The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture

The papers published in this volume were originally presented at a conference with the title The Europe of Regions—Literature, Media, Culture organised by the Budapest Forum in Komárno, Slovakia, on 22nd October 2005.

Kodolányi János University College 2007 A kiadvány megjelenését a Kodolányi János Főiskola támogatta

EDITED BY: Glavanovics Andrea Szele Bálint Ph.D.

PUBLISHER: Szabó Péter Ph.D. Rector

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PRINTED BY: Regia Rex Nyomda, Székesfehérvár Contents

Sándor ALBERT______7 Selye János University and the Training of Hungarian Intellectuals in the South of Slovakia

1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World______11 Zsuzsanna FORRÓ______12 The Development of Abilities in the School of the 21st Century Balázs KOTOSZ______15 Websites of the Departments of Statistics in Hungarian Economic Higher Education Dóra MÓCZ:______26 The Importance of Life-long Learning in the light of the Lisbon Process Terézia STREDL______37 The Impact of the Media on Children’s Mental Development Edit SZABÓ______40 The Effects of the Media on the Spiritual World of the Children Mária SZOKOLY:______45 The Bequest of Culture and Dance László Tamás VIZI______53 The Role of Civilisation and Cultural Studies in the Education System of the International Relations / International Studies Majors

2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation______59 Andrea BOGÁR______60 Feminist Adaptations of Shakespeare—Shakespeare and Frightening Feminism Margit ERDÉLYI______68 Alterations of Values in Literature Gyöngyvér HERVAI SZABÓ______74 New Historicism and Poetics of Culture József KESERŰ______81 When the Face Speaks Krisztina KODÓ______86 Past within the Present? Cyberculture versus the Traditional Heritage Imre KURDI______92 Kodolányi House of Literature and Research Centre as a Scientific and Literature Project

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 5 Contents Attila MÉSZÁROS______95 Literature in the Net—Net Literature? Imre PERES______101 The Role of the Bible In Strengthening Literature and Culture

3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe______109 Andrea GLAVANOVICS______110 Magyar Magic, Hungary in Focus Gyula H. VARGA______120 The Linguistic Map of the EU Endre KISS______131 About Meso-Level Dimensions of Globalization Ilona KÓNYA______138 The Dutch-Hungarian Cultural Connections Edit LŐRINCZ BENCZE______143 Croatia’s Cultural Policy Andrea SZÉKELY______157 The Cultural Situation of National Minorities of Neighbouring Countries Living in Hungary Gábor UJVÁRY______169 “Foreign Sentinels of Hungarian Culture”

4. Media in the Europe of Regions______189 Mónika ANDOK______190 News as a Text Type vs. Genre Alternation in the Age of Information Society Lajos Mihály DARAI______199 The Hungarian Principles of Programme Making and Broadcasting— Supplement to the New Media Law

6 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture Sándor ALBERT Selye János University and the Training of Hungarian Intellectuals in the South of Slovakia

ollowing the Treaty of Trianon, Hungarian intellectuals in Slovakia— F figuratively—were beheaded. They were deported or expelled from their native country. They were even deprived of their schools. According to a government edict in 1919, Elizabeth University in Pozsony was to be abolished. This was followed by the Academy of Law in Kassa in 1922. Another Academy of Law in Eperjes moved to Miskolc and the College of Mining and Forestry in Selmecbánya moved to Sopron. What is more, in 1928, the Ministry of Education in Prague forbade having Hungarian diplomas registered. After World War II, all public schools teaching in the Hungarian language were closed. Up to now we still suffer from the consequences of these orders. The proportion of people of Hungarian nationality in Slovakia having certificates of final examination in secondary schools and university diplomas is less than 50% out of the countrywide average. The higher unemployment and bigger poverty in regions inhabited by Hungarians in the south of Slovakia is the effect of this low level of education. In 1950 the Hungarian elementary and secondary schools were re-opened. However, in higher education we had to wait for more than 8 decades until the first independent institution educating in Hungarian—Selye János University—was established. On 23rd October 2003 the Slovak Parliament accepted the draft bill for the foundation of the university and on 14th September 2004 the educational process started at Selye János University. At last we have got the chance to form the intellectual layer that should serve as supporting-pillars of our national community. The mission of Selye János University is to open a free scope for higher education in the Hungarian language in Slovakia hoping that more and more Hungarians living in this country will graduate from universities, increasing their educational level. Having a higher qualification means having equal opportunities in finding ajob, decreases unemployment and brings an upswing in economy in the regions where there are Hungarians. In this way Selye János University wants to slow down the involuntary assimilation of Hungarians living in Slovakia. We have to keep in our minds that the world has started off towards a knowledge-based society, towards a society where the source

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 7 of development and driving force is information. Being qualified or skilled in this society is going to mean „power”. High amounts of money and wealth will not have a decisive importance compared to knowledge. This is another reason why we need Selye János University, for this institution must become a regional academic centre. One more thing: this University has to care for the language, it has to study, refine and develop the Hungarian language. What do I mean? Let me cite Sándor Márai:

„People and country, still not a nation Language is the nation For language holds together the nation.”

Just with its mere existence Selye János University can support foreign capital import to our country. This helps expansion and economic growth to people living here. This means families can make their living in their homeland. During the past decades the surrounding countries—together with Slovakia—have given lots of qualified intellectuals to the mother country. This is good for Hungary but not for us. Hungarian speaking teachers, doctors and priests are also needed in the south of Slovakia if we want to survive. Having an intellectual layer of people speaking and feeling in Hungarian is essential. Thus for the Hungarians in Slovakia it is a matter of life and death to be a part of knowledge-based society. With all our strength we are determined to join the „blood circulation” of Slovak and European universities. The first year of our university was more or less about construction, however, we have organized a few domestic and international conferences, and we have published a few university lecture notes and other materials. We have organized the Selye Evenings and University Days. We took part in some home and international projects and we had a meaningful marketing activity. Thanks to these, in the school year 2005/2006 the number of students applying to our university doubled. In September there were more than a thousand students starting their studies at our university and after Királyhelmec we opened our classes in Losonc for external students. For now I cannot talk about considerable results in academic research but we already have graduates. On 18th September twenty students of the Faculty of Reformed Theology received their diplomas and could start their job as pastors. However, the university is not finished! Developing the infrastructure, creating a fighting-fit staff, reaching considerable results in research, arranging post-graduate studies most probably will take years, even decades. To all these—just as to fight wars—only three things are needed: money, money and money.

8 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture The problem is that we have the least of this. In spite of this fact—although, slower than expected—our lecture rooms are being built and our library is growing. We like the fact that people in the south of Slovakia and also in the mother country are interested in our institution. There is a certain right for believing that Komárom—as it was formulated by György Klapka—will be Mecca for Hungarians. So it be.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 9 10 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 11 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World Zsuzsanna FORRÓ The Development of Abilities in the School of the 21st Century1

he world is passing through a historically essential turning point, which is T bringing basic changes. We live in an epoch that changes our studies, our ways of thinking, our communication, and our chances for success. Nowadays in our schools the emphasis is placed on the basic abilities instead of expanding learner cognition. We should reemphasize these things. It is an old recognition that by developing children’s elemental skills, they have serious problems with intensifying their abilities. These problems are serious especially when they become general in the education, in our schools and kindergartens. Our world is changing quickly. We go through revolutionary changes with our children and our pupils. There are many children who need twice as much care for vital development as we give them. The schoolrooms are becoming rehabilitation centres. The teachers slowly lose their motivation by the change of their place in society. And what happened to the families? In the past fifteen years many families got defeated. Many of them lost their material and social stability. Others only lost their spiritual–intellectual steadiness. They fight for their well-being. Our children live in a vibrating atmosphere, which though has a lack of inspiration. Schools are becoming the scenes, where we are fighting for the spiritual–intellectual welfare, and the parents cannot be left out of it. In this world we individually have to face problems that differ with our age and our roles in our lives. They mean a challenge for every one of us. Because we have to match the high requirements in our whole lives, we have to study through a lifetime. We learn many things, we are being taught several things, and we gain experience. We hear on different forums that the school of today is too knowledge-centred and does only develop one’s talent in a slight degree. In the pedagogical program of the school the development of ability plays a central position, which is the achievement of acquiring knowledge. On account of this, we do not pay extra attention to developing appropriate abilities and their expansion. In schools cognitive abilities and memory development come into prominence. They do not pay attention to non cognitive capacities, like communication or the ability of cooperative work. In 1986, researches of the Milan University (Viasalberghi) showed that the structure of intelligence had changed. The memory and attention were injured, but the searching-finding ease and

1 Translated by Szabolcs Dudás.

12 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World creativity had grown. If we analyse the curriculum of education we see it builds on attention and memorization. Another research that was made in Salzburg had shown that the EQ, the imagination, and the power of conception of children who watch television (that can be entitled to call it an “electric shepherd”) an average 25 hours a week is palling. The consulting rooms of speech therapists and remedial teachers are filled with small patients every day. In the 1970’s 4% of the children struggled from some speech defect. In the 1990’s this number increased to 25%. This scaring rate is surmounted by children who suffer from some perceptional disorder. An Austrian research has shown that the Austrian children read mostly cell phone messages, advertisements and billboard texts. Attention is dispersed by the influence of television, and children need a new motivational inducement every 5 minutes. This means that the education of schools does not keep this level of attention, which is essential for effective learning. For effective learning different cognitive abilities are essential which are defined by the vital maturity of the central nervous system in childhood. Within these abilities there are some which are inborn and some which we develop during our lives. Researchers are undoubtedly sure that 50% of our learning abilities develop within our first 4 years, and another 30% until the next 4 years. That does not mean our knowledge and our wisdom is developed until we become 8 years old. It only means that the nervous paths we need for learning are developed during these first years. A newborn baby has the 25% of the weight of an adult’s brain. When 6 months old, s/he has the 50% of it and in 5 years of time s/he has the 90% of it. This fact proves that the education in children’s life is crucial for the development of his/her abilities. That is why we need to pay extra attention to the education of the younger ones. Let’s see some examples of what factors determine their abilities:

1. children’s talent; 2. the social, material situation of the family, their way of bringing up their children, their values; 3. knowledge centurial educational system-lexical information; 4. if the children are restricted by their marks; 5. personalities of the teachers, their professional efficiency; 6. the motivational impact of the society on the children.

The practice, experience, spiritual experience, spiritual impacts are essential for the development of their abilities. These abilities only develop by activities that are needed for the abilities. They learn to walk by walking, to talk by talking. That means, by these activities they experience them again, and that makes them proud of themselves. By praising the children, we make their self-confidence grow and they bravely try new things. That is how their separateness develops. Playing is a source of happiness for us. It makes us more creative. Playing is an important part of

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 13 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World our activities. A life without fun is too boring. The drama of our lives is easier with humour and fun. It also makes better children’s school life. In those schools where they do not have fun, life is boring. Different games educate, teach, form communities and press us to be creative. If we want to stand on the ground in the world, we have to keep up with the technical innovations, we have to be capable of receiving new information. This means two qualities: adaptability and creativity. If someone thinks about new things but is not adaptable, he creates things nobody needs. That is true vice versa. A versatile person has both qualities. We can ask the question here: Are the schools at present able to assure time for games and exercising and with these things for development of abilities? Between the development of children there are individual differences, because the time of development changes. In the nervous progress of children and the development of ability there is disproportion (e.g. a 5-year-old child can use the computer, but cannot tie his shoes). Underachievement in school may be because of learning or efficiency abashment. Researchers show that every 10th child suffers from some kind of this abashment. It was shown, that these children jumped over some steps, mostly in voluntary movement. Ayres claims that this development has certain stages that affect the development of the next stairs. The perfect functioning of lower structures (e.g. movement and cognition) affects the abilities of more complicated nervous actions, for example behaviour, or reading and writing. The partial abashment of an ability is demonstrable in different areas and the cause of one symptom can be found in more ability abashments. How can we improve, correct or anticipate these abashments? There are various methods to achieve this. There is another question that shows up, though: are the teachers prepared to solve this not so small problem? What possibilities do we have in education to solve them? Do the audiovisual inducements, drama in teaching, and these methods have future in education? The different stages of our lives differ in the inner material and chances of development of ability. From primary school on to high school the acquirable cognition grows on. Ranschburg claims that between the age of six and ten we get to know much about the child’s chances in his/her life. There are small cheetahs among them, who run fast and achieve what they want, but there are also bears, who reach their goals slowly. The number of students in a class and time can help the teachers in their work. Having time to do and try things is important, because we cannot help in a too fast way. The schools does not have time to love their students, they only want to teach them. Only the performance is important. The brains of tomorrow are working in the brains of the present children. That is what people should keep in mind. Our duty is to keep an eye on our children, pay attention to them, listen to what they say and help them deal with their problems. They have to be happy and satisfied in the society they are building.

14 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World Balázs KOTOSZ Websites of the Departments of Statistics in Hungarian Economic Higher Education

Abstract owadays, the quickest and the widest medium is the Internet. For the N participants of higher education this information channel is easily accessible. However, the content of the homepages is frequently incomplete and out-of-date. My survey during the summer holiday of 2005 was about the informative function of the homepages of the Departments of Statistics of various higher educations institutions in Hungary. Totally, 11 universities and 18 colleges have been investigated based on many aspects. The general picture is coloured, but slightly poor, in some cases, even the taught subjects are not accessible, the list of necessary books and other materials is missing almost everywhere.

