaceful pacifist movement - at least for posterity. In the well-kept since then Christian history were always Christian martyrs sacrifice pagan terror. If it did not mention Ammianus, The skeletal Fund in the Mithras Temple of so perhaps because he feared for his life. It is these omissions in Sarrebourg the prosecution of pagans were some critics also remember Ammianus could have been a Christian writer. [90] In any case, these archaeological / written contexts [91] here a systematic distortion in the description of significant events of the late antique world. [92]

St. Lawrence

An example of such systematic distortion is perhaps the holy "Lawrence of Rome". According to legend, he was said to be 258 AD administrator of church property. In order to transfer the wealth of the Church to the imperial prefect, he asked for three days off for it. But in that time, he distributed the wealth among the poor. For this offense he was roasted on an iron grid to death. He then became the patron saint of librarians.

Some say this was one of the best documented martyr stories, as it was already reported by 400 of Prudentius and Augustine. However, in Nährer viewing it is the same in several points implausible. [93] Ultimately, a trustee is not an archivist and especially not a librarian. There is no really plausible explanation

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why he could be the patron saint of librarians.

Much more sense makes the story, if not a church here in the Holy 3 Century but a leading librarian by 375 AD at the time of "terror" that was modeled. When it came to the destruction of a great ancient library of 100,000 or more books. The process of destruction of books came from the east of the empire in the West. It is quite possible that managers became aware of it a few days before the execution of such a command. Especially in the administration sure even educated people were employed. There was no way a large library in a short time to get somewhere safe. The only chance to save the books she was to be distributed in the population.

With this fact, the librarian sacrificed for his books, he was like Hypatia martyr of ancient culture. His execution was probably, as in the saint's legend, especially cruel, by slow roasting. This made an example to warn the owner or manager of libraries prior to the distribution of their books. Likewise, from the death penalty for possession of forbidden books. The announcement of its history was therefore quite desired by the new rulers. This is a striking Paralell to Hypatia St. Catherine legend. Also there was a real story spread St. Lawrence of Rome. Mosaic in the Mausoleum of as an example and rewritten later to a Christian martyr Galla Placidia in Ravenna, 5th Century.It highlighted legend. [94] the penalty on possession of prohibited books. Note the iron wheels of the grate. The knowledge of such A mosaic in Ravenna from the 5th Century is perhaps realistic detail suggests a more frequent use than dedicated to Saint Lawrence. Sure it's a warning against previously thought. the possession of prohibited books. [95] The purpose of the building, a kind of small chapel, is still unclear. [96] It is more reminiscent of the location of the "nocturnal Council" (http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1&hl=en&ie=UTF8& prev=_t&rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-utopia /&usg=ALkJrhhOtQd_MJE7MAvKSu7GtlyAImnpFQ#noc) according to Plato. A place where, according to Plato dissidents in secret a final exhortation should send. Only a very small circle of knowers should be entrusted with it. From the High Middle Ages, there are reports of secret courts. These were secret meetings where without hearing the defendants death sentences were spoken for heresy, paganism and witchcraft. [1 (http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1&hl=en&ie=UTF8&prev=_t& rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http://de.wikipedia.org /w/index.php%3Ftitle%3DDiskussion:Feme%26oldid%3D68600098& usg=ALkJrhgR8L2mnwe_teWLekXBMzKzwtcsVQ#Femgericht_und_Inquisition) ] The possession of illegal books was probably doing even the senior crime. [2 (http://translate.googleusercontent.com /translate_c?depth=1&hl=en&ie=UTF8&prev=_t&rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http: //de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php%3Ftitle%3DDiskussion:Feme%26oldid%3D68600098& usg=ALkJrhgR8L2mnwe_teWLekXBMzKzwtcsVQ#Das_Geheimnis_Karls_des_Grossen) ]

The role of the "magic books"

As initially mentioned, the ancient literature was probably widespread even in small and very small private libraries. By the seizure of large libraries could therefore probably not even the half of the stock get hold of. The complete extinction of all the millions before about 350 created books must have been a long campaign. Traces of this campaign must be possible to see the history. The persecution of the spell books could be a hint. This literary genre was more likely to find rare Begin the first millennium (see Frequency of spellbooks ). They are but since the Christian takeover in 4 Century, the main reason for books exterminations.

An extensive, some Christian apologetic embossed [97] work was dedicated in 1981 to the theme of ancient books destroyed. [98] On the subject of "The Destruction of the pagan literature," the author found only

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references to the destruction christians hostile writings, ritual books (ie pagan theology) , of lascivious literature (erotic, pornography) and magic books. Thus, the classical sciences writings have never been destroyed deliberately. [99] persecution of magic writings, probably curse and malicious Sayings / rituals, there were already too pagan times. Educated as Pliny the Elder, held magic simply for fraud. [100]

In popular belief, magic was always more or less present. In Christian times, from about 350, the persecution of magic books seems to have adopted an unprecedented extent. The reported Ammianus burning of books of the classical sciences in the context of spell books persecution was probably part of a systematic destruction of pagan literature.

Whether a book is magic or science was contained only by his reading recognizable. Even then it would still have required some training to always tell the difference. This formation was less and less available, especially not for Christians. Thus the pagan gods were interpreted as demons and evil spirits. [101] Even today, apply in Catholic exorcism pagan emperors, such as Nero, as demons can infest people. In the extreme context of late antiquity almost every pagan book could be denounced as a spellbook. If it is dedicated to a famous pagan or a deity or cited only one now regarded as a magician scientists. A non-Christian book could be seen as a magic book when it is dedicated to a famous non-Christian or a deity or only cited a now respected as a magician scientists. The accusation of magic was very broad and was total used against ancient religions. [102]

The burning of magic books by Christians dates back to a passage in the Book of Acts. [103] It is told as Paul cast out demons to heal the sick. He was successful than "sons of a Jewish high priest Sceva" which were called "itinerant Jewish Summoner" [104] After the triumph of Paul in the city: "But many of those who had believed came, confessing, and announced their deeds. But many of those who had used curious arts brought their books together, and burned them before all: and they counted the value of them and found it fifty thousand pieces of silver "(Acts, 19:18-19).. In this passage, but one can only guess from the context that books are meant by spells. [105] The large amount of the destroyed here Books makes either the passage implausible or only allows the conclusion that it is not magic books in the modern sense has acted. [106] is particularly relevant now that apart from this passage until after the 4th Century evidence for the burning of "magic books" are in the context of Christian conversion. From Paul in Ephesus converted "Wizard" From about 350 to the Middle Ages, there are some descriptions when burned their books. Bible Illustration of how the possession of "magic books" was life-threatening, by Gustave Doré , 1866 they were specifically sought and destroyed. Especially in the period 350-400 it could have fatal consequences for the owner:

"In this time was made with the utmost severity against the owners of magic books. From John Chrysostom tells us that soldiers his hometown of Antioch just searched for magical writings on the Orontes. As he walked along at this time with his friend on the Orontes River, they saw an object on the river to swim. They pulled it out and realized that they were a forbidden spell book in his hands. At the same moment appeared near her soldiers. But they succeeded yet, unnoticed to hide the book in the garment and throw it again a little later into the river. So they escaped the danger. As Chrysostom further reported an owner of a magic book had this thrown out of fear of the pursuers in the river. He was observed to convicted of witchcraft and sentenced to death. " [107]

Not only Chrysostom, Ammianus also describes executions in connection with the prosecution of magic

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books. So obviously the more well-known philosopher Simonides is burned on a pyre. Ammianus compares him to the Greek "famous philosopher Peregrinus, surnamed Proteus." Chuvin sees in it a possible Märyterer of pagan philosophy during this "witch hunt". [108] After Simonides combustion were so Ammianus, "a lot of people almost all classes of the population "tortured and executed. "So the picture of a true Tierschlächterei offered everywhere". [109]

What is remarkable about the narrative of terror in Ammianus, that apparently only Gentiles were the victims. Although Christians of sorcery rather similar rites performed as pagan philosophers of this time, makes no mention of the Visitation of Christians in Christian sources. The terror was held only against pagans.

According to Chrysostom and Ammianus the majority of pagan literature must during this time in the 4th Century have been destroyed. They are also the only (currently known) sources for the destruction of magic books in the 4th Century until the 5th Century, we have more reports to do so. Thus, there were campaigns of bishops which were carried out by imperial authorization. Along with the demolition of a former temple there were raids by pagan "idols" and books, which were then destroyed. [110]

If Speyer only "ritual books" suspected [111] as appears clearly too short-sighted. For Christians of late antiquity there may have been no difference in principle between magic books and ritual books. In their understanding, and the Neoplatonists, was every pagan rite a invocation of demons, as well as in the magic. In such a world view is also the difference between secular and pagan spell books books for most Christians should have blurred.

The books exterminations of 5 and 6Century were rich wide activities ecclesiastical institutions with the approval of the secular power. If more reports are received from the eastern part of the empire, which reflects probably just better lore location of this area. [112]

In the year 526 the Emperor Justinian had the Academy of Athens close. In the year 546 he issued a ban on teaching to Gentiles and let pagan "grammarians, rhetoricians, doctors and lawyers" track and 562 "pagan books" publicly burned. [113] From the order of these events suggests that the pagan books probably only with house searches were found. This makes it clearer why Chrysostom most likely guessed by 400 pagan books still owned by Christians. They were not or less threatened by appropriate house searches.

The connection between the classical sciences and the magic of books could be even more direct than previously thought. Thus, in the laws of Late Antiquity since 409 "mathematician" obliged "to burn their books before the eyes of the bishops, failing which it had to drive from Rome and all the churches." [114] Usually equated mathematician in late antiquity with astrologers. However, this does not seem imperative. In mathematics, the antiquity understood essential parts of the classical sciences. Only in simple language use among astrologers (Magi) were understood. [115]

Sarefield found in his dissertation on the ancient book burning particularly in the reports of the 5th and 6Century, a blurring of concepts between books on magic or simply pagan content. [116]

It is on the 5th and 6Century but no apparent radicalization, on the contrary. The traditional processes were no longer associated with executions. This also suggests that the culmination of the persecution in the 4th Century took place. Therefore, when the 5th and 6Century, a common equation of magic books and general pagan books can now be seen, then this is the time of Ammianus and Chrysostom in the 4th Century even likely.

Sarefield got the impression that "book burning an outstanding manifestation of religious violence in the late Roman period was." [117] It became the "holy violence" with the exercise of believing Christians to please God. [118] This view Sarefield `s destruction of non-Christian books can be the entire Middle Ages show

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through. [119]

Was the assassination of pagan philosophers and the burning of their books a random excess or were there deeper reasons for it? For this is the view of John Chrysostom, a saint and church father of special importance. [120] He was not only the prominent Christian thinker for the late fourth Century. He was also one of the last Christian thinkers who could differentiate between magicians, rhetoricians and philosophers yet. Than 100 years later Neoplatonists dominated the pagan Philopsophie this difference was barely present. Because these "philosophers" think of themselves as magicians. [121]

For Chrysostom scientists, philosophers therefore, a competing group were "full of tricks brings no benefit." The Its comparison with the then Acting ascetics gives insight into a bizarre state of mind. [122] In the above quote for books destruction he directly mentioned the philosophers who have set about to destroy the Christian doctrine. He welcomes the destruction of their books and their contents is called a "satanic ridicule". In eimem other text he describes how he imagines the future:

"And it was the result of unspeakable power that [the apostles], driven only by their command, they raised the dead to life, casting out the demons of death, the tongues of philosophers stopped zunähten the mouths of the rhetorician, kings and rulers overpowered, and were victorious over barbarians, pagans and every nation. " [123]

Here also worldly deeds, such as healing the sick are ("marketed death") or victory over barbarians, achieved by means of unspeakable power. John Chrysostom says here a special form of divine assistance, which was the true believers accessible through asceticism. This goes back to the sacred "Antony the Great" (251? -356), Especially propagated by Athanasius writing "Life of Antony" around 360 AD.

Anthony lived for 10 years as a hermit in a cave on a mountain grave. As a hermit, he saw himself: "three battles snatched: The hearing, seeing, the speeches he has only to lead a fight.! Against the uncleanness" What he experienced there knows modern medicine as endogenous hallucination caused by sensory deprivation. Such "shutdown of the senses", for hours or days, through eyeglasses, hearing protection and fixation is used for decades as a method of torture.

As his biographer says, Antonius had in this period of intense contact with the demons him "Try" wanted. The intellectual background for the interpretation of these visions had Anthony by Origen in Alexandria county, with whom he was in contact. This group laid the foundations of the demonology of Christianity, partly of neo-Platonism.

Accordingly, there are no laws of nature, but all operations are controlled by demons. These demons are a threat also experienced directly through the senses and for Christians. Can to fight against it Christians who died martyr or saint call. These have to bring similar power as pagan demons and can Christians directly with the power of God in connection. Anthony is said to have undergone miraculous healings and exorcisms in front of visitors as in later years, as the Apostle Paul. Especially by Athanasius very influential scripture applies Anthony as the founder of Christian monasticism.

Chrysostom was familiar with this idea. In response to pagan philosophers he makes it clear that he moved a world rejected by natural laws. Because these laws were the work of demons. Instead, only the will of God moving things. What consequences did this worldview, makes one of Eusebius of Caesarea (ca. 263-339) reported clear legend. Accordingly, the natural and naturopathic writings of Solomon to have been destroyed because the people have been looking for the cure of diseases from these writings and not from the supplication to God. [124]

From this perspective, the destruction of Chrysostom also scientific pagan writings even had a double

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advantage. Asking for God's will can not be bypassed. The expected decay of civilization, the general standard of living that leads people to asceticism, the easier turn leads to God. So he wrote, looking back at the victory of Christianity:

"It is not only the tradition resisted, but also the joy of life dominated [the globe], two tyrannical factors. Because the Greeks were persuaded to despise what they receive in many years of the fathers, grandfathers, great-grandfathers, ancestors, philosophers and rhetoricians had. Though it was extremely awkward, they have been led to adopt a new and different tradition, namely, a very laborious. And that was even more difficult to accomplish. " [125]

From this view of the world is the collapse of ancient civilization no misfortune but an opportunity to improve the people. The destruction of all pagan literature, especially the scientific, was this an essential prerequisite. To encourage people to Chrysostom felt as very difficult task. Nevertheless, he and his colleagues this work has been successful.

This statement of the late antique part of the tradition history is still supported by other information. The ancient world probably had a relatively high literacy rate. Pliny wrote his encyclopedia specifically for farmers. Papyrus finds from Egypt confirm that poor farmers could read in the provinces clearly and write. A grave stone found in Bavaria, set by a slave for a slave, even points to literacy rural slaves in the provinces. [126] For urban slaves that was occupied for some time.

A law requiring the last pagan emperor, Julian the Apostate tried to Christians would be excluded from teaching, is a legend. [127] After a subsequent law in the 4th Century, it was only allowed Christians to act as a teacher. This was apparently the beginning of the school monopoly by the church, which is still defended them against secular influence at The poetess. Writing woman, the end of the Middle Ages. Around 700, the literacy was but arrived in Pompeii 70 AD. Christian Europe at close to zero. This seems to have had something to do with the traditional ancient literature. Augustine of Hippo (354-430), the most important church father of the late antiquity, argued for the preservation of pagan literature. But in principle, only sealed in a library, because he wanted to see it neither distributed nor taught. He spoke out against the doctrine of ars grammatica and everything that goes out. Only ecclesiastical writings were used. [128]

It was therefore fully in line with the church father, when Pope Gregory the Great (540-604) solidified a clearly negative attitude to the ancient education. He avoided strictly ancient quotes, blamed outraged a bishop of the grammar taught and finally let this even prohibit by law. [129] Likewise, Isidore of Seville, who warned in his rules for monasticism, very well-established students should be allowed pagan writings to read. Probably one reason why he tried to write summaries of them. Hagen Dahl: One feels after Cassiodorus says Manitius, "transported to another world: mysticism, superstition, and the miraculous now overgrow the earlier often so logical and proper representation" . [130]

But as a result of this cultural politics, the church could not even hold in its inner region the literacy rate. Cassiodorus struggled with the low literacy of his monks and failed it. Lowe: "Of the rules of spelling and grammar, which he laid down, one can judge how deep the scholarship had already fallen in his time." [131] At the time of Isidore of Seville then a law had to be adopted, the illiterate by the Office of Bishop excluded - the highest office, which had to forgive the church at that time.

Bishop Isidore of Seville , the most important writer of the early Middle Ages could read and write, though.

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However, his education was so low that he sometimes does not understand the content of texts. Cassiodorus knew the concept of the globe and still preferred only the flat earth. [132] Isidore knew, however, no longer the idea of spherical shape and held the earth really for a round disc. An ancient text that described the climate circles, he interpreted as circles, which are distributed such as fried eggs in a pan on the surface of this disc. [133] He was at least partly what today is called a functional illiterate. Yet he was, especially because of its very popular medieval encyclopedia, the greatest Christian scholars of his time. And: "Isidor was the Middle Ages authority in the evaluation of the pagan authors." [134]

Most monks of the Middle Ages were also illiterate. Even many writers of codices painted only the textual image of the original from. [135] This also had the advantage, that the copies of this period are very true to the original - you do not dare to "improve" the template.

From the 16th and 17Century back reckoning is coming for the beginning of the Late Middle Ages, around 1350, on a literacy rate in Europe of about 1%. [136] As a rough estimate, this means that 90% of the rural population are completely illiterate, of the 10% urban population, it is then in turn only 10 % who can read and write. The median age was from 700 to 1500 but evidence of a steady increase in writing. It has closed the literacy rate by 600, at the time of Isidore, have significantly lower, below 0.1%. It could have been at that time in Europe, less than 1,000 people who could Literacy rate to 2000 AD. The younger curves ... read and write. You may have for several centuries in Europe Read more Jews and write as Christians. One reason for the Church to maintain their cultural supremacy, this group isolate of Christians. The anti-Semitism of the Middle Ages has not yet been studied from this point.

The pursuit started around 375 of paganism and all ancient books may have been everyday throughout the Roman Empire until 407. In January 407, Germanic tribes crossed the Rhine and took control in the province of Gaul. According to archaeological findings, it was more of a takeover, [137] the upper class has been replaced, the bulk of the population remained in place. Similar happened to 493 in Italy, when the Ostrogoths under Theodoric ran down there. This was around 500 the entire western part of the former empire under the control of "barbarians". These barbarians, mostly German tribes, the ancient culture, however, looked very positive. Some were Christians, but with distinctly different ideas than the Catholic Rome. They had a life full of privation behind and wanted to purchase the higher standard of living. Asceticism was not her desire.

There was no systematic destruction of cultural goods still burns books as before under Christian rule römischerer. On the contrary, read secular books Theodoric translations from the Greek into Latin Create [138] and made to Romans classically educated closest advisers. Some of their writings known today Boethius and Cassiodorus. For a renaissance of the educational level of the Romans but was already too low to be religious. They did not understand the basics of classical philosophy, she held even for a form of divination or magic. [139] All of this was an obvious consequence of the fact that there has been in Italy by 500 antique books no more. [140]

The situation was quite different north of the Alps. Before 400 there was a long land border with Barbaricum that to east especially for Romans was more passable West. While the "terror" should some scholars to have fled to the barbarians. The lower standard of living rocked to the lack of tracking more than. The books and

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their owners were for the Barbarians real bearer of culture. [141]

If even so came only a larger private library to the barbarian, then this were to 10,000 titles. [142] If only one thousandth of the existing in the realm of books made it across the border, then these were around 100 000 pieces. [143] Not a single this ancient books survived until the Renaissance. [144]

Direct reports of their destruction but there is little. This is also not surprising, since the church practically controlled the creation and delivery of all historical records. The only few, usually indirect references to the almost total destruction of books in the Empire in the 4th Century are a clear sign of this policy of cover-up. Amazing how something that millions of people witnessed after some time could disappear from history.

The books destruction was a measure aimed at achieving and maintaining of asceticism. In the majority of the population, the Church could not expect much agreement there. On the contrary, the memory could it lead to a loss of reputation and trust. Even in our own ranks, there were always people who were positive the knowledge of antiquity over. For the fight against the remnants of the ancient times, it needed a special group that did so deeply involved. This was the Irish monasticism. From the history and legacy of the events can be reconstructed.

Ireland and the Classics

Ireland was never under Roman administration. Virtually surrounded by Römischebn Empire it was closely connected with this. We conducted trade, [145] Irishman ("Scotti") established settlements in western England [146] and probably presented auxiliary troops for the Roman army in France. [147] Irish place leaving written traces in the kingdom on the continent [148] and took culture from the continent back to the island. Archaeological finds show Christian influence already for the 4th Century. [149]

An early medieval note [150] describes as a result of the barbarian invasions in the first half of the 5th Century (from 407) an exodus of scholars from Gaul to Ireland. They "brought a very large increase in the scholarship to the residents of these areas." [151]

Kenney, who collected all the documents the early history of Ireland, sees clear evidence of a transfer of classic educational heritage of the island. [152] Specifically, he mentions four points [153] of which the "Hisperica Famina" is particularly of interest. It is a collection of poems from the 9th/10th. Century contains the apparently classical parts of Ireland. [154] There are speakers, their school and the Latin language glorifies it. The style is reminiscent of bucolic poetry, the content relates to the life world of ancient rhetoric students. The Latin scholars, teachers, did not come from Ireland. Because they have trouble dealing with the only Irish-speaking country people. [155]

Apparently Ireland was really a haven for classical scholars and their books, from the 5th or even from the 4th Century as a result of Ammianus 'terror' against books owner. Because these details certainly seem an origin before the Christian conquest of Ireland by St. Patrick. Under him no rhetoricians would have been appreciated. It also lacks any reference to church environment or monastic life.

The missionary work in Ireland

The mission of Ireland by St. Patrick in the 5th Century have been handed down no relevant contemporary records. It was not until about 200 years later there are reports of Tirechan and Muirchu in the Book of Armagh. They are based on today lost records at the time were still present. [156]

Tirechan and Muirchu mention in the mission Patricks multiple wizards as leaders or consultants pagan

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Lords. These wizards are as ancient philosophers, scholars, recognizable. Both in the clothing, [157] as well as the function. [158]

In the St. Patrik self-written texts of wizards never mentioned. But he mentions the "dominicati rethorici audite et scrutamini", which is traditionally translated as philosophically erudite landlords. Apparently, ancient scholars were only in the 7th Century are represented as magicians. More recently, the term is sometimes somewhat loosely translated as "learned clergy". Some ancient Landlords also had spiritual functions. The suffix "audite et scrutamini" but indicated on the administrative functions such as police, inspection of the judiciary. Undoubtedly is the main cultural institutions of pagan Ireland. Thus, they were the main protagonists Patrick.

How Muirchu reported these magicians have come foreseen by Patrick mission. [159] In this context, a poem was of Muirchu handed. It is a unique document of the sight of the nations of the upcoming Mission Patrick:

Coming will ax head, By sea wild head, His coat hollow head, His staff Krumm head, His table to the East in his house, The sounds from his response: Amen, Amen. [160]

As a hollow head with the crook probably St. Patrick is meant. He described himself several times as bad in Latin and of just simple education. [161] A magician came to Patrick to negotiate but it made him kill within sight of the Gentiles. [162]

Then it came to a fight. This is portrayed without the force by Patrik to mention. Never fighter or violence are mentioned on pages Patricks always these posts shall be replaced by miracles. This rewriting of history, even when a saint, as well as the destruction of the original story, is an extreme process. Without command or permission of higher Church authorities would have been impossible. The corresponding verification of other hagiographies would make sense, because this can hardly be an isolated case.

A magician was after Patrick won the battle burned with his books. The king was "very upset" when he heard of the death of the magician. The fear was too great and he told his Senate ". It is better to die as I am a believer" The Senate voted for baptism and so were many believers. [163] His reign was preserved, his descendants remained the office but forever prohibited. [164]

This was guaranteed that the educational tradition of Konigshauses went out with this Herscher. The entire stock of classic books that Ireland in the 5th Century must have had, was completely destroyed. Only fragments thereof can be found in the church books.Some grammars and word explanations for the preservation of the Latin language were probably still present. But even the access to anthologies (collections of quotations) was limited to a very small circle.

Columban and the Classics

The thesis of classic traditions of Ireland rested essentially on St Columban (Columban of Luxeuil, 540-615), his knowledge of the classics, and his poetry in the classical style. But his quotations may not be closed on his knowledge of the whole book [165]

In particular, on the islands are even somewhat later period hardly classics available. [166] At least from Ireland, there is also no evidence for a transfer of such books on the continent. [167] This aktzeptieren defender Columbanus. [168] For the few classics originate in insular script only from the continent and also

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only from the Carolingian period - nearly 200 years after Columban. [169]

Columban could have his style knowledge from a collection Scripture, [170] but Bischoff, familiar with the traditional scriptures, however, believes Columban got his knowledge of the classics only on the continent. For all his writings relating thereto date from this period. [171]

However, there is consensus that Columbanus familiarity with the classics was unique in his time in Ireland and on the Continent beginning of the 7th Century [172]

Now, if Columban, the most significant known representative of the classical to 600 AD, his knowledge has not acquired from classics in Ireland, what does this say about the culture of the Irish Church this time? About the setting of the Irish monks to humanistic education?

The Irish Church and the Humanism

When Ludwig Bieler writes about the early medieval Ireland, there would be there no trace of a humanistic attitude, [173] he means the literary tradition. But you can still examine this from another point of view. Humanism, the ideas of the classic is based on the idea of human development. Especially the youth, by example and transmission of knowledge. A mental process which is based on insight without any violence. Was there this Hummanismus in the Irish Church? Purpose of Padberg:

"In addition there are two Irish peculiarities, which should be significant for the further development. Practiced in the monasteries buses and the concept of Peregrinatio all sins had to be confessed, and in penitentials, an entirely new genus, was listed which compensation performance of the had to provide for Christ. decisive for the entire Middle Ages it was that the buses was primarily understood as a punishment rather than as ameliorative and healing task.

Not the intention, but after the deed was asked, and thus were external works and services in the foreground. Piety was countable. Because it's not so much arrived on the ethical improvement, but to the collective balance, you could buy themselves free of the penance also characterized in that a deputy was allowed to atone for one's sins. In practice therefore followed punishment and buses, repentance was not asked.

Lutz E. von Padberg: The Christianization of Europe in the Middle Ages, Stuttgart 1998, pp. 66f

This violent criminal culture was the opposite of humanism. She had neither the improvement of the living conditions of its people nor the goal. Aptly describes Bieler, in his book "Ireland. Pioneer of the Middle Ages", the Irish monasticism as marked by an "escape from the world and ... strict asceticism". [174]

It was just Columban, who brought to the continent with his mission this anti-humanist culture of Ireland:

"Although finds the monastic rule of Columbanus with their iron rigor that suppresses any own volition, punish the most insignificant offenses with blows, even in the Frankish kingdom entrance and spread of a foundation to the other, but it is nevertheless modified soon, coupled with other rules ". [175]

Specifically, by Padberg on Columbanus monasteries:

Its rules were hard, and after the Bussvorschriften constantly threatened caning. "Who", it is said there, "hat at the beginning of a psalm and not good singing, will be punished by six strokes." [176]

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Growing up in such an environment led probably to the same changes in brain structure as it showed the below mentioned research at the NIH. These monastic rules an ascetic group whose hostility towards humanism and secular culture emerged to traditional saying it was passed down from generation to generation in education. A typical Irish monk to 600 is not opposed to the content of the classics with indifference but with open hostility. For him they were seduction to sin. This basic conflict, traditionally contested by the Church, has been mostly overlooked. It is important to understand the present-day results of the Irish mission.

The result of the mission

End of the 6th Century began a group of Irish monks under St. Columban missionary with the Franks, Alamanni, Lombards on the continent. They founded to several monasteries. Most famous Luxeuil (about 590), St. Gallen (613) [177] , Bobbio (614) and of Luxeuil from Corbie (660). Although Fleury (640) was founded by the Benedictines, but showed with his "Celtic-continental writing" (Bischoff) [178] clear Irish influence.

Were produced in these monasteries, such as on the islands, almost exclusively theological writings. However, you wrote them sometimes on parchment, from which you previously erased classics (mostly washed) had. For such classics "palimpsests" is these monasteries particularly famous. Bischoff:

"The most valuable and important Western Palimpsesthandschriften, with writings of the fourth (third?) To VII century that have been overwritten in the seventh and eighth centuries, have been handed down from Bobbio, Luxeuil, Fleury, Corbie and St Gallen, including Cicero, "De re publica" and speeches, Plautus, Fronto ... " [179]

At Fleury: Historiae "Here is the last manuscript of Sallust was" "partly reskribiert, partly processed to endpapers." [180]

The most valuable palimpsests are regarded today as a result of the Irish mission:

Reynolds to Palimpsest: "The peak period for this surgery what the seventh and early eighth centuries, and Although palimpsests survive from many centers, the bulk of them have come from the Irish foundations of Luxeuil and Bobbio." [181]

It is disputed whether the goal was the destruction of ancient texts or only the extraction of writing material. Mollweide mentioned by Lowe and Bischoff öfterts, saw a targeted destruction. [182]

Lowe thought it possible that Bobbio was merely an especially poor monastery and therefore dependent on palimpsests. Prince, an expert on the early Western monasticism, however, leads to some points. [183]

The fact that about the same time, the top 7 Century, Isidore of Seville "that has become the skinny remains of ancient educational tradition encyclopedia-like once again summed up, but this also with the explicit intention to do everything superfluous for church needs Unnecessary." S. 466

The fact that earlier on the Paralell between the hostile attitude of Pope Gregory the Great classics and practice of the monastery of Bobbio has been mentioned. [184]

That Bobbio may have been a poor monastery, this may have been no reason for the destruction of the classics. [185]

Considering plus the Irish monastic culture, one must ultimately with Mollweide motivation in a hostility to classical culture see. All indications point clearly in this direction only. But how is the classic with St.

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Columban's poetry to agree? Brown noticed Coulmban had for what style he had to use the occasion a sense. [186] For successful missionaries that was certainly a prerequisite. Columban had to build sympathy among lovers of classics. Otherwise he would have had no chance to track down the books. The owners had been posing as ignorant and her books were too easy to hide.

Ultimately, St. Columban has only continued what St. Patrick with the Irish missionary 100 years previously successfully performed. This explains the total loss of all the classics on the island, as well as the ability of Columbanus to accomplish a similar mission on the continent. Another Irishman, St. Boniface (ca. 675-755), undertook the same in the 8th Century on the continent in the field of Anglo-Saxons in Friesland. Boniface was similar Columban teacher of grammar and poetry.

He was murdered in Friesland. A few decades later, 784 AD, is the 5th Decade of Livy in the possession of the Bishop of Utrecht. Utrecht was Damal the mission center for Friesland. Probably we owe it to the influence of the Carolingians that this book today, as CLA X, 1472, exists. These are the volumes 41-45 of 142 volumes comprehensive historical work of Livy (60 BC - 17 AD), the largest and most important historical work of ancient times.

The book was written in the early fifth Century in Italy. It is the only tradition of the 5th Decade. Of the 142 volumes are now 107 lost. Even in the 8th Century was the first in Luxeuil Decade palimpsestiert (CLA 4.499). It was also from the 5th Century, even Italy. Lowe keeps it at least for Luxeuil as certain that the erasure must also have taken place there. [187]

Because Luxeuil was the first monastery there and wiped out the texts show a systematic unwanted content. There were among them three biblical texts in a translation older than Jerome. Thus they were not canonical and were destroyed as all non-canonical Christian scriptures. The identify of such writings was desperate but a relatively high level of education ahead. Only the Irish seem to have formed at this time in this region capable of doing, or been willing.

A similar motivation must therefore be assumed for the erasure of the classics. There were Luxeuil among others, Virgil, Ovid, Livy, Pliny the Elder, and even a Latin Euclid. At the time of Boethius (ca. 478-525) is no longer one knew Euclid's "Elements" in Latin in Italy. For Boethius wanted to make a translation. This is but lost, [188] they could have been wiped out in Luxeuil. [189]

Nearly all the books of the Goths were destroyed, a few with Part of the enigmatic Latin Luxeuil-Euclid Christian content were wiped out in Bobbio. As in Luxeuil to (CLA 4.501) end 5 Century, overwritten in palimpsestierenden texts were apparently subjected to a content the 8th Century in Luxeuil or environment preselection. Here tables or obviously dangerous texts are not with Gregory's Moralia. Who but Boethius among them, they do not even seem to have come to the dealt at that time with the preservation of monastery. The palimpsestierten classics, mostly from the 5th Euclid? Century, are a very special selection. They all stem from the corpus of titles that are in the Carolingian Renaissance emerge around 800 AD. The Carolingian corpus made but only by 0.1% of the total of antiquity. Since the palimpsestierte classic body is mostly a subset of the Carolingian classic body, exists between the two a hitherto unrecognized connection. [190]

The palimpsest body, partially written safely in Italy is likely to come from the barbarian. At least from the now evangelised by Irish areas of Gaul and Germania. But from the ancient books in Barbaricum it may also have been only a small fraction of the local title. How then could this selection be done? It has until the 7th and 8Century have given a list or description of allowed ancient title. The Irish failed to keep it and have it still wiped out. So they have given us unintentionally this very important information for the evaluation of

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the Carolingian classic corpus.

The scientific discussion about the reasons for the downfall of the Roman Empire has been running for over 200 years without a consensus view is. During the fall of the empire barbarian invasions played a role, has the demise of ancient literature, and thus the ancient culture, had purely internal causes. Also here can be little doubt about the validity of the word exist downfall. And the main factor is very obvious: "Worse is [as the Germanization] for the Roman culture of the final victory of Christianity." [191] But how could a religion which today stands for peace and tolerance of Western civilization, such a culture cause disaster? The most important explanation proposals are briefly discussed it.

A consequence of the power struggle?

Even though the martyr stories may seem like overkill be little doubt that the Roman state tried to destroy early Christianity as a relevant movement. The State relied on the at his disposal all the means. The Christians then knew these means, they put it themselves later for the destruction of paganism one. Almost for each measure, which now Anwanden the Christians against the pagan culture left to find an earlier example of the persecution of Christians. [192] From this perspective, it was the struggle between two cultures to a won total victory. Ignoring Chrysostom so far remained an open question whether the complete destruction of the books from pagan times was a goal or a side effect.

Defense of the faith against the secular knowledge?

With the ancient books and the secular knowledge was destroyed. This was in late antiquity sure so extensive and complicated that an oral tradition was no longer possible. Thus, one of the former doctrine to competing belief was destroyed. The competitors consisted of daily things such as healing the sick [193] but also in the course of complex military operations. [194]

The greatest threat to the pure faith but works could have been pagan entertainment. Many classic set a world is with figures, in which the reader could empathize without problems. Also, the reader could learn from knowledge about the world that he could apply himself. The ecclesiastical writings, however, only taught about faith and promised only limited help. Only partly, because a failure of the aid could be always interpreted as a test or reminder of the lack of faith. Probably the most dangerous were the pornographic texts of antiquity. In the pagan Roman culture pornographic images of all kinds were widespread throughout everyday life. [195]

A related youth protection was totally absent. Such fond of worldly pleasures, why should a person then take care of the souls in the afterlife? This threat could except a ban virtually nothing to counter the church. It is no coincidence if already at 200 Church Father Tertullian [196] not only the pagan philosophers wishes (the scientists of the ancient world), but also the actors damn and hell. [197] consistently warns Isidor later explicitly pagan poets [198] and represents actors on the same level with prostitutes, criminals and thieves [199]

End time expectations?

Was the destruction of knowledge and the culture of Entschriftlichung a targeted lead of several measures to the civilization of the ancient world into a disaster? The fall of Rome, the conquest of the empire by barbarians, was actually perceived by contemporaries as apocalyptic, like a doomsday. However, there is no

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indication that this event was interpreted (or even worse in the 6th century) as revenge on Rome for the execution of Jesus Christ or the like. Today's interpretation of the Bible was essentially the former and read do not.

However, more relevant is the end times thought of the NT, which is similar to the AT thoroughly. In the Old Testament, the Jewish state had come only in dire distress before God his Heavenly host sends to the kingdom of God to build on the earth. [200] In the New Testament must first occur before the paradise is on earth and the history of mankind a great disaster fulfilled. So the prophecy at the end of the Bible, in the Apocalypse of John Annes. The belief in the imminent catastrophic end of the world pervades the entire Middle Ages and is still used in modern times. During the Cold War were in the United States of concerns the very religious President Reagan could be inclined to wage a nuclear war to fulfill the prophecy. [201]

It can not be excluded that for individuals of late antiquity, this could have been a motivation. At least it was a way of consolation in misery when later generations for a much better life is safe. [202] In all faith interpretations of Christianity, it is strictly forbidden by any acts to provoke God directly to action. Also prohibited are bringing the other Christians in danger any avoidable actions. As long as distinctly different views of late antiquity are not assigned this cause remains merely conceivable.

Typical fundamentalist?

Sauer, in his book on iconoclasm, could not help the religiously motivated destruction of late antiquity with which to compare the Taliban in Afghanistan. World famous whose iconoclasm was at the blast of the 1500 years old Buddha statues in Bamiyan in 2001. Less well known was the systematic destruction of archaeological finds in the storerooms of the Kabul Ministry of Culture. The journal was to Archaeology a picture with this text:

"Here are a half Kubickmeter of vorangig Gandharan and Bactrian findings from the Kabul Museum, in pieces no bigger than my little finger. Taliban arrived in the morning, hammering until the prayer time, paused, pounded again, paused for tea, then they hammered for the rest of the day. " [203]

The approach shows a significant Paralell to the intensive late antique destruction in the Dendera Temple, the monks must have working on ladders weeks or even months. [204] The Taliban also showed other features of late antique Christianity. Women were legally and practically second-class people, theater and dance were banned, other religions were banned Events punished homosexuality with death, almost abolished science. In practice, the Taliban school teachers were killed, set on fire girls' schools, women painted under the burkha fingernails had cut off the fingers, children are forbidden kite flying, television and video cassettes burned in public in a museum even people in landscape images had to be painted over. [205]

Such extreme acts are today mostly associated with religious fundamentalism. Extreme violence as punishment for acts which are not or hardly deserving of punishment in the secular state is the essential feature. Low interest or even the rejection of worldly knowledge is another. Frederick Prince, an expert in early monasticism, the latter just looks at the leading Christian intellectuals around 400 AD. The basic attitude of people like Jerome and Augustine, despite their public speaking skills, clearly "fundamentalist" (Prince) and a major contributor to the intellectual decline thereafter. [206] The term "religious fundamentalism" has the unmistakable direction.

A question of brain structure?

Following Humboldt's "Cosmos" wrote physicist Carl Sagan 1980 eponymous and equally influential book. [207] He describes in the history of life, mankind and its environment in space. With the end of antiquity to 400 [208] he sees then the collapse "a thousand years of darkness - a painful loss for humanity." [209] Sagan gives the late antique Christianity to blame, presented in this context, but a completely new interpretation.

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He refers to the results of a research program at the National Health Office of the United States. [210]

This program recycled statistical analysis of anthropological data from 400 cultures. Most of the 19th and 20thCentury, but also from ancient times. To this end, evidence emerges of experimental brain research in humans and primates, criminology and forensic medicine. The scientific director of the program, James W. Prescott, came to the conclusion that a propensity for violence is directly linked to functional brain structures. The formation of these structures is determined by experiences in childhood and can then be influenced only limited. Apparently requires the human brain in the first months and years of a sufficient stimulation of the skin. Failure to do so can only have the option to early sexual activity prevent deformity. This malformation occurs [211] but, as it is handed down by education from generation to generation. Affected groups and individuals to show a significantly greater tendency to Religiosiät. Also for Aktzeptanz violence measures [212] and the condemnation of sexual pleasure. [213]

The chastity and the clear prohibition of premarital intercourse could have been here essential factors in late antique Christianity. Nowhere is there in Christianity a limitation as to the loving treatment of babies and small children. Two factors may play an unfavorable role in this but. An adult person who can already suffers from the sexual restrictions perceive the stimulation of a naked child as clearly negative event and will try to stop. Also, because of the fear the child might otherwise "effeminate" negative development - namely, other than the observer himself Another factor could be a lack of emotional attachment to the mother to be with the child. The ban on contraception and abortion led to many unwanted children who could not receive the necessary dedication. [214]

The sexual restrictions in Christianity are the adults the opportunity to give a freewill offering to render to God. A clear waiver as proof of devotion. That, however, this leads to a shift in culture, the lasting influence the brain development of the next generations, no one could foresee. Apparently, here the late antique Christianity has made a sacrifice that went far beyond any expectation and everything Wünschbare addition.

The book

The term book is not always clear in the lore. Only from the context, one can conclude or suspect whether a role or Codex is meant. Generally a book as a title and a band. This is common today, but did not apply to the Codex before 1500. A physical book is referred to in German as a band, but this does not apply to the English "Volume".

The role

The role was in ancient times as a book with literary content (as opposed to certificate or letter) from papyrus and usually typed on one side. In about one can a role with a title equate (see below). Most important for statistical information are the roles of Oxyrhynchus. The scrolls among the finds from Oxyrhynchus are from the first to 7th Century.Already in the 4th Century there was a massive decline (-75%) of book production at the same rapid increase (+500%) of the Christian content. [215] Therefore, the data set affects almost only the first up to 4Century It is not enough before the first Century, as the local conditions, probably the increasing depth in soil moisture, the deeper, older material, have destroyed.

According to these data by WA Johnson, The Literary Papyrus Roll (Yale 1992), the average length was 10.3 m. However, this is an extrapolation of fragments, probably influenced by some large rolls (19 to 29 m) Herodotus , Plato and Thucydides . The existence of such large roles appears elsewhere occupied. Axon mentioned a 120 feet (40 m) long Homer role, written with gold letters, as an inventory of the palace library of Constantinople Opel by 400 [216] It was probably a more spread-presented exhibition piece from a pagan

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school or library.

The eminent German papyrologist Dieter Hagedorn estimates the average roll on 3 to 4 m, but believes "rolls of 10 m length were probably not uncommon." [217] Pöhlmann comes from literature searches to a value of 6 to 11 m. [218 ] Perhaps we can assume an average length of the scroll 6-8 m. Particularly relevant, this value is only used to calculate the stocks of cabinets in wall niches, if only these walls remains exist of an ancient library.

More importantly, the average number of letters per roll. It was at Johnson's record of Oxyrhynchus 83,300 per roll. Values of 150,000 appear for 10 to 12 m long rolls of great works, such as Herodotus, still to have been common. The average character width was 3.3 mm, but could range from 5 to less than 2 mm. The number of letters per roll is independent of the average size of the roll.

Axon presented a statistic of 14 works by seven traditional famous Latin authors. Although they are only transmitted as the Codex, but since in roles ("books", "Volume") divided the works, one can well close to the number of roles. There were a total of 141 rolls together 7'755'903 letters. Axon so received an average of 53'860 letters per roll. It seems likely that the Romans, wealthy and practical minded than the Egyptians, have somewhat smaller roles preferred. In the following, the value of Oxyrhynchus with 83'300 letters per roll is used because it is based on a larger data set.

The Codex

The Codex, which is similar to our present books, was already in the first Century common in Rome for trivial literature. [219] Most of the Codex parchment was sometimes handy, but still more expensive than the papyrus roll. Codices papyrus pages were also common. The most ancient known by finds from Egypt, and contained in scope about 4 papyrus scrolls. However, the size of the Codex changed drastically in late antiquity.

Up to 3Century is not known Codex, which had more than 300 pages (150 sheets), most had less. From 400 and from the 5th Century are then handed codices, which had at least 638, 1460, 1600 and 1640 pages. Ulpian 35 roles "Ars Edictum" were found at the time in three codices, each containing 14, 11 and 7 rolls. Gregory the Great mentions that he had placed the text of 35 roles in 6 codices. [220] Roberts and Skeat expected by the end of late antiquity with an average of 6 rolls per Codex. [221] The large codices of late antiquity but were bulky, over-sized monsters by 10 to 20 kg in weight. A value of 4 rolls per Codex fits much better to the Latin and medieval codex 800 also approximately this amount of text (4 x 83,300) and number of titles included. Towards the end of the Middle Ages, during the transition from parchment to paper cheaper, the number of titles could have further reduced. With the spread of printing a title was then just usual. The term Codex should rather be handwritten books reserved. They existed until the 18th Century, as the copying of individual books was significantly cheaper than a seat in the press.

Number of titles in web and Codex

In ancient times, very widespread large works contained some rolls per title. The Latin axon formation (see above), which he considers representative, came with 14 tracks (works) to an average of 10 rolls per title. However, this value refers only to traditional books. From antiquity itself there is a clear statement for the period around 235 BC. Accordingly, the Library of Alexandria contained 490,000 rolls at that time of 400,000 (80%) with "mixed content". [222] This would not only several titles but even more authors be meant for each role. Several tracks on a role could also indicate unusually large roles in the early days of the library. Our data on the size of the rollers are mainly from the economically better, more pragmatic Roman imperial period. Looking at the roll size of the old Greek classics (Homer, Herodotus, etc.) in relation to the values of Oxyrhynchus or the Latins statistics of axon, this indicates a reduction in the average size of the role. This would then lead rather to only one title per roll.

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How can the discrepancy between the antique value of a roll per title to the traditional stock of an average 10 rolls per title explain? It could have to do with the tradition by large late antique codices. The editions by 400, the most famous (allowed) have included works of their time. These were then mainly large works of Pliny , Livy , and Aulus Gellius with 37, 35 and 20 rolls. The 3 tracks of Tacitus , each consisting of a role were probably only survived because of the Annales (12 rolls) and Historia were (5) summarized in a Codex. In a personal selection with a tendency to the most famous and therefore usually works at the largest corpus thus obtained a clear Anwachen the number of rollers per title is to be expected.

It is interesting to the determination of JO Ward.Thus, the circulating medium in the Middle Ages was not the Codex, which stands today in the library, but the "Booklet". It was from the circumference is not greater than 1 to 2 rollers. Several booklets were then in the Middle Ages, usually even later, tied to codices. [223] As a circulating booklet had to include at least a title, the title typical size seems to have lain in the Middle Ages 1 to 2 rolls. The size of an average plant, a title, before the time of printing, therefore, was more in the area of a major magazine article, and not that of a modern book. The equation of a title with a role is expected to fall for antiquity, at least the magnitude safely.

Frequency of magic books

Under a spell book is meant one today Grimoire . They reportedly contain secret knowledge about magic, demons, and witchcraft. Typical are collections of spells, instructions for rituals or for the production of non-functional miracle drugs. [224]

Be kept strictly separate from such books are notes that were written in the context of rituals. They include petitions to the gods, incantations or curses. Such notes on lead, stone, wood or papyrus have been found by the hundreds. Also not covered by spellbooks individual short magical texts such as recipes for each one ritual.

From the presence of magic books in the tradition or in some papyrus finds there is little to say about the frequency. [225]

The papyrus finds of Oxyrhynchus, however, are from a time when there was little or no persecution of magic books. Since they come from a garbage dump they probably show a cross section of used books at that time. The topics comparison with the titles of Varro (see above) supports this assumption.

The study by Julian Kruger [226] of the literature reception in Oxyrhynchus presented on page 227-245 synopses of 1485 papyrus texts. [227]

Of these, only 14 are connected to witchcraft:

1. PSI 1290 "rite of initiation to the Mysteries" 2. P.Oxy. 1380 "Invocation of Isis" 3. P.Oxy. 1381 "Praise the Imuthes-Asklepios" 4. P.Oxy. 885 "treatise on Divination" (divination) 5. P.Oxy. 2332 "potters oracle" 6. P.Oxy. 886 "Magic Text" 7. P.Oxy. 887 "Magic Text" 8. P.Harr.55 "Magic Text" 9. P.Laur.123 "Magic Text" 10. P.Oxy. 658 "Pagan sacrifice" 11. P.Oxy. inv.50 4B 23 / I (1-3) b "love spell" 12. P.Oxy. 2753 "Magic Spells" 13. PSI 29 "Magic Spells"

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14. P.Osl. 76 "On Divination" (divination)

This 14 would become less than 1% of the total. When viewing Nährer most likely be simple but Bitt or incantation notes. No self. 1, 4, 5 and 14 seem more than individual issues but to be no collections. Counting them yet as spell books, one comes to a share of 0.3% of the total collection. This shows that the proportion of spell books among the books of the ancient times was very low. Probably more of a thousand as one of hundreds.

Note to Skeat (1982)

Above, the role size was discussed and denied a cost advantage of the Codex strictly. The question arose as to why an article by TC Skeat (The Length of the Standard Papyrus Roll and the Cost Advantage of the Codex. Magazine for Papyrology and Epigraphy 45 (1982) pp. 169-175) has not mentioned it. The answer is that in Skeats articles, despite the suggestive title, not to relevant information is included.

The "default role" is the elder by 60 AD by Pliny used term that describes the size at that time in Rome usual papyrus rolls describes. Skeats conclusion of a length of standard roll of about 3.5 m corresponds to the above-mentioned archaeological experience. This default role is probably a trade term and certainly not identical with the literary role. This was, as stated above, rather twice as long.

A cost advantage for the Papyrus Codex could not really show Skeat. Although Skeat calculated that a Codex would have 26% cost advantage for the same amount of text in the role. He presumed that the role was typed on one side of the papyrus codex but on both sides. Therefore, the cost advantage resulted from the half Papyrus need for the Codex - at cost write to Papyrus costs about 1 to 1 But Skeat did not mention three important and it certainly known points:

1Not only Codex pages, but also roles have been described for cost or handling reasons sometimes on both sides. This was for some periods of antiquity even more common. [228] The findings from Oxyrhynchus show this practice [229] and Pliny the Younger mentioned it at the left behind 160 rolls of his uncle. [230]

2 There is a lack in Skeats account higher costs for both sides writable papyrus type.

3There is a lack in Skeats account labor and material costs for the binding of the codex. Even in the simplest Codex, without carvings in the book cover and without metal braces, this could make up a good 10 to 20% additional costs.

These 3 points clearly show the untenability of Skeats cost reduction. Finally, it should be noted that this discussion has nothing to do with the late Roman transition from papyrus to parchment codex. The labor and hence the cost of production parchment were a multiple of papyrus. Unfortunately, Reynolds and Wilson have in their "Scribes and Scholars" (1991) indicated Skeats article as a reference to the late antique transition "From Roll to Codex."

Although Skeat only speaks of papyrus, he is presented by Reynolds and Wilson in the context of Pergamentcodices. All of this can hardly be excused as a chain of failures. Too obvious appears the desire to find arguments for the thesis paraphrase from roll to codex, in order to explain the loss of ancient literature harmless. Victims of these activities is the young scientists who is dedicated to the topic with enthusiasm and empathy and whose trust is abused. [231]

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1. After the initiation economy in the Roman Empire worked during the imperial period between 30 and 40% of all employed persons in agriculture. Around 1800 were still 75 to 80% of Europe's population is employed in agriculture. (Bairoch, Paul. Cities and Economic Development, 1988, p 287) for Germany are 80 to 90% estimated. (Roesener, Werner: introduction to the agrarian history, Darmstadt 1997, p 169.) 2. See [ [1] (http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1&hl=en&ie=UTF8&prev=_t& rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http://de.wikipedia.org /wiki/Diskussion:B%25C3%25BCcherverluste_in_der_Sp%25C3%25A4tantike/Archiv3& usg=ALkJrhinmSIPyVSg0qAW0VYwz76l_P25Aw#Nach_1800.21) ] here 3. This extreme enforcement of religious norms is the essential difference between the religious practice of the Middle Ages compared to the antiquity or modernity. Thousands were executed in the Middle Ages as deviants. Interestingly, the case of Roger Bacon (1220-1292). He was a monk from wealthy backgrounds and had knowledge of at least one, now lost, forbidden book from pagan-classical period. Bacon wanted to build a relationship based on science experiments, such as Galileo later. Quite famous, he was arrested for these new ideas in his own monastery. 4. A collection of the lineages of the most important Latin texts are Michael von Albrecht : History of Roman literature . Vol I and II, dtv, Munich 1997. However, without the tradition history of the second up to 4 Phase. 5. The CLA was only possible as we detail photographs of all codices had at one point available for comparison. Because it was impossible even to spend the precious codices all a place for study. Lowe made this in Princeton. Copies of his extensive photo collection, there is still elsewhere. The UV photography helped you in deciphering palimpsests (wiped out texts) and the IR photography in papyri. For the reconstruction of the history of tradition but these were less important. 6. In this conflict was about the influence of the Catholic Church on schools and universities in Germany. He held under different name until the mid 20th Century and became, according to time, from extreme left (1918-1933) about the liberal center (before 1914) to the extreme right of the political spectrum (1933-45) out. 7. see Discussion with Thomas Wiedemann: "Mommsen's Roman History: Genesis and Influence" http://www.dur.ac.uk/Classics/histos/1997/wiedemann.html 8. That he making that claim, could remind colleagues lately yet. It is unclear whether he ever published it. It is unclear also whether he meant direct falsification of texts or only have a distorting selection. The latter is hardly controversial today. Should he have ever tried it, so persuasive evidence of systematic falsification text it is certainly not succeeded in the tradition history. 9. So John of Salisbury (1120-1180) in "Policraticus" (De Nugis Curialium et vestigiis philosophorum, 1 ii. c. 26). With current state of research is excluded, the St. Gregory the Great (540-604) could have done this. Because of the loss must have occurred before his lifetime. Whether it's one of his predecessors in the 5th Century was, remains speculation. The Palatina Library, founded by Augustus and probably the largest of Rome, disappeared from history without any reference to their fate. 10. Cassiodorus' library collection was reconstructed in 1937 (see below), the library of Isidore by a French author in the 1950s 11. He showed the minor impact of current events on book production and inventory in Italy and the longevity of traditions on papyrus. 12. During the anti-Catholic Kulturkampf played a major role in Germany, it was in the U.S. and the UK rather Marxist or left intellectually dominated flows. As their materialistic embossed view of the Middle Ages has been revised in recent decades with the help of the Catholic Church, graphically described the major U.S. medievalist Norman Cantor in his book "Inventing the Middle Ages" (1991). 13. The fate of Hypatia was the 18th since Voltaire Century put forward as an argument fight secular trends against the Catholic Church. (Dzielska, Maria: Hypatia of Alexandria, London 1995, p 2 et seq.). 14. Protestantism can, with some justification, to present as a child of the late medieval humanism. Especially in Protestant countries was the ancient literature early and wide dissemination. More recently, the destruction of books was brought during late antiquity with the basics of Catholicism in connection even in the Arab world. (Mostafa El-Abbadi. Life and Fate of the ancient Library of Alexandria, 2ed ed, Paris 1992, p 165)

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15. This impression makes Pöhlmann (Pöhlmann, Egert: Introduction to the history and tradition in the textual criticism of ancient literature, 1994) 16. Or even deliberately manipulated. See note on 10% data below 17. Reynolds, LD and Wilson, NG: Scribes and Scholars. A Guide to the Transmission of Greek and Latin Literature, 3rd Ed. Oxford 1991: The fate of the ancient libraries is completely hidden. Nowhere inventory figures from antiquity and the Middle Ages are compared. The small size of Cassiodorus, Isidore and the following libraries is not mentioned. The authors mention several, now lost ancient writings that were still cited around 600 and conclude: "The bulk of Latin literature which shut extant" (p. 81). Ignoring the possibility that these are just quotes from one or a few late antique books - as it proved Lehmann in Isidore (see below). From the existence of some older books is also not close to the continued existence of the majority of the ancient stock. The fact that the libraries of Cassiodorus and Isidore but about 90% of us involved now known ancient works, shows that the decisive selection process to 1: 1000 was already done before. This also will be ignored by the authors. The authors exclusively represent Rewriting / Verrottungsthese without mentioning the criticism. Therefore you doubt the spread of the codex in the 1st Century and keep the above-mentioned by Martial Codex editions of the classics for an unsuccessful attempt. Although the archaeological parts of a parchment codex from Martial's time (. Macedonicis De Bellis, P. Lond ref 121, by an unknown author in Latin around AD 100) just suggesting an early spread - even if much more expensive Codex certainly less numerous was as the role. The assertion by the authors in a subordinate clause, the Codex "may have cost rather less to produce" than the papyrus roll (p. 35) is probably written more out of desperation. Papyrus pages can be bonded to the adhesive itself derived from papyrus to any long rolls. As the findings of Oxyrhynchus show, this was even part of the ancient office work. The work to create a Codex with wooden boards is considerably more extensive. The generation of a parchment page from sheep skin requires many tedious steps and multiples of technical effort and working towards a papyrus page. With reference to Galen (see below) is said a roll of papyrus could be up to 300 years old (p. 34). But Galen mentioned the study of a probably 300 year old role only to prove the care of his text edition. He did not mention the age of the papyrus as something special. Therefore, from his quote to not point to a maximum age, but on an achievable minimum age for roles. The assertion by the authors, the average life of the rolls was lower, is an assumption without evidence. Ultimately, the controversial Rewriting / Verrottungsthese is still even used as an argument for the superior durability of parchment: "... parchment was a much more durable material,. in time its toughness which to prove a vital factor in the survival of classical literature "(p. 34) 18. So after costs notes in Papyrifunden and wage data in finds and to tradition. Lewis, Naphtali: Papyrus in classical antiquity, Oxford 1974, pp. 132f 19. TC Skeat: The Length of the Standard Papyrus Roll and the Cost Advantage of the Codex. Journal for Papyrology and Epigraphy 45 (1982), pp. 169-175. For a discussion of this article below 20. * You produced wrapping paper for wrapping of merchandise (Pliny NH XIII, 76) and used as described roles, including scrolls, to wrap the fish market. Martial mentioned latter. Lewis (1974, p. 130) noted in papyri found (mostly from the imperial period) the very small proportion of palimpsests. Although you could just wash the font, this was rarely done. Lewis to use the back of a role, "and in most the verso is blank - in fact, at Certain levels of society the use of bothsides of the paper which disdained as a sign of poverty or stinginess, and apologized for When unavoidable." The anecdotal Diogenes Laertius wrote rich (VII, 174), the philosopher Gleanthes Zeno's lectures had written on shards and flat ox bone, as would have lacked the money for Papyrus. This has sometimes been interpreted as an indication of high Papyrus prices. In order to recognize the joke, imagine imagine how this student wants to transport the Transcript of a lecture. The anecdote might still have a real basis. Gleanthes was a famous student of Zeno and became his successor as head of the school. It is possible that he could be prepared Zenos devotional ceramic or carving with sayings. Such PR articles have promoted the safe desired notoriety Zenos and his school. 21. Hans Gerstinger, inventory and tradition , Graz 1948.

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22. Although much Greek literature HAS BEEN preserved, the amount Actually Brought down to modern times is probably less than 10% of all that what written (Elmer D. Johnson, A History of Libraries in the Western World , London 1965). The same book was by a new author 30 years later a downright dangerous change in this passage: "Why do we know so little about Greek libraries WHEN search a Relatively large amount of classic Greek literature HAS BEEN preserved? . It is estimated did Perhaps ten percent of the major Greek classical writings have survived "(Harris, Michael H.:. A History of Libraries in the Western World, London 1995, p 51) Harris estimate refers now only to the" major "headings. What he means he can interpret arbitrary, the theorem is therefore not necessarily wrong. However, neither Harris else has one today survivor the opportunity to assess what there was in his book even back then in major journals. The sentence is therefore completely pointlessly. But why this deterioration of the book? In the context of the previous sentence, most readers have gotten the impression 10% of the entire literature would be handed down. Due to the explosive nature of the loss estimate for the history of tradition, this passage could have been deliberately formulated misleading. Another motivation is at least not visible. 23. For example, the traditional inventory figures on the death of the library headman Callimachus (ca. 240-235 BC according to Parsons) to visit Caesars in Edward A. Parsons, The Alexandrian library. Glory of the Hellenic world. Its rise, antiquities, and destructions , 1952. 24. The large library existed at that time probably, of Caesar, she was certainly not destroyed the current state of research, see Sylwia Kaminska in Wolfram Hoepfner, ancient libraries , Mainz 2002. The historian caesar critical Cassius Dio , according to the fire destroyed only stores the harbor, the grain and books contained. This is also the result of the analysis of Robert Barnes, Cloistered Bookworms in the Chicken-Coop of the Muses. The Ancient Library of Alexandria , in Roy MacLeod (ed.), The Library of Alexandria , London 2000 and the extensive source criticism of Edward A. Parsons, The Alexandrian library. Glory of the Hellenic world. Its rise, antiquities, and destructions , 1952. The Museion, the building of the library and has been proven to around 380, so Mostafa El-Abbadi (see below). 25. To Parsons' estimate. Der Kleine Pauly underestimated Tagged Alexandria , without notice, only 900,000. 26. In the early imperial period it was an honor for authors to be included in the major libraries. The disgraced Ovid in exile complained that his writings were rejected by the guardian of (Palatine) library. (Tr. 3,1.59 ff) 27. Among the literary papyri a garbage dump in Oxyrhynchus were about 20% of texts of Homer. Extrapolated to the Greek part of the empire by 200, this indicates million copies in circulation. The large libraries did not take any title (Ovid, Trist. 3,1.59 ff). A title that made it into the Library of Alexandria likely to have far-reaching pre-set in several copies. Many of her books based libraries from publishers with which it had a Subskriptionsverträge. In Rome there were two neighborhoods that were known as the site for publishers and booksellers. Extensive book trade is also attested in some provincial towns. From Horatz (Carm. 2,20.13 ff) and Martial (7.88; 11.3) is alleged dissemination of their works to the border areas of the empire, for Varro, this is by Pliny the Elder. confirmed (Nat. hist 35,11). By 100 AD in Rome, the initial print run for a private memorial volume of 1,000 copies occupied (Pliny, Epist. 4,7.2), suggesting a significant production capacity. (Kruger, Julian: Oxyrhynchus in the imperial period (1990), Blanck, Horst: The book in antiquity, Munich 1992) 28. "amounting, beyond doubt, to millions of rolls per annum" Lewis (1974), p. 102 29. If 10 million rolls per year, only 10% to book roles (most in Oxyrhnchus administrative writings, letters and documents were) so the 100 million were achieved in 100 years. This number is even higher, since the period of use of a scroll could certainly be a few centuries. Galen used 300 years old roles and Lewis (1974, p. 60) mentions other similar examples. The cultural taste remained in ancient centuries. In around 200 AD Homer was very common (probably more than ever before), Virgil and Cicero talked far into late antiquity. The collection of the famous philosopher Diogenes Laertius (c. 230 AD) has almost only people who lived over 400 years ago. According scrolls in ancient times may have had a long life. 30. There is a group that has these numbers for several years. But from me unspecified reasons you do not want to publish. However, a friend of mine had some insight. Accordingly, the figures correspond well

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the order I provide here. 31. To Palastbiliothek of Constantinople Opel see Pöhlmann, introduction to the history of tradition , 1994. The estimate of 100 at Cassiodorus is based on the title list by Franz and Mynors (see below) and about 4 titles per Codex, which was more typical at 800. The codices in the 5th Century but were usually much larger than at 800 Therefore, the loss factor could reach 10,000 for titles in this example even. 32. Reynolds and Wilson (1991), p. 40 33. Reynolds, LD and Wilson, NG: Scribes and Scholars. A Guide to the Transmission of Greek and Latin Literature, 3rd Ed. Oxford 1991. 34. Examples in Reynolds and Wilson (1991), p. 39ff. 35. "A more probable hypothesis is did the process had been givenName special point and impetus by the transference of literature from roll to codex, as works were Brought together and put into a new and more permanent DOCUMENT But subscriptions continued Even When did process which complete and must, whatever the original motivation, have become a traditional practice. " Reynolds and Wilson (1991), p. 42 36. "authors that this will not be considered is particularly at risk the survival of certain works in the process of Romanization of Roman literature from Papyrus rolls on parchment codices. This process is completed in the 4th century AD approximately., are henceforth from the tradition excreted. " Michael von Albrecht: History of Roman literature. Vol II, Munich 1997, p 1383 37. Poggio found in 1417 in a Hs of Cicero's "De lege agraria". It read: "I, Statilius Maximus, have [the text] a second time improved by Tiro, Laetanianus, Dom [Itius] and other old It is the third, excellent speech.." After starvation, Herbert: History of the text tradition of the ancient and medieval literature, 1 Ancient and medieval book and scholarly journals, Zurich, 1961, pp. 355 38. Pöhlmann provides evidence that this subscription was already in a codex. Also of Horace's comment Porphyrio seems to point to a Codex little more recently. Archaeological support of his philological argument he sees in the fragments now known from three parchment and 12 Papyruscodices from the 2nd Century. Pöhlmann, Egert: introduction to the history and tradition in the textual criticism of ancient literature (1994), p 79 39. "The philological as well as the historical Significance of the activity did the subscriptions record is similarly disputed. Generalization is CLEARLY impossible. Handsome texts were corrected by students as part of Their training. Others Appear to amount to nothing more than the correcting of one's . own copy for personal use Persius which twice revised by a young officer, Flavius Julius Sabinus Tryphonianus, while he what on military service in Barcelona and Toulouse, he worked "sine antigrapho", as he disarmingly tells us, and "prout potui sine magistro ". inspire little confidence protestations search in the quality of the product, but did suggest june Nevertheless correction against to copy and the help of a professional was what one might also reasonably expect. (...) Whether the practice did anything to promote Significantly the survival of classical literature is doubtful, and the value of synthesis subscriptions for us june lie more in Their historical interest. " Reynolds and Wilson (1991), p. 42 40. "The predominantly high status of the men recorded in surviving subscriptions' strongly Suggests did what it upon Their stately shelves so that many of our texts had resided before finding Their way into the monasteries and cathedrals did Ensured Their survival." Reynolds and Wilson (1991), p. 42f. 41. This testifies to a subscription from the 7th Century in Codex Sinaiticus. The Sinaiticus is a middle of the 4th Century. written Bible and is generally considered the oldest surviving book at all. At this subscription: Pohlmann (1994), p 81 42. Finally, it defends my library, so, Which the same men accused, on the ground did it conceals unrevised copies. These spiteful fellows have not kept Their hands even off things like these. (Letter 154 of Synesius of Cyrene to Hypatia, quoted in [2] (http://translate.googleusercontent.com /translate_c?depth=1&hl=en&ie=UTF8&prev=_t&rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http: //www.geocities.com/hckarlso/sletter154.html&usg=ALkJrhg21hx6pi7gj8HxoJVcFG7fpXKgrQ) . 43. Hans Gerstinger, inventory and tradition , Graz 1948. 44. by title list under "Varro" in Der Kleine Pauly , Vol 5, Sp 1131 ff 45. Julian Krüger, Oxyrhynchus in the imperial period , 1990. 46. William A. Johnson, The literary papyrus roll , 1992.