1. Introduction The main aim of this survey was to discover the information content of the web pages of the Departments of Statistics (or departments teaching statistics) in economic higher education institutions in Hungary. The first part of the paper propounds the survey procession, the second part shows the characteristics of the colleges, then, in the third part, the university web pages are expounded, and finally I summarize the main findings in the light of the Bologna process, and build up an optimal web page content model on the base of my experiences.

2. The Survey First, the list of institutions covered has been made. The National Higher Education Entrance Office’s (Országos Felsőoktatási Felvételi Iroda) list was the base to find all colleges and universities where some type of economic education is available. Totally, 18 colleges (General Business College—Általános Vállalkozási Főiskola, Budapest Business School—Budapesti Gazdasági Főiskola, Budapest Communication College— Budapesti Kommunikációs Főiskola, Budapest Technical College—Budapesti Műszaki Főiskola, Dunaújváros College—Dunaújvárosi Főiskola, Eszterházy Károly College— Eszterházy Károly Főiskola, Gábor Dénes College—Gábor Dénes Főiskola, Heller Farkas College of Economic and Touristic Services—Heller Farkas Gazdasági és Turisztikai

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 15 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World Szolgáltatások Főiskolája, Harsányi János College—Harsányi János Főiskola, Kodolányi János College—Kodolányi János Főiskola, Károly Róbert College—Károly Róbert Főiskola, Modern Business Studies College—Modern Üzleti Tudományok Főiskolája, International Business School—Nemzetközi Üzleti Főiskola, Nyíregyháza College—Nyíregyházi Főiskola, Szolnok College—Szolnoki Főiskola, Tessedik Sámuel College—Tessedik Sámuel Főiskola, King Zsigmond College—Zsigmond Király Főiskola) and 11 universities (Corvinus University of Budapest—Budapesti Corvinus Egyetem, Budapest University of Technology and Economics—Budapesti Műszaki és Gazdaságtudományi Egyetem, University of Debrecen—Debreceni Egyetem, University of Kaposvár—Kaposvári Egyetem, University of Miskolc—Miskolci Egyetem, West-Pannon University—Nyugat-Magyarországi Egyetem, University of Pécs—Pécsi Tudományegyetem, Széchenyi István University— Széchenyi István Egyetem, St. István University—Szent István Egyetem, University of Szeged—Szegedi Tudományegyetem, University of Veszprém—Veszprémi Egyetem) have been found. The next step of the research was to find the adequate departments. If there is a department named in such a manner that its function is clear, the search is easy. Where there is not such a department, and the list of taught subjects of each department is not available, downloadable timetables can help in hunting for statistics education. In some institutions there exists a separate Department of Statistics, in others there is a Methodological Institute, in further ones the education of statistics is organized by special discipline groups, mainly in the framework of Business Economics Departments. In the detailed analysis, for the sake of simplicity, I will use the term lecturer or teacher for any professional level (assistant, lecturer, senior lecturer/associate professor, professor). The general overview of colleges and of universities can be found in a table format in the Appendix.

Co l l e g e s At General Business College (Általános Vállalkozási Főiskola) there is a Department of Methodology, but the only information about this unit is the name of the Head of Department and his phone number. The Budapest Business School on all its three faculties has its own department structure (the integration of the three schools has been formal). Thereby, in the Faculty of Foreign Trade the so-called Institutional Department of Mathematics- Statistics is responsible for the teaching of statistics. The list of the subjects and a very general outline is available without any notice on literature, exams or lecturers. From the lecturer side the situation is better. The taught subjects, offices, and e-mails are on the homepage. In the Faculty of Commerce, Catering, and Tourism of the Budapest Business School, the Institute of Methodology completes the task of statistics teaching.

16 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World The subject descriptions are almost overall (not all staff is listed, only the teacher responsible for a subject), from our point of view, the only gap is the teachers’ CV. The Faculty of Finance and Accounting of the Budapest Business School has the best-accomplished home page of all institutions. The Department of Mathematics- Statistics gives all necessary information about the statistical subjects; the only missing point is the lecturers’ CV. The Budapest Communication College communicates its information in a very poor way. Even the department teaching statistics is not identifiable (the identification could be made only by the password protected Student Information System). The list of lecturers is the only useful public information. In the case of the Budapest Technical College (Keleti Károly Faculty of Business) the Institute of Economics and Social Sciences teaches statistics. The details are gloomed; the CV of the Head of Department (at the same time the President of the College) is available. In Dunaújváros, the obscurity is complete. The competent department cannot be found even by search engines, so there is not any identifiable information. Eszterházy Károly College offers statistics on its Faculty of Economics and Social Sciences. The joint department can be identified by the timetables, but the interested visitor cannot get any more information about the subject details. Gábor Dénes College has one of the best homepages, but it is not a surprise. In the Institute of Informatics Systems, the e-learning and distance learning programs are widespread, thereby all information about the subjects must be accessible (in some cases the whole store of learning can be downloaded). The Department of Business Sciences teaches statistics, in the downloadable prospectus all necessary information (including information about the lecturers) is included. The Heller Farkas College of Economic and Tourist Services keeps strictly its information about subjects and lecturers, all interesting data are password protected. At Harsányi János College, the Department of Mathematics-Informatics has the challenge of teaching statistics. The single handhold to get it known is the list of questions on the Methodological final exam, as this list is downloadable from the homepage of the department. Statistics teachers are unknown. At Kodolányi János College, there is a Department of Mathematics-Statistics. All requirements are half fulfilled, the website visitor can get information about the subjects and their exam conditions, but nothing about the main themes touched on and about the literature used. The list of lecturers with availability is available, but the connection between subjects and lecturers is back and forth unknown. On the Faculty of Business in Károly Róbert College, the homepage of the Department of Economic Mathematics is relatively rich in relevant information. Even if the staff and the subjects cannot be paired, the detailed program from 2002 is downloadable (the nature of statistics suggest that the main themes are inalterable). At the College of Modern Business Studies, teaching of statistics is organised by

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 17 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World the Department of Economic Sciences. On the website of the department, the list of subjects and lecturers is clear. A general outline of the subjects is available, but we do not know anything about the literature or the exam requirements. The lecturers’ teaching profile and their availability is on the web, with a short presentation of their past activities. The International Business School is the next guard of information on subjects and lecturers. The only recognizable point is the fact that statistics are taught. The Faculty of Economics and Social Sciences of the College of Nyíregyháza has found a strange structure to educate statistics. There is a Department of Economic Methodology, but the Department of Business Economics is responsible for statistics. Details about the subjects or lecturers are undiscoverable. At the Department of Mathematics-Statistics of the College of Szolnok the outline of statistics does not reach the level of the definition of statistics, all other data are obscure. Tomori Pál College is more enigmatic. The list of the departments and of the teachers can be seen on the homepage, but nothing more. On the Faculty of Business of Tessedik Sámuel College, the hunt for information about the education of statistics is not easy. By browsing the homepages of the departments, the list of taught subjects rests in secret. By the downloadable files of the Faculty, the Department of Business Economics (and not the Department of Economic Mathematics and Informatics) can be discovered as the base of statistics teaching. Unfortunately, outlines or exam requirements about statistics are not available. Last, but not least, Zsigmond Király College protects all the relevant information by a password. It is a pity; thereby we can only presume that the Department of Methodology and Informatics is the responsible unit.

Universities The Corvinus University of Budapest has its separated Department of Statistics in the Faculty of Economics. The information about the actual subjects is rich, detailed outlines and syllabi can be downloaded. All seminars are paired to lecturers; the reverse relation is not available. Unfortunately, the visitor cannot know more about the teachers; to be informed about the contact details, the online telephone book of the university should be consulted. The Budapest University of Technology and Economics offers statistics by the Department of Industry Management and Business Economics. That department has a unit called Quality Management and Business Statistics Group that educates statistical subjects. We find a correct presentation of the subjects and have the contact information of the lecturers. The Faculty of Economics of the University of Debrecen has more specialization in Business and Economics, but there is no department teaching statistics on the faculty.

18 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World Instead, the Department of Economic Analysis and Statistics of the Faculty of Rural Economics and Regional Development ensures this education for all the University. It suggests that the university integration is fulfilled in the field of statistics education. The website of the department has not too much information about the subjects, a little bit more about lecturers. The homepage of the Department of Accounting and Statistics on the Faculty of Economics at the University of Kaposvár is “under construction”. At the University of Miskolc the Department of Business Statistics and Forecasting has all necessary subject information on its website. From the other side, only the list of the lecturers is transparent. The Institute of Economic Mathematics, Economic Informatics and Statistics of the West-Pannon University would be one of the best homepages of the country if the links were not blind. Theoretically, subjects have a link to their descriptions, but all of them point to “not found”. Thereby the detailed subject outlines, just like teachers’ contact and other information rest unknown. The University of Pécs has its specialized Department of Demography and Statistics. The content of the webpage is the contrary of that of the University of Miskolc, the information about lecturers is fairly large, but the visitor cannot find anything about the subjects. At the Faculty of Law and Economics at Széchenyi István University (Győr) statistics is taught in the framework of the Department of Statistics. The homepage is deficient, the list of subjects and lecturers is available, but for the details of lecturers, there are blind links. The St. István University (Gödöllő) is just like the University of Kaposvár. There is an Institute of Economic Analysis and Methodology in the Faculty of Economics and Social Sciences, but its website is “under construction”. In Szeged, the Faculty of Economics has a joint Department of Statistics and Demography with the Faculty of Law. All accessible reference is the availability of the lecturers. The Faculty of Economics of the University of Veszprém educates statistics by the Department of Applied Business Economics. The subject outlines from the school year 2003/04 and some downloadable (but otherwise copyright-protected) formula booklet are on the website. There is a list of the lecturers, but as the department is responsible for a series of subjects in the field of Business and Media Economics, the exact statistics lecturers cannot be identified.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 19 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World 3. Summary and Proposals

Ty p o l o g y The visitors of the homepages of the analysed departments face five types of websites. There are two strategies for not giving any information, the “under construction” way, and the more sophisticated one, when the website seems to be ready without any substantial information. The intermediate strategy results in ad hoc homepages with enough information for the identification, but with mixed content. The well-planned, content-based homepages can be clustered into three groups. Subject-based homepages have all necessary data about the taught subjects, but do not have relevant links to the staff details (CV, availability, etc.). Person-based homepages are constructed by the trace of the staff description, and subjects are linked to lecturers. It is not sure that these two types show the vision of the department (e.g. the content of the subjects is the most important point or the education is based on staff members’ disposition) or they are the result of the webmaster’s general view. It has to be mentioned that some faculties apply the same design for all departments, in these cases the perspective of the Dean’s Office is dominant. The third type of the content-based websites is the so-called “intent on totality”. This rare type tries to show both sides of the education, subjects and lecturers, as well. The full conception determines the duplication of some information (e.g. the links between subjects and lecturers), but helps the visitor to guide him/herself in the structure of the department. In summary, the six types of the homepages (in parentheses the frequencies):

• under construction (2) • not identifiable/password protected (7) • ad hoc (9) • subject-based (7) • person-based (2) • intent on totality (4)

At this point, I would like to accentuate some numerical facts. In the colleges, the most widespread information is the teachers’ availability (available on the 55% of the websites), followed by the subject list (45%). At the universities, the most popular “news” is the subject lists (64%), followed by the links from subjects to lecturers (45%). The poorest picture is shown by the CVs (10% in colleges and 9% at universities). The general outline of statistical subjects is in the midfield with its 35% (colleges) and 36% (universities). By the empirical experiences an optimal web page of a Department of Statistics

20 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World should contain the list of taught subjects, for each subject its outline, the compulsory literature, the examination conditions and its teachers’ (lecturers’) list. In the case of teachers (lecturers), the taught subjects, their availability (office, e-mail, and phone) and their short CV should be available on the Internet.

Wh o a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n a l l t h i s information ? The details of taught subjects are elementary for the students. Nowadays, in the period of mass education, the paper-based general outlines are too expensive for the departments, large and scattered campuses make time-consuming the visiting and copying by hand the bulletin board of the departments. A downloadable syllabus makes easy the overview and the reproduction of the necessary information at any time (especially before the exam). The potential students form the other target group. Members of the shaping European Knowledge Space can be curious about the outlines, as through the Bologna-process the European higher education space will provide free passages. The possible equivalences should be controllable by the official homepages of the departments. The information about the lecturers, mainly the availability, is fundamental for current students. The CV helps them to orientate themselves about the teacher, his/ her main characteristics. However, lecturer information is more important for the outside academic environment. Academic staff of other institutions may be interested about people having the same interests, PhD students in finding professors to consult. In my opinion, the substantive application is to find partners for cooperation at a national and international level. The two international utilizations (subject equivalence and partner searching) require the foreign language (primarily English) content of the web pages. The current situation is much worse, if we try to analyse the English versions of the higher education homepages, at least at the department level. This question can be the part of another research.