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47. LD Reynolds (ed.), Texts and Transmission , Oxford, 1983; Angelika Haese, Medieval books directories from Lorsch Abbey , Dissertation, Wiesbaden 2002. 48. Recommended overview of Charles Christian and Anton Kern, The Middle Ages , in Georg Leyh (Eds.), Handbook of Library Science , Volume 3.1, History of Libraries, Vol 1, Wiesbaden 1955. Likewise, JO Ward, Alexandria and Its Legacy Medieaval. The Book, the Monk and the Rose in Roy MacLeod (ed.): The Library of Alexandria , London, 2000. 49. A role with 83'300 characters takes about 23 hours writing time at 1 character per second. Along with the production of papyrus and some drawings this is feasible well within 4 working days. With 400 people ( Alexandria had at least several 100,000 inhabitants) would be an order of 40,000 rolls then within 400 days to complete. 50. customed from Alexandria were considered to be of high quality and apparently represented a market dar. under Emperor Domitian (81-96) was the loss of a public library in Rome will balance with a ship from Alexandria. (Pöhlmann). 51. Tzetzes, Prolegomena de comoedia Aristophanis 2.10. 52. "The durability of Both under normal condition is not up to doubt. Many instances of long life of writings on papyrus Could be quoted, but this is no longer Necessary, since the myth did papyrus is not a durable material Has at last been authoritatively and, one would hope, finally refuted by Lewis (op. cit. , pp. 60-1). (Verm.: Lewis, Naphtali. Papyrus of Classical Antiquity, Oxford 1974) From: Roberts, Colin H., Skeat, T. C: The Birth of the Codex, London (1983), pp. 6f 53. Galen (129-216) wrote that he used 300 year old rolls from a library for his edition of Hippocrates. (Pöhlmann, Egert: Introduction to the history and tradition in the textual criticism of ancient literature (1994) p 77 54. Kruger, Julian: Oxyrhynchus in the imperial period (1990) 55. Kaster, Robert A.: History of Philology in Rome, in: Graf, F. (ed.): Introduction to Latin philology, Stuttgart (1997), p 15 56. Christian and core via Cassiodorus' library: "In tireless collecting and searching, supported by the copying of his monks, he has united them. From all over Italy, from Africa and various countries the codices had come, and the rich resources of Cassiodorus, the reputation of his name had the acquisition allows "p 287 in: Leyh, Georg (eds.): Handbook of Library Science, Volume 3,. 1 - Wiesbaden 1955, Cape: THE MIDDLE AGES, by Charles Christian supplemented by Anton Kern. 57. Mynors, RAB: Cassiodori Senatoris Institutiones, Oxford (1937) 58. Lehmann, Paul: Exploring the Middle Ages, Selected treatises and essays, Vol II, Stuttgart 1959 59. Encyclopedia of Library History (1994) 60. "The major libraries of antiquity had disappeared by c600 AD and early monastic libraries mighthave contained around 20 or so books." Ward also believes without Verweiss on Cassiodorus or description of the contents of Isidore `s library to be able to justify the loss before 500. On Reynolds and Wilson's assertion that by 500 AD "the bulk of Latin literature which shut extant" He answers: "This can not be true." He sees the other cultural ideas of Christianity and the decline of education and teaching as a reference for the break before 500 AD. (P. 166). In comparison to antiquity small libraries of the Middle Ages, even that of Isidore, he sees as late consequences of this development in late antiquity. JO Ward: "Alexandria and its Medieaval Legacy: The Book, the Monk and the Rose" in MacLeod, Roy (Ed.): The Library of Alexandria, London 2000 61. Leyh, Georg (eds.): Handbook of Library Science, Volume 3.1 - Wiesbaden 1955, chap. THE MIDDLE AGES, by Charles Christian supplemented by Anton Kern, p 243 62. Haas, Christopher:. Alexandria in Late Antiquity, London 1997, p. 129 and 171f. Haas refers to the circle on Damascius' Life of Isidore ", Fr. 174 (ed. Zintzen, p. 147) 63. Watts, Edward: City and School - Late Antique Athens and Alexandria, London 2006, p. 212 64. Watts (2006), p. 220 65. Watts (2006), p. 226 66. Watts (2006), p. 225 67. Watts (2006), p. 127 68. Johnson, Elmer D.: A History of Libraries in the Western World, London 1965, p. 77; Wendel and Goeber see this motivation at the local level: Leyh, Georg (eds.): Handbook of library science band 3.1 - History of Libraries, Vol.1, Wiesbaden 1955, p 79

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69. For example, the interpretation of spiral and Goeber (see above). In addition, supported by the testimony of the Aphthonius of Antioch, who the end of the 4th Century visited. He described the rooms full of books which are accessible to everyone and "the entire city attracted to internalize the wisdom." (Aphthonius, Progymnasmata, 12) 70. Mostafa El-Abbadi: Life and Fate of the ancient Library of Alexandria, 2ed ed, Paris 1992 - "Synesius of Cyrene, who Studied under Hypatia at the end of the fourth century, saw the Mouseion and Described the images of the philosophers in it.33 We have no later reference to its existence in the fifth century. As Theon, the distinguished mathematician and father of Hypatia, herself a renowned scholar, what the load recorded scholar-member (c. 380), 34 "[33 Synesius, Calvitii Encomium, 6], [34 Suidas, sv Theon] 71. History of Libraries, Vol 1, in: Leyh, Georg (eds.): Handbook of Library Science, Volume 3.1 - Wiesbaden 1955, Chapter 2, of Carl Wendel, supplemented by Willi Göbe, p 80 72. Haas (1997): "A Broader context for the antipagan violence of this period is suggested by John of Nikiu's remark that" in those days [ie, after Cyril's enthronement in 412 and before the death of Atticus in 425], the orthodox Inhabitants of Alexandria were filled with zeal and They collected a large quantity of wood and burned the place of the heathen philosophers "(Chron 84.45, trans. Charles). This comment is quite distinctly set apart from John's account of the death of Hypatia (84.87 -103) and must not refer to her ritual cremation, but to some otherwise unreported attack on pagan institutions. " Haas, Christopher:. Alexandria in Late Antiquity, London 1997, p. 469 73. " were then compiled countless books and many piles of scrolls and burned before the eyes of the judges. They had been located in houses because of their allegedly illegal content, and now they were to serve to obliterate the bad impression of executions. These were for the most part but only works on the various liberal arts and legal issues. "(Ammianus 29,1,41). After the executions, which were justified by the possession of "magic text": " And so it happened in the eastern provinces, that for fear of similar destinies owners burned their entire libraries, for such horrors had all recorded. "(Ammianus 29 , 2.4) 74. "bibliothecis sepulerorum ritu in perpetuum Clausis" Ammianus Marcellinus 14.6.18 75. is represented most clearly by George W. Houston: A revisionary Note on Ammianus Marcellinus 14.6.18: When did the Public Libraries of Ancient Rome close "(Library Quarterly, vo 58, no 2, pp 258-264.. .) Houston called essential predecessor with a different opinion and the reasons for its especially with 2 points: There would be no further evidence of closure and at least the Trajansbibliothek was opened proven to 455. Both points are simply wrong. The edict Emperor Theodosius I. 391 not mentioned for closing of pagan temples and the struggle of Christianity to the cultural dominance, with the destruction of libraries are. But it is precisely this background has been a major reason Ammianus to interpret the text that way. Houston argues, instead, a Draconitus wants the late 4th Century have read and edited a text in the "scola" of Trajanforums in Rome. If it was above 390, it is not relevant. Even then, should schools Trajan's Forum, which was a kind of business center of Rome, to be expected for a long time. About the existence of the library it says nothing. Cites Another argument for the existence of the Houston Sidonius Apollinaris is. He wrote that he had received 455 awarded a statue. They had been placed on the Trajan's Forum "between the authors of the two libraries." The Trajansbibliothek was distributed in two buildings (Latin / Greek) and statues of the authors stood before it. Because the statues were still standing, includes Houston, the library building had to have still been there - and they must have been still open! Why he completed this, Houston did not write. 76. Paul Orosius: The seven books of history against the pagans. transl. Irving Woodworth Raymond, Columbia University Press, 1936 (BOOK SIX) p. 298 77. wg. Sidonius Apollinaris , so Houston 78. Houston (above) argues there are in the Notitia Dignitatum no administrator for the streets of Rome or the games mentioned. But the streets of Rome fell into disrepair after 400 The mention of a Tierhatz 523 is not required pursuant to a peripheral (requiring an administrator) Continuation of the Games in Rome 400 79. Saint John Chrysostom, Apologist. Discourse on Blessed Babylas (= Liber S. Babylam et Contra Gentes 11): "The philosophers and talented orators had a great reputation with the public on account of Their dignity and ability to speak. After the battle against us They Became ridiculous and foolish

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Seemed no different from children. From so many nations and peoples, theywere not able to change anyone, wise ignorant, male, female, or even a small child. The estimation of whatthey wrote is so low did Their books disappeared a long time ago, and mostly perished whenthey first Appeared. If anything at all is found preserved, one finds it being preserved by Christians. " 80. Schatkin, MA and PW Harkins, Saint John Chrysostom, Apologist. Discourse on Blessed Babylas and against the Greeks. Demonstration against the Pagans did Christ is God (Fathers of the Church 73), Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1985. 81. "... they assault the temple carrying wooden beams, stones and iron tools or even without these items With Their hand and feet. Then They are an easy prey;. Even though They destroy the roofs, raze the walls to the ground, pull down the statues and tear down the altars, the priest have to keep silent or theyhave to the "Libanius (30.8 speech ) by Sauer, The Archaeology of Religious Hatred (2003), p. 159 82. "He therefore Provided them with more material aid, seeing to it thatthey had enough clothing, shoes, and food, and giving them money for overseers and workmen to demolish the temples." Chuvin, Pierre: A Chronicle of the Last Pagans, London, 1990, p. 76 83. "On November 1, 397, a law Addressed to the count of the East ordered did the stones of destroyed temples be used for public works,: such as the repair of roads, bridges, aqueducts, and fortifications. This would SEEM to suggest not only on intention-to scatter the stones and profane them, but surely that is the magnitude of the destructions.7 "(Chuvin, 1990, p. 75) 84. "only ruins of the temples survived. Even the ruins are hardly visible." Liber S. Babylam et Contra Gentes, 41 85. Theoderet, cure for the disease Hellenistic 8.68 f 86. "If any images are still in temples or shrines, and when they worship of heathen were somewhere today or ever, so they should be torn down." - "If any images now stood in the temples and shrines, and if theyhave received or do now receive the worship of pagans anywhere, They Shall be torn down." Theodosian Code 16,10,19 (trans. Pharr). Edward Watts: "City and School: Late Antique Athens and Alexandria" UCUP 2006, p. 199 87. "There can be no doubt on the basis of the written and archaeological evidence did the Christianisation of the Roman Empire and early medieval Europe Involved the destruction of works of art on a scale never before seen in human history." Sauer, p. 157 88. It was the Mithraeum of Sarrebourg. It showed strong traces of iconoclasm. A relief image was shattered into more than 300 parts. The latest coin found was from the year 394 The man's hands were bound with iron handcuffs behind his back. He had no grave goods and no clothes. There was no known rite which provided such a bondage with a dead or wounded. Thus, the man was probably alive trapped in the tomb and died after a few days in it. In the not inconsiderable value of such hardware in Late Antiquity, this indicates the perpetrators include no material interests had. Archaeological discussion of the case at Sauer distributed throughout the book. 89. The discovery took place in Switzerland, held at the Via Mala. It was documented on TV and Sauer will consider it in a later edition 90. It was therefore long disputed whether Ammianus was ever a pagan author. 91. Not only Sauer's work, including the data of the CLA, the durability of papyrus and parchment codices and partly the sizes of the libraries are essentially archaeological information 92. Due to the tradition position, a specific manipulation of the texts still during late antiquity is quite possible, but not necessary in this case. If the nations targeted terror were exposed to only a few of them have written critical texts on which they could convict. The chance to read a voice of the other side is therefore negligible. For all of us surviving texts were selected or written either by Christians. 93. * confiscation of wealth, in some version of the legend "gems", is always applied immediately. Without warning, always by her to the end of the operation. A three-day period is not conceivable, this would make the safe seizure impossible. A distribute to the poor makes little sense to hide a more logical. Both do not need three days. By spreading it was removed from the church, meets the intent of the emperor with it. Therefore, the State was not reliant on the subsequent reaction of the prefect non-traceable. 94. See article "tradition history of science" in "The falsification of Claudius Ptolemy" here (http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1&hl=en&ie=UTF8&prev=_t&

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rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benutzer:Bibhistor /%25C3%259Cberlieferungsgeschichte_der_Wissenschaften&usg=ALkJrhh--P8tirfJ1L2T5_X- YXi5KqAhzg#Die_F.C3.A4lschung_des_Claudius_Ptolemaios) . 95. The central element of the mosaic is the grate. He was an instrument of torture in the first place. They rolled it with the people on it as shown in the mosaic above, a Blaze. Wooden wheels would have been destroyed since with time, so the popular detail of the iron wheels. This device was therefore the artist well known and likely to have been a notorious instrument of terror. Solitary of the rust would be no meaning, it is not even clear whether it is in the Holy of Lawrence. As sometimes common in the iconography, a horror scenario alternatives to be made. The alternative to death on the grate is the bookcase, a symbol of a library. But not the cabinet or any books, but explicitly Christian title of the Bible. That leaves only one statement: If one wants to be outside of the grate is only allowed, so have Christian books in his library. What was allowed and what is not, which remained throughout the Middle Ages somewhat in the dark. This uncertainty is likely to have increased the fear of false books. As described by Ammianus were executed by 370 AD people ever because of the possession of non-Christian books. Those who had more than the Bible could already be in danger. This prosecution was taken by the then Law and the Holy in the mosaic could hold a law book in his hand. The whole process was a secular official. But the fiery death as an alternative to false books also has a direct equivalent in Catholic theology. According to in pagan books demons lurking skip from there to humans. One sure way to cleanse the people from the fire, according as it also practiced the Holy Inquisition sometimes. The liberated from the demon soul can then find the way to heaven. The mosaic is illustrated well with the window alcove above the grate. This "tomb" where the mosaic is, in the opinion of archaeologists had first another function. The mosaic was therefore to be seen as a reminder to the living, and had nothing to do with a grave. 96. Here (http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1&hl=en&ie=UTF8&prev=_t& rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http://www.sacred-destinations.com/italy/ravenna- mausoleum-of-galla-placidia.htm&usg=ALkJrhivJpFMlMyxc9iH-t0n2PPyi-BiJg) we interpret it as an oratory for the family of Theodosier. Then the mosaic would appreciate a main power of this family, with only 10 x 11 feet outside dimension of the construction of an oratorio appears but clearly too small. 97. The Libanius quote to the open terror against pagans is not mentioned. Chrysostom above quote is noted for reference only. One learns so not that after his statement pagan books were destroyed immediately after its release. As usual in the mainly Christian historiography, moral dubious Christian actions are always presented in response to previous actions of nations in Speyer, 98. Speyer, Wolfgang: Books destruction and censorship of the mind in Pagans, Jews and Christians, Stuttgart 1981 99. Speyer but does not mention that Chrysostomos of the destruction of the books of the heathen philosophers and orators writes (both parts of the classical sciences). 100. Pliny the Elder wrote in his 30 Book of the "natural history" is also a brief history of magic. In it he has a polemic from the beginning against the "empty and unsinigen believe in the magic". He calls it "fraudulentissima artium", "the deceitful of all the arts." (Graf, Fritz: closeness to God and harmful magic: the magic in the Greco-Roman antiquity, Munich 1996, p 48) 101. Speyer, p 130 102. Sarefield, Burning Knowledge, Diss Ohio State 2006, p 86 103. Speyer, p 130 104. Acts. 19.13-14, NKJV translation, as well as following 105. The New Testament knows only in Acts 8,9 ff and Acts 13,6.8 the term magician (gr magoi) Rienecker, F. (ed.): Dictionary of the Bible (1985), p 1558: "sorcery" 106. Speyer called for discussion of this point, several authors, p 169 107. Speyer, p 132 108. So Chuvin literally. Chuvin, Pierre: A Chronicle of the Last Pagans, London, 1990, p. 52f 109. Ammianus 29, 37-41 110. The description in Sarefield:

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In 402 the bishop of Gaza, Porphyry, received imperial approval for his campaign to eradicate traditional religion in his quiet Primarily pagan see.30 Many Took part eagerly. The capstone of this program what the violent destruction of Gaza's most famous temple, the fabulous Marneion. Its desecration was a triumph propagandists, as a church which erected on the site of the temple. So, the victors Could not resist the temptation to underscore the temple's destruction, in perpetuity, by paving the roadway before the newly constructed-holy site with the cella walls of its predecessor. In the aftermath, Porphyry's enthusiastic partisans Conducted door-to-door searches of nearby homes, Producing Numerous religious images and books. These were burned in bonfires, accor ding to Mark the Deacon, or thrown into public latrines.31 Daniel Sarefield: Book Burning in the Christian Roman Empire - Transforming a Pagan Rite of Purification, in: HA Drake (Ed.): Violence in Late Antiquity Perceptions and Practices. Burlington (2006) 111. It is unclear why Speyer (1981, p.34) believes that this must have been "ritual books". Probably Speyer thought of today's church hymnals. However, there is no clue what people are pagan temple had ever needed or such similar books in the ancient world even existed. 112. From Auzählung of Sarefield: Bishop Porphyry's book burning and the imperial legislation did began in the early fifth century, providing official sanction and material support for other ecclesiastical Officials to do Likewise, highlights what is Perhaps the most conspicuous change associated with book burning in this period, the expanding spectrum of agents who Took personal initiative to lake did condemned books were burned. That book burning which Carried out by bishops Has already been Indicated and is well attested. In addition to bishops, others are known to have employed it. Bands of monks and the leaders of monastic communities so Took action to burn forbidden books,: such as Hypatius in rural Bithynia in the mid-fifth century and the notorious Shenoute of Egypt's White Monastery, who stole and destroyed the sacred texts of Both a local pagan notable and a presumed Christian gnostic cell operating in an abandoned sanctuary in a nearby village.34 According to Zacharias' Life of Severus, the bishop of Berytus, John, what the prompted to investigate the accusation of a conspiracy to commit acts of malevolent sorcery by the philoponoi, a group of zealous Christian students from the city's school of law. He commissioned this group to look into the matter with the aid of imperial notaries and They succeeded in uncovering the magical books of two individuals, while others were Said to have fled with theirs. John burned the books confiscated before the church of the Theotokos, where philoponoi met nightly to study.35 The factthat this book burning Took place in the vicinity of a church underscores the gradual Christianization of the rite in this period. Similarly in Rome, where a series of popes Took action to eliminate the continued presence of Manichaeism in the fifth and sixth centuries, Gelasius burned Manichaean books before the doors of Santa Maria Maggiore. Symmachus Hormisdas and Followed suit in front of the Lateran Basilica.36 Sarefield (2006) as 113. Speyer, p 136 114. Cod Theod. 9.16, 12 (= Cod Just, 1, 4, 14.): Mathematicos, nisi sint parati codicibus erroris proprii ... Speyer p.170: "... Astrologers have to burn their writings before the eyes of the bishops, failing which it had to drive from Rome and all the churches. " 115. mathematics is "the totality of the information required by the philosophy of learning material, ie, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music (theory), still under the empire fell grammar (elem. grammar and philology) as rhetoric with including ... In Latin Gell. 1,9,6 the arithm. and geometr. Operations Needing sciences, in coll. Parlance simply Nativitäts astrology ... "The Little Pauly, vol 3, p 1078 116. "books of sorcery and the occult, or Perhaps, even" paganism ", since the boundaries in between synthesis categories blurred increasingly falling on the late Roman period, particularly in the eyes of Christians." Daniel Sarefield: Burning Knowledge, Studies of Book Burning in Ancient Rome, Dissertation, Ohio State University, 2004, p. 86 117. "As this discussion Has Indicated book burning Became a prominent form of religious violence in the late Roman period." Daniel Sarefield: Book Burning in the Christian Roman Empire: Transforming a Pagan Rite of Purification. In: HA Drake (ed.): Violence in Late Antiquity. Aldershot, Hampshire,

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2006 295 118. Book Burning Became a form of "holy violence" that what fitting for Christians and pleasing to God.152 Sometimes the actors were unruly, autonomous crowds, or mobs under the direction of charismatic religious Authorities, while more frequently the book burner what to individual - a saint, or a monk, or Perhaps the emperor - a person who asserted his or her religious authority by this powerful gesture of negation.153 This type of book burning is evident Throughout the fifth and sixth centuries CE, When owners of magical books were Compelled to hand over or burn them by individuals endowed with personal religious authority in dramatic confrontations. Daniel Sarefield: Burning Knowledge, Studies of Book Burning in Ancient Rome, Dissertation, Ohio State University, 2004, p. 86f 119. On bedeutetsten the combustion of the Arab libraries during the Reqonquista in spain. They also contained classical and Christian books. The latter had but almost certainly no substantive approval of the Catholic Church. Only this particular thing in their domain is a Christian Scripture. 120. In addition to the sources mentioned here can still see the website www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu for "John Chrysostom" search originals and to find the latest translations. In Zunkunft are WP User Rominator (http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1&hl=en&ie=UTF8&prev=_t& rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benutzer%253ARominator& usg=ALkJrhiBXKxbvJdG1Cripg-rF5Q2RbTI7A) additional complaint to Chrysostom and this article be expected. 121. At the end of ancient philosophy and the demons connection between Christianity and Neo-Platonists, see another text here (http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1&hl=en&ie=UTF8& prev=_t&rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benutzer:Bibhistor /%25C3%259Cberlieferungsgeschichte_der_Wissenschaften&usg=ALkJrhh--P8tirfJ1L2T5_X- YXi5KqAhzg#Das_Ende_der_Philosophie) 122. "Therefore, today there are still dilapidated men, full of innumerable errors that show much greater feats than the philosophers: Some eat sharpened sharp nails, some chew and swallow worn sandals, others push sharp pins through their heads, others jump naked into icy water, others endure even stranger things than that such phenomena are much more impressive than the wine barrel with booze., but we assume neither of these and blame as well, and we deplore the philosophers and all the similar tricks with no benefit to accomplish. " "THUS even now there are quiet depraved men, filled with innumerable vices, who display much Greater feats than the philosopher: some eat pointed and sharpened nails, some chew up and devour sandals, some take other much Risks Greater Than these.92 search phenomena are much more impressive than the wine cask and the rags, but we do not accept Either, and Equally censure and bewail the philosopher and All Those who perform similar tricks to no purpose. " 92 alternative tradition: "Some chew the soles of worn-out sandals, others drive sharp spikes through Their Heads; others jump naked into frozen waters with cold; others quietly endure things even more outlandish than these." Saint John Chrysostom, Discourse on the blessed Babylas, 45 in: Schatkin and Harkins: Saint John Chrysostom, Apologist, (1985) p. 101 123. "(3) And what it the result of an ineffable power did the fisherman, the publican, and the Tentmaker, 4 At Their mere commands, raised the dead to life, drove out demons, drove off death, stopped the tongues of philosophers , stitched shut the mouths of rhetoricians, overcame kings and rulers, and were victorious over barbarians, pagans, and every nation. 4 is Peter the fisherman, Matthew the publican, and Paul the Tentmaker. " Saint John Chrysostom, Protest Against the Pagans did Christ is God, Chapter V, The Mission of the Apostles Foretold, in: Schatkin and Harkins: Saint John Chrysostom, Apologist, (1985) p. 210 124. "King Hezekiah (Hezekiah 716-687 BC) is said to have in religious fervor eliminates the natural and naturopathic writings of Solomon, because the people had sought the healing of diseases from these writings and not from the supplication to God. ( 13) "Speyer (1981), pp. 110f 125. This is a direct translation from the original WP User Rominator. Here is the English version with ajar because translation. "(6) For two tyrannical factors Opposed this change. Habit and pleasure For many years Their fathers, grandfathers, great grandfathers, Their Ancestors, Their philosophers, and public speakers had givenName them A Certain way of life Yet people were Persuaded to. reject this,

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even though it was a difficult thing to DO. They also were Persuaded to accept a strange and very hard way of life Which was Introduced to replace Their old ways. And this was a quiet more difficult thing to do ". Saint John Chrysostom, Protest Against the Pagans did Christ is God, Chapter V, The Mission of the Apostles Foretold, in: Schatkin and Harkins: Saint John Chrysostom, Apologist, (1985) p. 240 "Two tyrannical factors were the change counter. Habit and enjoy your fathers, their grandfathers, great-grandfathers, their ancestors, their scientists, and public speakers have offered them for many years a safe life Nevertheless, the people were to reject this persuaded what a. difficult task was. they were also persuaded to aktzeptieren a strange and very hard life, which replaced its frühre life. And this was even more difficult to achieve. " 126. Czysz, Wolfgang: The Romans in Bavaria, Stuttgart 1995, p 237 127. The text of such a law is not known. Theodosian Code (C.Th. XIII, 3, 5) has, according to recent research (Watts) not directly to do with it. Watts believes letters from Julian to be able to open up the content of the law. Accordingly, it has been said about the religion of Lehreres nothing. The teacher was applied, things which he considers dishonorable not to teach. But when he introduces his students books and filed, it must make clear beforehand that these authors is not guilty of impiety (Watts (2006), p. 70). Direct the classical authors Homer and Hesiod to be mentioned. As for the teaching of grammar and rhetoric, only those authors would have existed then all Christian teachers denied the lesson. Neither the latter is credible, nor can it, like Watts, derive a ban on teaching for Christians. Only radical Christians will have denied yourself. In the end was the law if it existed, to deffamieren only a prohibition representatives of other beliefs in school. It would have been the teacher even still allowed to present his faith as the better. Apparently some modern authors consider such requirements as intolerable for Christians. This is based on a conception of Christian religiosity based which can be seen the other way then as now. 128. Kaster, Robert A.: History of Philology in Rome, in: Graf, F. (ed.): Introduction to Latin philology, Stuttgart (1997), pp. 14f 129. Corp.. iur. can. 1,86,5 "Sacram scripturam, non licet grammaticam Exponere episcopis." Hagen Dahl, Herbert: From Tertullian to Cassiodorus. Gothenburg (1983), pp. 113f 130. Quote from Hagen Dahl (see above), p 114 With Manitius Hagen Dahl cited, even not insignificant, one of the most important German classical philologist. Manitius, Max: history of Latin literature of the Middle Ages, I, Munich (1911), p 94 131. EA Lowe: Handwriting. in: The Legacy of the Middle Ages, p 203 132. "Varro, a careful writer, in his volume on Geometry Compared the shape of the world to sphere to elongated, making its shape like that of the egg Which is round in its latitude but oblong in its length. HOWEVER [But] it will be Sufficient for us to know as much of this part [art] as Holy Scripture contains, Because it is foolish to follow human reason in this matter on Which We know and have as much divine teaching as is useful to us "Cassiodorus. Institutiones, transl. by James W. and Barbara Halporn. (Varro probably meant no egg but a stunted spheroid. Due to the idea of a mostly liquid earth and the effect of centrifugal force he could accept this. Using the tools of antiquity could this still does not measure likely.) 133. "The explanation of the passage and of the figure Which Illustrates It Seems to be did Isidore accepted the terminology of the spherical earth from Hyginus62 without taking the time to understand it - if indeed he had the ability to do so - and Applied it without compunction to the flat earth. He evidently thought did zona and vicious were interchangeable terms, 63 and his, circles' did not run around the circumference of a spherical earth, but lay flat on a flat earth, wherethey filled with Sufficient complete ness the orbis terrae or circle of the land . The adjustment of the two conflicting theories was extremely crude, since it Involved Placing the arctic and antarctic circles side by side, and the two temperate circles one in the east and one in the west. . Examined by a blunder as this' may be measured the stagnation of the secular thought of the time "Brehaut, Ernest: An encyclopedist of the Dark Ages - Isidore of Seville. Columbia University, New York (1912). Full Text: http://bestiary.ca /etexts/brehaut1912/brehaut1912.htm 134. Karl Christian and Anton Kern: The Middle Ages, in: Leyh, Georg (eds.): Handbook of library science band 3.1 - History of Libraries, Vol.1, Wiesbaden 1955, p 305 135. One noticed it when entire lines were missing and were be added by corrector. Approximately: hunger,

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Herbert: History of the textual tradition of the ancient and medieval literature, 1 Ancient and medieval book and scholarly journals, Zuerich 1961 136. For example, the estimate of Cipolla (Cipolla, Carlo M.: Literacy and Development in the West, London 1969) This is supported by the sample of Montaillou in southern France. In this village in 1308, all 250 inhabitants were arrested over the age of 12 years by the Holy Inquisition. From the files of the Inquisition shows that only 4 people could read (1.6%). ("Montaillou: The Promised Land of Error" by Emmanuel LeRoy Ladurie, (1978) Repr in HJ Graff. Literacy and Social (1981), p 46f.) At a value of 1.0 to 1.4% in England around 1300 you get when you first statistically detectable values of 1530 (David Cressy, "Levels of Illiteracy in England, 1530-1730." Historical Journal 20 (1977) :1-23, p 13. chart: Illiteracy of Social Groups, Diocese of Norwich, 1530-1730) with the number of schools from 1340 to 1548 (Moran, JAH: The Growth of English Schooling 1340-1548, (1985) ) anticipates and corrects back to the Bevölckerungsverteilung. 137. Frederick Prince, in "Early Monasticism in France" (1965) p 48, gives some archaeological work, which suggest. 138. Riche, Pierre: Education and Culture in the Barbarian West, 1976, p. 70 139. Riche ". Philosophy was so unfamiliar to Boethius contemporaries thatthey confused it with the occult sciences condemned by Both the Church and the state Cassiodorus himself Contributed to this confusion When called philosophers Those Who" say did one shoulderstand venerate the sun, the moon and the other stars. "" (1976), p. 45f. A contemporary held arithmetic and rhetoric for connected, another considers astrology, medicine and Zunkunftsdeutung (through the "livers" of sacrificed sheep), as the foundations of philosophy. Boethius, the well still knew from what classical philosophy was, was in the process he was accused of an astrologer and magician. Probably because he tried the astronomy of Ptolemy, now known as the "Almagest" to translate. Around the same time (510 AD) were accused of magic in Rome Senators practice due. Riche says it was among the Romans no interest more translations, as Boethius they anfertigte to read at all. This was only back in the Middle Ages the case. Riche (1976) p. 44 At least probably the risk, therefore, to be pursued as a magician, have been then lower. 140. This refers front of 350 produced books. Since we know Cassiodor search and its result (see above), this statement must be considered as quite safe. While there might still who gave in hiding. The over 100 year pursuit of their owners they made but now untraceable. Where must remain open whether at a finding, the Catholic Church might have had enough influence even among the Goths to destroy them. In Gaul, however, where the pursuit lasted only about 30 years, some books hoards are likely to be resurfaced from 407. 141. When the Visigoths 410, Rome was conquered Dionysius, a learned physician, of ihen kidnapped "as they ran treated by his art," as it was then paraphrased. Riche (1976) p. 70 142. Large private libraries reached by 200 AD at least 62,000 rolls. Thus, the scholar Sammonicus Serenus. This is only known because his son, so to the public, bequeathed to Gordianus II. Hunger (1961), p 346 Up to 4 Century, they could still be grown. The number 10000 is likely to affect the magnitude of a stately but not rare Privatbiblithek. Whether one speaks of rollers, tracks or codices. 143. To estimate the total number of books, 100 million, see above. 144. meant to the 15th Century, because from there they would have been spread by the humanistic book collectors. However, these only found before books from the Middle Ages. Even if not all the findings of the humanists are preserved, so we can make this statement because of Korruptelen. 145. "One of the last of the many important Contributions made by Heinrich Zimmer to Irish history what to exhaustive study of the texts bearing on direct trade relations in between Ireland and Western Gaul in ancient times and the early middle ages. Has He made it clear from Both native and foreign sources did a trade Considerable for its' time was maintained for many centuries in between Ireland and the western coast of Gaul - Brittany and the mouths of the rivers Loire and Garonne ". Kenney, James F.: The Sources for the early history of Ireland, New York 1929, p. 139 146. Kenney (1929), p. 135 147. Kenney (1929), p. 135 and p. 137 (Notitia Dignitatum). The origin of the "Atacotti" from Ireland was questioned later, but now there is a tendency back to the older view. See: Rance, P.: "Attacotti, Deisi

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and Magnus Maximus: the Case for Irish federates in Late Roman Britain ', Britannia, (2001) 32, pp. 243-270 148. "The occasional appearance of Scotus, Scottius, and, in a few cases, Hibernus in Latin inscriptions on the continent of Europe indicates did A Certain number of Irish were filtering into the cosmopolitan population of the Roman Empire." Kenney (1929), p. 135 149. Padberg, Lutz E. von: The Christianization of Europe in the Middle Ages, Stuttgart 1998, p 66 150. "Glossary of Leyden," CLA 10.1585. A collection of different texts, written in Alemannic minuscule of 8/9 Century, probably in St. Gallen. Room suspected in substance the note could in the second half of the 6th Century have been written. CLA # 1585 would contain only one copy. 151. Kenney (1929), p. 142: "The Huns, who are the offspring of an infamous union, ie, of demons, after They had found Their way by the guidance of a hind through the Maeotic marshes, attacked the Goths, splat They terrified exceedingly Because of the unlooked-for horror Which They inspired. them From the devastation of the whole empire Took its beginning, For it was completed by Huns and Vandals ("Guandalis") Goths and Alans, at Whose devastation all the learned men on this side of the sea Took flight, and in trans marine parts, namely, in Ireland ("Hiberia") and wherever They betook Themselves, Brought about a very great increase enlarge of learning to the Inhabitants Of Those regions. " "Guandalis" is typical of the Romance languages. "Hiberia" was used by Columbanus (c. 600) and corresponds to "Hiberio" as Patrick in the 5th Century used. Since the first sentence from the Getica of Jordanes dates (551 AD), room dating could (second half of the 6th century written) are correct. At a distance of nearly 200 years, the memory of the flight movements of the 370s and the 407er years could have mixed. 152. "it was chiefly in the fourth and fifth centuries did Roman civilization made its way into Ireland. And the more we learn about letters in early mediaeval Ireland the more probable it Appears to be did the literary ideals and practices of Gaul in the load-era of Roman dominion and the first epoch of barbarian rule Exercised a powerful influence on the formation of Irish vernacular literature. " Kenney (1929) p. 141 153. Kenney (1929) p. 142f: 1 the occurrence of the word "Bordgal" - the Irish form of Burdigala, Bordeaux - as a place-name in Westmeath and Kilkenny, and also as a common noun in the sense of "meeting- place, place of assembly"; 2 the implication in the Confession of Patricius - a contemporary synthesis of Gallic emigres - of the presence in Ireland of a body of scholars well educated in the Latin tongue who Regarded with scorn the illiteracy of the saint and even Questioned the legitimacy of his mission; 3 the Irish origin of the Hisperica Famina; 4 the traces in early Irish writings of the influence of late Gallo-Latin literature. (Here Kenney refers to: Meyer, Kuno:. Learning in Ireland in the fifth century (1913)) 154. The tradition of the collection from Ireland is acknowledged. However, associated with Gaelic grammar Latin (and words from other languages). This suggests an origin in the late ancient Ireland. Kenney (1929) p. 256 155. "In the content Hisperic writings SEEM to be made up of a series of composition exercises on various subjects, loosely strung together Jenkinson gives the Following summary of the principal text." 1-48. Glorification of the rhetors or sophiae arcatores and Their school, and of the speaker himself as a match for any of his contemporaries. 49-86. A would-be scholar, a grazier, Who Has mistaken his vocation, is recommended to go home to his family, where confusion reigns in his absence. 87-115. The superiority of the speaker's Latin is illustrated by similes. 116-132. The connexion of this passage with what Precedes is not clear. It Describes the faults Which writers of Latin are liable to commit. 133-357. A day, from sunrise to sunset, and its occupations are described. 133-177 the awakening of nature, 178-189 of the rural population, 190-221 of the school: 222-302 midday, a walk and a meal, provided by possessores, who have to be Addressed in Irish, about Which there is some difficulty as the scholars june only talk Latin: 303-357 sunset; another meal, apparently provided by Inhabitants of the town, then the scholars turn in, some to sleep, and others to sit up "(...) Kenney ( 1929) p. 256 156. The details of names and relationships suggest the then present on contemporary documents yet, as

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referred to by Tirechan book by Ultan. The only surviving of St. Patrick documents are also in the Book of Armagh and strikingly devoid of content in terms of historical events. This suggests, in the 7th Century there has been a purge of the tradition. All characters Christian violence were repaid and replaced by miracle. The resulting miracle story would be in the 5th Century probably still gewsen too unbelievable. Only the Bildungsrückang during the 200 years of Christian rule allowed such a typical medieval historiography. 157. "and he came to them with nine magicians, clad in white garments, with a magical host." ( http://www.maryjones.us/ctexts/patrick-armagh4-tirechan.html Tirechan's Collections Concerning St. Patrick, Book of Armagh (TCD MS 52)) 158. They are described as consultant, negotiator and connected with books. Muirchu: "All things were done prosthesis in sight of the king, in between the magician and Patrick, and the king said," Cast your books into the water, and him Whose books Shall pass this trial, we will adore "" the connection. with books precludes Druids. Because after all evidence possessed the Druids no book culture. Caesar describes Celtic culture of writing only in a southern Gaul tribe based on Greek characters without spiritual references. 159. "amongst splat, two were eminent above the rest, Their names were Lothroch, Which is Lochric, and Lucamael, Which is Ronal, and Those two, by Their magic art, Often prophesied thatthere would be a Certain foreign custom Introduced, as the custom of the kingdom, with A Certain unknown obnoxious doctrine, from far beyond sea, Dictated by a few, and received by many: To be honored by all, About to overthrow kingdoms, About to seduce opposing crowds, About to destroy all Their gods, And about to rule above all others, by the powers of its kind, for all ages. (Life of S. Patrick, by Muirchu moccu Machtheni) 160. This is the translation of the Ireland experts Ludwig Bieler from his book "Ireland. pioneer of the Middle Ages', Freiburg 1961. Bieler's source is the Book of Armagh. Bieler created later, a new edition of "The Patrician texts in the Book of Armagh." Dublin 1979. The translation above is therefore preferable directly and other versions. 161. "There is, HOWEVER, another aspect of the Confession did Reveals something about Patrick's character. Patrick is excessively humble, saying did he is" unskilled in everything "(Confession 49), and frequently citing his poor Latin, his simplicity and his rusticity . " John Lewis examines the life of St. Patrick: http://cssaame.com/jhs/achievements.htm 162. "As they commenced discoursing Alternately, the magician, Locru what bold in the presence of the Saint, daring to detract from the Catholic faith, with boisterous words, but Saint Patrick glancing at him uttering search expressions, as Peter did formerly at Simon , with power and great boldness exclaiming to the Lord, he said, "O Lord! who art almighty, and by Whose power all things Consist, and ye who sent me hither, let this impious wretch who blasphemes thy name, be lifted forth, and let him Quickly the. "And having said this, the magician what lifted up to the sky, and again cast down and his brains dashed out against a stone, and he died in Their sight, and the gentiles Feared. "( http://www.maryjones.us/ctexts/patrick-armagh1-muirchu.html Life of S. Patrick, Muirchu moccu Machtheni) 163. Muirchu: "The king what greatly indignant against Patrick, on account of the death of his magician, and he almost had rushed upon him, Desiring to slay him, but God prevented him, for at the intercession of Patrick, and at his entreaty the wrath of God descended on his head, and the king greatly Feared, and his heart what alarmed, and all the state with him. The elders, THEREFORE, and all his senate, being assembled in Loigaire, Said to them, "It is better did I shoulderstand believe than the" and the council being Entered into, accor ding to Their advice, hey Believed on did day, and what converted to the everlasting God of Israel. "(Muirchu so) 164. "There Upon many others so Believed, and Saint Patrick Said to the king," Because cause you have resisted my doctrine, and have been a scandal to me, Although the days of your reign 'may be

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prolonged, Nevertheless, there Shall be no king of your seed for ever. "(Muirchu so) 165. "If a man quotes a passage, He Has read it,.. but we must not assume did He Has read the work in Which It were the occurs Quotations Often taken second-hand from grammar books The researches of CK Ullman have revealed did anthologies Contributed Largely to the classical knowledge of medieval scholars; "Bolgar, RR: The Classical Heritage and its Beneficiaries, Cambridge 1973 p. 9 166. The CLA listed for Ireland and the UK only three classics (9.1370 Justinus, Epit Hist Philippicae,.. X 1578 Pliny, Nat Hist,... Suppl, 1806 Servius, Com Vergilli Aeneida) in Anglo-Saxon font, from 8 Century that might come from England. But since they are on the continent, even in a region with Anglo-Saxon tradition of writing, and does not indicate a transfer can be seen only comes rather her writer from England. Maybe just his teacher. However mentioned Alcuin (c. 800) the old Pliny, Servius and the likely to Justin in the library of York. Therefore, it is very likely that these 3 tracks were there in the 8th century. It could even have been recognized in CLA codices. Then the islands were only for a few decades in the 8th Century classics possessed. From the 9th Century are likely to be then come Carolingian of the continent. 167. "It is unlikely did Ireland possessed much in the way of classical literature, and there is no evidence did the Irish literary texts Actually Carried From Their home country to the Continent." Reynolds, Text and Transmission, (1983) p. xx 168. "The number of classical texts Which have come down to us in copies made by Irish scribes is exceedingly small, and synthesis few copies were made on the continent where Irish script which practised Widely falling on the seventh and eighth centuries." L. Bieler (1971), p. 47: Bolgar, RR (Ed.): Classical Influences on European Culture AD. 500-1500, Cambridge 1971, The classics in Celtic Ireland, p. 45ff 169. mentioned by Bieler "few copies" were Petronius, Caesar, and Horace. All from the Carolingian period. That Columbanus Horace quoted is certainly no indication of Horace studies since 6 Century. Columbanus quotes came from the writings of the Church Fathers. 170. So also Bieler: "The Possibility so that many of the quotations we find in the works of Irish writers have come to them second-hand can not be discounted." (1971) p.46f. 171. B. Bischoff: "Furthermore, I believe it, unlike my friend Ludwig Bieler likely that Columbanus most acquired of knowledge of classical and late antique poetry only on the mainland, as well as its own exercise in metrical poetry," in: Brown, (1975 ) p. 298 172. "In any case, Columbanus's" classicism "Appears to have been unique in the Ireland of his own day, and indeed on the Continent in the early years of the 7th century." Brown (1975) p. 244 173. "There is no trace of a general humanistic attitude." L. Bieler (1971), p. 47 174. Bieler (1961), p 16 175. Wilhelm Levison: The Irish and the Frankish Church (1912), in: Prince, Friedrich (ed.): Monasticism and Society in the Early Middle Ages, Darmstadt 1976. P. 96 176. Direct quote from von Padberg, (1998) p 68 177. St. Gallen was a time only a "hermitage". Luxeuil was probably the beginning also responsible for South West Germania. 178. paleography (1986), p 122 179. "... but also Ulfilas (U. carolinus, in Wolfenbüttel, whose discovery by FA Knittel 1756 was epoch- making for the Palimpsestforschung) and the Visigoth Codex Euricianus. Frequently, the Irish have used scraped parchment, although here the Palimpsestcharakter often difficult can be determined. since the Carolingian period the Palimpsestieren is relatively rare ... " B. Bischoff, paleography, (1986) p 27 180. Bischoff (1986), pp. 255 181. Reynolds: Scribes and Scholars (1994) p. 85 182. Richard Mollweide: The emergence of Cicero excerpts of Hadoard and their significance for textual criticism. Wiener Studien. XXXIII. , 1911. 18, pp. 274-292. Text in the Internet. Excerpt: "The fragments of the Histories of Sallust derived from the investigations Edm. Haulers also from this time and in these two cases, the deliberate destruction of the classic text from Christian-religious reasons is extremely likely, because one can hardly imagine that those who the original font abwuschen and wiped out, would not have known that they thereby destroyed literary works of the greatest importance. In this time of persecution classical

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literature by the Christian Church, which, as I said, its peak is expected to have reached approximately between 550 to 650, is probably often presupposed in palimpsests of great religious zeal. Methodologically and in principle the monks seem to me in this regard to be taken place in the monastery of Bobbio, come from so many palimpsests. "Interesting hereinafter also minor Weides reference to the iconoclasm, which only sour resumed. 183. Prince, Friedrich: Early Monasticism in the Frankish Empire, Munich 1965 184. "M. Manitius, Gesch. d Latin Lit I, pp. 92ff., especially p 94, draws attention to the inner logic, which, combines Gregory's attitude with the practice of the monastery of Bobbio, old Klassikerhss. scrape and with Fathers new label. ago an overestimation of what was really in Bobbio in educational heritage of antiquity alive, warns rightly P. LEHMANN, panorama of the literary culture of the West in the 7th century (the study d Middle Ages Vol V) Stuttgart 1962 , pp. 258-274, especially pp. 264f. " S. 466 185. "However, certain reservations, one can not help but refer to a created with the help of the Lombard royal family foundation readily as poor as this all parallel cases (Corbie, Poitiers, St. Croix, Agaunum, Fulda, Reichenau, etc.), where monasteries originated from the royal initiative, contrary. Also Bobbio had so far established in the second half of the 7th century as a monastic cultural center as well as a scriptorium, that one would have at that time had certainly not necessary to destroy from poverty classic manuscripts by Palimpsestieren. " S. 527 186. "He CLEARLY knew very well what style to use on what occasion." Brown (1975) p. 296 187. EA Lowe: Codices Rescripti - A List of the Oldest Latin palimpsest with Stray Observations on Their Origin. In: Melanges Eugene Tisserant, v (Bibliotheca Vaticana, 1964), 67-112. Also in: EA Lowe: Palaeographical Papers 1907-1965. Vol II, Oxford 1972 188. The "Geometria Boetii" is a work of the 11th Century (Heiberg, LL: History of Mathematics and Naturwisenschaft in antiquity, Munich 1925, pp. 13f) Today Euclid tradition dates of translations from the Arabic and Greek in the 12th Century 189. Most researchers see this as part of the palimpsest Boethius Tradtion. Maybe even as a holograph of Boethius. But Lowe dated Euclid text to the late fifth Century (CLA 4.501). If that's true, he can hardly come from Boethius, he would have before his him 22 Need to compose life. Such early performance would have been mentioned somewhere but. Although these palaeographical dating is not exact, but it is still supported by another point. For the place of palimpsestierung, Luxeuil in France, speaks rather against a work of Boethius. Such a one would have expected under the palimpsests of Bobbio in Italy, where other Gothic books were wiped out. But the text comes not from Boethius, it must have originated outside Italy. The Arian Goths under Theodoric would otherwise likely to be found and copied him. Lowe is the origin unclear. He suggests France as Luxeuil is there. Anyway, the text comes from a place of the more handwriting samples are barely survived. A now completely disappeared from history place where you can still end of the 5th Century had interest in ancient philosophy. 190. Again for clarity. If both of these collections cover for the most part. If both times from a larger collection in 1000 (the Barbaricum or Antique) were taken. Then this removal can be gewsen no random process. Both times someone must have sorted out according to the same criteria. 191. hunger, H. (among others): History of the textual tradition of the ancient and medieval literature. Vol 1 (1961) p 362 192. Especially Speyer refers to these parallels. (Speyer, Wolfgang: Books destruction and censorship of the mind in Pagans, Jews and Christians, Stuttgart 1981) 193. The above passage from the book of Acts with Paul can be interpreted as such a process. Miraculous Healing of the Sick is also reported by other people of the NT and many saints. 194. While in the 17th Century, the skills of a victorious Catholic military leader interpreted as a gift from God was often attributed to the direct action of God in the Middle Ages, the entire course of a battle. Even the systematic collection military knowledge was prevented by this interpretation. Even Napoleon was therefore Caesars Gallic War, the standard work of warfare. 195. Pornographic images or statues were far more widespread than it show most of today's collections. A lot of stuff was locked away in special collections or the 19th Century even hidden at the site again. Also pornographic writings probably did a significantly greater proportion in antiquity than in the tradition. In the ancient world pornographic writings were borrowed from public libraries. This was

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even highly recommended to promote health 196. "instrumental in shaping the vocabulary and thought of Western Christianity" Encyclopaedia Britannica 2003 197. Sauer (above), has pointed out, pp. 14, Tertullian: On the Games, 30 198. Christian and core (so) p 306 199. Diesner, Hans-Joachim: Isidore of Seville (1977) p 38 200. More clearly than in the AT this end time expectations are in the writings of Qumran. Probably these writings represent rather thinking in Judea in the first Century as the AT. After known in the 1990s had become interpretation of Eisenman these end times thought might have been a motivation in the Jewish revolt against Rome. One may even wanted to provoke the downfall of the state so that the prophecy could be fulfilled. 201. Scheer, Robert: With enough shovels: Reagan, Bush and nuclear war, New York (1983), discussion of the context of this school page (http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1&hl=en& ie=UTF8&prev=_t&rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http://www.colorado.edu/AmStudies /lewis/2010/nuclear.htm&usg=ALkJrhie_w-JI1ztNPEGgUQDojkq3Is4vw) . There link for details an article from Convergence (New York, Columbia University Press.) From the 1980s: Andrew Lang: The politics of Armageddon - Reagan left Bible Prophecy with Nuclear War (http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1&hl=en&ie=UTF8&prev=_t& rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http://www.prop1.org/inaugur/85reagan/85rrarm.htm& usg=ALkJrhh-i5DVeCH7mM8rjff0fN_tfG-gyw) . 202. In the Late Antique world to see with the still pagan coming out of the bank sign of future events and predictions, this may have been a consideration. But it does not correspond to the predominant medicinal promise of MA or the modern age. For this is, strictly personalized on the Day of Judgement. 203. The journal Archaeology (May / June 2002, 24) features a photograph of the devastation in the store-room of the Ministry of Information and 'Culture' at Kabul as a result of iconoclasm in 2001. Paul Bucherer-Dietschi to insider of recent Afghan history and campaigner for the preservation and restoration of the little did remains of the once rich cultural heritage of this country comments (ibid., 22 & 24): "Here's 18 cubic feet of Primarily Gandharan and Bactrian artifacts from the Kabul Museum, in pieces no bigger than my little finger. The Taliban came in the morning, hammered until prayer time, paused, hammered again, paused for tea, then hammered for the rest of the day. " (Sauer, then S, 164) 204. sour, so, Chapter 7: "Destruction at Dendera: a colossal task 205. The painter told them on TV. He had previously applied a coat of varnish to make it irreversible. Christian prohibition of images, it was not until the Middle Ages around 700 in Constantinople. 206. Frederick Prince: The True Lives of the Saints, Munich 2003, p 56: "Loves the radical contempt of ancient education, as reflected in the dream experience of Jerome, thematically nothing to do with his sharp polemic against the critics of asceticism, as yet, both cases indicate a historically significant phenomenon, namely the strong cultural break in Late Antiquity, the a phalanx church leading intellectual has deliberately taken place: self still in full possession of the traditional pagan education standards, the "liberal arts", ie the ancient cultural studies, she took of this heritage largely farewell, so that the following generations of religious reasons - today we would call them to look at other world religions as "fundamentalist" - were inevitably suppressed to a much lower intellectual level. In other words, Jerome, Augustine, and other lights of the church still had the option of choosing between large but largely contradictory mental conceptions of the world and self understanding and have these options also fully utilized each in their own way. So Jerome was at a certain stage of his life, acquired a classical education radically reject, as the letter to Eustochium shows. At the same time he was able, with the instruments of the "liberal arts", with philosophy, rhetoric, grammar, and with philological precision, ie with antique pagan achievements to write and sharp polemics in order, as in the case of Helvidius and Jovinianus, ideological opponents superior to drive in front of it. These were but secular skills that atrophy in the context of purely Christian religious education from generation to generation or more had come even lost entirely,

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as the period between 6 and 7 Century occupied. " 207. "Cosmos" (http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1&hl=en&ie=UTF8&prev=_t& rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmos_(book)& usg=ALkJrhg5Mhw9822wceArRSVrUk5F946o7w) became the most printed English-language non-fiction book. 208. Specifically, the destruction of the Library of Alexandria and Hypatia's death. Although between the two events several decades, but for the chosen time perspective they practically coincide. 209. For example, the German translation: "Our Cosmos", Munich 1982. Since Sagan spoke a little German is likely the choice of the word darkness have been a chance (in the diagram even "Dark Ages", but in ""). He was a leading propagandist of the secular scientific world view 210. The scientific director of this program, the results had been published in 1976. Because of the rather undesirable content, however, it was little known. The Association of Independent nuclear scientist was aware of it and publicated it in their in professional circles very famous journal (http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1&hl=en&ie=UTF8&prev=_t& rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http://en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Bulletin_of_the_Atomic_Scientists&usg=ALkJrhiRYb0mvTMBgYKgeG-qBhfPDwCfig) . (James W. Prescott: Body Pleasure and the Origins of Violence, in: The Bulletin of The Atomic Scientists, November 1975, pp. 10-20) Sagan, of which little is known, had been actively involved with nuclear weapons, was by attention. He presents it in his book, not only in the context of the violent end of antiquity but also with the risk of a return loss of the modern culture of nuclear war. 211. From an evolutionary perspective, this need not be a malformation, but would interpret "emergency control" as a kind. A lack of funding is most likely when the Horde is in a crisis situation. Approximately extreme food shortage or death of most members of the group, which has no more time for toddlers. For this case, a tendency to violence would be a survival benefit for the individual. But the person lives in a civilization, then this is a disaster emergency circuit for both the individual and his surroundings. 212. Prescott published to a survey statistic among U.S. college students. Of those who have a negative attitude to sexual pleasure, a predisposition towards acceptance of Gewaltmassnahnem is clear: 85% "Hard physical punishment is good for children who resist often" 81% "Physical punishment and pain help build a strong moral character" 80% "Abortion should be punished by society" 76% "capital punishment should be permitted by society" 75% "Violence is necessary to really solve our problems" 74% "Physical punishment should be allowed in schools" (...) 213. * 84% "Prostitution should be punished by society" 80% by "good premarital sex, I can not agree with" 78% "nudity in the family has a harmful influence on children" 73% "Sexual pleasure leads to a weak moral character" 72% "Society should interfere in the private sexual conduct between adults" (...) 214. "IMHOF argues that the negligent care behavior of the Catholic mothers greatly helped by inadequate nutrition, cleanliness, and indifference in some ways to the early death of their children return, evidence found in contemporary literature." Even the most tender mother's heart is indifferent for the fifth child , and the sixth she wants, according to the death that should the child how to express here adore, "said the Bavarian author Joseph Hazzi 1801 fixed." Pfister, C.: Population History and Historical Demography 1500-1800, (1994), p 36: Confession specific settings to life 215. Kruger, Julian: Oxyrhynchus in the imperial period (1990) 216. Axon, William EA: On the Extent of Ancient Libraries, in: Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature of the United Kingdom. Second Series, Vol X., London (1874), pp. 383-405. 217. Hagedorn, Dieter: Papyrology, in: hives Rath, H.-G.: Introduction to Greek Philology (1997) 218. Pöhlmann, Egert: Introduction to the history and tradition in the textual criticism of ancient literature (1994), p 124 219. Martial makes around AD 85 in two of his books, in the proem and the 14th Book of epigrams,

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advertising Codex editions of Secundus and his publisher calls also equal to its address. He praises it as a handy, recommends them as reading material (Paperback?), But they are also called extensive, as they may contain the complete works of an author. Homer's Odyssey and Iliad, each in a Codex. Secundus Codex offer contained, besides the famous Greek and Latin classics as well as works of Martial. Finding your way between Homer, Virgil, Cicero, Livy and Ovid in the delivery should have liked it. 220. Roberts, Colin H., Skeat, T. C: The Birth of the Codex, London (1983), p. 48 221. sop 76 222. From the illuminated manuscript of Tzetzes, reproduced and analyzed at Parsons: The Alexandrian Library (1952). 223. JO Ward: "Alexandria and its Medieaval Legacy: The Book, the Monk and the Rose" in MacLeod, Roy (Ed.): The Library of Alexandria, London (2000), p. 165 224. sure did not work, since that would have been in a medical or engineering book. One would then can not sell in a magic book as "secret knowledge". This is the special difference between a spell book of the early Roman Empire, and about a 1000 year older. In such of previous time could actually relevant knowledge, such as medicine, have been kept secret as a rule knowledge to legitimize a priestly caste. 225. You could occur frequently as evidence material to the Late Antique prosecution. Or just hardly have been handed down because of criminality from 400 AD. Similarly for Finds: Have they been heaped buried because of criminality or were they therefore hardly available? A statistical statement would only be possible if you koreliert the time of origin and loss of time by the total number of all Papyrifunde. Count provides an overview of the state of research on magical papyri. Since he is not mentioned such quantitative statements they were probably not yet been created. (Graf, Fritz: closeness to God and harmful magic: the magic in the Greco-Roman antiquity, Munich 1996) 226. Julian Krüger, Oxyrhynchus in the imperial period, 1990. 227. Kruger S. 161: 891 pieces described sided with literature, 180 and 234 on both sides with literature with literature on the one hand and instruments on the other side. That makes 891 + 180 * 2 + 234 = 1485 text pages with literature. 228. The very experienced papyrologist Turner for two-sided use of the papyrus: "If the sheet is well made there will be little difference in the smoothness and finish of the two sides, one side 'may be givenName a higher degree of polish than the other Whether the. fibers run with the direction of the writing or against it, in seeking a sheet there will be little resistance to the pen. Indeed, for a time in the early Ptolemaic period documents (ie sheets cut from a roll) Regularly were written across the fibers , and similarly for a time in the Byzantine age ". (Turner, Eric G.: Greek papyri, Oxford 1968, p 4.). The rather unusual two-sided use in Roman times is N. Lewis brought with the low price of papyrus during this period in conjunction. (Lewis 1973, p 130;. Quotation above) 229. Many papyri discoveries are inscribed on both sides, usually as a secondary use, while in other cases with continuous text. So 1305 rolls of literature at about 110 (= 8.4%) to find the same title on the front and back. (Krueger, (1990), pp. 161ff). So this can not be the result of a subsequent secondary use, but clearly indicates a quite widespread usage of the roll. 230. "... also he bequeathed me 160 rolls of selected notes. Each roll written on both sides and in the smallest possible handwriting, which practically doubled their number." (Pliny Ep III, 5) 231. About Katharina de la Durantaye: "Glory and honor the protection of literary authorship in the Rome of classical antiquity.." (2006) [3] (http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1& hl=en&ie=UTF8&prev=_t&rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http://www.forhistiur.de/zitat /0604deladurantaye.htm&usg=ALkJrhgSUQI14PFrixG3ipLs7vC17Rck9A) A brilliant work with considerable interest written in the ancient world. The author was apparently not aware that the traditional literature is the result of a careful selection process by radical Christians during late antiquity. Accordingly, the representations of the pagan emperors are usually negatively skewed. This is now typical of recent work. The almost complete absence of literature from the 3rd Century does not indicate a lack of productivity (p. 17), but on the Unerwünschheit these texts in the selection. For the late antique transition to the Codex she blames the better handling and Skeats price advantage. A critique of these points should not be the subject to start with her, but at the current standard works.

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Michael von Albrecht : History of Roman literature . Dtv, Munich 1997 (2 volumes).

Treated only phase 1, the origin. With emphasis on intellectual content, context and reception.

Mostafa El-Abbadi: Life and Fate of the Ancient Library of Alexandria . 2 Edition.Unesco, Paris, 1992, ISBN 92-3-102632-1 . William EA Axon: On the Extent of Ancient Libraries . In: Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature of the United Kingdom . Second Series, Vol X, London 1874, pp. 383-405 Bairoch, Paul: Cities and Economic Development, 1988 Robert Barnes: Cloistered Bookworms in the Chicken-Coop of the Muses. The Ancient Library of Alexandria . In: Roy MacLeod (ed.): The Library of Alexandria . London 2000. Bieler, Ludwig Ireland. Pioneer of the Middle Ages, Freiburg 1961 Bieler, Ludwig (1971): The classics in Celtic Ireland, in: Bolgar, RR (Ed.): Classical Influences on European Culture AD. 500-1500, Cambridge 1971, p. 45ff Bischoff, Bernhard: paleography of Roman antiquity and medieval Europe, Berlin 1986 Blanck, Horst: The book in antiquity, Munich 1992

Good introduction to the ancient book culture

Bolgar, RR: The Classical Heritage and its Beneficiaries, Cambridge 1973 Brehaut, Ernest: An encyclopedist of the Dark Ages - Isidore of Seville. Columbia University, New York 1912 Brown, T. Julian: An Historical Introduction to the Use of Classical Latin Authors in the British Isles From the 5th to the 11th Century. In: La Cultura antica nell'Occidente Latinodal 7 all 11 secolo. ed, Jeauneau, Edouard. 237-299, 1975. (22nd Conference Centro Italiano di Studi sull'alto Medioevo Spoleto, Italy.. Centro Italiano di Studisull'alto Medioevo)

On pages 294-299 and discussion posts by Ludwig Bieler and Bernhard Bischoff.

Karl Christian , Anton Kern: The Middle Ages . In: Georg Leyh (eds.): Handbook of Library Science . Band 3.1. history of libraries . Wiesbaden 1955. Chuvin, Pierre: A Chronicle of the Last Pagans, London 1990 Diesner, Hans-Joachim: Isidore of Seville, 1977 Dzielska, Maria: Hypatia of Alexandria, London 1995 Hans Gerstinger: inventory and tradition of the literary works of Graeco-Roman antiquity . Kienreich, Graz 1948. Graf, Fritz: closeness to God and harmful magic: the magic in the Greco-Roman antiquity, Munich 1996 Haas, Christopher:. Alexandria in Late Antiquity, London 1997 Angelika Haese: Medieval Books directories from Lorsch Abbey. Introduction, edition and commentary . Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2002, ISBN 3-447-04490-X . Dieter Hagedorn: Papyrology . In: Heinz-Günther Nessel Rath (ed.): Introduction to the Greek philology . Teubner, Stuttgart 1997, ISBN 3-519-07435-4 . Hagen Dahl, Herbert: From Tertullian to Cassiodorus. Gothenburg 1983 Richard Mollweide: The emergence of Cicero excerpts of Hadoard and their significance for textual criticism. Wiener Studien. XXXIII., 1911. 18, pp. 274-292 Michael H. Harris: A history of libraries in the western world . Scarecrow Press, Lanham, Maryland, 1995, ISBN 0-8108-3724-2 .

This is a review by Johnson (1965 with the same title). Now includes a misleading change at a critical point (see above).

Wolfram Hoepfner (ed.): Ancient libraries . Philip of Saverne, Mainz 2002, ISBN 3-8053-2846-X .

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Hunger, Herbert (ed.): History of the text tradition of the ancient and medieval literature, Volume 1, Ancient and medieval book and scholarly journals, Zuerich, 1961

Something shaped Christian apologetic, avoids significant statements.

George W. Houston: A revisionary Note on Ammianus Marcellinus 14.6.18: When did the Public Libraries of Ancient Rome close? . In: Library Quarterly . Vol 58, No. 2, 1988, pp. 258-264

Scathing criticism so

Hunt, RW: The deposit of Latin classics in the twelfth-century Renaissance, in: Bolgar, RR (Ed.): Classical Influences on European Culture AD. 500-1500, Cambridge 1971, p. 51ff Elmer D. Johnson: A history of libraries in the western world . Scarecrow Press, Metuchen, New Jersey 1965, ISBN 0-8108-0949-4 . William A. Johnson: The literary papyrus roll. Format and conventions; on analysis of the evidence from Oxyrhynchus . Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut in 1992. Robert A. Kaster: History of Philology in Rome . In: Fritz Graf and others (ed.): Introduction to Latin philology . Teubner, Stuttgart 1997, ISBN 3-519-07434-6 . Kenney, James F.: The Sources for the early history of Ireland, New York 1929 Kruger, Julian: Oxyrhynchus in the imperial period (1990)

Important statistics on papyri from there

Lehmann, Paul: Exploring the Middle Ages, Selected treatises and essays, Vol II, Stuttgart 1959 Lewis, Naphtali: Papyrus in classical antiquity, Oxford 1974

Standard work on papyrus scrolls. Lewis own and he cites statements by other Papyrologists to the longevity of roles are ignored constant of philologists such as Reynolds.

Lowe, EA: codices Rescripti - A List of the Oldest Latin palimpsest with Stray Observations on Their Origin. In: Melanges Eugene Tisserant, v (Bibliotheca Vaticana, 1964), 67-112.

Also in: EA Lowe: Palaeographical Papers 1907-1965. Vol II, Oxford 1972

Max Manitius : history of Latin literature of the Middle Ages . CH Beck, Munich 1974 ff (reprint of Munich 1911)

1. From Justinian to the middle of the 10th Century. In 1974.

Fritz Milkau, Georg Leyh (eds.): Handbook of Library Science . 2 Edition. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1952-1961.

Could tolerated in all areas of an update and additions. If, however, even after 50 years still the unique and unmatched standard on the history of libraries.

Mynors, RAB: Cassiodori Senatoris Institutiones, Oxford (1937) Orosius, Paulus: The seven books of history against the pagans. transl. Irving Woodworth Raymond, Columbia University Press 1936 Padberg, Lutz E. von: The Christianization of Europe in the Middle Ages, Stuttgart 1998 Edward A. Parsons: The Alexandrian Library. Glory of the hellenic world. Its rise, antiquities, and destructions . New York 1952.

So far bedeutenstes work on this library, particularly the analysis of their destruction. Indicates that Caesar had nothing to do with it and certain ancient sources contain systematic misrepresentations. This opinion has prevailed, although today. However, the potential of his exemplary analysis remained unrecognized until now.

Pfister, C.: Population History and Historical Demography 1500-1800, (1994), Egert Pohlmann : introduction to the history and tradition in the textual criticism of ancient literature (The Classical Studies). University Press, Darmstadt 1994.

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Treat only the ancient phase. But is very interesting information about the book essence of the ancient world.

Prince, Friedrich:. Early Monasticism in the Frankish Empire, 1965 Frederick Prince: The True Lives of the Saints, Munich 2003 Wayne A. Wiegand (ed.): Encyclopedia of library history . Garland, New York 1994, ISBN 0-8240-5787-2 .

Emphasis on modernity, 20 Century.

Leighton D. Reynolds (Eds.): Texts and transmission. A survey of the Latin classics . Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1990, ISBN 0-19-814456-3 .

Standard work on the tradition of individual titles. With Stemmata and detailed literature. Although Reynolds introduction concludes that a low point of the tradition in the 7th Century, but it is no historical explanation. Neither books annihilations in late antiquity nor its reasons to be mentioned somewhere.

Leighton D. Reynolds and Nigel G. Wilson: Scribes and Scholars. A guide to the transmission of Greek and Latin literature . 3 Edition. Clarendon Press, Oxford 1991.

Covers the entire history of tradition, but without scientific value. Assertions are partly or even completely wrong ill looking and never occupied. For a critique so and John O. Ward (2000)

Riche, Pierre: Education and Culture in the Barbarian West, 1976 Colin H. Roberts, Theodore C. Skeat: The birth of the codex . Oxford University Press, London, 1983.

Focus on Egypt because of where most finds.

Daniel Sarefield: Burning Knowledge, Studies of Book Burning in Ancient Rome, Dissertation, Ohio State University, 2004 Daniel Sarefield: Book Burning in the Christian Roman Empire - Transforming a Pagan Rite of Purification, in: HA Drake (Ed.): Violence in Late Antiquity Perceptions and Practices. Burlington (2006) Eberhard Sauer: The archeology of religious hatred in the Roman and early medieval world . Tempus Books, Stroud 2003 ISBN 0-7524-2530-7 .

The first and only book to the obvious question to the remains of the ancient world: Those who destroyed when and why these works of art?

Schatkin, MA and PW Harkins, Saint John Chrysostom, Apologist. Discourse on Blessed Babylas and against the Greeks. Demonstration against the Pagans did Christ is God (Fathers of the Church 73), Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1985.

Caution! Striking errors in translation in a prominent place. See discussion above.

Skeat, TC: The Length of the Standard Papyrus Roll and the Cost Advantage of the Codex. Journal for Papyrology and Epigraphy 45 (1982) pp. 169-175

In this essay, be warned. Earlier in the article, you can read why.

Wolfgang Speyer: Books destruction and censorship of the mind in Pagans, Jews and Christians . Hiersemann, Stuttgart 1981, ISBN 3-7772-8146-8 ( library of the book trade , Volume 7).

Do not bring the most significant quote on the subject of St. Chrysostom. Even otherwise strongly influenced Christian apologetic, so

Turner, Eric G.: Greek papyri, Oxford 1968 John O.Ward: Alexandria and its medieval legacy. The book, the monk and the rose . In Roy MacLeod (ed.): The Library of Alexandria . London 2000. Edward J. Watts: City and school in late antique Athens and Alexandria . University of California Press, Berkeley, California 2006, ISBN 0-520-24421-4 .

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Treated well the teaching of late antiquity. But lack of knowledge of the principles of ancient science. Ignoring completely the only indirectly traditional content. His conclusion, the ancient science would to the 6th Century survives, is untenable. His book was the catalyst for this article: Tradition History of Science (http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1&hl=en&ie=UTF8&prev=_t&rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http://de.wikipedia.org /wiki/Benutzer:Bibhistor/%25C3%259Cberlieferungsgeschichte_der_Wissenschaften&usg=ALkJrhh--P8tirfJ1L2T5_X-YXi5KqAhzg)

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia < User: Bibhistor This article is under construction and not yet part of the free encyclopedia Wikipedia . If you come across it on a search engine, keep in mind that the text be incomplete and may contain mistakes or unaudited statements. If you have any questions on the subject, take the best contact with the author on.

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1 Tradition History of Science 2 The Origin of Science 3 The Decline in Late Antiquity 3.1 The end of philosophy 3.2 The End of Physics 3.2.1 A millennium-murder 3.2.2 The falsification of Claudius Ptolemy 4 The traditional selection 5 The re-distribution 5.1 The humanists 5.2 The renaissance of Humanities 5.3 The Copernican Revolution 5.4 The Renaissance of Natural Sciences 5.4.1 secret project "vacuum" 6 comments 7 Literature

Science, [1] especially the natural sciences, is less the product of outstanding thinkers, but rather a result of the culture of a time. Nor is it a path of continuous improvement, but can, along with a culture that also suffer extreme setbacks.

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The contents of the libraries of the past 2000 years. With the Christian takeover an extreme break came in the interest and ability of Western culture. It was not until 1000 years later was again enough knowledge accumulated around the remains of the ancient world to be able to use them at all. Now the reconstruction of Science began. Share sekularer ...

The science of the West began 2500 years ago, almost disappeared 1500 years ago and was brought back only 500 years ago. Crucial to the re-emergence of modern science was the work of artists and philologists. And a family that is rarely brought in connection therewith. The most famous thinkers of modern times built all on it.

On Begin each cultural development was a religious worldview. It forms in prehistoric times (the time before the invention of writing), even before agriculture. It consists of traditional rules of conduct that are evolutionarily developed and justified by myths. [2] Only with the advent of writing, a knowledge base can be created that makes it possible to obtain experience-based knowledge about the nature and people. Thus arose the science in the 6th Century BC in Greece. [3]

Basis of this development were the direct observation, such as astronomy, the technology-based physical experiment and the critical discussion. [4] In ancient times famous for was "ionic School". [5] Due to the break in tradition was just naturwisschenschaftliche this part of the ancient history of science for modern research difficult to detect. [6]

The main result of this ancient development, the Ionian School, was the world theory of atomism. It was developed by Leucippus and Democritus around 420 BC spread from a very extensive writings. She explained all the processes of nature (and human) by changing connections between atoms. This corresponds approximately to the modern worldview. Gods were no longer necessary. But this scientific world view was a direct competitor to the religious preachers of truth. They feared for the stability of society, when the nature of them without the proclaimed will of the gods can be explained. [7]

This led to a conflict that shaped the development of ancient science to its demise in late antiquity. The atomists was soon made a seemingly based on science religious worldview of Plato (427-347) counter. A "astral theology" (Farrington) [8] even banned some books on astronomy goods before Plato, [9] has now the motion of the planets used to prove a divinely ordered universe. The books of the leading atomist Democritus, Plato wanted to be burned the most. [10] He then contented himself to refute him in his dialogues. But in ancient times an author noticed that Plato carefully avoided using the name of Democritus.

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[11]

With the "magic wand" of the Pythagorean mathematics (the mathematical parable) Plato has transformed the ionic nature of philosophy in theology. [12] Plato's system was invisible things the atribute of the divine, put the divine Spirit upon the human and spirit over matter. Plato argued against the observation of nature [13] and saw the study of technology as a task for slaves. An inventor got his idea from God and is not even the author. According to Plato, not the inventor of a thing have the true scientific knowledge about it, but only its user. [14] Plato's contribution to ancient science was a total of more that he is "the light of knowledge blew out instead of doing it to stir." [15] Ancient Theatre: Plato and the Plato's philosophy was too extreme to be incompatible with the natural Academy of Athens (mosaic, sciences in order to halt it permanently. More important here was Plato's Pompeii, 50 AD). Probably Plato student Aristotle (384-322). In contrast to Plato held Aristotle material ... things as really existing and ideas as not separately existent. [16] This observation was again permitted, and he aktzeptierte also the basic principle of science, according to which the observation about the theory was. [17]

Since Aristotle rejected the idea of the atomists, allowed his worldview only a description of known things. But its based thereon science could not predict possible changes of these things. So he delivered so excellent descriptions and classifications of animals for biology. But for innovations, such as in practical chemistry, would have been his way of thinking nothing can be achieved. [18] An applied research, such as chemical- physical technology, was not free science for Aristotle as for Plato. A preoccupation with it also saw Aristotle rather the level of slaves appropriate. [19]

Farrington sees the deficit and the reverse Deft of Plato's and Aristotle's view of the world stem from the desire to legitimize the ruling social Ordung. In Aristotle him yet noticed that this apparently thought the applied sciences have already done their job. [20] The works of Plato and Aristotle seem therefore directly responsible for the technical stagnation of the Hellenistic world. [21]

The most significant representative of the atomistic and Natural The Academy of Athens (drawing, Sciences worldview of the Greek philosopher Epicurus was (341-270). 1700), this modern ... His school had similarity with the movement of the Enlightenment in the 18th Century. [22] atomism, in the embossed shape of Epicurus, "became the basis of Epicurean Philosophy-system and its way of life, which, together with the stoicism, the life and culture of the Hellenistic and Roman world dominated much." (Taylor: The Atomists) [23] .

The Epicureans propagated the absence of divine influences in nature and in human history. They saw neither man nor animals as created rather than formed by natural evolution. The universe is infinite and contains also other inhabited worlds. The Epicureans were against all forms of religion and superstition's, enabling people only in fear. In order to free the people from these fears and constrictions is education about the true nature of things, the best remedy for all the ills of humanity and of the individual. [24]

Because of their commitment to public education and their rejection of religion, the Epicureans were exiled 173 BC by the Senate of Rome. [25] Towards the end of the Republic, but seem to be leading people of Rome, at least under the influence of Epicurean Enlightenment. From Albrecht inter alia, to Varro, Cicero

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and Caesar. [26]

Although Cicero in his writings represents the scientific worldview holds gods of Epicurus and for imagination, it does not prevent him, officially as a priest to perform religious ceremonies as one of the leaders of the nobility (the Optimates) in the Senate. It keeps religion to control the people is essential. [27]

Unlike his opponent Caesar, leader of the populares in the Senate. After taking power, he is the first to implement Epicurus desire for popular education into action. He commissioned Varro with the founding of Rome's first public library. About 400 years later, around 350, at the beginning of the Christian takeover, Rome decreed then over 28 public libraries. The most ancient evidence of high literacy and education to people in lower layers date from the early Empire. This may reflect a cultural change, after which the emperor built up an educated population as a power base against the Senate and the recruiting of the army. As the first emperor Vespasian (69-79) funded public schools of rhetoric. [28] From this it can be concluded on a broader public education, and to promote the desire of the Emperor this. [29] Epicurus thought would be an advantage for the been emperor, but it took the nobility its traditional influence over the religion to the people.