Re f e r e n c e s Rappai, G. (2005): A Bologna-folyamat kihívásai a statisztika felsőfokú oktatása számára. Statisztikai Szemle, vol 83. no 6. pp. 514-532. Sándorné Kriszt, É. (2005): Statisztika a főiskolai oktatásban. Statisztikai Szemle, vol 83. n0 6. pp. 543-554. Websites of Universities and Colleges: http://www.avf.hu http://www.bgf.hu http://www.kkf.hu http://www.kvif.bgf.hu

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 21 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World http://www.pszfb.hu http://www.bkf.hu http://kgk.bmf.hu http://www.duf.hu http://www.ektf.hu http://www.gdf.hu http://www.hff.hu http://www.hjf.hu http://www.kodolanyi.hu http://www.karolyrobert.hu http://www.mutf.hu http://www.ibs-b.hu http://www.nyf.hu http://www.szolf.hu http://www.tpfk.hu http://www.tsf.hu http://www.zskf.hu http://www.uni-corvinus.hu http://www.gtk.bme.hu http://www.avk.unideb.hu http://www.econ.klte.hu http://www.gtk.u-kaposvar.hu http://www.uni-miskolc.hu http://ktk.nyme.hu http://www.pte.hu http://www.sze.hu http://www.gtk.szie.hu http://www.eco.u-szeged.hu http://www.vein.hu

22 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World

Appendix: The content of the analysed web pages 0 4 7 0 1 0 1 7 0 1 6,5 Total + CV + + + + + availability Lecturers + + + + subjects + + +/- lecturer + + + exam + + + Subjects literature + + + + + outline + + + + list not Sciences Economics identifiable Informatics Department Fac. of Foreign of Foreign Fac. not identifiable Social Sciences Fac. of Finance- Fac. Dept. of Business Dept. of Business Fac. of Commerce: Fac. password protected Trade: Dept. of Inst. Trade: Inst. of Methodology Accounting: Dept. of Accounting: Dept. of Methodology Dept. of Mathematics- Inst. of Economics and Mathematics-Statistics Mathematics-Statistics tion Heller Farkas Károly College General Business Budapest Budapest Technical Eszterházy ness School ness School ness School Dunaújváros Communica- Gábor Dénes Budapest Busi- Budapest Busi- Budapest Busi- Harsányi János

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 23 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World Tessedik Sámuel College average Zsigmond Király Kodolányi János Károly Róbert Modern Busi- Business Sch. International Nyíregyháza ness Studies Szolnok College Tomori Pál Dept. of Mathematics- Dept. of Mathematics- password protected Dept. of Economic Dept. of Economic Dept. of Business Dept. of Business not identifiable not identifiable Mathematics Department Economics Economics Statistics Statistics Sciences 45% list + + + + + outline 35% + + literature 20% Subjects + exam 25% + + lecturer 10% subjects 25% + Lecturers availability 55% + + + + + + 10% CV + (29%) Total 2.3 0 1 0 2 2 0 4 6 3

24 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World

5 6 2 0 5 2 4 2 0 1 3 2.7 Total (34%) + 9% CV + + + + 36% availability Lecturers + + 18% subjects + + + + 45% lecturer + + + + 36% exam + + + + Subjects 36% literature + + + + 36% outline + + + + + + + list 64% Statistics Department Demography and Statistics Dept. of Applied Dept. of Industry Management and Inst. of Economic Dept. of Statistics Dept. of Statistics Dept. of Economic Business Economics Business Economics Mathematics, Infor- matics and Statistics Dept. of Demography Dept. of Business Sta- tistics and Forecasting tistics and Forecasting Dept. of Statistics and lysis and Methodology Analysis and Statistics Inst. of Economic Ana- Dept. of Accounting and Dept. of Accounting Pécs (Győr) Szeged average Miskolc (Sopron) Budapest Kaposvár Kaposvár Veszprém St. István Debrecen (Gödöllő) University Economics University West-Pannon West-Pannon Corvinus U. of Corvinus U. Budapest U. of Budapest U. Technology and Technology Széchenyi István

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 25 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World Dóra MÓCZ The Importance of Life-long Learning in the Light of the Lisbon Process1

1. The expectations of the European Union’s labour market concerning the individual, the formation of the life-long learning concept n today’s knowledge-based economy, more and more emphasis is put on human I resources, because the European Union pays special attention to training and education in order to reach its declared economic and social objectives. In the summit meeting of the European Union’s heads of state and prime ministers held in Lisbon in 2000, a middle-term development plan was formulated according to which the European Union would become by 2010 the most competitive knowledge- based economy in the world. Amongst the formulated objectives there were the sustainable economic growth, the enhancing social cohesion, the creation of more and better workplaces and parallel with that, the creation of the knowledge-based economy. In the field of the community education policy, priority was given to development of the life-long learning. (1) The strategic objective connected to the detailed action programme was formulated. The priorities referring to life-long learning are defined by the table below:

Strategic Quality Availability Environment objectives efficiency at large Teacher training New forms of tutoring Methodology, outer Opportunity creating world, other forms of pedagogy learning (informal and non-formal learning) Formation of the skills New opportunities in of knowledge society adult learning Access for all to Assuring online Training focused on information and learning facilities employability communication technologies

1 Translated by László Mezei.

26 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World

Strategic Quality Availability Environment objectives efficiency at large Increasing the Technical development training of natural and that promotes technical sciences competitiveness Better use of resources Enlarging training services Overt learning Overt learning environment environment Making learning more Making learning more attractive attractive Active citizenship, Non-elitist quality Collaborating with the creation of development partners of the school opportunities, cohesion Strengthening the relationship with the business world Improving the Counting on active entrepreneurial spirit student participation Enhancing foreign Enhancing foreign language learning language learning Enhancing international mobility Enhancing European cooperation

2. The promotion of adult training development–a historical overview The importance of adult training was first formulated at the Adult Training Conference of Helsingör in 1949, where the main objective was the solving of illiteracy. The subsequent adult training conferences dealt with various topics: the conference held in Montreal in 1960 was about permanent education, the conference hosted in Tokyo in 1972 dealt with the educational background of the Japanese economic wonder and its effects on the society, and the one held in Paris in 1985 was concerned with the creation of the learning society. (2) The proposals of the conferences were underlined by the Delors Report (3) completed to the order of the European Community in 1983. The report concluded that economic growth means increasing competitiveness and employability, and because unemployment has structural reasons, one can fight against it through developing human resiliency.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 27 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World Delors defined the competencies for the four pillars of education and set guidelines for them:

• Learning to live • Learning to get to know • Learning to work • Learning to live with

The development of these competencies was set forth by the Lisbon Communiqué as well. The Delors Report played an important part in proclaiming the year 1996, the Year of Lifelong Learning by the European Union. In the adult training conference of Hamburg in 1997, the importance of lifelong learning was recognised and it became a slogan that the adult training is the key to the 21 century. This concept is reflected in the adult training memorandum (4) issued by the EU member states in the autumn of 2000 that contains six messages of high importance:

- universal and continuous access to learning, - continual increase in human resources investment, - efficient methodological development, realising the importance of participation in learning, - information concerning learning facilities for all, - assuring the opportunity for lifelong learning for all making use of the communication and information technologies.

In 2002, the European Commission formulated in five points the quality requirements of lifelong learning (5):

• developing skills and competencies, • increasing the budget of education, • creating the conditions for social acceptance and closing up the social gap, • creating the conditions for accreditation and guidance of learning, as well as the strategy for lifelong learning, • requirements of data furnishing and compatibility.

The member states concluded that the inequalities within the EU could be eased by programmes that help closing up the difference. This objective is being achieved through the research carried out in the 5th and 6th Framework Programme, the increasing popularity of the e-learning and the financial means of the European Regional Development Fund and European Social Fund. The European Adult Education Office was established in the 1950s. Yet, it has

28 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World been given a new role recently: to participate in the coordination of Grundtvig and Socrates adult education programmes as well as Leonardo, PHARE and ROP tender programmes concerning general education in Central and Eastern Europe. The ministerial conference (6) organised in Bergen in May 2005 dealt with the results of the Bologna Process aiming at the unification of education and topics relating to accreditation. The conclusions of the Hamburg and Bergen adult education conferences underlined the assumption that since the 1990s the boundaries between education and employment policies have been unclear.

3. The Hungarian particularities of the thorough lifelong learning strategy According to the result of the Education Policy Analysis for the year 2004, our country is situated in the middle of the international list, as far as the use of tender funds is concerned. The OESD/PISA survey stated that the problem solving and reading comprehension skills of our teenagers aged 15 correspond to the EU average, yet the data of European Human Resources Survey Centre places Hungary at the back of the list (7). In our country, like in most member states, problems arise from the socially divided society where certain disfavoured groups took shape: the unemployed, women, the unskilled, the Romany and the condemned. Between 1999 and 2003, the number of people taking part in adult education doubled: the percentage of those aged 25-64 participating in some kind of organised training rose from 3 to 6 per cent. (this change affects mostly those under 40). Yet, in order to meet the objective of 2010, that is 12.5 percent, the number of those participating in adult education should double again in the next 5 years. The 2005 report of the Hungarian ministry of education written to the 2006 common periodic report deals with the domestic implementation of the EU education and training action programme. (8) The document states that the usage of the structural funds was in accordance with the Lisbon objectives in the development of human resources operative programmes and making use of resources. On the other hand, the concrete formulation of further key factors of development took place as well. These improvements were finalized in the form of priorities and measures within the national plan for development. Strategic plans were formulated concerning the development areas below:

• Middle term public education development strategy • Vocational training development strategy

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 29 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World • Lifelong learning strategy (LLL strategy)

The creation of strategy aiming at the measurement of evaluation of public education and measurement system is under development. The results of the European benchmarks as well as data of the empirical surveys were considered in the development of the programme. (Pisa Survey, data concerning the needs of education). The aims that are to be accomplished by 2010: - decreasing the percentage of school leavers; - decreasing the percentage of students having poor reading and writing skills; - increasing the percentage of those participating in lifelong learning.

Amongst the measures of the report, there are the issues of cost effectiveness and management concerning self governments, incentive for investment and the improvement of interest and return. In this context, the recognition of Public Private Partnership or self-employed forms of enterprises, the attraction of non- state investments, and the creation of quality assessment of education are of high importance. According to the report, the 2005 Bergen ministerial conference made public that regarding the change to the new 2 tier education system Hungary was in the middle of the list containing the 45 countries. Hungary was praised as far as quality assurance and credit system are concerned, yet the percentage of students participating in the 2 tier education was lower than in other European countries. While in most European countries about half of the students participate in the Bologna Process, the percentage of Hungarian students is around 30 percent from this September. Analysing the institutional system one concludes that the Hungarian higher education does not operate systematically and its sub units show a chaotic picture. One can find in the system open education, labour market training, further education, recreation, adult education, sub regional cooperation, health training, public education, as well as state owned, foundational and privately funded institutions. In the field of employer training aiming at the maintenance of workforce the recognition of certificates is still a problem. The solution may be to generally adopt a module system in the future. In the above mentioned report of the ministry of education defines the fields of high importance referring to adult education in the framework of the LLL strategy:

- wide and varied supply in vocational training, higher education and adult learning, - continuously widening choice of learning opportunities (learning at workplace, informal learning), - continuous carrier orientation, the recognition of formal and informal learning,

30 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World - promoting disfavoured groups as well as those endangered on the labour market (preventing falling off, chance for joining LLL), - implementing a new type of support (a different interpretation of the teacher’s role).

The legal background (Article 17. of Law 2001. referring to adult education, according to which the applicant’s previous knowledge can be taken into account, as well as Law 2005 that assures the development of institutional framework of the carrier advice system) and the financial resources of the strategic objectives are assured through the support system of the Labour Market Fund. The directions of education development started in 2002 corresponded in many ways to the directives of the Copenhagen Policy priorities—states the Maastricht communiqué of December 2004 (9). This enabled the deletion of similarities within the education system and the introduction of the EUROPASS system in Hungary. The Bologna Process has also an effect on higher education making the Bachelor, Master and PhD training programmes more accessible and the acquired knowledge more convertible on the labour market. A great deal of innovative initiations has been started in Hungary corresponding to this programme: i.e. the introduction of credit system and the modular education materials, the Public Foundation for Open Education and the operation of the Internet Based Free University. Currently, the second National Plan for Development is under construction in the framework of which the following fields of financing can be defined from the Structural Funds of 2007-2013 (10): • access to education, especially the improvements concerning labour market opportunities, • development of lifelong learning facilities, • assessment system, creation of quality assurance, • carrier orientation, advising, • research and development, • investment in education infrastructure.

The priorities below are decisive in the course of distribution: • increasing employability, • fight against seclusion, • lifelong learning, • development of educational and service activity.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 31 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World 4. The social situation in Hungary, opportunities in supporting adult education

The economic restructuring of the 1990s went about very unevenly in the different regions, so substantial disparities emerged concerning the labour market of counties and regions. In the more developed western and central part of the country the rate of unemployment was close to 4 per cent, employability was 60-65 percent, the labour market was characterised by lack of qualified workforce in the industrial centres. However, in the northern and north-eastern regions, the economic situation was characterised by the rate of unemployment reaching 8 per cent and 50 percent of employability. In these disfavoured regions, not only the rate of unemployment and inactivity were high, but their composition was also unfavourable: the rate of undereducated and permanent unemployed was above average. Unemployment was the highest in the case of small villages of a few hundred inhabitants, where the socio-demographic composition of the population was also unfavourable. The situation was further aggravated by other factors as well: the investments favouring employment were going to the western part of the country and the workforce mobility was considerably slowed down by the price differences and rigidity of the real estate sector. (11) The two earner family model was shaken by the social impacts of the economic and political restructurings following the changing of the regime. The changes in employability had the most direct effects on families. (12)

Unemployment In the early 1990s, 1.1 million jobs were lost. Since then, however, employment rate has constantly been increasing. Even from the start, men have been more affected by unemployment than women. The reasons are the following: The recession of the heavy industry, social services (10 percent of women on maternity leave), and the service sector employs women in a higher percentage. The picture of men as breadwinners is shaken by the loss of jobs. The small establishing ventures are mostly family enterprises in Hungary. Self-employment is typical for young and middle-aged men with degrees having social capital, as well as those entrepreneurs who are threatened by unemployment. It is also characteristic to choose entrepreneurship as a second job.

32 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World

In c o m e disparities

A variety of lifestyles and ways of living is typical for present day Hungary. The increasing percentage of the poor living under the minimal standard of living reaches 20-30 percent (the pensioners and the Romany in the first place). At the other end of the social scale there are the nouveau riches characterised by excessive cultural capital and urban lifestyle. Central sources are directed towards the unemployed and those with low incomes. Making use of the sources is supported by the estimate that 1.4 million people, a significant part of the active population, do not posses skills convertible on the labour market. According to the most recent data of the national employment service (13), the opportunities below are available in the support of unemployment training:

1. Reimbursing training expenses: the employment agency pays 70 percent of these expenses in the case of the unemployed and people who have been made redundant in the last year. 2. 100 percent of reimbursement in the case of - training programmes organised at state or country level, - rehabilitation procedure, - individuals who declare to be part of the Romany minority, -training concerning trades in need. 3. 90 percent of reimbursement in the case of - programmes for permanent unemployed, - individuals receiving social support, - unskilled individuals (even if they are young unemployed), - individuals aged over 45.

Only 70 percent is reimbursed to those support requesters who stopped learning by their own will within 2 years or did not meet the requirements of the programme.

Ot h e r b e n e f i t s Those who participate in training programmes can get financial support in the form of travel discounts if not eligible to unemployment benefits. Accommodation and food benefits amount to 8000 HUF/month in the case of those living in dormitories legally connected to job centres. The following data refer to the number of those participating in supported training programmes:

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 33 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World The number of participants in training 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 The number of the unemployed participating in 66700 71484 75482 80383 83151 86203 training The number of employees participating in 5280 4509 4122 4381 5022 5316 training Total number 71980 75993 79604 84764 88173 91519

The table shows that the number of people participating in supported training programmes, especially in the case of those taking part in training for the unemployed, is increasing. 86 percent of participants learn in courses supported by the job centre.

The ratio of participants in group and individual training 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Number of participants in 40280 49137 52157 55560 56356 57130 group training Number of participants in 31700 26850 27447 29204 31817 34389 individual training Total number 71980 75993 79604 84746 88173 91519

The table shows that the number of participants in group training is 20 percent higher than that of those participants in individual training. (NB: individual training refers to the support of the training on an individual basis, for the structure of the training takes the shape of a course in this case as well.)

Number of participants in vocational and non-government supported training

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Number of participants in 56937 58592 63219 67311 69213 72076 government supported vocational training Number of participants in non- 15043 17401 16385 17453 18960 19443 government supported training Total number 71980 75993 79604 84764 88173 91519

34 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World An important part of the non-vocational training courses are either held at the workplace or are foreign language courses.

Th e m e a n s a n d t h e a c t o r s o f t h e t r a i n i n g m a r k e t The institutional system of our domestic adult education and training has been developed. The choice among these institutions is made difficult by the location of institutions within the community and the consumer oriented approach of the culture service sector. The existing institutions are state-funded and, on the other hand, give way to fulfilling individual needs as well. The institutional system is capital oriented. The range of training programmes in the capital and in county seats is similar, yet the standard is higher in the capital. In the depressed regions the number of institutions and the funds allocated to training are lower. It is therefore astonishing that the plans of regional development are not matched by human resources development programmes. The schooling map of the country shows that the regions where the rate of higher educated people is significant match those with economic prosperity. The lack of investment results in low educational standards, low qualifications, low productivity and low capital yield. All these re strongly connected to low level of satisfaction and aspiration. For those who have not completed the primary education, have no chances for taking part in the social market economy, normal lifestyle, work and consumption. Today’s needs cannot be satisfied with the cultivation of people. The teaching- learning relationship has been shown in a new light; the roles of moderator and advisor have been emulated, as well as the making use of media and rhetoric renewal. Some time ago, the institutions of the permanent training could be found between the secondary and the tertiary education. The new institutions of the tertiary education have appeared: these are the regional university on the Continent and the community colleges in the transatlantic structure. This transition highlights gradually the importance of accreditation that is implemented through credit system. One cannot but take into account the coming to life of certain odd structures: culture and learning have appeared with the spreading of plaza culture, among recreation activities in shopping centres. Participating in adult education is extremely different from one group to the other. Among those being permanently employed, the number of those involved in adult education is generally low, or prescribed by authorities (courses concerning health and security regulations at work), or training programmes organised by companies. On the other hand, there is a large number of programmes for the unemployed. E-learning would be a possible solution, but its objective and subjective conditions (training of tutors, provision with computers and spread of IT skills) are not yet satisfactory enough.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 35 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World

Re f e r e n c e s

1. Kovács István Vilmos (2004): A lisszaboni folyamat és az oktatás. Új pedagógia Szemle, július-augusztus. 2. Mihály Ildikó (2002): Élethosszig tartó tanulást mindenkinek. Új Pedagógiai Szemle, 3. szám. 3. Delors, Jacques (1997): Az oktatás rejtett kincs. Unesco Könyvek, Budapest. 4. Memorandum az egész életen át tartó tanulásról. (Elérhető a www.oki.hu oldalon). 5. Implementing lifelong learning strategies in Europe: progress report on the follow-up to the Council resolution of 2002 on lifelong learning. (2003) EZ/ and EEA/EFTA Countries European Commission Directorate, General for Education and Culture, Brussels. 6. Az EU oktatási és képzési munkaprogramjának megvalósítása. (2005) Új Pedagógiai Szemle 2005. július-augusztus. 7. Education Policy Analysis. OECD, Paris, 2004. 8. Bábosik—Kárpáti (szerk. 2002): Összehasonlító Pedagógia. In: Halász Gábor—Kovács Katalin: Az OECD tevékenysége az oktatás területén. Budapest, BIP. 9. Mérlegen a szakképzés. Interjú Jakab Jánossal. Pályázati pavilon. (2005 február) A Tempus Közalapítvány magazinja. 10. Működéskorszerűsítés a felsőoktatásban konferencia, Budapest. Dr. Köpeczi Bócz Tamás Fejlesztési és Nemzetközi Helyettes Államtitkár: A II. Nemzeti Fejlesztési terv című előadása 2005. október 7. 11. www.fmm.gov.hu. 12. Somlai Péter—Tóth Olga (2002): A házasság és a család változásai az ezredforduló Magyarországán. Educatio, tizenegyedik évfolyam. 13. www.afsz.hu

36 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World Terézia STREDL The Impact of the Media on Children’s Mental Development

s new tools of gaining information writing and reading were introduced in A the ancient Greek society in the 4th century B.C. Plato, the philosopher took it with suspicion. Written texts and the drama replaced the oral literature, which was used for delivering cultural knowledge from generation to generation. In his dialogue Phaedra Plato contemplates the effects of writing and reading, which might lead to the weakening of memory, thwarting the attainment of wisdom. Let us have a look at what has happened since Plato. The use of written records and writing itself is a traditional medium and helps development, which is generally accepted. Among others if we think about our great story tellers, and do not go far from Komárom, here we have Mór Jókai, who contributed to the growth of reading culture and erudition. Considering these we can debate the above mentioned statement from Plato. Jókai’s writings have appeared as plays, comic strips and films, always in a suitable form demanded by the needs of a certain period. These days the devices of communication usually cause disputes and incredulity. We come across these ideas in Cole’s book of Development of Psychology and among others there is a question whether the television is a gentle babysitter, or a dangerous intruder?

The Reality (the exploration of facts):

- the outside world is present in our homes via letters, magazines, newspapers, television, radio, books, videos, CDs and the Internet; - up to date information dumping reaches us day by day; - we are surrounded by increased visual impulses; - an average American family watch TV 5-6 hours a day; - when today’s children grow up, after sleeping they spend the most of their time watching TV; - things learned from the television affect their everyday behaviour; - a 5-6-year-old child is able to make difference between programmes, selects; - the virtual world has come to exist, where the younger generation feel better, they know a lot more about it, than the elder ones; - the local world progresses toward globalization; - the viewer develops a selective activity of interpretation;

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 37 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World - children adjust to real life more easily than the school as such, whose task should be to prepare children for real life; - we witness the transmission of pro-social values: raising, undertaking solidarity etc. - These are the components which form and affect our life.

Myths: - television is simply a means of entertainment; - the younger generation learns from the older one: a reversed socialization; - the school is the only source of information; - today’s structure of intelligence resembles the traditional one; - we differ from each other in qualities and temper—no, we differ in values (Spranger), the alteration of scale of values; - the only solution is the learning-orientated society and the society of rivalry; - civilization finds the answer for everything (…but it has its price…); - only things happened a long time ago and belonging to the past are traditional (the young master of the folk art is a mega star); - nowadays there is more aggression; - who is to decide what standard is in our unusual world (those who do not have a TV, a mobile are considered to be strange people).

Disadvantages: - we can confuse the semblance with the reality; - disturbs the attention (the attention is distracted by motion and change), and weakens the memory (the mobile); - the so called audiovisual speech is being formed (passive vocabulary); - we get perplexed by watching quick changes of sceneries—it can cause the disorder of time zones; - mental laziness—intensifies passive rest taking; - producing stereotypes on TV, creating negative attitudes; - violence and erotica in all forms; - epilepsy caused by the media (Pokemon); - disproportion between words and pictures; - watching TV together: initiated because of the adults’ entertainment rather than the children’s education; - weakening emotions resulted from the lack of real relationships; - the appearance of the passive vocabulary; - the limitation of motion and sleeping; - the dumping of information (the age of depression).

38 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World Advantages: - problem solving via mass media—cultured disputes on TV; - techniques for forming ideas—retrospection, complements; - transferring values in a selective way: educational programmes, suitable entertaining programmes, etc.; - interactive media: creating connections, personal experience, getting experience, preparing own programmes; - stimulating cognitive processes—learning facts, data.

The challenges of the 21st century require other skills from the people of the future. Changing the aspects is up to us, we are the only ones to do that. The development of emotional intelligence is a need, way to the future, a possibility to prove… all in all we should not see the rival in the media, they can help.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 39 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World Edit SZABÓ The Effects of the Media on the Spiritual World of the Children (c o n n e c t i o n s o f t h e m e d i a a n d t h e kindergarten )

„We must keep in mind the untouched spirit of the child: what we plant in it should stand any kind of test. If we plant something wrong into it, we will poison him for his whole life.” (Kodály)

f course, Zoltán Kodály referred to the aims of musical education, but I feel O that these ideas are proper also if we speak about the use of the media, too. The science of media is a new area of scientific investigation, in its research—also with different results—it deals with the questions of protection of children, the law of the media, children’s health, children’s psychology and pedagogy, and all these scientific branches see the question of the child and the media to be a very branching off problem that is difficult to handle. The word media according to the dictionary of foreign words is a word of Latin origin, meaning originally means, a vehicle of something, nowadays we mention it as a collective (written and electronic) of the communication apparatus (newspapers, radio, television) that gets to big masses. The multimedia is a computer-based source of information containing picture and sound that is more channelled source of information in an interactive form. We can group the following channels of sources of information: • based on the contact between the channels (synchronicity, asynchronicity), • based on the relation to the time dimension (dependent on time, independent of time), • based on the connections (links).

We speak of hypermedia when the system of connections involves a wide selection of channels (text, picture, moving picture, voice, animation, etc.). The characteristics of multimedia naturally show that it can be used as an educational instrument; however its use has borders, delimitations and disadvantages, too: • it is not a pedagogical wonder, but it can be a useful tool (e.g. the presentation of a famous personality of a given region: in Szenc—Albert Szenci Molnár, in

40 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World Komárom—Mór Jókai, Mihály Csokonai Vitéz, etc., the use of educational materials for presentation of a scientific topic, but also the observation and analysis of our own experiences and activities) • the big amount of visual elements can take the reign over the content, • the fact of “everything is invented” can hinder creativity and fantasy, • it cannot substitute the attraction of human relationships and living nature.

If the teacher decides to use these possibilities, she has to examine its use according to the following respects: • if it has a message, • what is its structure like, • what are its navigational possibilities, • what is the communication and interaction like with the user, • if it has an acceptable pedagogical aim (it is important to decide that for reaching the aim we should use our own product, or to use a ready-made), • what kinds of psychological, ergonomic and aesthetic devices it uses, • what is its medial efficiency.