The most important representative of Epicurus in the Roman world was Lucretius (96-53) with his book "From the nature of things." In verse, similar to Virgil, it differentiates according to Epicurus scientific description of the world. Tacitus (Dial 23) makes a remark, which some of his contemporaries Lucretius want to serve as school reading about Virgil. Since Virgil was the most common lateinsche author, this can be also close to a wide circulation of Lucretius. "Lucretius's program of national education" (Farrington) could, according to new research in the pagan Empire effect have had more than was previously thought. [30]

The civil wars at the end of the Roman Republic had its origin in the increasingly extreme unequal distribution of wealth. The Census system guaranteed particularly wealthy citizens of the Senate and the political power. With the victory of Caesar and the establishment of the Empire, the power of the Senate was weakened. The Emperor could decide relatively freely on the use of tax revenues without the wealth of senators having to promote. Great wealth and concentration of power in the Senate could be met, in principle, by drastic means. [31] Thus began in the early Empire a phase state of centralized control of large economic projects. [32]

In contrast to the openly authoritarian system of imperial administration survived at community level, the achievements of the Republic in the form of an almost modern-style democracy. [33] As a result, the concentration of wealth on this lower level remained almost completely unchecked. In some earlier studies found a significant increase in land concentration from early to late empire. [34]

There are now before the papyrus finds even statistically documented this development. A measure of the unequal distribution of property or income is the Gini index. A high Gini value indicates a concentration of wealth in few and widespread poverty. Papyrus finds of ancient tax lists show a rise in the Gini land ownership. In late antiquity, then Gini values were achieved associated in modern times with riots or civil wars. The example of the United States around 1850, this Gini values also show a tendency to over slavery and less spending on education. Increase in inequality and the consequences. Example These recognizable in the modern trend is also visible in ancient Egypt and the United States in 1850 ... the ancient world, the underlying mechanisms are well

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documented. Landowners were the richest people in the ancient world and the tax law, the Census, directly bound to entertain community amenities. These were roads, water supply, public buildings. But public libraries, schools [35] and universities. [36]

This left the educational system, the most important part of ancient culture, under the direct control of the (money) nobility. [37] The absence of a national education system appeared early on as a major birth defects of the Empire. [38]

This points to a weakness of the early emperors, who apparently wanted to avoid a resurgence of the civil war. As a result, seem anti-imperial publications have achieved a significant, perhaps even dominant distribution in the early Empire. [39] have been the mass media of the empire, speaker and writer, could therefore dominated early on by the nobility.

In the course of late antiquity can be a decline of education clearly make out. He walked up to a literacy rate close to zero in the early Middle Ages around 600 The takeover of the obscurantist Christianity with his rejection of literacy can be made safe to blame. [40]

However, here also suggest the Papyrifunde and their evaluation in the last 100 years on a slightly more accurate picture. Accordingly, the number of literary papyri from Oxyrhynchus was particularly dramatic in the 3rd Century, so a good 100 years before the Christian takeover. The percentage dominance of Christian literature was hardly the increase but rather by the rapid decline of the secular. [41] It is therefore necessary before the rise of Christianity have been a decline in education.

The responsibility for this may have been just the city councils and thus the money aristocracy. By reducing the generally accessible education they could guarantee their own offspring a monopoly in education. This also a monopoly in power, because only educated could take functions in administration, Legal Profession and schools.

From the Modern, we know that increasing poverty and increase in the Gini lead to social tensions. These show up in a polarization of politics and culture. There is a stronger block formation, radical views have to be heard more opportunities. It is obvious that this nobility also promoted an extreme religion such as late antique Christianity. [42]

Its deference to authority, irrationality and education hostility Was not an ideal instrument for spiritual dominion over the increasingly Polarization in politics is impoverished people. As early as the time Paltons, was also in the proportional to the Gini - example German Empire, the nobility have no real interest in technical and USA ... scientific progress. There was the emperor calibration approaches already industrialization or mechanization of agriculture. [43] A progression of this development to steam engines and railway would indeed have benefited the people and the state, but not the Senatorial landlordism. Because he sold not only food but also the animal "Engines" and their "fuel". A progression of mechanization would therefore the proportion of large estates reduced the gross national product and thus also the power of the nobility, the bassierte it. [44] reducing the formation and suppression of the natural sciences was therefore a strategy to maintain power of the Senate. This economic-cultural background, one should remember when you read the following from what the science in ancient times.

The End of Philosophy

The philosophy of late antiquity was dominated by the Neo-Platonism. This was the 3rd Century in the

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school of Ammonius Sakkas (ca. 170-242) in Alexandria. He was a mixture of traditional philosophy, especially of some selected texts of Plato. Since Iamblichus (ca. 280-330) is still the practice of mystery and revelation cults in Neoplatonism detectable. A student should already Literature and Rhetoric Skills have before he could start at a Neo-Platonic school of philosophy a kind of higher education. He first learned mathematics in a form that modern observers describe as "numerology", and astrology. Then came philosophy, first by Aristotle and then Plato. [45]

In the end, followed by the coined by Iamblichus Theurgy for an inner circle of students. Proclus (412-485), the most important Neo-Platonists that time, held theurgy for "more powerful than all human wisdom and science" [46] It allowed him to control the weather and produce a rain storm or to heal the sick, no more doctor help those . It was thus able to prevent natural disasters or to bring a statue to the smile. After rumors of students Jamblichus to while praying have accepted a golden glow and floated. [47] Iamblichus also explained the difference to magic. Thus, gods help freiwilig in theurgic acts contrary to the practice of magic where they are forced to. [48]

How did we get here? In the first Century, Seneca derided the idea of weather magic as "silliness of a long-gone time to the grave". [49] In the second Century then saw Plutarch of Chaeronea the "proof of the demon world that stand between gods and men, and both connect with each other, as the most significant result of philosophical research." [50] In the third Century was then performed "Neoplatonism" the training of these Okkultlehre.

Scholars of the 19th Century made the influence of Christianity responsible for this development. [51] In fact, there was a close affinity with the demonology of Christianity and Christians were involved from the beginning on Neoplatonism. The Church Father Origen (185-254) learned as Plotinus (205-270) at Ammonius Sakkas (ca. 170-242) and used this philosophy to Christian conversion. [52] Ammonius Sakkas was a Christian [53] , is considered the "founder the religious direction in Neo-Platonism " [54] and as "the most mysterious figure in the history of ancient philosophy" [55]

At Sakkas's inner circle and Christian students were the later positions in the Church revenues. [56] Because of Sakkas no philosophical writings are even handed, the emergence of neo-Platonism is usually attributed to his pupil Plotinus, whose writings have been preserved. Sakkas school was in Alexandria, but was not one of the major schools of the city and very different from them, and science at the museum. [57]

Watts sees evidence that the school Sakkas was divided into two parts'. For an inner circle of advanced students, there was a top-secret doctrine. Thus Plotinus known that he vowed never to write about with other Sakkas teaching or speaking. [58] Since both he nevertheless did the oath may have referred only to a secret doctrine. It was probably the theurgy, which was open only known by Iamblichus.

For Christianity and Islam presented by Plotinus Platonism was the philosophy closest to their theology, [59] Conversely, wrote 289 of the Neoplatonist Alexander von Lycopolis a treatise that was so full of Christian teachings that many modern researchers considered him a Christian , but what he was not. [60] "decoupled" (Watts), the connection between Neoplatonism and Christianity in the year 325 With the condemnation of the writings of the priest Arius (250-336) was at that time at all prohibits the use of philosophy in Christian theology. [61] justification for the condemnation of the philosophy: "human knowledge have little relationship to true Christian knowledge" [62]

The new line was determined by 356 by Athanasius' writing "Life of Antony". The true believer should not learn to read and instead record the contents of the Scriptures by listening. Instead of discussing the mind is trained through asceticism, by retiring into solitude to the outskirts or in the desert. There, go through and strengthened in prayers, you'll get the help of God. Then you'll be superior in return in any discussion with pagan philosophers and even gather students around him. [63]

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Watts called this concept "revolutionary" and the Encyclopedia Britannica attested Scripture a wide distribution with "a powerful impetus to the monastic life, especially in the West." Apparently the authors is completely unaware that they describe the almost complete illiteracy of the centuries to come here. In 600, the formation was sunk so low that even some bishops could neither read nor write. Even the most significant "scientists" this time, the encyclopaedist and Bishop Isidore of Seville, was a functional illiterate. A classic text on the shape of the earth he did not understand, because he considered them a disc and had apparently never heard anything else.

The murder of Hypatia 415 AD Cyril also promoted the theurgical oriented Neoplatonism. There was an exodus of students to Athens, which lay in the administrative area of the West and apparently enjoyed more freedom. To 420 was Athens as "the center of the teaching of religious Neuplatonisms" (Watts) that the "pure and true Platonism according to Iamblichus 'tradition' represents. [64]

The Athenian school was dominated by the highly intelligent Proclus, who already took their lead with 28 years. In addition to teaching and secret incantations (theurgy), he devoted himself more to the post of scientific works of Neuplatonik. He was writing up to 700 lines per day [65] and many pages could rely to miss about the philosophical significance of the point. [66]

Proclus is now regarded as the last major scholars of antiquity. On closer inspection one finds in him but only hints of earlier science. He kept himself true for a scientist, but was ultimately only the representative of a theological doctrine. Their content is capture today most likely with the Hollywood movie "Ghostbusters" to. To describe Proclus as a charlatan or Verückten would not be fair. Because he lived in a fundamentalist Christian environment in which such things - ghosts, demons, exorcism and all kinds of miracles - were regarded as a normal part of reality.

Proclus was the first generation of philosophers who was born after the destruction of ancient literature (370-400). He had scarcely more ancient titles available than we are today, probably even much less. In his time the classical sciences, the world view of Epicurus or Seneca, only a now outmoded aberration. This one was also agreed with Christianity. Proclus was expelled in his early days for a year, then practiced his teachings but discreet enough to attract no attention. His successors were less careful. Between 500 and 520, the conductor was publicly chastised Hegias and banished. [67]

The last head of the school was Damascius. He seems to have prayers and other rites still further intensified. "Damascius had an amazingly productive mind" and "a fondness for paranormal representations" (Watts).Its not traditional books cover miracles connected with gods, the appearance of souls of dead and "a variety of supernatural phenomena." Photius, a later scribe which they still existed, wrote: "In all his work there is only impossible, unbelievable figure, poorly thought miracles and follies ..." [68]

Damascius' doctrine "helped re-establish the reputation of the school" to win (Watts) and new students. One of these last was Simplicius, who reported it. Closed as Emperor Justinian, the Academy was 529 of ancient science there appears to have been nothing more longer available.

Unlike the end in Alexandria. In the year 486, a student accusing his fellow students and teachers to perform at an Isis shrine ritual acts. Then the shrine was (probably again) destroyed and a commission of inquiry came to town. Teachers were tortured and they "changed things in the school through wide dissemination of fear but only selected punishment." (Watts) [69]

Many students and teachers fled, others were left behind as a "broken man" (Watts). Theurgic acts were from then on in Alexandria probably only by Christians. Olympiodurus stressed beginning of the 6th Century, the similarity between classical and Christian theology. [70]

Differences were the issues such as the finiteness or infinity of the cosmos or whether souls in hell fire forever or only a limited time to be punished. [71] Olympiodorus withstands even the heathen persecutions of

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546 and 562 and one of his successors, the Christian Stephen, taught the same as Olympiodorus until 610 Because he was a Christian, this bothered anyone. [72]

Plato's doctrine of Neo-Platonism and existed as a marginal phenomenon, more or less tolerated, the entire Middle Ages. It was the only doctrine of antiquity which was almost completely preserved. Younger writers such as Watts see it as an assertion of the ancient science of the 4th Century BC against the Christian zeal of late antiquity. Looking at the contents but this is quite different. Platonism in any form is only a theory and has little in common as any other theology with science. The common demonology makes Neoplatonism and Christianity on closely related theologies.

The really new in the 4th Century BC was the secular embossed scientific philosophy from atomism as representatives of Epicurus. The Watts probably meant Plato and Aristotle were more of a theological embossed countermovement. Watts [73] , this is apparently not known. Probably because it was hardly ever mentioned in late antique texts.

The End of Physics

Scientists of antiquity were always called philosophers. You have to look at their topics in more detail in order to identify among scientists. Theon of Alexandria was the last "man of the Museum" (Suda) and thus probably the last ruler of the great library of Alexandria. According to the Suda, he wrote works on mathematics and arithmetic, observations of birds and the sounds of ravens, on the rising of Sirius (the brightest star in the sky and a calendar brand) as well as the annual flooding of the Nile. Moreover, even a commentary on the astronomical tables of Ptolemy and hand over the small astrolabe.

Theon's daughter Hypatia was said to be involved at an early age in the work of her father. According to the Suda, she wrote further comments to Diophantus, the astronomical canon of Apollonius and to work on conic sections. After the letters her pupil Synesius of Cyrene, she worked even with the construction of astrolabes and Hydroskopen. [74]

In contrast to Athens Alexandria was better known for experimental observational science. [75] Hypatia should ensure that the last representative of this branch of science, physics, have been. You surely must have had knowledge of the Neo-Platonic thinking behind. But there is no evidence that she has this ever represented. The later scholars of the 5th and 6 Century they were expressly for measuring mathematician ("Geometer") and not comparable to the (Neo-Platonic) philosopher of her time:

"Isidore outshone Hypatia by far., Not only because he was a man and a woman, but stands in the way as a real philosopher than a geometer." (Damascius, Life of Isidore)

Hypatia's father Theon was also referred to by Damascius as a geometer. In Hypatia therefore we have the endpoint of the tradition of the museum and the rational sciences of antiquity. Hypatia's story was already in the 18th and 19thCentury popularized by representatives of the Enlightenment. Today, it is almost forgotten. Wrongly. Because since the 1970s has it, the first time since her murder, clues to the motive for murder. This shows that the importance of Hypatia was significantly underestimated in the past 300 years but not over. In the following, the historical facts will be presented in more detail up to date.

A millennium-murder

The identification of Hypatia as a mathematician support the traditional dating [76] she was born on the 370 years. [77] would have had to be older as a Neoplatonic philosopher. [78] One might date its birth even in the late 370s. [79] to Hypatia's time, the museum and the library was probably destroyed or at least no longer usable. Because she taught only in their private rooms or public gathering places. From the population of

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Alexandria, she was loved and showered with honors. [80] One day, in March 415:

Under their leader, a readership name Peter, they watched her on the way home. Overwhelmed by grim, blindly devoted zeal. They tore out of her car and took her to church with the name Caesareum. There, they undressed her completely and murdered them with shells. After they had their bodies torn to pieces they brought the mangled limbs to a place called Cinaron, and there they burned them. (Socrates Scholasticus, Historia Ecclesiastica)

This report by the Christian chroniclers Socrates Scholasticus (ca. 380-440) enthällt an important detail in the recent work, such as Watts and Haas, conceal. The killing was carried out by dismembering with shells, the original is the Greek word for oyster shells. [81]

This may seem strange, but has a concrete background. According to the Law on the execution of witches they were to kill the one with them hoes (or red-hot pincers) tore the flesh from the bone. [82] In the absence of the tool apparently was used mussel shells, with appropriate handling sharp as razor blades. Thus Socrates confirms a later representation of Hypatia's murder as a witch:

And in those days appeared in Alexandria a female philosopher, a pagan named Hypatia. She devoted all her time of magic, astrolabes and music instruments. And they deceived many people by their satanic tricks. (...) And after that, a large number of believers in God arose under the leadership of the City Council Peter. This Peter was a believer, in all fully give Jesus Christ. And they went out in The End of Science - Hypatia's search of the Gentile woman the people of the city and the murder in a church 415 AD. prefect has deceived by her sorcery. Painting by CW Mitchell (1885) When they heard where she was staying, they went there and found them sitting on a high chair. After they took them down they dragged her along till they to a large Krirche, called Caesarion came. This was in the days of fasting. And they tore down her clothes and dragged her through the streets of the city until she died. And they brought them to a place called Cinaron and burned her body with fire. And all the people surrounded the Pari arks Cyril and called him "the new Theophilus" - because he has destroyed the last remains of idolatry in the city. (Bishop John of Nikiu, chronology 84.87-103)

Thus died the greatest mathematician of antiquity, unmatched until the 18th Century, [83] in an orgy of blood without precedent. What is there occurred to horror and bestiality in a late antique church is one of the most extreme events of this period. From the 18thuntil the mid 20th Century Hypatia's story was the subject of famous authors. Nevertheless, it is hardly known today. [84]

Was that St. Cyril responsible for her murder has been well documented. Not only Bishop John, Socrates also hinted it. Earlier authors saw it as evidence of the anti-science of the Church. Younger, more Christian- influenced authors (Dzielska, Haas, Watts), focus on the Christian sources and see the act as a by-product of a power struggle between the Patriarch and the Prefect of Alexandria Cyril had murdered Hypatia to weaken the position of Prefect - just where he killed his allies. This is Hypatia's death from an epoch-breaking to an event in the local urban policy. But upon closer examination of the sources, this interpretation seems hardly tenable.

The prefect of Alexandria, Orestes, was almost completely powerless against Bishop Cyril. Cyril had under his command a 500-strong force of "nurses" (Parabalani) through its "terror" city councils to the Emperor complained. [85] Haas calls this force directly "ecclesiastical Brown Shirts", an equation with the SA, the

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Nazi era. [86]

After a triggered by Cyril pogrom against the Jews of Alexandria Prefect remains only a letter of complaint to the emperor. The prefect had not even a relevant bodyguard: As a horde of monks tried to assassinate him, was only the intervention of passers save his life. After the murder of Hypatia, the prefect Orestes is no longer mentioned, he disappears from history. It is believed he had to leave the city or was dismissed. He himself would have had parts of the Christian population behind after this outrageous act, he would be taken against Cyril. This shows that the Christian explanation for the murder lacks the internal logic.

The previous interpretation overlooks some important details. The assassination of the Prefect, after all, this is the direct representative of the emperor, was perpetrated by a group of monks from the monastery of the Cyril belonged to before he became a bishop. Cyril known even to the act in which he tried to explain the main perpetrators of a martyr. [87] Although this was a direct attack against the church on the imperial power, neither he were punished or reprimanded nor the monks.

An equally monstrous procedure is reported on the course of the attack. When the monks attacked the Prefects fled his bodyguard, only bystanders passers-by could protect him from the murderers. A bodyguard who leaves an imperial prefect in the lurch, would still lucky if she pardoned the final battle in the arena. The monks had landed under normal circumstances there, and been razed their monastery. None of this is reported, even the murderers of Hypatia went completely out taut free. [88]

Today, having regard to the motive of the perpetrators, these details are understood. Hypatia should probably be officially accused of witchcraft and executed. Such a charge would have to be approved by the prefect. This means that the debt of the church to the secular authority would have been pushed off. The prefect was but how to explain the sources, a friend of hers and not ready. The aim was therefore to make room for a more willing successor initially the murder of the prefect. For Orestes was Hypatia by itself probably already privy to her secret - a simple dismissal would therefore only new problems created. Only this interpretation of events explains all the details.

The falsification of Claudius Ptolemy

But what was now Hypatia's secret? In the ancient sources, there are clear indications. So writes the Suda, Hypatia would be because of their exceptional knowledge, been specifically murdered in astronomy. This is similar to John of Nikiu, which they called the magician because of his employment with astrolabes.

Hypatia and her father both written comments to the astronomical writings of Claudius Ptolemy. Meanwhile font "syntaxis", better known today as "Almagest" was the basis of astronomy in the Middle Ages from 400 to Copernicus 1543. Ptolemy is propagated not only a geocentric view of the world but also a universe filled with spheres and somewhere in the universe without vacuum. In the Almagest, a geometric system to explain the solar and Plant paths is presented. With numerical values for the exact calculation and details of very precise observations of the Ptolemy claims to have made express themselves.

As part of the Apollo moon landing project to come to the end of the 1960s that probably all of these observations are fake. [89] The astronomer Robert R. Newton published this result in prolonged investigations in 1977 his book "The Crime of Claudius Ptolemy" in the Johns Hopkins University Press. [90] Newton's studies were confirmed by other astronomers. [91]

His observations may not have made as Ptolemy. The error of his information on the actual positions in his time are many times larger than the typical measurement error of antiquity. Additionally, due to his "observations" exactly the theory presented by him. His observations are based in reality and therefore an unusually brazen and crude forgery to "prove" his theory.

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In the course of his investigation, Newton met by chance in a book by JBJ Delambre in 1819 on a similar proof of Ptolemy's fake. [92]

Both Newton and Thurston were amazed that this finding of the famous French astronomer Delambre was concealed in all historical accounts to astronomy of the Middle Ages or antiquity. Constant, however, Ptolemy was celebrated as the culmination of the ancient Astonomie. This is despite already expressed Copernicus doubt [93] , Longomontanus, the wizard of Kepler and Tycho in Prague, the proof of forgery provided [94] , and Tycho Brahe noted that supposed to be self-measured star catalog The falsification of the C. Ptolemy. is also a forgery. [95] The alleged instances of own values, the real values, the values At this ignorance of the professional historian nothing has changed in according to his theory, and the the last 30 years. This meant that the more computing astronomy typical measurement error of historian its own series, "DIO" [1] antiquity. (http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1&hl=en& rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http://www.dioi.org /&usg=ALkJrhhTpzJ_R2lgZR7xVFV8gZ2zRuX39A) , entertained on the subject. In the editorial board as a reviewer of DIO are active astronomers such as E. Myles Standish, director of the planetary orbits calculation of NASA at JPL. [2] (http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1&hl=en& rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http://dda.harvard.edu/brouwer_award/brouw2000.html& usg=ALkJrhi51HvlenBKFJ6eg6XSQmXVCH4N5Q) The latter have the most accurate determination and calculation of planetary positions which have shaped modern civilization.

The now closer examination of Ptolemy's writings led in recent years to finding that "has played a much larger role the heliocentric theory of Aristarchus of Samos in the scientific astronomy of the Greeks, as was previously thought." (Van der Waerden). Ptolemy had apparently found a heliocentric theory that it used data contained, rebuilt the theory to its geocentric and concealed his source. [96]

The heliocentric system was Aristarchus of Samos (ca. 310-230) propagated. During this time, van took der Waerden evidence of a monitoring program of several astronomers, the most likely target was to determine the constants a heliocentric theory. [97] By 100 AD wrote Plutarch Aristarchus' theory mentioned "their followers" and still noticed Seleucus of Seleucia (c. 150 BC) the heliocentric system was proved. [98]

Meanwhile, it was found in another tradition, more mathematically hidden clues to an apparently common in ancient heliocentric Tafelwerk to calculate the positions of the heavenly bodies. [99]

Hypatia's father Theon was the greatest astronomer in the 4th Century.He and thus also his daughter had to have known this heliocentric system. It might even have reached a level of development as at 1687 (Isaac Newton). [100]

A heliocentric system with elliptical orbits not only opens a andereres, more open view of the world. It contains the description of a friction-free motion system, a confirmation of atomism and the basics of the Kinematics and modern physics. Knowledge that led to steam engines and industrialization from 1700.

Not only the church, with its abhorrence of a "godless" epikureeischen physics, might have shuddered before this development. Even the kingdom of dominant landowners, whose sons considered themselves Neoplatonic magician had to have this as a threat. After the destruction of ancient literature shortly before 400 AD Hypatia was one of the last people with knowledge of this ancient knowledge. She wanted to get this apparently. She taught her students in astronomical observation, taught the construction of astrolabes , [101] and initiated at least some one in a secret. [102]

With a little education and a simple astrolabe then everyone could see that Ptolemy's Almagest was a scam.

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The deviation of the planetary positions of a degree from the details of the Almagest were proof. The assertion of Ptolemy to have its positions measured as impossible exactly was further evidence for each of the even some practical experience with astrolabes had - no measurement could be as exact as he stated. With this educational work Hypatia was the last Wiedersacherin the new, soon the whole Middle Ages dominant worldview.

, And mentions the possible Weisse here in fairness to Claudius Ptolemy, Hypatia had even reveals an even darker secret. [103] The letters of Synesius make it very likely that he and some other students were inducted into Hypatia's secret. So Synesius wrote in letter 143 to another student about the resultant of Hypatia secret. "For my part I am, and I advise you therefore to be, a more careful guard over the mysteries of philosophy" [104] They promised each other to keep secret what they call "with your own eyes" looked at Hypatia and "with their own ears" heard. [105]

Probably Hypatia was more aware of the danger, which grew out of a monitoring of the correspondence for them. Because in his last letters to Synesius longer complained no answer to have received from her. [106] Synesius died about 413 or 414, so one to two years before Hypatia's murder. It stands to reason that was found in his estate, he was Bishop of Cyrene, incriminating material against the Church of Hypatia. Until the decision on their execution at the imperial court had fallen and reached Alexandria expected a few months have passed.

Since the letters pointed to a significant number of confidants, it was necessary to bring to mention this. Since we all could not possibly determine - this would also have some more confidant generated and distributed rather the secret - it was decided to intimidation an extremely shocking event. For this reason, Hypatia was not secretly stabbed or poisoned, but fragmented into beispielosem bloodlust in public. Representations of fact appear to have been spread deliberately. Even more than 100 years later, the philosopher Damascius knew to describe gruesome details. [107]

Christian violence have always been founded in late antiquity as a response to previous violence of the other side. When Hypatia's murder that excuse was missing. To fix this image problem, the legend of St. Catherine of Alexandria was widespread. This needs to go back to the late antiquity, but is detectable only from about 700. A young beautiful maiden who has read Plato as a child, the scholar was in geometry, mathematics and astronomy. She devoted herself to the wisdom of the ancient Greeks and was against the best rhetoricians and philosophers of the empire. Clearly Hypatia. But Catherine was secretly converted to Christianity and trying to convert people. That's why it was condemned by the pagan emperor to cruel torture and death. [108]

This torture happened with gears that would tear her the meat from the bones. [109] A reminder of gears used in valuable antique astrolabes? Or the toothed celestial spheres of Ptolemy? Apparently the holy Katherina was in the Middle Ages in some places called "Hypatia Katherina". [110]

While Hypatia so forth lived as a Christian martyr succeeded knowledge of the forgery of Ptolemy to bring to disappear completely. After the fate of Hypatia's barely an initiate has apparently dared to give his knowledge. Hypatia - St Catherine: "Torture under the wheels" (Tintoretto, However, the Almagest put future generations to bondage. When Arab Venice 1588) astronomers as the first again began systematic observations of the heavens, they saw, although the deviations from the predictions of the Almagest. But you explained this all with a grown over the centuries inaccuracy of the parameters and tried to improve them. No one had the idea of the observations of Ptolemy could be fakes. On the contrary.Because no comparable texts were handed down to Ptolemy held for the climax of ancient astronomy. In reverence for the ancient one trusted him virtually impossible accuracy. Above all, you had to

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rely on its values, you had no other long-term data. [111] Even still built Copernicus Ptolemy's observations in his system. For this reason also wrote Robert R. Newton, the Almagest have done more harm than good. [112]

By the way, and that was probably the original goal of forgery, we now believe in a cosmos filled with solid spheres without vacuum, similar to Plato and Aristotle. Thus, the only real view object atomism atomism was withdrawn without having to mention at all even.

This went on until Tycho Brahe the forgery of some data suspected. Only his observations and completely disconnected from the Almagest enabled Kepler in 1609 to solve the problem and overcome the greatest forgery in the history of science. Kepler could have recognized the Almagest as a forgery, a testament to this is however still pending. [113]

But why Delambre's unmasking of the Almagest in 1819 remained so unknown to connect with Hypatia was never made public, and why Ptolemy is still widely praised to the skies, this problem of history history still awaits elucidation.

As the beginning of classical science is generally the year 585 BC, when Thales succeeded in predicting a solar eclipse. Hypatia's assassination in 415 AD is generally regarded as the end of the classical science. It lasted so almost exactly 1,000 years. The Middle Ages, to the Renaissance Begin, then lasted about 1000 years.

The above conflict between religious and scientific culture is evident in the most extreme manner in the tradition of ancient science. From Plato and his theological worldview are all fonts "thick as a Bible" (Farrington) survived. From Aristotle's total of 156 titles in 400 roles remain to us only 25%, [114] and only by someone else edited lecture notes. The many writings of Aristotle published in his lifetime are all lost. From the Ionian scientists, the atomists before Plato, is not recorded by a single author even a plant. [115] Neither of the 70 stocks of Democritus [116] nor by the 300 rolls of Epicurus was also handed a single [117] - although he was kept in the imperial period for one of the most important philosophers. Diogenes Laertius, in his collection of the most famous philosophers, devoted to Epicurus 230 AD more text than any other, even more than Plato.

The basic statements of the Greek atomists have survived only by their critics. Especially by Aristotle, who attempted to refute the atomists. The fact that under the rather few surviving writings of Aristotle which are located just against the atomists, is certainly no coincidence. The selection was made in late antiquity by Christians, the most extreme opponents of the atomists and Epicureans. The selected to preserve pagan writings should help Christians to refute pagans, not get their ideas. [118]

More recently, the historian Charles Freeman describes the Christian late antiquity with the title of his book: "The closing of the Western The remains of the Greek classics mind. Rise of the faith and the fall of reason ' (For instance: "The and the interest of the Renaissance closure of the thought in the West: The Rise of Faith and the decline of ... reason") where: "Faith, in his own's senses, managed in the 4th and 5th centuries, to rise above the knowledge of the. principles of empirical observation or logic were discarded in the belief all knowledge comes from God. Even Augustine maintains in his writings the human mind, loaded with Adams original sin to think for limited in the ability for

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themselves. centuries for each shape was independent scientific Denke suppressed. " And: "What can not be doubted is how effective the Rational tradition was wiped out in the 4th and 5th centuries." [119]

The only surviving book of the atomists is the incomplete Lucretius from Roman times. "The tradition of Lucretius is hanging by a thread" as Albrecht. His book was only by a single, possibly Frankish, Codex from the 4/5 In the 9th century Century handed down and copied only there several times and mentioned. By the end of the Middle Ages it was barely mentioned, and was present in only very few copies. [120]

Plato's works were the basis of pagan and Christian Neuplatonisten from Late Antiquity to the Middle Ages. As from the 5th Century was not a Latin version of Plato longer exists, its reception was limited in the west to the very few people with Greek knowledge. Even in large libraries this was so low that texts from Plato to centuries under false titles were in the catalog. A notable exception was in the 9th Century, the Irish monk Erigena, who suggested a Neoplatonic interpretation of nature and for the 13th Century was declared with all his writings a heretic. [121]

Around 1170, the first great universities, Paris and Oxford originated in Europe. Like all universities to modern times, they were dominated in all subjects of theology at Oxford until well into the 19th Century. Nevertheless, it soon began writings of Aristotle, which was obtained through Jewish scholars from the Arab Spain, together with Arabic commentaries translate into Latin.

Reasoning based on observation, logic and reason so that was dominated by the faith of the Middle Ages for the first time possible. But not for long. In 1215 the use of Aristotle was banned in discussions at the University of Paris.

It was not until Thomas Aquinas reached with his theological writings a "Christianization" of pagan philosopher Aristotle. By Aquinas a theological basis for dealing with the new ideas were created for Christians. While most of theses Aquinas were in 1277, damn three years after his death, in Paris and Oxford. But already in 1323 he was appointed by Pope John XXII. canonized and recognized his writings again. Only then it was again allowed for a Christian Science based on natural observation, logic and reason to operate. Science was therefore now regarded as compatible with faith. Soon after, still wrote Petrarch, overlooking the traditional Roman books, he lives in a dark time. Now, however, the foundation was laid for a slow rebirth of the spirit of antiquity, a "restoration of reason" (Freeman). [122]

Even if science was again permitted, one, however, each new finding was not willing to allow it. The first significant representative of atomism was Nicolaus of Autrecourt (ca. 1297-1369). He had his ideas of Aristotle, who discussed the atomists. The dam of Autrecourts writings in 1347 was one of the outstanding philosophical events in Paris in the 14th Century.He got a teaching ban and had to burn his writings public. [123]

Autrecourt `s writings were ultimately only for a very small group of high educated to understand. War literature so far limited to monasteries, so the revival of science would now be limited to a few people at universities. With the dominance of theology at universities, this development could easily have been stopped. That this was not so is the achievement of an entirely new movement, humanism. The humanists were a group of very influential intellectual who managed completely reverse the value standards of the Middle Ages in wide circles of the population. Only when it was the resurrection of the ancient culture, the Renaissance possible.

The humanists

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At the begin of the Humanist Movement, the scholar and poet Francesco Petrarca was (1304-1374), who also gave her the name. [124] Like many of the humanist Petrarch lived at the "boundary between clergy and laity ... the tonsure and the minor orders received to be able to live undisturbed in the enjoyment of ecclesiastical benefices his literary inclinations. " [125] Prior to the pagan antiquity was considered a time of darkness, in which only Christ brought the true light. [126]

Even as a child was Petrarch fascinated by the writings of Cicero. [127] The fact presented world affairs is without gods and miracles. Man himself is responsible in Cicero for his actions and his fate. A morality arises from the action of the society, not from divine commandments. Thus, the knowledge of the world and the people will return to the base of thinking, not the religion and its teachings. [128]

Whether Cicero himself believed in the existence of gods was it little relevance. Important was the large number of logical arguments which he presented for a variety of problems. This meaning of Cicero went from Petrarch to deep into the Enlightenment. Voltaire confessed to ideas of Cicero and has all his life he "worshiped downright enthusiastic." [129]

The epistemologist David Hume (1711 - 1776), "The most important philosopher ever to write in English" (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy), wrote: "All in all, I will take my catalog of virtues from Cicero 'Officien' ... I had, in fact, the former works with all my thinking in mind. " [130]

Such a secular worldview was in late antiquity as heresy. Your strongest form, the followers of Epicurus, were for Christians as "swine philosophers" (Isidore of Seville). If pagans this was moreover praised the beautiful side worldly life in style and content is one reason why the scholars of the Middle Ages felt pagan texts even as a threat. So interpreted as in the 19th Century the famous historian Georg Voigt (1827-1891) the antipathy of the Middle Ages for classic literature. [131] But in the new millennium sees Frederick Prince it in a lecture to the Catholic Academy in Bavaria quite similar. [132]

However, it was not primarily fear of the contents which led to the dislike of pagan literature. Rather, the scholars of the Middle Ages were convinced, based on the Church Fathers to have created an optimal in the sense of God's world for human testing. Anything could then apply only as a threat to this world New. [133]

The reason for this worldview is the absolute dominance of theological writings in the libraries and minds of the Middle Ages. Owning secular classics such as Cicero, remained for centuries restricted to an extremely small circle. Almost only to persons in the vicinity of the church already had an intense Christian theological training behind him.

From this view of the Middle Ages also denoted Petrarch first Cicero antiquity than the time of error. Later, in a letter of 1341, however, he describes direct, tangible and unwiederlegbare evidence for the size of pagan Rome. After a walk through Rome he boarded with a friend the ruins of the Diocletian Baths and discussed history at the sight of the many ancient ruins. These remains of antiquity were at that time the largest building in Rome. Petrarch: "From small things, there are no major ruins ... from a great height can not fall, if one is already in the abyss."