Because in kindergarten the use of television is very questionable, I am going to deal with this topic (in a smaller amount the use of computers falls into this category as well, but there are programs created for solving this problem, e.g. in Slovakia the “BALTÍK”). We might say that it is difficult to find any other invention of man that gave possibility to formulate so many different opinions as one representative of the media: the television. More opinions were created concerning television: Positive opinions: “Blessing for mankind!” “The benefactor of mankind!” “A great way of spending free time!” “The television is the nurse of the child, the school of he youth, the entertainment of adults, the company of the old, the restfulness and informer of the masses!” “The Bible of the illiterate!” Negative opinions: “The depraver of mankind!” “The sleeping potion of the reason!” “The reductive of activity!” “The chewing gum of the eye or the spirit!” “A box of idiots!” “Electronic domestic animal!” “New home-altar!” etc. Watching television became an everyday activity, a part of the daily program, but it is not all the same, what program the child watches. Commercial televisions unfortunately broadcast programs full of violence, in manifest, often shocking form earlier and earlier. It is difficult to imagine that the makers of programs are not aware of the fact that broadcasted violence—it can be the news, a cartoon, or an advertisement—has a provable effect on the soul of a child. In the United States of America—in the cradle of television—ever since the beginning serious anxiety followed the impact of this new medium on the child. They had fears regarding to the sight, the time and the school performance of the child.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 41 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World The most problematic and most controversial question was violence on the screen. Psychological tests prove that the violence seen on screen has a serious impact on the child. These children: 1. Behaved more aggressively towards their environment—the researchers see a direct effect on the behaviour of the child and watching aggressive programs. These children become more aggressive and prefer aggressiveness as a way of solving their conflicts. The Stein & Friedrich-test was done by the researchers of Pennsylvania University in 1972: they divided one hundred pre-school children into different groups and these groups were watching different programmes for a month. The group which was watching aggressive cartoons (Batman, Spiderman) after some time was more active in the groups and on the playground, they argued more, they fought with each other more, they spoilt more toys and tore these out of other children’s hands. It was very interesting that the children who watched programmes with more positive content, became more attentive, more co-operative, they were more willing to give the toys they were playing with to the others. This impact cannot be only true for short term, but for long term as well, because the scientists showed a long-time influence. The chosen children were examined again when they reached the age of 8, and then 10 years later. The scientists realised that the aggressiveness watched in a young age influenced the behaviour of the 18 year-old young men. When this group was re-examined at the age of 30, the connection between aggressiveness watched at a young age and the detention and violent actions at the adult age became disentangled. 2. Are less sensitive to others’ suffering and pains—the American survey published in 1980 confirmed the hypothesis that the children who are accustomed to aggressiveness on television do not, or only tardily go to help the others, they do not interfere when other children are beaten. 3. Feel the surrounding world more fearful—Georg Gerbner, American scientist was examining the question, what kind of relationship is there between the aggressiveness on television and the idea of the world of the people who watch it. He came to a conclusion that the people who spend more time in front of the television are more afraid of the world, and are more willing to overestimate the risks.

Who is responsible for what program the child watches? Of course, it is the teacher in an institution and the parent at home. What can be done in order to keep the mental health of the child? There are more possibilities: • Less time is given to the child to watch television. • The programmes are controlled by the parents—after watching it they discuss its topic. • They discuss the violent events, try to find other solutions and sketch these possibilities.

42 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World • They ban the programmes containing aggressiveness (quite drastic solution, but effectual).

Reading all these studies, and definitions of the media, multimedia and hypermedia, and while I was studying the child’s psychology I have often asked myself if my opinions—my subjective human and pedagogical opinions—are not old-fashioned. I am convinced that in the kindergarten we do not have to deal with this question too much time. There we should happily, in a loving atmosphere, in stimulating surroundings, in the soft atmosphere of the mother tongue, with play, stories, activities, with searching activities, with errors and new efforts, with the replaying of the children’s experiences and adventures encourage and help, reinforce and develop the child—in a small community appreciating each other, respecting and living our common days and our holidays. According to a Chinese saying: “I’ve heard it and I’ve forgotten it, I’ve seen it and I’ve remembered it, I’ve done it and I’ve understood it”—let us give our children an opportunity to understand the connections, and if we want to give them experiences, let us take them to trips to the nature, a farm, a garden, a park, a zoo, a puppet theatre, a theatre, to places where the children can get acquainted with the new in normal surroundings, and can strengthen their existing knowledge, that they can make use later in life, in practise, so let us develop the competences of children. I was very happy when I asked the kindergarten nurses what their opinion was about the topic, they support and use the idea that in kindergartens it is not important to use the media (I asked 30 nurses out of 15 kindergartens about this topic in the surroundings of Szenc, Vágsellye, Dunaszerdahely and Komárom, where out of 15 kindergartens they did not have a television in 5 places, in 9 kindergartens they had as a present from the parents, but its use was not typical, in one kindergarten they bought from state aid, but it was not in the rooms of the groups, but in a common room, but they do not use it—for two years they watched it only once—for the request of the parents). To finish my lecture I would like to read you a story by Gartraud Gatterer: “The lost smile”, to strengthen the opinion that the child who is playing happily in the kindergarten has not lost the treasure that is called smile.

Bibliography A televíziós erőszak és a gyerekek. www.szavazo.hu/Publiciszta/media/televizios%20 eroszak. html Bartáné Góhér Edit: Barangolás a zenetörténetben. In: A gyermekek alkotóképességének fejlesztése az ének, énekes játék és zenehallgatás módszereivel. Szolnok: Óvodai nevelés a művészetek eszközeivel. Óvodapedagógusok Országos Egyesülete, 2004. 40. Bernát László—Csibi Sándor—Nagy Sándor—Pál Andrásné—Tusnády István: Multimédia az oktatás mindennapjaiban, Budapest: BGF KVIF, 2001.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 43 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World

Bruceová, T.: Předškolní výchova. Praha: Portál, 1987. Domokos N. Márton: Gyermekek magánszférájának jogi védelme az Interneten. http://www. mek.iif.hu/porta/szint/tarsad/jog/gyermek/gyermek.htm Forgó Sándor: A multimédiás oktató programok minőségének szerepe a médiakompetenciák biztosításában. Új Pedagógiai Szemle, 2000. Gellén Klára: A gyermekek és fiatalkorúak védelme a magyar médiajogban. www.//jesz.ajk. elte.hu/gellen 17. html Gertrand Gatterer: Az elveszett mosoly. In: Deáki Gólyahír Óvodai Újság, ősz, 2003. Kikušová, S.—Králiková, M.: Dieťa a hra. Bratislava: SOFA, 2004. Komenczi Bertalan: orbis sensualium pictus, Multimédia az iskolában. Iskolakultúra, 1997/1. Mélykutiné Dietrich Helga: A gyermek lelki szükségleteinek alakulása. In: A gyermekek alkotóképességének fejlesztése az ének, énekes játék és zenehallgatás módszereivel. Szolnok: Óvodai nevelés a művészetek eszközeivel. Óvodapedagógusok Országos Egyesülete, 2004. 38. Mérei Ferenc—V. Binét Ágnes: Gyermeklélektan. Budapest: Medicina Könyvkiadó, 2001. Nagy Andor: Médiapedagógia. Pécs: Seneca Kiadó, 1993. Simai Mihály: A XXI. század főbb kihívásai és a gyermekek. http://unicef.hu/simaicikk.jsp Szabó Edit: Improvizációs játékok az óvodában. In: A gyermekek alkotóképességének fejlesztése az ének, énekes játék és zenehallgatás módszereivel. Szolnok: Óvodai nevelés a művészetek eszközeivel. Óvodapedagógusok Országos Egyesülete, 2004. 40.

44 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World Mária SZOKOLY The Bequest of Culture and Dance

ulture is a living, developing and changing phenomenon, a kind of virtual C basket in which all the competences and knowledge of the world and individuals were and have been put by all past and living generations. Tradition, and folk tradition in it, is a living and changing progress as one of the elements of culture. The selection of those values of the universal culture and local traditions that should be presented, made be alive and accessible to future generations mainly depends on schools and teachers. In Europe where we intend to preserve variegation, it is one of the greatest challenges of pedagogy how to be able to present and integrate the tradition of each nation in the lifestyle of the future generations as a living, functioning and systematic value in order to preserve Europe’s cultural variegation in the world of globalization and uniformity. On the other hand, tradition is not a kind of exact science that can be based by learning a certain school subject or a student’s book. Tradition is one of the elements of our lives, lifestyles and individual habits, and its content depends on the selection of the current teaching and educational work. In our busy world teachers have to be able to „smuggle” tradition in children’s lifestyle and integrate its values in the modern way of living. The teaching of tradition as a subject ‘is one of the possible pedagogical responses to the challenges of globalization’.1 In Hungary, before and, in the many respects, after the political changes, dance was and has been one of the undeservedly neglected fields of the school education of arts. Dance was not among the elements of the base study material of the elementary school education, and it was taught occasionally and in the course of out-of-school activities by self-motivated, enthusiastic and non-professional teachers. At the beginning the National Base Curriculum gave the opportunity of the school introduction of the teaching of games and dance by the description of the joint requirements of the national and folk studies, but in the realized system of frame curriculum − in the luck of the proper number of lessons and trained teachers − it seems to have been abstracted again. However, folk games in nursery schools, and the elementary school lessons and workshops of dance are the organic parts of the establishment of the integrated artistic and physical education, the preservation of different traditions and national identity. They are also among the essential means of the development of personality and socialization in early childhood, and they are also among the methods of children’s preparation for adulthood. Dance and the connected preparatory games of

1 Ildikó Sándor: Tradition and education. ‘Modern education by folk traditions’ conference 2004 Budapest.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 45 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World children are the inexhaustible sources and means of the complex education, skill and competence development and collective education of nursery and elementary school children. There are no such fields of education and teaching to which dance and the linked games could not be connected, or in which fields they could not show their positive effects. Their role in physical and musical education cannot be questioned as they develop the visual perception of space together with the musical hearing, sense of rhythm, memory and the coordination of moving which is controlled by the sensation of one’s muscles and body. Dance and the mentioned games can also be connected to the education of our mother language and to the studies about our environment. They also serve the collective and ethical education, they develop self- recognition and the ability of self-evaluation, they have major role in the formation of the natural relationship between the two sexes and in the attitude of the acceptance of being different as one of our natural qualities, and in the formation of our national identity that have to be based on the respect for and becoming acquainted with other nations. We can find the elements of the greatest traditions of our national culture and the most typical characteristics of our cultural heritage primarily in the Hungarian folk tradition. In a traditional society, folk games, customs, songs and dance did not have to be taught to young children as they learnt all of those from their elder brothers and sisters, their parents and grandparents mainly by imitating them. Obviously, the personal integration of tradition was accomplished in different ways in different regions, as those regional, natural and living conditions that serve as the frame of one’s life as a whole were different. On the other hand, there were many similar fundamental characteristics too. The way to the society and culture of a village led through family life: children learnt their mother language, the rhythm of folk poetry, the customs of everyday life and feasts, and the culture of objects in their families. Children learnt how to work also in that way: they got tools that were reduced in size, and they not only were allowed to be involved in work, but also were put in charge in accordance with their age. Children’s participation in the re-organized communities of children of different ages also made children’s integration in the society and the community of the village easier. Children passed over their own folklore by collective playing, songs were given from mouth to mouth, and children learnt different games, customs and dances from each other. Playing activity was not only a kind of self- forgetting entertainment for a child, but also one of the ways of the preparation for life, the evolvement of his or her artistic interest, and the school of his or her integration in a society. Recently, the method of passing on our culture that was based on the traditional family life has been dwindled. The natural method of passing on traditions − in which the material and intellectual culture of the community of a village formed an organic unity − has mainly disappeared. Today’s children were born into a world that is loaded with global challenges and where the tasks of passing on our culture − with passing on and the dissemination of folk traditions and national erudition − should

46 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World be completed by schools instead of families. All over the world the professionals of teaching and education consider it as an emerging task to elaborate the new and applicable forms of passing on traditions in early childhood. In Hungary − where folk dance activity has served as an example to the world for keeping the disappearing traditional culture alive − the introduction of the teaching of folk games and dance into public education, and, in consequence, into the high education of teachers’ training seems to be an evident task.

About dance Dance is one of those genres of art that can be easily understood, and one of the most sincere forms of presentation. It serves self-expression and helps in getting know each other, and the national characteristics that appear in dance can be easily understood and experienced by everyone.