Petrarch's intention was to bring Rome back to its former size. Knowledge of the history he saw as a prerequisite for this. Especially in view of the Diocletian Baths, he used the first time the division of historical epochs in an antique and the "modern" period thereafter. Whereby he latter in 1359, designated as a time of Finsteris, "tenebrae". [134] Baths of Diocletian, 350 and 1750 AD - such as For him, the time after the Antique was dark, as it has

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nothing comparable spawned intellectual value. Even Petrarch and Gibbon saw them. worse he even sees the monks and scholars of the Middle Ages:

"But I think of the famous writers of antiquity, the shameful failings of their descendants come into my mind. Especially as they had not yet enough to the shame of their own infertility, there have accepted these descendants with intolerable indifference that strange spiritual and the works of the ancestors, which had been created with infinite diligence, simply perished. And while they themselves leave nothing for future generations of their own assets, they squandered the legacy of the ancestors. " (Petraca, Rer. Mem. I, 19)

Petraca sees himself still in this dark time of life, but hopes there will come a better Era:

To me it is imposed to lead my life in a world in the midst of a changing disturbing storm. But you're probably better to wait for centuries, if you long survive me - this hope and I wish. Not all years is this sleep of forgetting to stop. Perhaps disperses the darkness, and our grandson can return to the pure light of the past. [135]

Perhaps Petrarch was indeed "the greatest scholar of his time" (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2003), but certainly he was the most influential. Through his fiction, his poetic writings, including his revolutionary thought was most widespread and influenced the next generations. This was made possible by the highest degree of literacy to Italy before all other European countries reached again in 1400. [136]

It is not science, but these popular literature has made possible the Renaissance (ca. 1350-1550). The (Italian) Renaissance now called was not a re-awakening of the natural sciences but only of literature and art. The natural sciences began their rise after 1600's. In the often "renaissance" of the Middle Ages claimed were the ancient pagan writers, however, only used to allegorical clichés to fill, as products of creative imagination, they were not recognized. [137]

Two major events supported indirectly Entsthehung of humanism. On the one hand, the weakening of the Catholic Church by the exile of Avignon (1309-77 and to 1408). This was the dominant spiritual power of the Middle Ages for the first time for a long time under the direct control of a state. On the other hand, the rise of towns and distributors as a result of economic shifts caused by the plague after 1350. This led paralell to the demise of the knight nobility (large estates), which prevailed another 100 years before the Crusade in southern France, the beliefs of the church by force. Thus, not only the church itself, but also its most important instrument of power was weakened.

The Renaissance of the Humanities

Humanists saw education at scale and content of the ancient world as their ideal. This led to a "reawakening" [138] of parts of the ancient culture, which is now called the Renaissance. Initially these were only the areas affected, which are now counted among the humanities - art and literature. At the beginning, especially the classics, the teaching of Latin (and soon Greek) language and literature. Petrarch was the initiator of the Renaissance philology. [139] They saw the classical texts again as in ancient times and not more than allegory from the perspective of Christian faith. Against this background, Petrarch was also the first historian of the modern science and coined this for the next few centuries. [140]

To substantiate their ancient secular worldview made it to the humanists the most important task to collect all extant ancient literature and spread. Already Petrarch had begun all ancient texts, no matter to collect their content. Proudly he also possessed two texts of ancient Surveyor, although he certainly could not do much with this content.

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The humanistic books seeker passed the beginning of two groups. Firstly, the "citizens humanists" - influenced by Petrarch writings children of parents who could afford their offspring anything formation. Most of urban districts, they saw the life of medieval monks as "parasitic inaction". [141]

Most of these humanists were in connection with the influential banking family of the Medici family of Florence. [142] , the Medici are now mainly known as a promoter of famous artists such as Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci. But no other family was even more important than these for the success of the Renaissance. On the other side were men like Petrarch, who worked in the Verwaltungsaparat the church itself. At the most important Poggio Bracciolini maybe (1380-1459), "the hero among the discoverers of the ancient codices." This interest Poggio was no accident, he Niccoli was still in its very poor youth of the Medici agent and book collector support. [143] In this youth Poggio wrote an interesting "astute" letter, in which he truths of faith, the Christian, as rational unprovable represents. [144]

In the early Middle Ages or even Petrarch would already been persecuted for his views. But Poggio was not only in his views but also in the way of life the perfect enemy of the Church Fathers, truly a Renaissance man. [145]

The Council of Constance (1414-18) is regarded as the culmination of the manuscript discoveries, as most searched lyrics were in German monasteries. Poggio, then secretary of the Curia was "equipped with official documents of the highest church authorities" - probably he had exhibited himself. In this way he was able to break the resistance of the abbots and enforce the surrender of the codices to himself. Poggio about one of his most important discoveries: "The Ammianus Marcellinus I have recovered the Latin Muses, after I him in the libraries, not to say, having tracked down in the dungeons of the Germans." [146]

The codices were written down immediately and, especially sent to other humanists in Italy. The legality of the procedure can be questioned, in most cases, sometimes the books were also robbed plain. Was the latest when a Medici Pope were the secular with the religious group of humanists combined and formed a power of could again put no monastery.

This collective work was the basis of modern science. They "took around two centuries, from about 1330 to 1530, then inventories were essentially exhausted." This was an "in European intellectual history unique phenomenon." [147]

At the end of the period of collecting editions of the classics were created today are as yardsticks philological work. Ultimately, it was this preliminary work of philologists, which made it the scientists of the modern age only possible to tap into the ancient ideas.

With Petrarch the scientific Zitierpraxis and textual criticism began [148] and thus the modern philology. This initially had an unexpected effect. Lorenzo Valla succeeded on this basis in 1440 by philological analysis of One result of the Renaissance: Nachweiss that the most significant document of the papacy is a fake. Modern translations of the classics [149] Valla escaped out just under the Inquisition. [150] ... The philological work of the humanists did not extend only to ancient texts books. Already Poggio began thus to accumulate systematically ancient inscriptions on the ruins of Rome. His friend and also papal secretary Flavio Biondo (1392-1463), this led away to his three-volume work, "De Roma instaurata" (1446), the topographical description of the ancient buildings in Rome. This is considered the beginning of modern archeology.

Even more significant was Biondo 32-volume work "Historiarum from Inclinatione Romanorum Imperii", written from 1439 to 1453. It is the portrayal of the decline of the Roman Empire from 410 to the present, in

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which Rome "was brought down almost to the state of things, it is supposed to have in its beginning, when it was small, founded by shepherds had." (Biondo).

These 32 books "are the first scholarly history of the Middle Ages, which he, like Petrarch took up Roman history in a similar manner to draw possible from the old and the actual sources and the medieval tradition undertook to push aside." (Voigt) [151] Burkhardt compares this work with the gibbons as "full of source studies of the authors of each The legacy of the ancient world - century," the Biondo be procured from all over Europe. In contrast, art and architecture of Rome ignite Burkhardt sees the medieval historiography until then interspersed with the Renaissance ... "wüstem fable works". Of these, now in the northern Italian city's history have free, "while the chronicles of the North have to drag a long time with those poetic mostly worthless, devised in the 13th century fantasy cocoons." [152]

Biondo historical work defined the first time since 410 epoch between antiquity and modernity, as the Middle Ages, "Medium Aevum". Where he himself in the 15th Century saw already separated spiritually closer to the ancient world and clearly in a period from the Middle Ages. The Middle Ages saw all humanists as dark and worthless time. Interesting but what was supposed to be the reason. The Italian humanists, almost all close to the papacy, saw the cultural decline of Italy since 5 and 6 Century as a result of the conquests of the Goths. Unlike the German humanists, as Rhenanus (1485-1547). He sees the "growing indifference and stupidity" as the cause and the Middle Ages, "media antiquitas" as the time between antiquity and the reawakening of education. [153] This Rhenanus was already near Gibbons, who 200 years later directly the Christianity of the Late Antiquity is to blame for the fall of Rome. As Petrarch and Biondo was also Gibbon inspired by the ruins of Rome to do so. [154]

The humanists were at least since the mid-15th Century realized that they were living in a new age. This was not only the imagination of the world also a scholar. One could refer to the arts of the Renaissance. She has considerably with lifelike presentation and widespread nudity resemblance to the ancient times as the Middle Ages. For the first time since antiquity, there is again pure landscape representation. [155] But will more clearly changed thinking again in the literature. Jacob Burckhardt refers here to an initially inconspicuous detail in the Italian folk poetry. [156]

In the year of his death completed Dante Alighieri (1265-1321), the last great medieval poetry, "The Divine Comedy". He describes conversations with ancestors on a walk through hell to paradise. He is guided through Hell by Virgil, the already revered some Church Fathers and was regarded as untadeligster of all the nations. Dante calls him master, model and fatherly friend. Nevertheless, it must Vergil because unbaptized remain in the first circle of hell back when Dante leaves and this rises to paradise. As the next century, in 1464, Cosimo Medici the Elder dies, written Bernardo Pulci (ca. 1430-1488), a poem about his dead patron. It Cosimo is received when entering the paradise of Cicero. Cicero, the pagan priests, private Atheist, now in the Christian paradise of the Renaissance. More clearly, the cultural break with the Middle Ages can hardly represent.

The Copernican Revolution

Plutarch (46-119) is considered one of the most important traditional authors of the early empire, "whose work took strong influence on the development of the essay, the biography and the history in Europe from the 16th to the 19th century." (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2003) As with Cicero is thereby overlooked in Plutarch what role these two authors had directly for the natural sciences.

Probably because the most famous rediscovery of Renaissance is today usually not seen as a rediscovery: The Copernican Revolution. The revolutionary idea that the Earth could revolve around the sun with the other planets and not be the center of the universe. Even in ancient times, this was seen as revolutionary. As

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Aristarchus of Samos (ca. 310-230) put forward the idea was called by his contemporaries an accusation of impiety. This was written by Plutarch to 100 AD and still noticed Seleucus of Seleucia (c. 150 BC) have proved the heliocentric system. [157]

This heliocentric model must have had, as some source mention it and Plutarch "by the followers of Aristarchus" wrote some notoriety in antiquity. But neither of these followers of Aristarchus yet the Scriptures have come down to this. Except Plutarch all traditions are referring to him or the heliocentric system to always negative. However, in the late antique author Martianus Capella dive (around 400 AD), a compromise between geozentrirschem and heliocentric system, he leaves Mercury and Venus circling around the Sun. In his book "De revolutionibus orbium Coelestium" (About the rotation of the celestial Spähren, 1543) mentioned Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), this system of Capella and the mention of the heliocentric Cicero and Plutarch. He specifically mentioned that the latter two stimulated him to his work. [158]

Seleucus was not mentioned by Copernicus. Aristarchus in an early manuscript version, but not in the book. Probably because he was mentioned by Plutarch in the context of blasphemy. Persecution by the Church seemed Copernicus and some of his followers to have feared. He therefore waited decades of publishing and the book was published only after his death.

Without knowledge of the author it was a relativizing, the content down-playing the preface to his publisher Osiander. Because Osiander it had not signed it to the reader than the author's opinion, Copernicus, appear. Rheticus was outraged. Accordingly, the content of which is only a mathematical tool to calculate and do not claim to represent the reality. Therefore, many readers had the impression that Copernicus had presented a sensational hypothesis, to which he himself does not really believe. This opinion was held by a French mathematician and of Tycho Brahe. Kepler took this as an opportunity for research and published in 1609 the truth about this deception. [159] This preface made the epochal work initially of little relevance, it became "the book that nobody read". [160] Fatal this was mainly for the development of physics. [161]

Still Johannes Kepler (1571 - 1630) and Galileo Galilei (1564-1642). Discussed in a correspondence of 1597 about the risk to confess to the "Copernican" system [162] to Galieis time it was also often called "Aristarchus system". [163]

Galilei with his telescope could exclude the Ptolemaic system and strengthen the heliocentric system significantly. In "Astronomia Nova" of 1609, Kepler was able to do it with the observational data of Tycho Brahe ultimately unwiederlegbar. With its elliptical orbits, he placed it on a new one. unique stage. In 1616, then the Inquisition has officially declared the heliocentric system for error. A book of Kepler and Copernicus was forbidden to book in 1543 was allowed to be present only in korregierter version from now on. [164]

Due to this development Galilei held in public firmly believe the A 1616 Catholic "korregierter" heliocentric system was only a hypothesis. Nevertheless, he was Copernicus ... threatened in 1633 by the Inquisition with torture and execution. This threat was certainly serious, in 1600, Giordano Bruno was burned alive in Rome. One reason for this was Bruno's taking responsibility for the heliocentric system.

Galileo was accused of having shown in his book "Dialogo" from 1632 the heliocentric system to positive. From the Inquisition a commitment to the geocentric system was called for at the end of the book. Galileo did, laid the text but a simple-minded person's mouth. Ignored that Galileo had previously obtained a permission to print (imprimatur) of the censorship of the Inquisition in Rome and Florence. He was eventually sentenced to life guarded Hausa rest, teaching and publication ban. His book became the most

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famous on the list of banned in Catholic countries for religious and moral reasons books. Only in 1835 was published in Rome a copy of the index without his book listed. [165] It took 350 years, until 1992, before the Vatican admitted an error in the trial against Galileo and rehabilitated him.

Galileo's process is today sometimes explained by a personal matter between him and the Pope. This overlooks that Galileo was under the patronage of the Medici. The Pope threatened the Medici Ferdinand II, Grand Duke of Tuscany, with consequences if he protect Galileo before the trial. Galileo's condemnation was a clear sign that the ecclesiastical power in Italy was back on the mundane. Even during his arrest in the house of Medici was made this clear. [166] In Galileo's death in 1642 the Medici even the holding of an appropriate funeral was prohibited.

As 1559 to 1962 continued list of forbidden books Index Librorum Prohibitorum appeared, scholars had to destroy parts of their libraries in order not to be in danger. This was a first, but sustained shift away from the spirit of the literary Renaissance Italy.

When, after Michelangelo's death in 1564 on the orders of the new pope some nudity were painted in the Sistine Chapel - these repaints were not removed in the renovation during the 1990s - this was also a landmark of departure from the artistic Renaissance. [167]

When Galileo was condemned were statues in Italy already "corrects" with fig leaves of plaster. Galileo's last and bedeutenstes book, The Expulsion of the Renaissance - "Discourses", laid the foundations of experimental physics. It was in Michelangelo's David with a fig leaf ... Italy no longer appear, and the Alps was smuggled north. [168]

Building With students of Galileo and his recent work on experimental physics founded the Medici in Florence in 1657 the "Accademia del Cimento", the first Scientific Academy in Europe. She was the model for the Royal Society in London (1660) and France's Royal Academy of Sciences (1666). In contrast to the latter, the Academy of the Medici existed but only 10 years, the culture of Italy they could bear no more. Although now there were large libraries the intellectual life of the country for the next few centuries back rather resembled the Middle Ages. [169] The Medici himself disappeared in the 18th Century.

A renaissance of the natural sciences was indeed initiated in Italy, but there has never occurred. This remained the countries north of the Alps left. The Protestant Netherlands, Germany and England. Even France in the 18th Century, after it had recovered somewhat from the spiritual consequences of Protestant persecution again.

The Renaissance of Natural Sciences

Farrington on the 16th Century antique science literature available:

"Modern science began in the 16th century, signs of a powerful development to give. Many of the pioneers felt, and felt rightly so, that they anknüpften only to the ancient Greek tradition, which was interrupted for more than 1000 years. Was your new science in her eyes just a continuation of Greek science. The ancient Greek books, which were the invention of printing and the birth of modern scholarship into their hands, were the best available. they were actually the best up-to-date books in many areas of knowledge.

For Vesalius and Stevin in the 16th Century were the works of Galen and Archimedes are not historical curiosities. They were the best treatises of anatomy and mechanics that existed. Even in the 18th Century was for Ramazzini, the founder of industrial medicine, Hippocratic medicine still a living tradition. Just as for Vico, the deepest and most original of all sociologists Marx, Lucretius with his

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Epicurean philosophy could provide the basis for a new social science. In a particularly clear example of the reliability of a Greek text book showed virtually unmatched until our 20th Century.A generation ago, were Euclid and geometry still identical terms on England's schools. "(Benjamin Farrington 1949) [170]

Euclid's "Elements": School Oxyrhynchus Papyrus of from Roman times to 100 AD. The same chapter in a textbook from London, in 1901 AD.

The most important finding of the humanists made Poggio 1414 in Murbach monastery. He found Lucretius' De Rerum Natura "(From the nature of things), the Epicureans book for Public Enlightenment and freed it" out of the prison of the barbarians ". The Lucretius belonged in 1473 to the first classics which went to press. He "combines philosophical precision and poetic force to a degree without precedent in the literature of the West." (Taylor) The rediscovery of this book in the 15th Century, led to the repopulation of the Epikureanismus, particularly by Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655). [171]

The idea of atoms associated enabled a description of nature that can describe any measurable phenomenon with a minimum of rules. This already guessed Copernicus, who mentioned in his book atoms [172] , and the earth made it a planet among planets. Thus the way was open to let the natural laws of the earth also apply to other planets and so the sky. Ultimately, this was Democritus and Epicurus' concept of a "godless" universe - all processes are governed by natural laws.

An all but forgotten pioneers of this development was Lucilio Vanini (1585-1619). He was an Epicurean, pantheist, trailers and Bruno shared his fate. Due to his two books from 1615 and 1616 "Vanini can be considered as one of the first who began to treat nature as a mechanism with laws." [173]

Vanini was accused by the Inquisition of atheism, which he denied. Nevertheless, he was sentenced to the stake in Toulouse in 1619. In the market place his tongue was first pulled out with pliers. An eyewitness describes Vanini cry of pain as the most terrible ever of a man was sound. After that, he was burned at the stake.

Vanini was young, intelligent, educated, Charm had and was a charismatic appearance. He had to wake a great talent in human sympathy and "collected patrons like honey attracts flies" (RS Westfall). His patrons were influential local figures, such as the Medici to Michelangelo and Galileo. With the execution of Vanini and the manner of implementing the church could make their spiritual power claim against these liberal patrons clearly. Since these people were too powerful for them to threaten themselves, they were robbed of their cultural gems and their reputation as patrons.

Galileo, to the fate of Bruno and Vanini aware, trying to lay the foundations of this envisaged by Vanini laws of nature with its experimental physics. In his book "Saggiatore" (1623) he comes to statements like the time at universities and outside often read Lucretius. However, aware of the danger he tries to derive independent of Lucretius. [174] Galileo was also prompt in 1625 a complaint with the Inquisition because of atomism tendencies in "Saggiatore". The document was discovered in 1982 by Pietro Redondi. Redondi thinks Galileo's subsequent conviction for "Copernicus" was intended by the Church to keep away the atomism.

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Such an effect can be demonstrated as well. [175]

Secret project "vacuum"

Now the climax came in the battle for atomism without mentioning this or even Epicurus public. There was no scientific proof of the vacuum. According to Aristotle, a vacuum could not exist. Light it could not penetrate and therefore there could also be no vacuum between the Earth and stars. [176] Apparently, it was Aristotle important to deny a vacuum and thus friction-free motion in space. Outside of Italy was discussed early on about the possible existence of the vacuum. [177]

Middleton, who studied intensively the history of the barometer, believed from 1610 it was right the church afraid of Epicurus, the state of the research in the way. [178] To 1612 Galileo seemed sure to be a vacuum could exist [179] and in 1615 he received report from a vacuum experiment in Murano. [180]

In 1630, Galileo received a letter from Giovanni Batista Baliani (1582-1666). This was discovered during the construction of an aqueduct that it was not possible to draw water at a height of more than 10 m. The water column broke. Baliani also thought of a vacuum, and wrote: "The higher you go the less severe the air." [181] Within the next 15 years, several experiments were apparently conducted in Italy to under considerable secrecy. The most elaborate about 1641 by clerics in Rome. [182]

The crucial turning point came in 1644, a letter of Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647), a follower of Galileo as a mathematician of the Medici Grand Duke of Tuscany, to his friend, the future cardinal Michelangelo Ricci (1619-1682) in Rome. Ricci showed it to a visitor from France reported there about it. Only in France, it was also known outside church circles. So the word spread from the construction of the first barometer in Europe. The letters [183] or report [184] Torricelli were never published. [185]

A further experiment in 1645 remained secret for long. [186] In the vast secrecy this "research program" it would be quite possible that the Torricelli experiment has previously been performed by someone else. [187] Especially since Torricelli never claimed it was the first made to have, and he even hid in 1646. [188]

What role do other [189] and Galilieo played is unclear. [190] Torricelli seems already known in his first letter about the experiment to have the air pressure fluctuated in the same place for days. He regretted that it (probably due to temperature fluctuations) he failed to measure this. [191] But where did he get this knowledge?

In France, it is the change in air pressure with altitude by climbing the Puy-de-Dome near Clermont was born on 19/09/1648 by Florin Perier (a relative of Pascal), with the participation of many witnesses, measured. Middleton: "They were witnessing one of the great moments in the history of ideas, and Perier, at least, what aware of it." However, it was also contested in France nor in the coming decades the existence of the vacuum by many scholars. [192]

The rediscovery of the vacuum - from the observation of twilight to the Barometer

This mercury barometer, the Galileo postulated by weight of the air and the vacuum left "see" directly. There

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was also strong support of the proposition of the Epicureans, according to which the universe consists only of atoms and void. The decrease of air pressure at Bergen also made it clear that the space between the planets had to be a vacuum. Which in turn explains the frictionless perpetual motion of the planets.

For a long time was denied by the barometer of Jesuits and church-related scientists evidence of vacuum. A discussion could in Italy no longer take place. [193] A little later, the view of the Jesuits has prevailed at all levels: "From now on there was no more tough battle between ideas, the dispute turned into a chronicle of criminal trials. " (Redondi) Even the private lessons, "written or oral", the "demokriteischen philosophy, that of atomism" is prohibited in 1691. [194]

Shortly before his book "Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica" (1687) published in England Isaac Newton. It contained a statement of the heliocentric system by the now recognized laws of nature. This was later called Newton's laws were valid, strictly speaking, only for atoms. His book became the basis of modern physics. Newton's epoch-making work was an offical publication of the Royal Society. The publisher and initiator was the most famous astronomer of England, Edmund Halley. He wrote as a preface a Latin poem containing very distinct allusions to Lucretius De Rerum Natura. [195] The objective of combining Newton with Epicurus was the open propagation of a cultural break, a new world view. This should be in the 18th Century, in the time of the Enlightenment, also known as "Newton's literature" rapidly spread. [196] Farrington holds Newton vital that these Aktzptanz of atomism in the late 17th Century has been reached. Newton, who was also a theologian, varying the biblical creation story and wrote: ". Beginning God created the atoms and the void" This atomism got his Christian baptism of the most famous [197] scientists of the Anglican Church. [198]

Such Christianisation of atomism had been impossible in the Catholic Church. Because of its atheistic tradition of Epicurus, his wickedness of physics and its incompatibility with the conversion at the Last Supper. As Newton's work was already widespread tried a pupil of Galileo, Vincenzo Viviani, whose rehabilitation. In a letter of reply from Rome by 1694 it was clarified that extend the accusation against Galileo and the prohibition planning to extend to "all authors of modern physics". [199]

So it was that in the Protestant states took place the rise of natural science. The countries in the sphere of influence of the Catholic Inquisition should for a long time while only play a significant secondary role.

1. The term science can only take a person can claim if a clear deffinierbarer object with logical methods can be evaluated quantitatively or qualitatively. For the natural sciences, with the possibility of experimental measurement of this is given easiest. Also, most humanities have this potential, they use it but not always. No science in this sense theology. It's just a theory, because the Bewertungsmasstäbe and goals of people are specified and the object is not sufficiently deffinierbar. 2. As an outstanding example of evolutionary resulting cultural tradition to show the different solutions of the inbreeding problem. While incest (reproduction between very close relatives) in higher mammals mostly by the incest barrier (dislike of sex from puberty with people with whom one has previously Raised) prevents the avoidance of inbreeding without writing being is difficult. In the very low population density in prehistoric times there was always the risk of matings between genetically close relatives. Given the small size of the group could thus created genetic damage after a few generations to the extinction of a group lead. An evolutionary solution was the traditional enmity too close to neighboring groups and traditional friendship to more distant. Another solution was the preference of intercourse with strangers. Groups that are not sufficiently einhielten such rules disappeared, dissolved. Remnants of these traditions there was in historical times. About the "temple prostitution" of Near Eastern antiquity, described by Herodotus. A woman had therefore only have intercourse with a passing travelers, before you were allowed to marry in the temple. Likewise, in the 20th Century, when

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women made their Eskimos foreign visitors. An introduction to these backgrounds evolutionary incurred cultural tradition are Jost Herbig: Munich "In the beginning, the evolution of humanity was the Word." (1984) 3. It is possible that fJahrhunderte was achieved previously, such a state. From about 1100-800 but sank the Orient in a time of darkness, Greece lost all writing. Only Ägpyten survived as a civilization. To the Greek Solon was told this prehistory in Egypt with the Atlantis legend. Egypt was probably always a religiously dominated government and remained so. So the Greeks were the first to make the leap to science. They took over the natural world of the Egyptians and Babylonians - but without the religious explanations - and developed them further. 4. "The extant remains of Egyptian and Babylonian medicine, mathematics and astronomy can be combed in vain for a single example of a text where to individual author Explicitly distances himself from, and criticises, the received tradition in order to claimsoft originality for himself, Whereas our Greek sources Repeatedly do that. " Lloyd, GER: "The Revolutions of Wisdom" (Berkeley and London, 1957), p. 57 Lloyd are many examples of medical treatises where an author explains his conviction, the observation on which the conviction is based and why it differs from what he had previously believed. 5. So named after the coastal region of the eastern Aegean Sea with cities like Ephesus and Miletus. Significant representatives were Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Heracleitus, Anaxagoras, Diogenes of Apollonia, Archelaus and Hippon. 6. Benjamin Farrington ("The science of the Greeks and their meaning for us. from Thales to Aristotle", Vienna 1947) noted that because of the great books losses, it is difficult to document the close relationship of the ionic applied sciences to technology with many examples. Nevertheless, he found examples that both physicians and astronomers went out in their explanations of ideas, who came from the technology (p. 57, p 100). Technological inspiration for ideas were about mixing colors when painting, making bread, the effect of the spin, as tensions in the lyre and bow, etc. The most significant was the clepsydra, a water clock which was also used as a water fountain (p. 41 ). This allowed an ancient anticipation of the modern experiment of the Magdeburg hemispheres by Otto von Guericke (1654). This could already be detected in the ancient world that the senses are not directly detectable medium air is present and can generate substantial forces by air pressure. Thus, the naturwisschenschaftliche (experimental) evidence of forces and objects beyond human sense was provided. 7. This is also the explanation that even in the earliest imperial period to 30 BC Strabo gives of the origin of religion. According to Strabo, myths were not invented by poets but by the law enforcement officers: "They had insight into the emotional nature of the thinking animal, they argued, illiterate and uneducated people are no better than children, and how those fond of stories by descriptive narratives or others.. forms of the performing arts, they learn how bad divine punishments and threats are and are thus deterred from their wicked deeds. No philosopher can bring reverence, piety and faith on the other hand with rational admonition a pack of women or any one random mob. He needs to play with their superstitions and this can not be done without myths and miracles. So it happened that as a bogeyman for the simple-minded, the founder of the states gave their consent to such things. This is the function of mythology and accordingly they got their rightful place in the historical plan of a civilized society and people in the explanation of nature and reality. " (Strabo, Geography, I, 2, 8) 8. Plato was its author, or at least Herald. Farrington (1947), p 69 9. Astronomie in scientific form had the whiff of atheism. So wrote in the early imperial period Plutarch (46-119) on the Exploration of the Solar Eclipse 700 years earlier: "Anaxagoras had first written in the clearest and with great courage on the lighting and the shadow of the moon, but this his writing was still too new and found not much applause, she only went secretly around among the few that they told each other with care and confidence. because you wanted was not yet tolerate the physicist and the so-called "gossips about the things in the sky" because they ascribed to the gods effects on irrational causes, natural forces and necessary events seemed attributable So Protagoras was banished, and Anaxagoras cast into prison, from which it Pericles was able to free narrowly;. Socrates, who but not tampered with such things, just came through his philosophy lives. Later repaid the aufglänzende fame of Plato, partly because of the way of life of this man, partly because he subordinated the physical necessities of the divine and higher principles, the bad opinion people had of those teachings,

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and made that the mathematical studies became universal. " Plutarch, "Life of Nicias". Translation from Farrington (1947), p 70 In the same place discussion of Plato's "Laws" § 820-822 which also was astronomy as dangerous and godless science - before Plato. 10. One said Plato, they were already too prevalent. Diogenes Laertius: De vitis philosophorum IX, 40 11. Diogenes Laertius (IX, 40) in the imperial period to 230 AD: "And this much is clear: While Plato almost all older philosopher does, he does of Democritus never mention, even where he would have to install any objections to him, apparently because he was aware that he would have to do it with the best of all philosophers, which also Timon in the following manner his praise can be given has ... " Diogenes Laertius: De vitis philosophorum (Eng.) Life and Opinions of famous philosophers. From the Griech. transl. Otto Apelt, Hamburg 1967 12. Farrington (1947), page 84 What is meant is, Plato used complicated logical reasoning mixed with mathematical examples to seemingly convincing, highly scientific and objekiv to work. Only sufficiently educated were able to understand this. But even those who understood it, has often not noticed as Plato deliberately manipulated by false assumptions and vague terms. Plato's life's work shows what can reach high intelligence and rhetorical skill. Ultimately, it was a commissioned work of the Greek nobility. They wanted the scientific - technical progress, prevent, because they feared loss of power through economic changes. To achieve this cultural objective, we successfully continued at the forefront of education pyramid. Without this power-political background Plato's work would soon be forgotten. 13. "We should approach astronomy as we do in geometry -.. beyond the discussion of problems and we should ignore what is in the sky, if we want to learn real astronomy" "We shall approach astronomy, as we do geometry, by way of problems, and ignore what's in the sky, if we intend to get a real grasp of astronomy," Plato, Republic, 7,530 BC 14. discussion of Plato ("state" X, 597) at Farrington (1947) p 75 15. * "We conclude our presentation of Plato with the conclusion that he contributed nothing positive not only for science, but in many ways even acted on inhibiting their development. however this does not mean that he would not have promoted the thinking critical. Especially went from a powerful stimulus to the study of mathematics from him, which is an essential element in the modern concept of science. " Farrington (1947), p 78 However, "... and it is also very doubtful whether the mathematics owes him a promotion The opinion of eg Heath (ibid., p 294) that Plato should be` hardly come out in mathematics on the contemporary state. `". Farrington (1947), pp. 74 and "A History of Greek Mathematics" by Sir Thomas Little Heath (1861-1940), Oxford, The Clarendon Press, 1921, Vol I, p 294 And: "If we look at how Plato, who was such a brilliant mind, the light of knowledge blew out instead of doing it to stir, so we see through his personal crisis through the crisis of the old society." Farrington (1947), p 79 16. Farrington (1947). S. 90 17. "De Animalium Generatione" 760 b. . 27ff, cited in GER Lloyd: Magic, Reason and Experience (Cambridge, 1979), p. 138 18. Farrington (1947). S. 91 19. Farrington after the discussion of the first book of Aristotle's "Metaphysics": "The philosophy behaves accordingly to the practical sciences as a free man to his slaves." (1947) p 94 20. Farrington (1947). S. 95 21. respect to this, Farrington on the work of Rostovtzeff and writes: "Rostovtzeff discusses this phenomenon in his book." the Hellenistic world "(p. 1166f) He mentioned that you did not understand it, to accustom animals to the new climatic conditions, and . that issues such as the exploitation of the Mesopotamian oil fields or recovery of Erdpechs in the Dead Sea faced helpless He points to the lack of any progress in agriculture out, and the same is true of the metalworking, Attempts were made to increase the mineral extraction, but one was unable , to accomplish this by means other than always increased forced labor. The textile industry was unable to develop beyond that achieved in the pre-Hellenistic period level addition. It is a sad image that confronts us here, but it is exactly what Plato in his "state" and had taught in his "laws" and Aristotle in his "Metaphysics". The stagnation in Greek science is only one aspect of the general stagnation of the Greek society. " Farrington (1947), pp. 95f. Michael Ivanovitch Rostovtzeff is meant (1870-1952) and the third volume of his work "The

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social & economic history of the Hellenistic world" Oxford, 1941. German: "The Hellenistic World" Part 3, Stuttgart 1956. 22. Benjamin Farrington: Science and Politics in the Ancient World, London 1965, p. 94 23. Taylor, CCW: The Atomists: Leucippus and Democritus Fragments: A Text and Translation with a Commentary. Toronto 1999, p. 160 24. Farrington, Science and Politics (1965), p. 124 25. Farrington, Science and Politics (1965), p. 165 26. Michael von Albrecht: History of Roman literature. 1997, p 230 27. Benjamin Farrington: Greek Science, Its Meaning For Us, Nottingham 1980, p.253 28. "As the first he has set annually 100,000 sesterces for Latin and Greek teachers of rhetoric from the state treasury." (Suetonius, Vesp. 18). Jerome zJ 2104 about the famous teacher of rhetoric Quintilian in the first Century: "As the first he has had a public school and a salary from the state treasury in Rome." 29. The ancient education began with the man of letters, the learning of reading and writing. The next stage was the Grammaticus, the learning of literary content. The final stage was the only orator, learning rhetoric and argumentation. Public funding of the rhetorician makes sense only if a sufficient proportion of the population had already passed the previous two stages. For the wealthy senatorial aristocracy was not dependent for his children to such support and will also have taken rhetoricians with other political orientation as that of the Emperor. 30. To spread the ancient Epicureans on the basis of tradition, see Taylor. Farrington doubts that the Epicurean could cause essential in the Empire. He holds the Roman Empire regarding technical innovations for as stagnant as the Greeks by Plato. Reason is free as is the basis of the economy and thus an aversion to inventions, the labor slavery. As an example, he cites the work of Lefebvre of Noettes (1920) and Lynn White (1960). The clearest indication of a lack of innovation in the ancient world was therefore that they had brought no effective Harness for horses and, therefore, land transport, in comparison to the Middle Ages, stagnated. This prime example is now considered refuted. (Spruytte, J.: "Early harness system: experimental studies: contribution to the study of the history of the horse." London, 1983). Refuted Likewise, the assumption that the antiquity would have used the water power in comparison to the Middle Ages only inadequate. (Andrew Wilson: "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", in: The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol 92 (2002), pp. 1-32..). Also seems to be the basic assumption that slavery was an obstacle to innovation, refuted by examples from the modern era. (Kevin Greene, "Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World:. MI Finley Re-Considered" in:.. The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol 53, No. 1 (Feb., 2000), pp. 29 -59.) 31. Cochrane to the development of land ownership in the previous posting Empire: "The unit of production which the latifundium Which, Following the great wars of overseas conquest, supplanted peasant farming, and, at least until the end of the Julio-Claudian period, there what probably a tendency towards the accumulation of estates in Fewer hands, to Which the only effective check what confiscation. This' may be inferred from the familiar statement that, among them, six landlords possessed almost the half of Africa till Nero had them Executed. THUS the imperial estates (res privata) grew till They Became of important department of government. " Cochrane, Charles Norris: "Christianity and Classical Culture" London 1944, p. 142 32. The construction of roads with bridges and tunnels, ports, a fleet of large cargo ships, canals, dams, Aquedukten to the use of water power, public drinking water and sanitation, baths, theaters, stadiums, and the first public libraries. 33. Jones on democracy in the Roman period: "Democracy had in synthesis ways ceased by the beginning of the second century BC to be a living reality, but it Remained a popular ideal No government, HOWEVER oligarchic, would confess to the hateful title of. oligarchy, or even to the more respectable name of aristocracy, and the term democracy came to be watered down so did it Meant little more than constitutional republican government. The cities were ran thus able to welcome the Romans as champions of democracy without any misgivings, Despite the tendency of the novel to favor aristocracy .... The Roman method of controlling cities was quite frankly to place the power in the hands of the well-to-do .... Censors enrolled at the council Intervals; Their choice what limited by various rules - there what for instance a minimum age and ex-magistrates had a right to a seat, and