Folk dance is our mother language Hungarian folk dance is the same kind of mother language as folk tale; it is an artistic mother language similarly to folk song or to the folk art of object creation. Dance is an ancient field of art in which text, rhythm, tune, motion and plot can be found together. The rhythms of a mother’s speaking, singing and dandling provide an organic unity for a child from the first moment of his or her birth, and the child’s surroundings enrich and develop day by day. The ancient complexity of different genres has preserved in children’s folklore, and their aspects and content can and must be passed on. Folk dance is a complex phenomenon, a kind of phraseology and the mother language of motion, which has its special structure and system of rules. The learning of that language is not only about the learning of its elements (motion and rhythm, the collections of steps and motives, music and dance, and dressing) that are important also separately, but it is also about the learning of the rules of dancing as one of the forms of social behaviour. Therefore, dance can get an important role not only in the establishment of our national identity, in the respect for other nations, and in the acceptance of being different, but also in the formation of our behaviour, healthy lifestyle and our respect for our environment. Dance can also develop − aesthetic sensitivity and the receptivity of aesthetic qualities; − creativity and the exploration of children’s own inner world by their playing activity; − the culture of motions, the expressive power of moving and the balance of one’s body and soul; − physical and spatial confidence: dance can help nursery school children in the recognition of their own bodies, in the learning of the separation of themselves

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 47 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World form the surrounding world, and, later, in the learning of the proper orientation in space; − one’s ability to listen and concentrate, one’s sense of rhythm and by that the sense of time and proportion that are greatly important in each field of one’s life; − one’s ability to tolerate and manage conflicts and to respect the rules; − the ability to understand, have respect for, make contact and cooperate with others; − the methods of working off aggression with the help of many different types of games; − one’s courage that is necessary to create and tolerate publicity, and also one’s confident behaviour and courage to act that are necessary many timesin everyday life; − the ability to recognize different situations quickly and make a decision, which can be developed by free-style dancing and improvisation; − self-recognition, confidence and self-control; − the skill of self-evaluation by offering the opportunity of competition in a relaxed form and with leaving the school requirements behind: children learn how to accept their positions in a community and how to accept its opinion; − the consciousness of being part of a group and the cohesion of a group by the collective experience of doing in, for, and by a community, and also by the joy of collective playing: children are happy about the success of their mates and about that they can contribute to the success of the group by their own achievements.

The principles and characteristics of teaching folk games and dance Folk dance is a complex phenomenon, a kind of phraseology and the mother language of motion, which has its special structure and system of rules. The learning of that language is not only about the learning of its elements (motion and rhythm, the collections of steps and motives, music and dance, and dressing) that are important also separately, but it is also about the learning of the rules of dancing as one of the forms of social behaviour. − Dance and the connected preparatory children games—and also the connected singing, music, drama, puppetry and folk traditions—offer a complex emotional- intellectual world that cannot be replaced. They jointly develop and train one’s body and motion coordination controlled by the feeling of muscles, nerves and the body, and also develop our spirit, memory, concentration skill, hearing, sense of rhythm and the visual sensation of space. − Dance can have crucial effect on the formation of one’s behaviour: it can

48 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World encourage collective and tolerant attitude, it can offer experience in and prepare for the important stages of life and the forms of collective activities in connection with different feasts. − Dance can create relaxed atmosphere that provides emotional safety and can ease young children’s frustration caused by starting going to school and learning. − Dance can help older children in the formation of their natural relationship with the opposite sex, and helps them in the preparation for the sexual roles by the presentation of the traditional models of behaviour. − The teaching of dance is a child-centred activity, therefore activity-centred curricula and emotion- and experience-centred schools are needed to the realization of dance teaching. During our work we have to strive for making children dance with pleasure, be cheerful, balanced and enjoy themselves. − Dance teachers have to be given great pedagogical freedom in order to let them make decisions about the questions of the frame, content, form and method of teaching with the consideration of the local requirements and conditions (the local dialect of dance, the given curriculum, children’s ages and the expectation of their parents). Teachers can guarantee children’s development and the care of the talented children by the formation of small groups and by the organization of learning with differentiation. − Teaching dance can be realized only without pressure and with voluntary participation. The role of dance teaching in socialization can be presented by the experience that special kind of partnerships are formed during dancing and dance teaching between the children of the same and different ages and sexes, and between the children and their teacher. Therefore, it is necessary for teachers and children to show great activity, empathy and tolerance. Consequently, school grading has to be avoided during dance teaching, and the method of self- and collective evaluation should be chosen instead.

The objectives of teaching folk games and dance − The main objective of teaching dance is not the realization of a theatrical production, but the development of the entire personality, the complex development of skills and abilities by the consideration of individual competencies, and the development of a community. − Children should learn about the traditions of their localities and they should be bound emotionally to them. Also, children should integrate their experience in their daily playing and other kind of activities, and dance should be used by them as one of the forms of their self-expression. − Our students should experience the joy of childhood and the freedom of moving, and also the joy of playing. Dance should be one of the options and forms of the satisfaction of children’s demand on moving.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 49 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World Either during or out of school lessons, dance should be the part of the activities and everyday life of a school regarding the classes with different age characteristics and the other small communities of a school. Learning dance—similarly to the traditional education—should provide the opportunity of the collective playing activity of children of different ages. As the learning of dancing is based mainly on observation and imitation, older children should be involved in the teaching of young children. We have to strive for making older children support the less clever ones and teach and educate young dancers in a competent way.

− The important days of the ethnographical calendar should offer special pedagogical occasions in the regular work of a school. School festivals, joint rehearsals and collective performances should be organized once or twice a year with the help of children of the upper classes. These events should give the opportunity of the presentation of individual and collective performances, and we have to ensure the whole school community to take part in the joyful experience of dancing.

Things to be considered − Teaching dance should always be personal, and the central figures of each game should be selected by the participants by choosing games or counting-out rhymes. Children who are less clever have to be encouraged, and we have to pay attention to that no one should be left out of the games. We have to allow children to improvise spontaneously, realize their ideas and experience dance. We have to elevate children’s courage to take part in playing and also their confidence. − We should make an effort to present clear style and authentic interpretation, and to teach the connected musical material and singing in tune. We have to offer the opportunity of visiting performances with live music and dance. In the upper classes of elementary school we can present films of authentic traditions. − We should start our work always with the presentation of local traditions, games and dances. Only after making our students have confident competence can we deal with the dances of different regions and adjoining countries. Concerning those children who live in Budapest or in other big cities, we should start our work with the presentation of the traditions of the children’s home locality, and only after that should we teach the dances of Transdanubia or Kalotaszeg. − We should make children be aware of the connection between dance and the life and customs of different regions, the adjoining countries and other nations. By that method we can gradually develop children’s awareness of their national identity and their respect and affection for other nations of which culture they learn about. − We should take advantage of that national characteristic that appears in dance:

50 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World it can be easily understood by everyone, therefore, national identity can also be experienced. − We do no have to consider it as a problem when the elements of a tradition appear in a frame that differs from the traditional one. For instance, when modern children communities present their own dances to a kind of music that is enjoyable and understandable to them. The main point is that a community should understand and live together with its traditions; the traditional forms should be filled up with new content, and the old content should be integrated in the world of the community. − Tradition should not only be preserved, but also used. We have to let children live with and enjoy it, and parents should also be involved in playing in order to make dance be part of family life.

The Hungarian folk dance movement has rich history and living present In order to revive folk art, dance and music, special Hungarian institutions and pedagogical methods were established that made the revival of folk dance and music possible even in towns at the end of the 20th century. In the spirit of Bartók, Sándor Tímár, György Martin and Ferenc Sebő established the Hungarian folk dance movement which was recognized all over the world. The glorious programmes and success of the Meeting of folk dance clubs in the framework of the Summer Festival of Budapest have proved that the new wave of folk art—the appearance of folk dance clubs, folk music bands and the studios of handicraft, and also the increased number and professional development of dance ensembles—established a new movement of folk art in the seventies; many people consider it as one of the most important cultural and general educational movements of the past few decades. In Budapest and in other big cities—similarly to the custom of the villages—urban spare-time centres and dance clubs were born where anyone can learn the „original” dances, and the goers can use their cultural heritage for their own entertainment. With the supervision of the researchers of dance and folk music, the existing traditions, authentic dances and music were recorded on films and tapes, and handicraft was learnt from countrymen and local masters. The years after the political changes brought changes also in the lives of the amateur groups of folk arts. These groups survived the period of the termination of state support successfully, and they function mainly in the forms of foundations or associations. In the lack of regular sponsors, the ensembles, the strengthening professional institutions and the voluntary professional associations get their financial support by applications that can ensure their existence. The movement of folk art has preserved its main characteristics up to the present, namely, the community that is mainly based on voluntary work, individual initiative

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 51 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World and public venture, and the professional standards and quality. The movement has not bound itself to any political parties, and its work is pervaded by the commitment to humanism, nation, unity, community and art. Under the influence of the movement, those amateur ensembles have also revived that look back to great tradition and have organizational and institutional background. There are more and more young dancers, the teaching of the instrumental folk music is getting being institutional, and handicraft studios, ensembles, local collections and publications come into existence. The re-birth of the theatrical folk dance was also encouraged by the new method of and attitude to folklore. New choreographic schools with new attitude were formed, and their aim was not the learning and presentation of classical choreography, but —in cooperation with dancers who have professional competence in authentic folk dance—the creation of a kind of stage poetry of dance that can get close to the contemporary audience.

Brief summary of the training of dance teachers In an informal way and under the influence of the relevant professional and amateur activities, the movement of folk dance has slowly penetrated into public education and into many institutions of teachers’ training. Besides the work of dance clubs and the realization of different dance productions, the importance of the movement of the amateur folk dance activity is invaluable concerning the education of future dancers in elementary schools. Despite all the efforts of the past fifteen years, the teaching of folk games and dance has not been integrated officially in the training requirements of the training of nursery, elementary and secondary school teachers. Within the competence of the institutional autonomy, the courses of folk games and dance—with different training forms and number of lessons— can be found mainly among the optional subjects of the training institutions in accordance with the support or negligence of the informal efforts and the current personnel conditions. However, the complex artistic field of folk games and dance offer many links, especially to the compulsory and optional subjects of the nursery and elementary school teachers’ training (singing and music, physical education, the culture of objects and environment, Hungarian language and literature). In Hungary the training of dance teachers is realized only by the Hungarian College of Dance in Budapest and at some of its regional affiliated departments. In consequence, the number of the qualified dance teachers has increased pleasingly in the past decade. The number of the qualified dance teachers is increased also by the specialized courses of further training that are accredited and introduced by the high educational institutions of teachers’ training. In the field of the teaching of folk games and dance, the establishment of these courses can be considered as a breakthrough concerning both the up-to-date content and the number of the accepted students.

52 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World László Tamás VIZI The Role of Civilisation and Cultural Studies in the Education System of the International Relations / International Studies Majors1

he education in International Studies in Hungary was started by the T Department of International Relations of the University of Economics in Budapest from the 1960s on with the aim of training professionals for state institutions and diplomatic bodies. The students graduating from here got a degree “economist specialising in international relations,” which meant a general training in economics—due to the main profile of the university—with a complementary training in international and foreign affairs. The social and economic changes—together with the political ambition of Euro- Atlantic integration—that started at the end of the 1980s and the beginning of the 1990s meant new challenges and demands for education programmes in International Relations, which involved fundamental changes in its content, its notions and concepts. At the same time, there emerged an increasing need from the part of state and diplomatic authorities, municipalities and civil organisations for professionals who had an up-to-date knowledge of international politics and economics and a firm awareness of the European Union and its practices. Other actors of the economic sphere—banks, multinational firms, industrial and commercial agencies, mixed enterprises—were looking for an increasing number of professionals with a thorough knowledge of the international scene and foreign languages. This demand on the labour market was first realised by the University of Economics in Budapest, therefore they started a post-gradual training called “certified expert of foreign affairs” and the post-gradual course “European Studies.” Their practice was followed by other higher education institutions later on.2 By the middle of the 1990s there emerged a strong demand both in the regional and the national scene for professionals who were experts in international relations, law, negotiation, foreign trade, the European Union, and who spoke several foreign languages. Foreign relations became livelier in the segment of small, middle, and corporate enterprises, and in the field of commerce, private and civilian organisations and initiatives. The large international enterprises, banks, insurance companies and agencies, multinational organisations and mixed enterprises extended their

1 Translated by Bálint Szele. 2 Request for the establishment of a basic training major course (BA) in international studies. [Kérelem Nemzetközi Tanulmányok alapképzési (bachelor, BA) szak létesítésére.] Budapest, 2005. (In the following: Request for a major course) p. 6. Manuscript.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 53 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World foreign relations from a macro-level to a meso and micro level.3 These expectations, together with the acceleration of the European integration process, necessitated the reshaping of the education programmes by the middle of the 1990s. Due to this, a new system was born consisting of more practice-oriented college training and a university training based on a broad theoretical awareness and a firm knowledge of social sciences. Following the 4-year college courses students got a degree “specialist in international relations,” while after the 5-year university course they were given the degree “certified expert in international relations.” The education in traditional major “economist specialising in international relations” was also continued, but its content was clearly different from that of the new majors. The basic difference was that one training programme regarded economics as the basis of the studies, while the other focussed on the dominance of multidisciplinary social sciences. College training was the mixture of these two approaches and put an emphasis on both areas.4 This aim was clearly shown by the system of requirements for the courses that clearly defined the need for specialists in international relations who are ableto use the knowledge and methods of analysis creatively in the different fields of the international relations in the case of small and large enterprises, where these are getting livelier and more important. They should also be able to fulfil the needs of a region that is able to establish foreign relations and is an active part of regional networks. They should also be able to know and use the theory and practice of the different specialisations at a high standard. This facilitates the training of the European integration experts, and the birth of flexible human resources necessary for our participation in global processes.5 The college-level major (specialist in international relations)—that was first conceived as a multidisciplinary course, and defined as such in the statutory order— was first labelled as interdisciplinary, then it was transferred to the special field of economics. This was an unambiguous sign of the new market expectations towards this major. The employers were looking for specialists who were capable of establishing, maintaining, and enhancing new international economic and trade relations, and who had a firm command if foreign languages. They should thus be able to facilitate the investment of capital, the increase of exports, and to establish banks, control the international processes of banks and mixed enterprises. Despite its disciplinary categorisation, however, the major retained its multidisciplinary character. Besides economics, the competencies related to law, social sciences, and diplomacy were still strongly emphasised, and the specialised

3 Vizi László Tamás: A nemzetközi kapcsolatok képzés szerepe Székesfehérvár, mint sikeres régió esetében. In.: Régiók Európája. Tanulmánykötet. Szerk.: Beszteri Béla és Lévai Imre. Budapest Fórum—Kodolányi János Főiskola, Bp. 2002. p. 180. 4 46/1997. (III.12.) Statutory order on the qualification criteria of major courses in international relations. 5 Vizi László Tamás op. cit. 181.; Az emberi erőforrások hasznosítása, fejlesztése Magyarországon és az Észak- Dunántúlon. Szerk.: Hervainé Szabó Gyöngyvér és Szabó Péter. MTA Veszprémi Területi Bizottság—Kodolányi János Főiskola, Székesfehérvár, 1997. pp. 255-263.; V. Gy. Zs.: A nemzetközi kapcsolatok szakértőire jól fizető állások várnak. In.: Napi Gazdaság, 2002. január 25. p. 8.