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members once enrolled Could not be removed from the list except for certain specified Causes .... The policy of giving the power to the upper classes what Malthus Achieved by two principal measures. The one, the property qualification for office, probably did not make much difference Actually. gave legal sanction to what It already what the general practice, making illegal for the future what had in the past been Theoretically possible - that the people might also elect to office radically minded politicians of humble station Perhaps therefore it affected the composition of the city councils, since hitherto thesis would not have been completely Call dominated by the well-to-do The second measure what far.. more revolutionary in its effects. The council what already vested with very wide powers, including a potential veto on the proceedings of the assembly. When it came to be no longer a mere committee of the assembly, Renewed at frequent Intervals and responsible to the popular courts for its acts, but a permanent and THEREFORE irresponsible body, it Inevitably Became the governing body of the city. " (Jones, 1984, pp. 170f) 34. * John Day about Athens: "... Throughout the period of Roman domination, wealth what Gradually being Concentrated in the hands of Fewer and Fewer individuals, with the result did the number of citizens able to meet the hoplite census which much smaller than it had been at the time of the Persian Wars. " Day, John, "An economic history of Athens under Roman domination", New York 1942, p. 272 An overall impression of Jones, Arnold HM: "The Roman economy ', Oxford 1974, p. 135f: "If I may venture a generalization on the economic effects of the Roman Empire I would say did its chief effect what to promote to ever Increasing concentration of land in the hands of its governing aristocracy at the expense of the population at large .. . The profits of Empire went for the most part to a Relatively limited circle, who used them to purchase country. And most great fortunes, it 'may be noted, were made in politics and administration, or in the law, Which was Closely linked with them ... The process of accumulation which gradual and uneven, but it what cumulative and extended over centuries with very little to counteract it. " 35. Summary of the traditional high schools to stand at Jones, Arnold HM: "The Greek city from Alexander to Justinian" New York, 1984, pp. 220ff 36. to universities (academies) and ihrerm connection with the local city council see Watts, Edward J.: "City and School in Late Antique Athens and Alexandria," London, 2006. Although the Emperor was able to finance and occupy single chairs. The vast bulk of the academic staff but was financed by students and local donors and thus controlled. 37. Jones is convinced that at least the higher (upper secondary) education in Roman Egypt was limited to hereditary educated elites. Schools had been visited thus generations of the same families (Jones (1984) p. 224). This corresponds to the practice in most modern States since the Renaissance to the 20th Century. But in late antiquity almost exclusively these stands In contrast, were the users. Education became an exclusive commodity. 38. It prevented the emergence of a larger group of reliable management officials and government consultants. So Frederik H. Cramer: Book Burning and Censorship in Ancient Rome. In: Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol 6, Issue 2 (April 1945) pp. 157 - 196 39. Virtually all surviving texts from the early Empire are moderate to extreme anti-imperial. The emperors and their families are often described as a monster. This is certainly a consequence of the selection in the 4th Century. However, Cramer calls (see above) and some examples mentioned Seneca `s Controveriae and Suasoriae that such pamphlets were probably not rare:" constantly Mentioned flood of oppositional literature in this age ". 40. Significantly in the so-called "learning through asceticism," Athanasius writing "Life of Antony" (see below) 41. See Statistics at Julian Krüger: Oxyrhynchus in the imperial period (1990), pp. 150f 42. The spread of Christianity began by monasteries in the country, especially in Egypt and the eastern part of the empire. The funding of these bodies may be made only on the local large estates. So it is then also small farmers who complain of robbery and violence by groups of monks (Libanius, speeches XXX). Measures against Christians are taken almost exclusively by the Emperors, hardly ever by the Senate or local nobility. 43. A simple machine for grain harvest is documented in the tradition and in a stone monument. The only known archaeological mill complex at Barbegal had industrial size and showed a DEVELOPMENT

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stand still suggests the existence of similar installations. 44. One could see this development particularly in the United States and Germany from 1850 until 1900. Owners of steel mills, factories and railways then had significantly more power than the landowner. The new Up now came from a different social class, namely trade and crafts. There were people with a different knowledge base, one with the experts could not compete in agriculture. 45. Watts, 2006, p. 99 46. Theol. Plat. I 25, quoted in Horn, 2002, p 444 47. Watts 2006, pp. 89, 124, 211 48. Watts 2006, p. 88 AD 38 49. (Seneca: Quaest nat IV.7 by Soldan, 1990, p 51...) 50. so Soldan, 1990, p 69 51. Soldan, 1990, p 69: Knight, Zeitz 52. Watts 2006, p. 161 53. Whether Sakkas in later years by Christianity emigration is controversial. The anti-Christian Neoplatonist Porphyry and Proclus to have claimed it. However, such an assertion already held the church fathers Eusebius of Caesarea (ca. 260-340) and Jerome (347-420) for defamatory, insisting he had remained faithful to Christianity. Proclus later lived and is therefore less relevant than Porphyry. Its assertion appears but even doubtful. H. Langer Beck wrote: "Ammonius was of Christian origin, but we can unequivocally Porphyry statement enlist Was he an apostate This is in no wise from Porphyry words to tap, but only (Euseb. Hist Eccl IV, 19.7..).? that he has devoted himself to a philosophical life. " ("Ammonius what of Christian descent,... For this, we must undoubtedly, take Porphyry's word (Euseb. Hist Eccl IV, 19.7) Was he at apostate This is by No Means CLEARLY deducible from Porphyry's words, but only did he devoted? . himself to a philosophical life ") H. Langer Beck:" The Philosophy of Ammonius Saccas: and the Connection of Aristotelian and Christian element Therein ", Journal of Hellenic Studies, v 77:1, 1957, pp. 67-74. The assumption that there could also be a second, Christian scholars have given the same name about the same time in Alexandria, therefore, is unnecessary. Straight from the writings of Origen is clearly visible that a Christian scholar in the 3rd Century the Platonic philosophy was very much allowed and was also considered useful. 54. Bautz, FW: Biographic-bibliographic church encyclopedia, Volume I (1990) 149 column 55. Encyc. Brit. 2003 56. Watts 2006, p. 161 57. This is clear by that of Porphyry wrote "Life of Plotinus". Accordingly, the 28-year-old Plotinus visited only the famous scholars of the city, but was disappointed by their content. Only after a tip from a friend he found Sakkas and was immediately impressed. He stayed for 11 years his pupil. After Watts 2006, pp. 155f 58. Watts 2006, p. 157 59. Plotinus entry in "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy" of 30 June 2003 http://plato.stanford.edu /entries/plotinus/ 60. Watts 2006, pp.167 and 173 n 16 61. Whether Arius can be considered a Neoplatonist is controversial, the use of essential Neo-Platonic elements in his writings but secured. Watts sees this as a result of the widespread use of this doctrine by 300 p. 172f) 62. Watts 2006, p.175 63. Watts 2006, pp. 177ff 64. Watts 2006, p. 98 65. Watts 2006, p. 243 66. Rüegg, Walter: Ancient Spirit World, Vol I, Hanau (1986), pp. 227ff 67. Watts 2006, p. 125 68. all citations by Watts, 2006, p. 127f 69. Watts 2006, p. 225 70. Watts 2006, p. 235 71. Watts 2006, p. 236 72. Watts, 2006, pp. 257F

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73. For him there is no mention of atomism or Epicureer. Also not with other recent authors such as Haas and Dzielska. 74. A Hydroskop (12 City and School, 2006, p.) is not an "astrological instrument" as Watts fabled. It is still in use today in the laboratory tool for the precise measurement of the density of fluids. Indirectly, one can thus measure the concentration of alcohol or salts. According to Sarton, this is the first mention of such a device in literature - although it was certainly already invented centuries earlier. (Sarton, George: Ancient Science and Modern Civilization, New York 1959, p 83.). Synesius asks in a letter 394-413 AD Hypatia to send him one. Another Note how extremely low the tradition technical - scientific literature. 75. Herophilus there began the systematic dissection of human and animal bodies. They laid there the foundations of functional Anatomis to the later built Galen. Heron of Alexandria is the most famous ancient engineering scientist, he built the first cybernetic machines. Famous in Alexandria acting predecessor in this area were Ctesibius and Philo. Theon was the last of the astronomer as head of the museum acquired astronomical readings in Alexandria and wrote in that capacity also on measuring instruments. Although Claudius Ptoelamaios claimed to have made his observations near Alexandria, but he was almost certainly not the academic circles of the museum. 76. This was drawn by some younger writers in doubt, as the Chronicle of John Malalas (ca. 491-578) describes in her death, 415 as "older woman". Whereas the Suda explicitly described as "very beautiful". Rist (1965) did not see with Lacombrade (1951), the Greek word choice in Malalas contrary to a date around 370 Malalas is valid according to the Encyclopedia Britannica in 1911 anyway as dubious source: "poss esses little historical value ... contains astonishing blunders" with the goal of Christian propaganda ". Written not for the learned but for the instruction of the monks and the common people" 77. This goes back to the Suda. Thus, Hypatia was famous during the reign of Emperor Arcadius, who went 395-408. There is no reason to leave his reign begin with the year 383, as some younger writers do it. His appointment as Augustus at the age of 5 years in 383 made him only the predetermined heir. 78. She had students like Synesius of Cyrene (ca. 370-414) from about 395 AD. How to know from Proclus, the Neoplatonist outstanding of his time that his accelerated training was not complete even at the age of 28. (Watts 2006, p. 100). For a Neoplatonic teacher calls Dzielska (Hypatia of Alexandria, 1995) - no doubt rightly - a significantly higher age as his students. That Hypatia "publicly Explained to Those Who wished to hear Plato or Aristotle or any Either other of the philosophers." (Suda), makes them neither to the Neo-Platonic philosopher, nor even to a Neoplatonic teacher. It's amazing how Dzielska 1995 Hypatia could see a Neuplatonikerin although Rist this as early as 1965, even supported by Syensius quotes statistics, could ausschliesen convincing. (JM Rist, "Hypatia," Phoenix, Vol 19, No. 3 (Autumn, 1965), pp. 214-225...) 79. Synesius of Cyrene was about 393-397 students in Alexandria. From his letters it appears that Hypatia was his teacher. It is possible, however, that at least Initially Theon taught him. To be able to teach from about 395 had Hypatia but have been only 20. She was described as a child prodigy at an early age helped her father in scientific work. Taught by her father, she could not have reached level as a teenager the tutor. A message (http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1&hl=en& rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http://derstandard.at /%3Fid%3D1227288888603%26sap%3D2%26_pid%3D11521532& usg=ALkJrhgWBnr9qsYKzCxa9KzPKnntQF7xoQ) from 16:12:08:. "16-year-old recent university graduate Additionally, he works as a tutor for the Faculty of computer science start of the academic career of 13 years ...". is not uncommon in the mathematical natural sciences. An international list (http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1&hl=en&rurl=translate.google.com& sl=de&tl=en&u=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_child_prodigies& usg=ALkJrhiFd2kl2jVAjqGNIcoNy2MpDts2qw) of recent shows even more extreme examples than assumed for Hypatia. The appeal of studying in Hypatia may have been the connection of her family with the Museon and the legendary (and 393 certainly no longer existing) library of Alexandria. 80. "Damascius, who knew much more about Hypatia's important position in Alexandria than we do, did not hesitate to elaborate on this point: he states Briefly and unequivocally did the whole city". doted on her and worshiped her "She was so showered with civic honors. " (Dzielska, 1995, p. 90) 81. Dzielska (Hypatia of Alexandria, 1995) wrote "ostrakois aneilon" with note: R. Hoche, "Hypatia, the

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daughter of Theon," Philologus 15 (1860), pp. 462, claims (like Gibbon before) thatthey were seashells, for Caesarion which located close to the shore, near the Great Port (Haas, pp. 215-216). 82. According to the law of Constantius was in the provinces of sorcerers and magicians who denied "the flesh being torn from his bones with iron hooks." After Soldan, 1990, p 82 There: Cod Theod. Lib IX. tit. 16.1.4.5.6. 83. "Hypatia and Her Mathematics" by Michael AB Deakin, in: The American Mathematical Monthly, March 1994, Volume 101, Number 3, pp. 234-243. and Deakin at ABC Radio, Sunday, August 3rd, 1997: "Hypatia of Alexandria" 84. "Would we not expect to have heard of all this? Would it not be Shouted from the rooftops? Would it not be possible to walk into any bookstore and buy a biography of this woman? Would not her life be common knowledge? You would think so, but such is not the case. " The mathematician and historian Michael Deakin at ABC Radio, as 85. The ancient source: "the terror of those who called Parabalani" Haas, 1997, p. 315 86. "Because of thesis cryptic references, the evolution of the parabalani from a dedicated confraternity of hospital attendants to a band of ecclesiastical Brown Shirts is hidden from our view and consequently Has spawned more than a little speculation." Haas, 1997, p. 237 87. Haas, 1997, p. 305 88. There was an imperial examination. The restriction placed thereupon the episcopal power was rather symbolic and only for a short time. (Haas, 1997, p. 314f). The lack of punishment is thus secured and can not be explained by lack of surviving documents. 89. At the landing, the astronauts mirror behind ran on the moon. This could be by laser beams, the distance to the moon to meters (Today cm) measure accurately. This should be the lunar orbit as accurately measured as no sky train before. It also succeeded in even a confirmation of Einstein's general theory of relativity. Requirement was a theoretical description of the lunar orbit after Newtonian physics also involving friction. The Earth - Moon system is subject to friction with high accuracy. Tides, the tides change over time, the orbit of the moon. Since this effect is difficult to calculate theoretically they were looking for the old recording. The physicist RR Newton, therefore, employed in the 1960s with period times of solar or lunar eclipses or occultations. The most important were those of Ptolemy. In order for the information of Ptolemy with the most modern means of astronomy were reviewed. 90. There was already a lead in professional journals and a follow-up in other books Newton to detailed questions. 91. * "Ptolemy describes his observation instruments and emphasized that he had his measurements" with the utmost reliability "executed. Thats how Newton rightly says, a deliberate fraud." (Van der Waerden, 1988, p 261) "Newton's thesis, For Which the evidence is strong, would Largely destroy Ptolemy's reputation as an astronomer ..." (Thurston, 1994, p. 171) "Final Remark: To my mind, the most remarkable thing about the whole affair is not Newton's intemperate language, Arising no doubt from frustration at not being able to use data from the syntaxis in his own researches, coupled with disdainful treatment by the historical ( not astronomical) establishment Nor is opposition to Newton particularly surprising, the establishment Often digs in its heels and puts on blinkers When a radical and ingenious proposal is set forth No:. the remarkable thing is did Delambre's devastating and irrefutable proof did Ptolemy lied about. his "observations" of the Equinoxes and solstice which ignored for so long. " (Thurston, 1998) 92. To my astonishment, I found did Delambre (Delambre, JBJ: Histoire de l'Astronomic du Moyen Age, Chez Mme Veuve Courcier, Paris, 1819), on p. 1xviii, gave the calculations Relating to the solstice and to one of the Equinoxes. He used the introduction to his study of medieval astronomy in order to answer comments did had been made about his study of ancient astronomy. For this reason, I did not discover his calculations in my original study of ancient astronomy. So far as I know, Delambre's what the first publication of any of the calculations, and hey what the first person who produced the unanswerable argument did Ptolemy's Alleged Equinoxes and solstices were fabricated. I do not know of any publication of the argument in between Delambre's and mine. (Newton, 1977, p. 93) 93. While Copernicus apparently fully built up in his own book on Ptolemy measurements, he apparently

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expressed the suspicion of forgery before Rheticus. Rheticus mentioned this briefly in one of his works. WP User Claude_J (http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1&hl=en& rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benutzer%253AClaude_J& usg=ALkJrhg3fTQfJ3mVicmp55c_JF1_ISmjHQ) has here (http://translate.googleusercontent.com /translate_c?depth=1&hl=en&rurl=translate.google.com&sl=de&tl=en&u=http://de.wikipedia.org /wiki/Diskussion%253ADe_Revolutionibus_Orbium_Coelestium&usg=ALkJrhj- iY1X3WkCHnLGqhcy6KYY5y9P9w) in a recent book (Martin Carrier "Copernicus", Beck Verlag, 2001) found it notes. As evidence leads Carrier Zekls edition of Copernicus' writings "The new world view," Meiner Verlag, 1990, pp. LXVIII on. Reason, in part, the errors in the transmission of the works of Ptolemy, Copernicus suspected but apparently, the observations were partly faked. Carrier writes (p.84), Copernicus had a sharp turnaround occurred in his major work, and cherish "the suspicion that the ancients themselves had laid hands if necessary to their records." Copernicus said that "Most of the observations of the ancients were not impartial" but manipulated. The correct values would have to be laboriously separately from these corrupt values. These critical points are obviously after Zekl (Copernicus "The new world view," my, pp. LXIX) in the "Preface to the 1551 ephemeris" (Leipzig 1550 facsimile) of Rheticus, published in Latin in Prowes Copernicus Biography, Vol.2, S.387ff. His biography of Copernicus, which should have covered this in more detail, is unfortunately lost. Probably Ptolemy was still considered as respected authority that Copernicus indeed a misperception but could not imply deliberate falsification him. 94. Brahe and Kepler worked in 1600 with Christian Severin (Christen Sørensen "Longomontanus") together. This seems to have noticed it as the first, that the measurements of Pt coincided exactly to the calculations: "If we check on the accuracy of Ptolemy's observations we find, to our surprise, did the Equinoxes are more than a day out, and the solstice is out by a day and a half. Christian Severin, about AD 1600, what the first person to suggest the obvious explanation -. did Ptolemy did not observe the Equinoxes and the solstices but calculated is Their times from the times of the three Earlier observations, using Hipparchus's value for the length of the year [112] And if you do just that - start from an autumn equinox at the time cited by Hipparchus, calculate When the autumn equinox 285 years later shoulderstand Occur, taking a year to be 365.25 - 1/300 days, and round off the result to the nearest hour - you will get exactly the time and date cited by Ptolemy. The same Applies to the other equinox and the solstice. " (Thurston, 1994, p. 140) 95. "Ptolemy said that he measured the latitudes and Longitudes himself. But as long ago as the late-sixteenth century Tycho Brahe suggested did Ptolemy compiled his list by correcting precession of Earlier list (by Hipparchus) for" (Thurston, 1994, p . 152) 96. van der Waerden, 1988, p 285, p 304 and Dennis Rawlins (1987): "Ancient Heliocentrists, Ptolemy, and the Equant", in: American Journal of Physics, 55, pp. 235-239 97. van der Waerden, 1988, p 146 98. van der Waerden has analyzed the choice of words used by Plutarch in more detail. He came to the conclusion that Seleucus has probably determined the constants of the heliocentric system by Beobachtungsadaten. He must also have learned how you could calculate the planetary positions due to this theory, so how to create a table so that plant. (Van der Waerden, 1988, pp. 149ff) 99. van der Waerden, 1988, pp. 151ff; Dennis Rawlins (1987) proof heliocentric data base in Pliny for Venus and Mars in p. 238 item c. And Dennis Rawlins: "Ancient Planet Tables' Long Cycle ancestries" DIO 11.2, Oct. 2003, pp. 34ff. 100. The modern heliocentric system was developed by the observations of Tycho Brahe and their mathematical analysis by Kepler within 40 years. Currently Hypatia significantly more observational data were surely present as Kepler had - which considerably simplifies the determination of the elliptical orbits. Even Hypatia had rather more mathematical knowledge than Kepler. Its basic knowledge for the analysis of elliptical orbits bassierten on a Greek work of Apollonius of Perga (ca. 262-190), from which it is known that even Hypatia wrote a commentary on it. The elliptical orbits, it took only the discovery of the vacuum around Isaac Newton's publication "Principia Mathematica" allow. From Brahe to Newton in only 100 years. This is the antiquity have not reached in 600 years?

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The conditions in ancient times - the number of observations, the level of mathematics, knowledge of the vacuum - were significantly better conditions than in Europe in the 17th Century. A telescope was, neither in antiquity nor in the 17th Century needed. 101. "We june recall here did as a result of her teaching what Synesius able to construct on astrolabe (De dono 4)." Dzielska, 1995, p. 73 102. This is evident from the letters of her pupil Synesius. The letters still preserved probably originate (as the Scripture of Horapollon about the meaning of the hieroglyphs) from the archives of the "Early Inquisition" and are apparently the result of an intelligence surveillance. Since he, although a student at a famous pagan, Bishop was such a state interest is also obvious. Synesius seems to have at least suspected this monitoring. Because he mentioned in letter 137 that he could not write about some philosophical things, because the letters could fall into foreign hands. 103. Over the past 30 years was discussed on the counterfeiting of Ptolemy. Little but the primitive, almost cheeky presentation of fake readings was this thought. He described his instruments and repeatedly stressed to have itself measured although these devices could never have the accuracy to confirm his theory as exact. This item appears in contradiction to the clear mathematical and astronomical knowledge that Ptolemy had to have had. In the condemnation of Ptolemy No one has yet asked the question whether he was actually author of this forgery. Ptolemy was astrologer to 140 AD and horoscopes based on its geocentric panel works were found as papyri. This is however not to say that he is also the author of the well-known today Almagest. So lacking in the Almagest, a clear criticism of other systems, especially the heliocentric. And how could such a work with this self-revealing "observed values" several centuries of learned antiquity exist at all? Every student of astronomy could expose it. One explanation is that Ptolemy but not Hypatia's father Theon was the author of the Almagest. He wrote positive comments about Ptolemy plant by about 380 AD. So at a time when Ammianus reported by the cruel persecution of alleged sorcerers in Greek-speaking part of the Empire. Where people from fear of this terror burned their entire libraries. Theon had then counted among the gefärdetsten people. Had he reached an agreement with the new rulers made to his life and to save that of his young daughter? He was the most capable person to write a book about the cosmos, which was compatible with the new Christian worldview. What now appears to be extremely brazen forgery in this book could be a deliberately built by him vulnerability. The religious authority, without experience in astronomical measurement, would this may not notice. 104. Dzielska, 1995, p. 59 105. "For this reason, too, everything did Herculianus, Olympius, Synesius, Hesychius, and Their close colleagues heard from their" common teacher "on the topic of the mysteries of philosophy, THEY kept in deep secret ... Convinced Their association did reflected the cosmic laws and interdependencies, They promised to Themselves to preserve in secrecy All They saw at Hypatia's "with Their Own Eyes" and heard "With Their own ears." "(Dzielska, 1995, p. 59). Dzielskas interpretation, a "trade secret" is typical of philosophical schools of late antiquity is certainly true. In Hypatia's scientific background you should but as more suspect than the then usual hot air Neoplatonic Spinner. Especially since probably match, that Hypatia never had to do with "theurgy" and similar occult. (Watts 2006, p. 191 + 195) 106. Dzielska, 1995, p. 95 107. Damascius: "And while she gasped for breath she still schneideten out their eyes, so they brought the greatest defilement and shame on the city." Life of Isidore Fr. 105 = Athanassiadi 43E - as cited on page 336 and refferenziert of Edward Watts: The Murder of Hypatia: Acceptable or Unacceptable Violence, in: Drake, HA (Ed.): Violence in Late Antiquity - Perception and Practices, Hampshire 2006 108. "... Catherine, Alexandria's most beloved and best-known saint and martyr.19 Student of the legend of Catherine have Noted did her story, Which began to take shape around the eighth century, contains motifs derived from Hypatia's biography.20 Catherine Appears in passiones forth not only as a young, beautiful virgin but also as a scholar proficient in geometry, mathematics, and astronomy, devoted to the wisdom of the Greeks. manufacturer persecutor, the emperor Maxentius (as the author of the Life calls him) , invited fifty of the most distinguished rhetoricians and philosophers from Throughout the empire, commanding them to prove Catherine's ignorance and the folly of her religious beliefs. In the presence of the emperor, Catherine countered the wise men's arguments and in addition converted them to Christianity. Nevertheless, the emperor sentenced her to torture and death. The legend

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connects the events with the persecution of Christians falling on the reign of Diocletian. " (Dzielska, 1995, p. 119) 109. Cynthia Stoll, Hans (1998), dealt with the representation of Saint Catherine. After Symeon Metaphrastes, from the 10th Century, Catherine was stripped and whipped with the nerve chord of a bull cruel to the dead. Then their remains burned for two hours. In "The Golden Legend" of Jacobus de Voragine in the 13th Century las Katherina converted as a child Plato and was secretly converted to Christianity. She was stripped and tortured with gears that should tear the flesh from her body on the orders of the pagan emperor. From such a large zahnbestzten wheels Pietro Aretino also reported in his History of Saint Catherine 1540. The intervention of angels prevented their deaths. Kathrina with the gears was a frequent subject of Renaissance painting. Interestingly, Stollhans in ihrerem article never mentioned Hypatia. This historical context, it was apparently not known. 110. Dzielska points to BA Myrsilides, the beginning of the 1970s in the vicinity of Denizli, on the river Pyramus, found ruins of a church which was dedicated by an inscription "St. Catherine Hypatia". (Dzielska, 1995, p. 119) 111. An example of how Ptolemy forgery impact initially, "Al-Battani therefore estimated the length of the year by comparing the time of the autumn equinox in AD 880 with the one recorded by Ptolemy in AD 139 His result is 2.5 minutes too small ( Compared with modern estimates of the average length of the year at did date) [143] Most of the error is due to Ptolemy, who put his equinox a day too late,. had he put it on the right day al-Battani's estimate would have been only half a minute too small. " (Thurston, 1994, p. 194) 112. Newton 1977, p. 365 113. Kepler decisive breakthrough came only because he was not sure of the size of the error in Tycho's observations - significantly less than 6 arc minutes he found an anomaly in the orbit of Mars. Kepler had thus dealt with the errors in observations in detail. He could therefore have been clear to the impossible accuracy of Ptolemy. If Kepler have mentioned this in his writings, so this has probably been ignored by historians until now. For most historians, the forgery of Ptolemy is even now unknown. 114. Diogenes Laertius created in antiquity a list of his 156 title in about 400 roles together with 445'270 lines of text. Both the number of titles as well as over the amount of text you come to a loss of about 75%. (B. Lukács: A Note to the Lost Books of Aristotle Budapest in 2004.) 115. The Ionian medical petition "Corpus Hippocraticum" is not related to a single author. She was probably part of a later edited Library. Pöhlmann: Introduction (1994), p 20; Farrington: Greek Science, (1980), p. 112 116. "Of his works, accor ding to the list preserved more in Diogenes Laertius 'Life' [Ethics 8, Physics 25, Math 12, Music 8, Arts 8 Miscellaneous 9] were many encyclopedic in scope, including astronomy, mathematics, literature, epistemology, and ethics, none survive. Ancient sources preserve almost three hundred purported quotations, the great Majority on ethics ... Our knowledge of the metaphysical foundations and physical doctrines of atomism Relies on the doxographical tradition Originating from Aristotle, who discusses atomism extensively. " Taylor (1999), p. 158 117. Farrington: Science and Politics (1965), p. 125 118. "But it is essential that you, the heretical and especially the pagan books - and that was finally the mass of literature available inventory -. kept away from all 'simplices' Who wanted to study these books, not only had to tread a long Vorbereitungsweg, but also constantly prove themselves in the sense of the Church, which was almost alone able to determine as to which advanced got this or that standard works in the hand. For the narrow confines of the monastery Isidore Regula Monachorum Chap. 8 it says quite obvious. The " Synonyms "and the later works of Isidore reveal how through constant selection anf a fairly small elite was aiming at those to whom the study of dangerous literature - was even not obvious, but admitted - such works, as they were later on the index . primary reason for this tolerance may also have been just the fact that they were forced to deal with educated pagans and heretics: You had to know their works and the works of their models and informants to refute it successful or to be able to withstand them, at least. Who was not designed for such a task, had no reason, and thus, strictly speaking, also not authorized to deal with heretical and pagan books ... " Diesner, Hans-Joachim: Isidore of Seville (1977), p 103 119. Freeman, Charles: The closing of the Western mind: the rise of faith and the fall of reason, London

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(2003): "The struggle in between religion and science had now Entered a new phase, one beyond the scope Which is of this book . What can not be doubted is how Effectively the rational tradition had been eradicated in the fourth and fifth centuries. The "closing of the Western mind" has been ignored for all too long. I hope this book purely reinvigorates debate on this turning point in European history. " (P. XIX). "In the fourth and fifth centuries AD, HOWEVER, faith in this sense load Achieved prominence over reason. The principles of empirical observation or logic were overruled in the conviction did all knowledge comes from God and even, in the writings of Augustine, did the human mind, burdened with Adam's original sin, is diminished in its ability to think for itself. centuries For any form of independent scientific thinking what suppressed. " (P. 5) 120. The only text-critical investigation of the tradition of Lucretius made Karl Lachmann 1850 famous and considered the most important example of textual criticism at all. Hunger (1961). For Lachmann's precursor and low reception of Lucretius in MA: Reynolds, LD (Ed.): Texts and Transmission, Oxford 1983 121. Freeman (2003), p. 326 122. Freeman (2003), p. 327ff. 123. Weinberg, Julius Rudolph: "Nicolaus of Autrecourt: A Study in 14th Century Thought" Princeton 1948 124. Pfeiffer, Rudolf: The Classical Philology from Petrarch to Mommsen. Munich 1982, S, 31 125. Horst Rüdiger (1961): The rediscovery of the ancient literature during the Renaissance, in; Hunger (1961), p 520 126. Even Petrarch beginning still used this metaphor when he wrote of his revered Cicero. As Petrarch the metaphor later recorded and converted examined in detail Theodore E. Mommsen in "Petrarch's Conception of the 'Dark Ages'", Speculum, Vol 17, No. 2 (Apr., 1942), pp. 226-242. 127. "His enthusiasm for Cicero go back to the father, but before he had the writings of content can understand that he was by" verborum dulcedo quaedam et sonoritas ", a certain charm and tonal beauty of style, has been tied up a font Cicero. to acquire, he had waived other delights But one day the father had his collection thrown into the fire, because they have distracted him from legal studies,. touched by his tears, but the Father Virgil and Cicero's rhetoric had saved from the flames, the one for the rest, the other to study. " Horst Rüdiger (1961), pp. 530f. Petrarch recite the age of 14 his parents' home to study the Legal Profession. The Ereigniss described probably happened before. 128. Walser to developed by the humanist criticism: "And finally:. chief judge in all things human is no more books authority, no philosophus recognized Aristotle, but only common sense this last and greatest achievement of criticism took the longest to prevail : it was a kind of individualism, which must each be painstakingly acquire up to our own day itself, instead of being further knits Sedentary on ancient traditional stockings. " Walser, Ernst: Collected Studies on the intellectual history of the Renaissance. Basel 1932, pp. 118f 129. by Albrecht, S. 446 130. Th Zielinski: Cicero in the course of centuries, 1929, p 244, by Albrecht, S. 446 131. Voigt on the Christian culture of the Middle Ages: "In the constant battle with the pagan world they had grown big, and when even the most miserable, smoldering but at all times the spark of heathenism among the ruins of his temple continued, it was also defeated, beautified by its free, through art views of life still a formidable foe ... It then performs probably the rigor of Gregory the Great as evidence of how deep and the contempt with which the pagan poets are trampled under the feet of his time, but just that Gregory believed himself obliged energetically to fight her reading, but again shows us, that the sense of and the seductive power of these dead no means was there. Alcuin pointed to the Archbishop of Trier, his love for Virgil, the poet lies, of alienating him the Gospels, even though his own spirit in intercourse with Virgil and Cicero, and other ancients once reached maturity. (Epistt. 216 243 in the Monum. Alcuiniana edd. Wattenbach et Dümmler. Purpose Vita Alchuini § 10) The abbot Wibald of Corvey, who was powerfully attracted by Cicero's sentences and word jewelry and his works collected, but protested anxious at the thought of more than Ciceronians to appear as a Christian, and assured that he is in such studies only as a scout look at in the enemy camp. (Letter from the provost of Hildesheim, Rainald of Wibald and its response in the

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Monum. Corbeiensia ed, Jaffe No. 207 208) Even as the battle with the remnants of paganism really faded into the background, as the rings of the Roman bishops with the imperial power the minds took to complete, as in the schism of the church authorities, science was then preferably strives to forge theological and canonical weapons, even then you could a scary horror not resist against the vanquished powers that threatened musing how tied up in hell, but still alive and revenge. The time of the Greeks and Romans seemed a night, worshiped in which men impure demons, but these demons, which once broken, the Christian faith, woven in superstition her uncanny existence continued, "Voigt, Georg: The rediscovery of classical antiquity.. Berlin in 1960, unchanged reprint of 1895, I, p 7) 132. "This exemplifies the intellectual career of the church father Jerome, his contemporary, who referred clearly distinguishable positions on merits or demerits of classical ancient formation in the course of his life. beginning of the possibility of harmonizing pagan education and Christian faith convinced he rejected middle-aged radically the view pagan cultural tradition and Christianity are compatible. That's when his famous anxiety dream in which his God rebukes, he was not a Christian, but "Ciceronian", ie a pagan intellectuals. This did not prevent Jerome but not ancient at the age heritage, grammar and rhetoric, to esteem again .... After all -. since this nightmare heritage antique classical culture of many Christian intellectuals was perceived as serious internal threat is a common thread runs this deep concern about the monk Father John Cassian (ca. . 360-430/35), and Pope Gregory the Great, who forbade vehemently, "the oracle of Scripture to submit to the rules of the grammarian Donatus," to the educated people of the Middle Ages. " Frederick Prince: "Europe's spiritual beginnings", in: The time, 12 June 2002 133. "... the Middle Ages as a predominantly conservative era was opposite the Neues filled with distrust Newer was considered a dirty word,.., only the old man was estimable this mind like a quotation from a medieval author, the Canon Adelmann of Liege, prove "Of the ancestors everything is sorted excellent; nothing new can be created more; yes God hates the innovators," Therefore, the Middle Ages knew any progress only as a restoration of the old ".. August Buck: The history of Renaissance thought, writings and lectures of Petrarch Institute Cologne, Vol IX, 1957. P. 17 134. Mommsen (1942) 135. * This passge is at the end of "Africa", Petrarch `s bedeutenstem epic. He describes in Rome's victory over Carthage and rise to world power. For the first time the historical tradition became known to a wider audience. However, the aim of Petrarch is not a glorification of war, but in main contrary, praise the achievements of antiquity. This is most evident when he in the 8th Book the Carthaginian delegation can perform on the occasion of the peace negotiations with the city of Rome. Petrarch invented this episode to the familiar dark ruins of Rome in their previous posting vibrant glow to describe. Petrarch's goal in the creation of the epic was to ensure a spiritual turning point, a recurrence of ancient thought. He was supported in this by his patron King Robert of Naples. This read the epic present and asked Petrarch to dedicate it to him. He made himself the patron of the poet and his work. But the highlight was his crowning Petrarch to the poet-king on the Capitol of Rome. This was done after a traditional depiction of the early Empire and so was the first time carried out again for over 1000 years. The date was chosen even demonstratively the Christian festival of the Resurrection, Easter in the year 1341st This was made possible because the leadership of the church in 1309 Rome forcibly dungeon and resided in Avignon, France since. When Robert of Naples in 1343 looked Petrarch died his project of a renaissance as a failure. But he hoped future generations would succeed. Until then, he recommends to his followers carefully and unobtrusively to hide among the people. With like-minded people one should wait for the dawn of a new era in modesty. In fact, this time came within a few decades after Petrarch's death. The final word of "Africa" Petrarch wrote immediately after the death of his patron: The host and friend of the Muses, who knew the studies to confer the honor due to the only man of our time, [445] he is no more! With it is also our hope vanished. Lucky are those who have formerly lived in those better times [of antiquity]! Oh, if I could only ... No, vain and void is my wish! There is no turning back. We are all come at the end of time late, and a grim Jupiter looks out from a hostile sky on us. [450] We must deal with our lot and follow our stars, where they

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are leading us - otherwise they force us to himself. To me it is imposed to lead my life in a world in the midst of a changing disturbing storm. But you're probably better to wait for centuries, if you long survive me - this hope [455] and I wish! Not all years is this sleep of forgetting to stop! Perhaps disperses the darkness, and our grandson can return to the pure light of the past. Then you'll see how new grows green on the Helikon one tribe, like the holy laurel bears foliage. Then again, high talents [460] and docile spirits will arise in which the zealous effort to honorable studies will double the old love for the Muses. You shall be careful to rekindle my name eagerly! As far as thou canst do it, is to be shown to me after the death of at least this way my praise bestowed and my ashes honor. Sweet will be my existence [465] among those people, and my fame is my grave sneer. Until then, please go to step watchful and undetected through the dull mass of the people and let them behind you, they will greet you just remotely from their doorstep. Oh, how few homes you'll find in the earthing how rare [470] once hospitable place to stay! But if you can meet a friend of true virtue, your destiny, then ask him undaunted to a secluded, narrow space under his humble roof. And there you will get a bejahrtes face and age, rather accompanied alone and always in a foreign land than of evil people, [475] until you get to the beginning of another time. Then please'm young again, as soon as a kindly light illuminates the poet and an era has arisen, which is the good weighted. If there as a young man, I was able unharmed to wrest thee in thy youth from the middle of the flames and you carry away over the swelling waves, [480] so I ask you now as an old man: Beware of such things on their own when I'm not anymore! Defiance of the voracious time that devours everything, without exception, defy the rapidly dwindling days, defied the sun, which destroyed the centuries, and defy the sad bite of envy! [End] Following the recent translation by Bernhard Huss and Gerhard Regn, Mainz (2007). The commentary in this issue is the status of research well again. Especially the epilogue "Petrarch's Rome: The History of Africa and the Renaissance Project" outlines the importance. An epic, which ended a period of 1000 years. 136. It could be up to 5% of the total population of Italy have been, individual cities such as Florence to 30%. Compared with ancient times, this was low, but a significantly higher degree than in the 13 Century, with only 1% of the total population. This image extension base was an essential prerequisite for the start of the Renaissance. See, for example: Cipolla, Carlo Maria: Literacy and development in the West (1969) 137. "Failure to appear as beings with their opposition or even as a fraternal Related people the poets of antiquity to the Middle Ages, as only Petrarca will understand again, but as the author of useful collectanea fully moralistic, mythological or poetological clichés. seal is basically the not as a product understood creative imagination;. their enjoyment is bound to filtering through the allegory, the encyclopedia, the Florilegium, the textbook of any kind, even the novelistic entertainment literature or the Kursiositätensammlung in the national languages make use of traditional material, often without regard to external or internal credibility . the appropriation, is uncritical and unhistorical, it is subject to the higher demands of the healing relationship, is required for the interpretation of the substance (Aristotle in Scholasticism) Horst Rüdiger (1961):. Rediscovering the ancient literature during the Renaissance, in; Hunger ( , 1961), p 515 138. Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528) wrote in 1523 literally by the "Wiedererwachung" of ancient art and aesthetics. (Mout (1998), p 285). The word Renaissance means rebirth. 139. Rudolf Pfeiffer Petrarch compares directly with the work of the "early Hellenistic poet who played a crucial role in the development of philology in Alexandria." Pfeiffer, Rudolf: The Classical Philology from Petrarch to Mommsen. Munich 1982, p 17 140. "Petrarch was the first who broke away from the style of medieval chronicles, annals and biographies and excerpts and paraphrases of real antique sources - without quoting verbatim -. combined with occasional own additions and corrections In this he was followed by three centuries, the authors who wrote about Roman history, for until the late seventeenth century, there was no need to Livy by a modern work of history to ersetzen.27 "27: A. Momigliano," Contributo alla storia degli studi classici "Storia e Letteratura 47 (1955) 75 . In: Pfeiffer, Rudolf: The Classical Philology from Petrarch to Mommsen. Munich 1982, S, 22

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141. Rüdiger (1961), p 518 142. "The collection of classical literature produced in the renaissance of the type of modern private collector, who is here to stay from now on from the European cultural life. His archetype is the nerd Niccolo Niccoli (1364-1437), son of a rich merchant, who his fortune codes for spending, but also bank loans Cosimo de Medici (r. 1434-64) was allowed to take in unlimited amounts in claim Niccoli's library contained about 800 volumes, which he had partly copied itself. not to save the clerk wages, but from philological conscience. " Rüdiger (1961), p 519 143. Voigt, (1960), Vol II, p 7 144. Walser, Ernst: Poggius Florentinus, Berlin 1914, pp. 36f 145. "His character after one of the most ambiguous figures among the humanists, he was working as a papal clerk and secretary. (Similar offices in the curia had for a while Leonardo Bruni and Lorenzo Valla, 1407-57, held.) Poggio also wore clerical garb, not having received only minor orders. It cost the for (allegedly) fourteen illegitimate and legitimate children some loyal caring family man who at age 56 his concubine down and let an eighteen-year-old girl married ... " Rüdiger (1961), p 520 146. Rüdiger (1961), p 547 147. Horst Rüdiger (1961), p 517 Voigt (1960) specifies the period of discovery from 1330 to 1430, after which they found very little. Voigt, Georg: The rediscovery of classical antiquity. Berlin in 1960, unchanged reprint of 1895 148. Rüdiger (1961), p 549 149. In "De falso Credita et ementita Constantini donatione declamatio" (1440). "... Vallas proof that the alleged correspondence between Seneca and the Apostle Paul is spurious.'s Declamatio proves Valla, that the deed of gift, the Roman bishops passed with the Emperor Constantine in the laying of the imperial capital to Constantinople Opel the western empire, their imperial should have awarded insignia and left to the Lateran Palace, is a clear forgery. thus the secular claim to power of the Church was ever questioned., the historical consequences of Valla's proof had on the Reformation (Hutten's attack against the papacy due to Vallas font, 1518) until the Risorgimento continue (absorption of the Papal States in the Kingdom of Italy, 1870). " Rüdiger (1961), p 554 150. "Cecco d'Ascoli was not the only contemporary who fell victim to the Inquisition; Valla also escaped a trial for heresy by a hair and only with patronage king Alfonso F. Naples (r. 1416-1458)." Rüdiger (1961), p 548 151. Voigt (1960) Vol II, p 493 152. Burckhardt, Jacob The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy. Berlin, 1930 (1st edition 1859), p 174 153. Pfeiffer (1982), pp. 110f 154. "It was at Rome, as I sat musing on October 15, 1764 among the ruins of the Capitol and heard singing vespers in the temple of Jupiter the Barfüßermönche that the idea first came into my consciousness about the decline and fall of the city to . Write " Edward Gibbon: Memoirs of My Life and Writings (1796). Penguin edition, London 1984, p. 16 155. Without people, the first since the ancient times was Altdorfer's "Regensburg landscape" around 1525. (Encyclopedia Britannica 2003) 156. Burckhardt (1930), p 402 157. The mathematician and historian of astronomy BL van der Waerden the choice of words used by Plutarch analyzed. He came to the conclusion that Seleucus has probably determined the constants of the heliocentric system through observation. He must also have learned how you could calculate the planetary positions because of this theory. ("The Astronomy of the Greeks', Darmstadt 1988, pp. 149ff) In addition to this notice, there are other clues, which was circulated by the heliocentric system in ancient times as it will make the traditional texts credible. So is the geocentric system of Ptolemy, the derived astronomy throughout the Middle Ages, dominated by a heliocentric system of calculation. These van der Waerden p 151ff and particularly safe Dennis Rawlins: "Ancient Planet Tables' Long Cycle ancestries" DIO 11.2, Oct. 2003, p. 34ff. The detection of heliocentric data base in Pliny for Venus and Mars, in: D. Rawlins, "American Journal of Physics" 55 pp.235-239 [1987] p.238 item c. 158. "And I actually found in Cicero that Hicetas suspected a movement of the earth. Later I also discovered in Plutarch that certain others of this view were ... Therefore, after I got the suggestion from these sources, I also started the mobility the earth should be considered. " Nicolaus Copernicus, Dedication to Pope Paul III., Preface to "De revolutionibus", 1543

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159. "That Osiander Copernicus and not what the author of the strange preface, does not SEEM to have become generic rally known for a long time, ... but it certainly is to be regretted did Copernicus had until then [1609] in the eyes of manypeople lain under the imputation of having Proposed a startling hypothesis while believing it to be false.2 "" 2 It was a statement of the French mathematician liiimus (liiimus is certainly a fault in the electrical. text of the book) in Which induced Kepler to defend Copernicus against this accusation, Which had therefore been made by Ursus (Kepleri Opera, i p. 245). " Dreyer, History of the Planetary Systems, 1905, p. 321 160. Arthur Koestler coined the phrase "the book nobody read" in "The Sleepwalkers" (1959; Germany: The Night Wanderer: the image of the universe through the ages, 1959). This was based on the meager scientific echo until the end of the 16th Century. This was in the 1970s corroborated by the finding that the part of the book, in which Copernicus discussed the new cosmology, in the surviving specimens had significantly fewer side notes than the rest (Westman, 1975, p. 181). This view was to make Owen Gingerich to challenge a review of all existing editions of Copernicus. When he had examined the bulk of it came in 1986 to the same conclusion: "It is fascinating to discover how rarely the Earlier, cosmological portions of the treatise are annotated with any serious degree of perception." (Gingerich, 1986). After the release of the Census 2002 Gingerich then wrote a book about his research. He gave him in 2004 the title "The Book Nobody Read". He mentioned in Koestler's assertion and the many marginal notes which he found during the Census. Gingerich at the end about Koestler: "He was wrong Dead wrong.." A reader who is not familiar with the history of the 1970s must have the impression Gingerich have refuted Koestler's claim. While he actually confirmed - but without mentioning it after 2000 yet. For me typical Gingerich. Most of his papers lay lead, if anything where to go, then in the Christian astray - without letting it they only guess. He is also one of the leading apologists of Ptolemy. Though its forgery certainly looks in private conversation. 161. namely, that the movement does not perceive on a moving earth. And that a moving system without friction retains its movement permanently. Galileo had already recognized this. But not until Newton succeeded on this basis, building to present the laws of physics. The preface of Osiander has held several generations of researchers from these thoughts. 162. Mout, Nicolette: The culture of humanism, Munich 1998, p 281 163. Examples of this in: White, Andrew Dickson, "A history of the warfare of science with theology in Christendom", New York (1896) 164. had to be deleted in the foreword part of Copernicus Widdmung to Pope Paul III. It was a passage in which he (approx. 250-320) the holy Lactantius and the error of a flat earth mentioned. Lactantius was one of the best known and most printed Fathers of the Church, he was regarded as the "Christian Cicero". It had to keep all text to be deleted where Copernicus expressed his view the earth were in motion. All sites were listed and also to insert new text determined. One chapter was completely delete them. These corrections were by the owners of the books about stick by painting over or cut themselves to perform. The self-corrected by Galileo copy of his library is still preserved. Only when a new edition no traces of the correction would have been more visible. 165. Gingerich, Owen: "The Book Nobody Read ', London 2004, p. 146 166. When Galileo seriously ill, he asked in writing to be able to see a doctor in Florence for permission. This request was denied, with the addition, for other requests you would imprison him, 167. If some historians leave the Renaissance already end in 1527, as one of the most famous works Michelan Glos, "The Last Judgement" (completed 1541) would no longer belong to the Renaissance. But it is precisely this painting sparked the greatest controversy that led to the overpainting. It was therefore rather high point and end point of the Renaissace. 168. * The title was "Discourses Dimostrazioni Matematiche intorno a due nuove scienze" and appeared as it is written in Italian at Louis Elzivier 1638 in the Netherlands. German: "interview and mathematical demonstration on Two New Sciences," meaning mechanics were (especially the theory of elasticity) and kinematics (motion theory). The Latin version was published already in 1635 in Strasbourg as "Systema cosmicum." This title was appropriate. Because Galileo again putting forward the idea of Aristotle's fifth element. According to Aristotle, should this be in the space and explain "by its nature" all outstanding issues. In particular, the question of friction. Galileo realized that without friction takes a movement forever. And that this experimental finding is also true in space as well as everywhere in the cosmos. This general validity of

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experimental findings in any place at any time was found by him "Systema Cosmicum," the foundation of modern physics. He also had in the book already anticipated at least two of the later of Isaac Newton so-called laws of motion (now "Newton's Laws"). Together with the previously published laws of Kepler and the centrifugal force formula of Huygens, Newton was so that everything set to 1687 to publish his epochal work "Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica". Unlike Galileo, Newton had to because of "atomism" is no danger. 169. About the libraries of Italy in the 17th and 18th century: "The focus is on the idea of representation: in large halls of the whole stock is to be placed effectively The use plays a modest role the audience is able to be numerically barely small enough to imagine in a country where only a weak.. read and write percentage of the population, let alone shows an interest in literary matters. Formation is almost entirely in the hands of the clergy, their families are extremely numerous in proportion to the total population. The city of Bologna, for example, in the year 1784 69700 inhabitants , 38 men and as many nunneries with 12059 religious. The "abate" prevails also in the libraries. (...) In this regard, now not even the slightest pressure by the users of libraries has been exercised. There was no public opinion, which caused a certain amount of control, no students who were dependent for their studies on the libraries University libraries exist in Italy in the 18th century hardly Universities themselves are all slumped to nothing,.. are for their humble, strong scholastic operation libraries are not needed - no more than the professors make use of the few books vorhandnen treasures This condition gets well into the 19th century, yes to some extent to the present day ".. Axel von Harnack: The Italian libraries from the Enlightenment to the present. in: Leyh, Georg (eds.): Handbook of Library Science, Volume 3.2 - History of Libraries, Vol.2, Wiesbaden 1957, pp. 493f 170. "When modern science began to show signs of vigorous life in the sixteenth century many of the pioneers felt, and Rightly felt, thatthey were but resuming the old Greek tradition Which had been interrupted for over a thousand years. Their new science which, in Their Eyes, a continuation of Greek science. The old Greek books, Which the invention of printing and the birth of modern scholarship were putting into Their hands, were the best available, were, in fact, the most up-to-date books in various departments of knowledge. research Vesalius and Stevin in the sixteenth century the works of Galen and Archimedes were not historical curiosities. They were the best anatomical and mechanical treatises in existence. Even in the eighteenth century for Ramazzini, the founder of industrial medicine, Hippocratic medicine which shut a living tradition, just as for Vico, the most profoundly original of all sociologists before Marx, Lucretius, with his Epicurean philosophy, could supply a basis for the new science of society. In one striking example the validity of a Greek textbook Remained Virtually unchallenged till our own century. A generation ago Euclid and geometry were silent Synonymous terms in English schools. " Benjamin Farrington: Greek Science, Its Meaning For Us, Nottingham 1980, p. 153 This is a posthumous edition with a foreword by the historian of science Joseph Needham on his colleagues. The first editions were in 1944 and 1949. 171. According to Taylor: The Atomists, p. 160 172. "How to Reverse very small, indivisible corpuscles, called atoms, if taken two or more times to their imperceptibility form a perceptible body's sake do not immediately, but so often can be taken that they finally sufficient to perceptible to a to grow size. " N. Copernicus: "On the revolutions of the heavenly bodies." From his writings and letters, Poznan 1923, p 24 173. "On the basis of thesis works Vanini can be seen as one of the first who began to treat nature as a machine governed by laws." Richard S. Westfall, (The Galileo Project) (http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1&hl=en&rurl=translate.google.com& sl=de&tl=en&u=http://galileo.rice.edu/Catalog/NewFiles/vanini.html& usg=ALkJrhgfLdvqzarbP7hmNBL_oT1rQitJfA) . 174. So Pietro Redondi in his study on atomism in Galileo and his time. Redondi, Pietro: Galileo - the heretic, Munich 1983, pp. 65f 175. "After everything that had happened, could Galileo's students no longer so easily in public by the structure of matter, of physical or mathematical atoms and not from the natural philosophy of" speak color, smell, taste. "the accusation against Galileo's natural philosophy forced them to imitate the adjustment of their master after the official condemnation., the art of intellectual caution Publish they could only in the area of mathematics and experiments ". Redondi (1983), p 293 176. "In addition, light can not pass through a vacuum. So you can not see through it, and therefore there

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can be no vacuum between the Earth and the stars." After (Middleton, 1964. P. 2) 177. Isaac Beeckman (1588-1637), who was born at Middelbourg in Holland. wrote in 1614, and in 1618 for MD thesis at the University of Caen,,,, Beeckman in a letter to Father Marin Mersenne in Paris on October 1, 1629: "You bring forth good arguments about the vacuum Indeed, if a vacuum is. Said to exist in the pores of air, water, lead, etc., or if all the space in between the outer bound most of our atmosphere and the stars is Said to be empty, nothing follows did is absurd. Really, Although the philosophers babble about the necessity of all things being united, of the propagation of accidents and visible appearances in the air, of the Impossibility of motion in a vacuum, etc., thesis SEEM to me to be old wives' tales; for I admit nothing in philosophy, Unless it is Represented to the imagination as being perceptible to the senses. " (Middleton, 1964. P. 7) 178. "The time was ripe for the revival Certainly of the was in The Possibility of a vacuum, but to the clerics the very name of the vacuum which anathema, being associated with the atomistic theories of Epicurus and Lucretius, 8 Which were felt to be heretical. " (Middleton, 1964. P. 5) 179. (Middleton, 1964. p. 5) 180. "In a letter to Galileo dated April 11, 1615, Giovanfrancesco Sagredo Explains how he had a vase made in the glassworks of Murano, and sealed up while it was very hot, so did When it cooled the" fiery spirit "(lo spirito Igneo) escaped, and very little air which left within This was Proved in two ways: (1). he had had a little hawk's bell left inside, and when to it was cold and the bell which moved, no sound what made "se non in quanto percoteva nel vetro et, by conseguenza, faceva un suono esterno "(except in so far as it struck inside the glass and, in Consequence, made to external sound), (2) the mouth of the cold vase was broken open under water, Which Entered and nearly filled it. (Galileo, Le Opere, ed nat, XII [1902], 168) "(Middleton, 1964. p. 17) 181. (Middleton, 1964. p. 9) 182. It was conducted by Caspar Berti in collaboration with eminent scholars like Father Athanasius Kircher. A 10 m lead pipe on a wall, several glass vessels. Valves, lines and Magentkraft for generating sound in a vacuum was used. One could not agree on a result at the end. Only many years later, after Torricelli, it has been described by some stakeholders. At that time, Galileo should have had knowledge of it and have suggested the use of mercury instead of water. (Middleton, 1964. Pp.. 10ff, p. 20) Middleton on the importance of this case: "If an experiment as fundamental as Berti's had been Performed three hundred years later, the scientific world would have echoed with it in the twentieth century medals are Awarded for work of less relative, importance In the 1640's it Appears.. to have Remained Entirely unknown except to the people Actually Involved, until Magiotti wrote to Mersenne in 1648 and published his anonymous pamphlet Zucchi in the same year. " p. 19 183. "In two letters from 1644 that have never been published, its contents but thanks to Father Mersenne yet throughout the scientific Europe became known Torricelli Ricci announced that he had successfully where a partial vacuum was produced by a mercury-filled tube, , the proof of the seriousness of the atmosphere lead können50. " (Redondi, 1989, p 293). Middleton: "Borelli Obtained copies of Torricelli's two letters from Ricci in 1658 That it what of interest to do so is Further evidence of the way the experiment what hidden.." (Middleton, 1964. P. 31) 184. Middleton noticed with one exception: "nothing whatever about the experiment Appears, as far as I can deterministic mine, in the volumes Containing Torricelli's very extensive correspondence - not for all the three years did Remained to him." (He died in 1647) 185. "The second puzzle is why, as far as Italy is Concerned, the experiment which kept almost secret; much more nearly secret, Certainly, than the subject matter of recent Western military." security "For what it hidden as if it had been a mystic rite. " (Middleton, 1964. P. 30) 186. "The experiment done in February, 1645, by Giovanni Carlo de 'Medici had no immediate effect on the intellectual climate, Because it what kept secret for several years," (. Middleton, 1964, p 33.) 187. Redondi: "Public Father Fabri claimed for themselves to have already carried out the experiment in 1642" (Redondi, 1989, p 295). Fabri alleged here, the experiment would not prove a vacuum. Even if he performed it, would thus be clear that he did not succeed, the correct analysis and interpretation. 188. Middleton refers to the report of a scientifically very interested visitor at the end of 1646 Torricelli. It was Balthasar de Monconys (1611-1665) from France. With several meeting him Torricelli reported

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extensively on many experiments, but the vacuum experiment no mention. Also, no other scientists in Italy mentioned it to him. Only during a visit in 1664 Viviani reported it to him. (Middleton, 1964. Pp.. 31f) 189. In his first letter in 1644 mentioned Torricelli observations of unnamed researchers during dusk over the limited amount of atmosphere ". writers have observed-Regarding the twilight did the vaporous air is visible above us for about fifty or fifty-four miles" (Middleton, 1964. P. 23) 190. Only a portion of the letter of Torrilcelli is received a copy. Even this letter could represent only a fraction of the documents for this experiment. According to a note by Viviani, Galileo suggested the use of mercury in 1638. (Mid. p. 20). Galileo, who already was under house arrest and close surveillance by the Inquisition, thereby avoiding the concept of the vacuum. He spoke only of departing liquid columns. Torricelli refers in his letter, Galileo had determined the weight of air to 1/400 of the value of water and held the ground-level air for heavier than at high altitude (Mid. p. 23). Although this is one of Galileo's most important experiments, it is not mentioned in most books on Galileo. Galileo led it through as he was already under house arrest for the Inquisition. He therefore did not have the opportunity to repeat as the Murano experiment. Instead, he pressed water in a glass vessel with air and then mass, the weight of the vessel. He had then the positively pressurized air to flow and mass again. The difference in weight was the weight of the air that was previously in the volume of water pressed. By weigh this water he was awarded the ratio of the densities of water to air. He described it in his last book that could only be printed in the Netherlands. It also contained a preface, in which Galileo, probably for fear of the Inquisition, denied the authorship of the whole book. (Walker, 2007, p 23) 191. (Middleton, 1964. p. 29) 192. Middleton: "These the-hards, of splat there were a great many, used gallons of ink falling on the remainder of the seventeenth century in Their vain attempt to maintain the Impossibility of a vacuum." (Middleton, 1964. P. 54) 193. "By abstained from the debate, gave Torricelli and the other physicists and Galileo students once again a proof of the great intellectual virtue of their time, the art of careful, the" honorable adjustment ":" Sometimes you have to free speech invest reins, if the free life is already destroyed. Who does not, accelerates a violence measure and it does not prevent "51, taught at that time was a direct witness of the display against the Galilean physics in Rome, the Count Virgilio Malvezzi." Redondi (1983), pp. 294 194. Redondi (1983), pp. 320 195. Bernhard Fabian presented to a detailed analysis: "... Only once was a poet a philosopher glorified, who had designed a new worldview. Lucretius From the beginning, the echoes of Lucretius are in Halley's poem not to be missed .... Nevertheless are the multiple allusions and the recurrence of typical lukrezischen Satzstellungen31 certainly more than bonds made during his model an occasional poet. In the context of the whole poem, they act as a preparation for the following Newton-image drawn by Epicurus image of Lucretius is developed .... Since the Epicurean doctrine in opposition to prevailing orthodoxy, Epicurus is in the representation of Lucretius, a fighter for the freedom of the spirit and of the right to knowledge. Solemn and beseeching Lucretius speaks of a heroic Epicurus, who all threats in defiance of nature snatched her secret and his knowledge in the triumph of humanity brought .... (I 0.68 to 79) ... This body, one of the most compelling visions in De Rerum Natura, offered for the imitation of a diverse topic . Halley took her, with literal traces, only one motive. For the further development of this motif, the hero worship of Newton can be understood, for which there is ample evidence in the eighteenth century. Anyone Halley source declined (and almost all Newtonian, 'poets were familiar with Lucretius), was able to find new ideas. " (Fabian, 1973) 196. "The discovery of the 'world formula' was thereby not only considered as epoch-making scientific achievement: it was also perceived as an inspiration and commitment, due also in other areas, the diversity of empirical realities on a basic formula or an ultimate principle and with the aid of mechanistic analogies, fundamental laws to be constituted. " (Fabian, 1973) 197. Why Newton? His book was much building on other people, even if Newton suppressed their mention. The most essential part did Kepler elliptic orbits with his three laws. Then Robert Hooke, who found experimentally references to the law of gravity and this told in letters Newton. Hooke, with its many fundamental discoveries, was more likely to be the most significant English natural scientist. With

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Hooke's contribution, the physical explanation of the elliptical orbits of the planets and the found of Galileo parabolic trajectory of projectiles was possible. Halley now looking for a way orbits of comets with these laws to calculate. The mathematical knowledge needed for this had only Newton, which is why it urged Halley for publication. Halley then built additionally it by Newton Epicurus and propagate the atomism. Newton was particularly suitable as a figurehead for it. On the one hand, as he wrote more theological than scientific texts in his life and therefore could certainly argue theologically well. On the other hand, because he had an abstemious life change through his suppressed homophily and thus was hardly vulnerable. In contrast to Hooke, on the rather Epicureans, Women's stories were circulating. 198. Farrington, Greek Science (1980), p. 95 199. The Jesuit Father Antonio Baldigiani, advisor to the Holy Office, Viviani continued, however, informed that the allegations against Galileo, who had nothing to do with Copernicanism, had now been formalized in the Holy Office: "There were and are extraordinary congregations of cardinals performed at the Holy Office also in the presence of the Pope, and this is referred to adopt a general prohibition of all authors of modern physics, there are long lists of them created and the first place is called Galileo, Gassendi and Descartes, to be extremely destructive to the literary republic and for the sincerity of religion. Major Advisor will be men of faith who sought at other times to effect this ban ... " Redondi (1983), pp. 320

Albrecht, Michael von: History of Roman literature. 1997 Buck, August: The history of Renaissance thought, writings and lectures of Petrarch Institute Cologne, Vol IX, 1957 Burckhardt, Jacob The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy. Berlin, 1930 (1st edition 1859) Cochrane, Charles Norris: "Christianity and Classical Culture" London 1944 Cramer, Frederik H.: Book Burning and Censorship in Ancient Rome. In: Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol 6, Issue 2 (April 1945) pp. 157 - 196 Day, John, "An economic history of Athens under Roman domination", New York 1942 Deakin, Michael AB: "Hypatia and Her Mathematics" in The American Mathematical Monthly, March 1994, Volume 101, Number 3, pp. 234-243. Delambre, JBJ: Histoire de l'Astronomic du Moyen Age, Chez Mme Veuve Courcier, Paris, 1819 Diesner, Hans-Joachim: Isidore of Seville (1977) Dzielska, Maria: Hypatia of Alexandria, London 1995 Fabian, Bernhard: Edmond Halley's Encomium on Isaac Newton. Of the influence of Lucretius. in: Heitmann, K. and Schroeder, E. (ed.): Renatae Litterae, studies on the afterlife of antiquity and the European Renaissance, Frankfurt 1973 Farrington, Benjamin: The science of the Greeks and their meaning for us. From Thales to Aristotle, Vienna 1947 Farrington, Benjamin: Science and Politics in the Ancient World, London 1965 Farrington, Benjamin: Greek Science, Its Meaning For Us. Nottingham 1980 Freeman, Charles: The closing of the Western mind: the rise of faith and the fall of reason, London (2003) Gibbon, Edward: Memoirs of My Life and Writings (1796). Penguin edition, London 1984 Gingerich, Owen: "De revolutionibus: An Example of Scientific Renaissance Printing" in: Tyson, GP and Wagon Home, SS (Eds.): "Print and Culture in the Renaissance", 1986, pp. 55-73. Gingerich, Owen: The Book Nobody Read, London 2004 Haas, Christopher Alexandria in Late Antiquity, London 1997 Horn, Christoph and Rapp, Christof: Dictionary of Ancient Philosophy, Munich 2002 Hunger, Herbert: History of the text tradition of the ancient and medieval literature, 1 Ancient and medieval book and scholarly journals, Zuerich, 1961

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Jones, Arnold HM: "The Roman economy ', Oxford 1974 Jones, Arnold HM: "The Greek city from Alexander to Justinian" New York, 1984 Copernicus, Nicholas ". Via the revolutions of the heavenly bodies" From his writings and letters, Poznan 1923 Kruger, Julian: Oxyrhynchus in the imperial period (1990) Lloyd, GER: The Revolutions of Wisdom. London 1957 Lukács, B.: A Note to the Lost Books of Aristotle. Budapest 2004 Middleton, William E.: The history of the barometer. Baltimore 1964 Mommsen, Theodore E., "Petrarch's Conception of the 'Dark Ages,'" Speculum, Vol 17, No. 2 (Apr., 1942), pp. 226-242 Mout, Nicolette: The culture of humanism, Munich 1998 Newton, Robert R.: The Crime of Claudius Ptolemy, London 1977 Pfeiffer, Rudolf: The Classical Philology from Petrarch to Mommsen. Munich 1982 Pöhlmann, Egert: introduction to the history and tradition in the textual criticism of ancient literature, 1994 Prince Frederick: "Europe's spiritual beginnings", in: The time, 12 June 2002 Rawlins, Dennis (1987): "Ancient Heliocentrists, Ptolemy, and the Equant", in: American Journal of Physics, 55 pp. 235-239 Redondi, Pietro: Galileo - the heretic. Munich 1989 Reynolds, LD (Ed.): Texts and Transmission, Oxford 1983 Rüdiger, Horst: The rediscovery of the ancient literature during the Renaissance, in: Hunger (1961) Sarton, George: Ancient Science and Modern Civilization, New York in 1959 Soldan, WG and Heppe, H.: History of the witch trials, reissue Food 1990 Hans Stoll, Cynthia: "Michelangelo's Nude Saint Catherine of Alexandria" in: Woman's Art Journal, Vol 19, No. 1(Spring - Summer, 1998), pp. 26-30. Taylor, CCW: The Atomists: Leucippus and Democritus Fragments: A Text and Translation with a Commentary. Toronto 1999 Thurston, Hugh: Early Astronomy, New York 1994 Thurston, Hugh: "RR Newton vs. Ptolemy" DIO 8.1, (Nov. 1998), pp. 3ff Voigt, Georg: The rediscovery of classical antiquity. Berlin in 1960, unchanged reprint of 1895 Waerden, Bartel Leendert van der: The Astronomy of the Greeks, Darmstadt, 1988 Walker, Gabrielle: A sea of air, Berlin 2007 Walser, Ernst: Poggius Florentinus, Berlin 1914 Walser, Ernst: Collected Studies on the intellectual history of the Renaissance. Basel 1932 Watts, Edward: City and School - Late Antique Athens and Alexandria, London 2006 Weinberg, Julius Rudolph: "Nicolaus of Autrecourt: A Study in 14th Century Thought" Princeton 1948 Westman, Robert S.: "The Melanchthon Circle, Rheticus, and the Wittenberg Interpretation of the Copernican Theory" in Isis, Vol 66, No. 2(Jun., 1975), pp. 164-193.

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Codices Latini Antiquiores are a catalog of all known today Latin manuscripts (books and rolls) before 9 Century. It contains only books of literary content, so that legal texts, but no letters or documents. The CLA consist of 11 countries classified according to storage volumes, an update of 1971 and two additions of 1985 and 1992.

For the certificate writings sister company is Chartae Latinae Antiquiores been launched. CLA statistics of production: after content The CLA were based solely on the paleography created, the stylistics of the manuscripts. They include for each title in a Codex or Codex, a description of the contents, condition, font type and probable creation location and time. Also, is included for each object as described, a black-and-white photography at a scale of 1:1. A reprint of the 1988 is, however, significantly smaller in size than the original edition. This reduction is neither mentioned nor seen since the original edition did not contain a length scale in the photos.

The CLA is the most important work of palaeography and the lifework of Elias Avery Lowe (1879-1969). As in Cornell graduate student visited Lowe from 1903 Germany and became a student of Ludwig Traube in Munich . Lowe held grape later always second to none. On Traube's proposal, he wrote his dissertation entitled "The CLA statistics of production: By oldest calendars from Monte Cassino "(1908). The results were country expected differently than before, because Lowe has more books evaluated as was used previously on this issue. The problem was obvious. The old books were scattered everywhere. When nearly all of them were sighted, one could expect to reliably detect what was when and where written. And just so you could estimate the importance of individual places for their time and their activities, particularly in late antiquity and the early Middle Ages quantify.

The CLA were started on Lowes proposal in 1929 and he led the project since 1936 by the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton CLA statistics of the hike: Storage by . The CLA contained at the end of twice as many entries as initially origin estimated. The project was only possible by the substantial help of Bernhard Bischoff , the most important German palaeographers the second half of the 20th Century. At the beginning of the project only an unknown student in Munich, he took over in 1933 the difficult boundary around 800, which included a large number of codices.

After the CLA in the 1970s were completed, a statistical analysis

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has been created but not published. With the additions they include 1,884 books, the number of titles, so the actual manuscripts, is well above 2,000, mostly they are fragments. The CLA show for before the middle of the 4th Century only archaeological finds. Then, to 800, the absolute dominance of theological titles. In the 6th and 7 Century was almost extinct creating or copying of secular texts.

Most amazing were the data from Italy . For the period between 400 and 800 Italy shows a practically constant production of books, a linear increase in the amount tradition. The extreme turmoil of the Migration Period and the devastating war with Byzantium in the 6th Century seem to have significantly affected neither the production nor the loss rate of the Italian monasteries. The loss rate for Italy CLA statistics of the walk: production from 400 to 800 seems to have been constant and quite low. For the and movement patterns by content period before 350 it was total. Similar statements can be made for the other regions do not, because there was already to be expected only after 650 a major production.

The Italian codices, and it almost only the theological, were exported to the whole of Christian Europe until there myself started off production. For France it was from about 650, England and Ireland about 730, Germany and Switzerland only against 800

For 5 until the middle of the 7th Century we see a strong flow from Italy to France. For the 8 Century is a clear abundance of codices of France and England / Ireland to Germany striking. Always mainly theological works. A movement of pagan classics can not statistically be proven for the entire geographic and temporal range of the CLA. The data collected in movement patterns 14 classics are likely to later or as a palimpsest migrated.

Codices Latini Antiquiores. A palaeographical guide to Latin ms. prior to the 9th century, edited by Elias Avery Lowe :

The Vatican City, Oxford 1934 (Codices Latini Antiquiores 1). Great Britain and Ireland, Oxford 1935; 2 Edition 1972 (Codices Latini Antiquiores 2). Italy. Ancona - Novara, Oxford 1938 (Codices Latini Antiquiores 3). Italy. Perugia - Verona, Oxford, 1947 (Codices Latini Antiquiores 4). France. Paris, Oxford, 1950 (Codices Latini Antiquiores 5). France. Abbeville - Valenciennes, Oxford, 1953 (Codices Latini Antiquiores 6) Switzerland, Oxford, 1956 (Codices Latini Antiquiores 7). Germany. Altenburg - Leipzig, Oxford, 1959 (Codices Latini Antiquiores 8). Germany. Munich - Zittau, Oxford, 1959 (Codices Latini Antiquiores 8). Austria, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Egypt and Holland, Oxford, 1963 (Codices Latini Antiquiores 10). Hungary, Luxembourg, Poland, Russia, Spain, Sweden, USA and Yugoslawia, Oxford, 1966 (Codices Latini Antiquiores 11). Supplement, Oxford, 1971 (Codices Latini Antiquiores 12). Index of scripts. Comp. by Rutherford Aris. Osnabrück: Zeller 1982. Addenda to Codices latini antiquiores, edd. Bernhard Bischoff and Virginia Brown. Toronto, 1985 (SA from: Mediaeval studies 47, pp. 317-366)

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