54 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World professional subjects included specialisations such as European studies, foreign and security policy, management of foreign economics or international media and PR studies. The accelerating changes in Hungarian higher education from 2002 on, the so- called Bologna process, had a profound effect on the whole of the Hungarian higher education sector. In the beginning, it seemed that international relations college- level course would get into the business education sector, along the interests of economists, which would have meant a radical change, and a new name for the course “international economic relations BA basic training major.” The major in this case would have lost its multidisciplinary character. However, the professional bodies of the institutions taking part in the education of international relations declared that international relations should get into the field of social studies into the political studies sector. This aim is in line with the tendencies in Western Europe and the USA in every respect, where foreign politics is losing its importance in international studies courses and where the basic subjects are increasingly dominated by political sciences and multidisciplinary correspondences.6 The definitions of the areas of study, subject modules, required knowledge and skills of the new-type international relations major were driven by the easy-to-foresee demand (appearing in public administration, municipalities, regional non-profit development agencies, EU application experts, small and middle-sized enterprises, export-oriented firms) for experts of social studies and the policies of the European Union—both with a theoretical and a practical competence—, instead of experts of economics.7 On the other hand, one had to take into consideration the fact that from September 2001, the world around us has gone through a profound change, and the term international relations got a new interpretation; and new answers have to be given to the new challenges appearing in a completely new situation. Following the events of September 2001, theories of culture, questions of civilisation have again appeared in the foreground, and a new explanation was given to the civilisation paradigm of Samuel Huntington,8 which emphasises the multi-civilisation character of the world (and world politics), and which sets the most important political, religious, ethnic, and military battle lines and sources of conflict along the borderlines of different civilisations. There were some people who regarded the Gulf War as such a civilisation conflict. At the same time, the turn of the millennium showed us that there are battle lines within civilisations too. We can think of the opposition of Iraq and Iran. Civilisations can not be regarded as homogenous entities; on the contrary, they are quite differentiated and there are sub-civilisations within the civilisations themselves. A good example of civilisation conflict is the Yugoslav war, which—according to some opinions—was the regional clash of Orthodox and Latin Christianity, coupled with the Moslems of Bosnia, who

6 Request for a major course. pp. 6-7. 7 Ibid. p. 7. 8 Huntington, Samuel P.: Civilizációk háborúja? Külpolitika, 1995. 3-4. szám

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 55 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World brought a new civilisation element into the war. This paper does not have the aim of presenting and evaluating civilisation theories; neither does it want to criticise the contradictory “clash of civilisations” approach of Samuel Huntington that has generated so much debate in the last few years.9 Nevertheless, it does have the task of presenting what studies are needed for students of international relations to find answers and be able to interpret the world and the increasingly complicated relationships between civilisations after September 2001. The demand for the presentation of civilisations and the analysis of civilisation problems multiplied immediately after the appearance of the set of problems described above. Due to this demand, the education palette of the international relations major was enlarged and complemented with subjects—both compulsory and optional—that had the aim of enriching the knowledge of students about civilisations. These subjects included the history of civilisations, and comparative civilisation studies. The first presents the historical changes in western civilisation, the latter focuses on the history, characteristics, religious, and cultural elements of civilisations outside Europe—the Islam, China, Japan, India, Africa, Latin-America—paying a special attention to their roles in the international systems of the 21st century and their interactions, similarities and differences. As the categories of civilisation (and culture) appear more and more frequently in the disciplines dealing with the international system as a whole, and as a counter-reaction to globalisation, more and more civilisations stress their separation from the western civilisation, it is extremely important for students of international relations to have this kind of knowledge. They have to know the conceptual system of civilisation (and culture), and the theoretical work of scientists investigating the different civilisations, who try to describe historical development by means of the analysis of civilisations. The subject gives a “toolbox” for the students to help them interpret the background of different political and social events. The subject titled “comparative civilisation studies” gives students of international relations essential theoretical knowledge that can also be used in everyday practice to keep the familiarity with the changing world of cultures and civilisations. This applies not only to students who are occupied with the elaborate study of international systems, but also to those who want to work in the world of international business. Let me show two examples that can throw a light upon the practical usefulness of civilisation studies in international politics and business: 1. The understanding of the economic successes of the Far-East is impossible without the knowledge of Asian civilisation. The reason for this is that the origin of these successes is rooted in their culture. That is why their model is admirable and worthy of our envy but it is at the same time impossible to follow or copy it in a society that has grown up in the European civilisation. 2. It is impossible to speak about the acceding of Turkey to the European Union

9 Rostoványi Zsolt: Civilizációk háborúja? Huntington és Bassam Tibi felfogásáról. Külpolitika, 1997. 4. szám; Rostoványi Zsolt: Civilizációk a civilizáció ellen? Külügyi Szemle, 2002. 1. szám

56 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World without the knowledge of the civilisation factors involved. Let us see this problem in details. Due to a decision of the European Union (6. December 2006) the accession negotiations between Turkey and the European Union have begun. According to the most cautious estimates, the earliest date of accession might be 2015. This is the date by which Turkey can—or cannot—fulfil the political and economic expectations that make a part of the conditions for accession. But the dry facts of the official documents of the European Union are not given as answers to an unambiguous basic question, which is of a cultural-religious and civilisatory character: is it conceivable, is it possible that an officially secularised Turkey, the population of which is predominantly Muslim, can become the member of the European Union that is the first and foremost proponent of the western civilisation? It is not enough if the European Commission says “yes” to this question if the majority of the population of the member states—due to the different cultural and civilisation traditions—is against the Turkish accession. Neither is it possible to leave out of consideration another opinion of those against the accession, namely, that the opposition of the Western World and the Islam is apparently getting more and more acute. This seems to support Huntington’s theory about the imminent clash of the different civilisations. So, when we think of this important international political question, i.e. whether Turkey should be a member of the EU, we must study the problem that is the most important from the point of view of Turkey: the relationship of the country and the Islam. We must also consider the historical, religious, sociological, political and economic correspondences. Final answers can only be reached after a complex civilisation analysis. This study has to cover the most important elements of Turkish identity, the Islam, the historical empire, modern nationalism, pan-Turkism, and being European, the presentation of the different braches of Islam in the country, their most important political and economic aims, and the characteristic features of the Turkish political and party system. The study should also include a comparison with the current European political norms.10 I hope I could convincingly show with my examples that several international political questions cannot be treated—or cannot be treated completely—without a thorough knowledge of cultural and civilisation issues. The analysis of the processes cannot be done without an approach taking account of civilisation matters. In international politics, there are several problematic questions and conflicts that boil down to the roots and conflicts of civilisations. Civilisation studies and courses should definitely be included in the training of young international experts of the future. Finally, it is worth noting that in an age of globalisation, international communication and the disappearance of borders, civilisations cannot co-exist as isolated entities, they continuously form and influence each other. This might have been the reason why the international relations/studies major has regained its multidisciplinary

10 Törökország EU csatlakozásának kérdőjelei. Tanulmánykötet. Szerk.: N. Rózsa Erzsébet és Vizi László Tamás. Kodolányi János Főiskola, Székesfehérvár, 2006.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 57 1. Education and Culture in a Multidimensional World character. This can clearly be seen in the official request for the establishment of a basic training major course in international studies, which starts in September 2006. It states that there is a need for professionals, experts in international relations who have a good practical knowledge, a wide theoretical horizon and a firm knowledge of social studies, and who are able to represent Hungarian national interests in the world.11 This can only be realised if the major can also assume a role as a transmitter of cultures, if it can transmit knowledge of civilisation, history, culture, and geography besides the official course materials. It has to enrich and protect the feeling of national community and the national cultural heritage, thus reinforcing the international and cultural competitiveness of the country. The professor János Hankiss put it the following way 70 years ago in his essay ‘The Rudiments of Cultural Diplomacy:’ “Cultural diplomacy is the field of indirect foreign policy, or, from another point of view, cultural diplomacy is the entry of the notion of ‘value’ to politics with the help of science, literature, and art.”12

11 Request for a major course. p. 7. 12 Hankiss János: A kultúrdiplomácia alapvetései. Esszé. Debrecen, 1936.

58 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 59 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation Andrea BOGÁR Feminist Adaptations of Shakespeare— Shakespeare and Frightening Feminism

1. Shakespeare and Adaptation

hakespeare, the ‘great father’, has always been a basis for every playwright. S No matter which period a playwright lives in, they have to go back and give an opinion, a standpoint on Shakespeare, either positive or negative. For more than four hundred years, playwrights have been going back to Shakespeare and have been using, remaking, revising, interpreting and quoting from his plays. That is how we can meet Ophelia, Desdemona or Rosencrantz in the plays of twentieth or twenty-first century playwrights. Though, going back to Shakespeare is not a twenty-first century phenomenon. The most frequent word used for describing such plays is ‘adaptation’. What exactly does this word mean? What is adaptation? In order to reach a final definition or discussion of the term ‘adaptation’, one has to look at what happens with a text, a piece of drama after it gets out of the hands of its playwright. It can be understood either as a piece of writing, a written text, or as a rough material ready to be performed. One has to admit that a play comes fully to life only on stage, when its words are performed in the theatre. Up to a certain extent, a theatrical production, the production of a Shakespearean play for instance, depends on the interpretation and creative solutions of a director, actors and other theatre-people. There are not two productions of ‘Macbeth’ for example that would be the same, though based on the same text. The very same text has to be ‘adapted’ to different practical criteria, such as the size of the stage, the actors, the cultural background of the audience and the performers and different directorial practices. In the Introduction of ‘Adaptations of Shakespeare: A Critical Anthology of Plays’ (2000), Daniel Fischlin and Mark Fortier discuss the nature of theatrical productions. They claim that “every drama text is an incomplete entity that must be ‘translated’ by being put on stage.” (Fischlin-Fortier, 2000, p.7). It means, that staging the play ‘Hamlet’, for example, requires a certain kind of reworking, modification of the drama text, as the words of the play have to be translated from page into stage, i.e. from a two-dimensional entity into a three-dimensional space. Movements, body language, lightening, the choice of music, costumes, etc. always give an extra meaning to the play and are parts of a certain interpretation. Alföldi Róbert, Hungarian actor and director, in his production of the play ‘Hamlet’ (Nitra, 2001, Divadlo Andreja Bagara) shifted the setting of the play into the twenty-first century and Claudius’s introductory speech as a new king was performed in the form of a press-conference, with photographers

60 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation and journalists. Hamlet and Laertes were chatting on the Internet and the whole production was embraced by the computer and technology-centred culture of the modern age. All of the surprising or perhaps shocking innovations of this production took place without altering the words of the Shakespearean play. Is it Shakespeare then? Is Alföldi’s ‘Hamlet’ only an ambitious, extraordinary stage production of the original Shakespeare with unusual techniques or is it already something new, a form of reworking, interpretation or let us say adaptation of the original play? The answer is clearly set in the Fischlin—Fortier anthology: “Theatre is always a form of reworking, in a sense the first step toward adaptation.” (Fischlin-Fortier, 2000, p. 7.) According to this, it can be concluded that theatre production is an initial stage of a process, the final stage of which is adaptation. I believe that every theatre production is an implicit form of adaptation, as putting a play onto stage always implies critical reading and interpretation and of course a certain amount of alteration. It is evident, that adapting Shakespeare’s texts and creating new ones is a much more radical process than putting a Shakespearean play onto stage. This process moves from a two-dimensional entity and at the end of it one finds a two-dimensional creation, so the changes that happen are of different nature than those that operate when performing a play. Creating a new play out of Shakespeare’s pieces of drama can be done in different ways. It can be reached by rewriting the language of the play, simplifying or rearranging its words or by changing the genre and outcomes of the play (e.g. Nahum Tate gave a happy ending to ‘King Lear’) (Tate, 2000, pp. 66-96.). Then, adaptation can be created by adding new passages to the play, by omitting some, or breaking the chronology of the play by writing sequences of the play of examining what happened before the action of the play. Furthermore, adaptations can examine the possible lives of Shakespeare’s minor characters or the lives of those characters who did not have enough space in the bard’s play to express their thoughts and feelings. Fischlin and Fortier point out that “In some cases, what the source text clearly leaves out becomes an opportunity for adaptation.” (Fischlin—Fortier, 2000, p. 10.). Bryony Lavery’s ‘Ophelia’ deals with Ophelia’s feelings and attitudes, her friends and female companies, and The Women’s Theatre Group and Elaine Feinstein, in their play ‘Lear’s Daughters’, concentrate on the three sisters’ life before the time of Shakespeare’s tragedy. Both of the above- mentioned plays work with the opportunities that are offered by Shakespeare’s plays and fill in the gaps contained by Hamlet’‘ and ‘King Lear’. Fischlin and Fortier underline that the basic difference between theatrical production and adaptation (from now on I am going to use the word ‘adaptation’ only for written texts of plays, rather than theatrical productions) is that adaptation melds with theory and always implies an interplay between creation and criticism. (Fischlin—Fortier, 2000, p.8). They explain that the word adaptation comes from the Latin adaptare, to fit to a new context, to make something suitable, what means that the process of adaptation implies a way of making Shakespeare fit a particular historical moment or cultural and social requirement. On the basis of this explanation

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 61 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation it can be concluded that adaptation has always to do with some theory or criticism, which spotlights Shakespeare from a different, unusual perspective. It is like looking at Shakespeare through glasses of different colours. One of these colours is feminist criticism, which has also been going back to one of the biggest playwrights of our time.

2. Source and Adaptation Let us remain at the notion of adaptation for a while. It is interesting to examine the relationship between the original play and the adaptation and between the author and the adaptor. The examination of this link implies a detailed examination of terms such as originality and authorship. When talking about the link between an adaptation and its Shakespearean pair, the later is usually referred to as ‘source’ or ‘the original’. Many times the adaptation is put into a secondary position, and is regarded as something lower or subordinate, borrowing its subject matter or characters from a source, a play written by Shakespeare, the Great. Shakespeare’s name is mystified and he is viewed as a genius, whose plays stand above all and who is the origin of every literary or dramatic action. He is the ‘author’ of magnificent plays and thus he possesses ‘authority’ above those plays. In this sense, it is ironic that Shakespeare, long dead, does not have the copyright of his writings, and the adaptor is free to use and do whatever s/he wants with these plays, and s/he can prohibit further publications, workings, alterations or further adaptations of his/her adaptation. Of course, Shakespeare is still attributed a kind of moral or ethical copyright and that is why, by certain critics, he is supposed to stand above the adaptations. It is usually forgotten that Shakespeare himself was an adaptor, as he used already- written texts, stories, chronicles, from where he borrowed his plots and characters. Fischlin and Fortier refer to Gary Taylor, critic and editor, who discusses the originality of Shakespeare and claims:

“Shakespeare, of course, was as guilty of theft … as any author … Shakespeare stole with a clear conscience. He copied plots, characters, speeches, images and aphorisms from classical authors and from his own contemporaries, without acknowledgement.” (quoted in Fischlin—Fortier, 2000, p. 9.)

It would be misleading to call Shakespeare ‘original’, as he himself went back to earlier materials, earlier sources or he borrowed from his contemporaries. ‘Hamlet’, for example, is very similar to Thomas Kyd’s ‘The Spanish Tragedy’, or an earlier play called ‘Ur-Hamlet’, which was apparently never printed, but its performance is dated in or before 1596 (Jenkins, 2003, p. 82.). Shakespeare’s main source for ‘King Lear’ was the ‘True Chronicle History of King Leir’ (Marx, 2000, p. 61.) or for ‘Macbeth’ it was Holinshed’s Chronicles (Muir, 2003, p. xxxvi). Many other examples could be

62 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation listed, if we just think about Shakespeare’s history plays coming from Plutarch’s and Ovid’s writings. It means that Shakespeare’s plays are adaptations themselves and many times the twentieth century adaptations, such as Stoppard’s ‘Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead’, Edward Bond’s ‘Lear’ or Bryony Lavery’s ‘Ophelia’ change much more on Shakespeare’s play than Shakespeare changed on the play preceding his times. On the other hand, Gary Taylor’s words such as ‘theft’, ‘stole’, ‘conscience’, ‘copied’, I think are a bit strong when talking about the playwright. What Shakespeare did was not regarded as theft in the Renaissance, but as a natural thing. Plays had to be produced very quickly and writing them was treated as craft and not art. Nevertheless, the Renaissance encouraged people to go back to and learn from ancient scholars and imitate them. Borrowing plots or characters from the ancient teachers was not considered as stealing, but on the contrary, it was a good and advisable thing to do. By noting that Shakespeare is not the only source for twentieth century adaptations, Shakespeare seizes to be an authoritative figure and is no more the untouchable ‘legal owner’ of the plays such as ‘King Lear’, ‘Hamlet’, etc. He cannot be called the ‘original’ anymore, as we know, that he used sources as well. To call those sources ‘originals’ would be misleading as well, as many times they were translations of other pieces of writings. So, one has to ask the question whether it is important at all that we find the ‘real’ original, the real basis, the owner of the original idea of e.g. ‘Hamlet’ in order to judge and compare Shakespeare’s ‘Hamlet’ and Lavery’s ‘Ophelia’. The enthusiastic quest to make things clear in the field of copyright and authorship is usually initiated by the fact that adaptations of Shakespeare in fact up to a certain extent question the integrity of the Shakespearean play (or the play preceding Shakespeare). They show that the structure of ‘Hamlet’, for example, can be good and exciting in another way as well, they offer another alternative, other opportunities and new challenges. On the other hand, of course, it is like a parasite, which keeps the title and some characters from the old play and uses the old play’s prestige to create its own. To conclude, Shakespeare’s adaptations offer a great variety of interpretations and provide a wide range of opportunities, as they come up with totally new ideas. They encourage us to think in a new way and examine old things from a completely different point of view.

3. Shakespeare and Feminism Anytime the word ‘feminism’ is pronounced, almost everybody around is astonished or is not likely to join a debate about it. I have never participated in a discussion on feminism which did not recall some kind of emotions from the side of at least one participant. There was always somebody who became aggressive or explained their standpoint in a passionate or rather attacking way. And I think I do not have to mention that those passionate attackers were mostly man. That is why I chose the

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 63 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation word ‘frightening’ for the title of my paper, for I believe this critical school provides plenty of unknown (thus frightening) and unclear parts even for critics. The notion of feminism has gained a negative connotation, especially among men. For a lot of them, the word ‘feminism’ evokes a picture of unsatisfied, angry women, who pretend to be superior to men and refuse to do the ‘tasks’ they are expected to do in society, like doing the housework or having children. For them, feminism connotes competition, whether women or men are the best, the question of status, superiority and inferiority. However, the matter of feminism is a more complex one. Juliet Dusinberre emphasises that the way a society thinks about and treats women is often considered as a means of measuring how civilised it is (Dusinberre, 1994, p. 1.) According to the latest studies of Slovak sociologists, which resulted in the movement called “Piata žena” [The Fifth Woman], every fifth woman in Slovakia is either physically or emotionally abused. If Dusinberre is right, we have much to do and many things to change. In her monograph, ‘Shakespeare and the Nature of Women’ (1994), Juliet Dusinberre accepts that in the 1970s feminism was inseparable from anger. It was about asking questions to provoke thought, about protesting against the “enclosure of common land” (Dusinberre, 1994, p. xxxiii). This “common land” included education, politics, public life, art, culture, media, science, literature and many other fields, out of which women were continuously excluded. They were fighting against male dominance, for equal jobs, educational opportunities and for the same rights and treatment both for women and men. However, Dusinberre argues, so much has been achieved by now, that women can afford to celebrate difference. Today, the ‘battle’ is no more about demanding equality in the sense of sameness, as man and woman, Adam and Eve can never be the same. The aim of feminism is to blow up structures of thought and tradition created by the dominant culture of men during centuries, within which both men and women were expected to operate. One of the main goals of feminism on the level of literature is reinterpreting literary texts from the traditional canon. Exploring and revising the plays and the world of William Shakespeare is one of the greatest challenges a critical school can face. Feminist criticism is not a straightforward, homogeneous approach. The diversity of feminist ideas about gender, experience, language, female writings and female experience results in a non-coherent approach to Shakespeare in contemporary British feminist criticism as well. One of the most influential and provocative approaches to Shakespeare is represented by the theory of Juliet Dusinberre. In ‘Shakespeare and the Nature of Women’ (1994), Dusinberre deals with the place of women and the attitudes towards them in the Elizabethan period of English history. She analyses the period’s impact on Shakespeare’s plays and examines the positions of Shakespearean female characters. Dusinberre comes out with a provocative conclusion: she calls Shakespeare a feminist. Elizabethan society, Dusinberre argues, was influenced by “the powerful presence

64 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation of a woman’s voice in public life” (Dusinberre, 1994, p. xxvii). The ‘Golden Age’, the prosperous reign of Elizabeth I meant a significant milestone in the development of attitudes towards women. Furthermore, Dusinberre notices that as the Renaissance was a period of questioning many ‘orthodoxies’, it would be surprising, if attitudes to women had been neglected. She points out that Protestant ideology represented by certain humanists, like More and Erasmus, brought new, liberal perspectives on women, especially at the end of the Elizabethan period. In the centre of their attention was the reform of women’s education and the institution of marriage (they were attacking customs such as forced marriage, marriage for money, child marriage and marriages between old men and young women). „Social structures do eventually change if enough questions are asked” (ibid, p. xvii), Dusinberre writes. It is very interesting that she even talks about divorce. She points out that between 1595 and 1620 the number of divorces increased and simultaneously with the change of ideas about marriage, the attitudes to women changed as well. At this point, I think it is important to highlight that although Dusinberre talks about divorce, one may not forget that this was the privilege of rich women. Only they could afford to be alone and maintain themselves in a society where the opportunities for education and jobs for women were limited. Still, Dusinberre argues that although the number of questions asked was not much, as the position of women was not changed drastically, this period was, in her term “feminist in sympathy” (ibid, p. 5.) The climate of the Elizabethan period, a period interested in changes and questioning conventions influenced its dramatists. Dusinberre explains that these dramatists asked the same questions about women as philosophers or religious people. They were concerned about the nature of women, about men’s attitudes to them and about the roles women played in society. Shakespeare’s modernity, Dusinberre continues, is in his treatment of women. Dusinberre explains that for her, feminism is about having a voice, choice and about the pursuit of happiness. She returns to Roland Barthes’s essay ‘The Death of the Author’, where he argues that the text is free of its author (Dusinberre, 1994, p. xxxiv). According to Barthes’s idea, Dusinberre adds, whether the author is a man or a woman is not significant. Therefore, as women’s voices definitely appear in Shakespeare’s writings, Shakespeare himself—in spite of the fact that he is a man— can be considered a feminist. A totally different approach to Shakespeare is represented by Lizbeth Goodman, Kathleen McLuskie or Fiona Shaw. They refuse Dusinberre’s theory and notice that although Shakespeare recorded the more or less liberal attitudes to women of the late Elizabethan period in his plays, he can hardly be called a feminist, for he analysed women within a structure created by men during centuries, and expected them to speak, to choose and to pursue their happiness in a male-centred universe. The word ‘feminist’ is much more radical and conscious of female issues, more than Shakespeare could afford. This approach rather emphasises the misogyny of Shakespearean plays, where, they argue, parts for women are comparatively few and composed largely of

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 65 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation supporting rather than leading roles, expressing the subordinate position of women. They claim that Shakespeare’s choice of female characters was limited. There were no actresses, female parts were played by boys, who were possibly able to pretend to be young women, but could hardly personify all female realities, various ‘faces’ and ages. In addition, Shakespearean women become free only when they adopt the positions of men. Shakespeare gave women the chance to act for themselves, to put on male masks to experience certain freedom, for example, Viola in the ‘Twelfth Night, or What You Will’, but in spite of this women always have to submit themselves at the end. If they cannot find themselves in the existing ‘male-society’, if they cannot fit in, the only solution is suicide, for example Cleopatra in ‘Antony and Cleopatra’. There is a kind of approach that even emphasises that the question is not how to play Shakespeare but whether to play Shakespeare at all. Fiona Shaw argues that overemphasis on ‘women and Shakespeare’ may distract the performer from the focus of her work i.e. performing. Instead she encourages the emphasis of rhythm, presentation and power. Her denial of gender in performance opens the way to an active critique of gender stereotypes. By contrast, Tilda Swinton takes a very different view of the possibilities of Shakespeare’s female characters. She notices the one of the most interesting roles for women in Shakespeare involve dressing up as boys. She argues that these plays do not work today and suggests that instead of playing roles written for boys, women should work with more challenging texts, texts written by women for women. At this point, the only possible solution would be rewriting or ‘adapting’ Shakespeare to female reality and requirements. One of the most notable, though little-documented projects as feminist Shakespeare adaptation was ‘Lear’s Daughters’, written by Elaine Feinstein and Women’s Theatre Group. It was regarded as the feminist rewriting of Shakespeare, based on the tragedy of ‘King Lear’. This play is supposed to be a landmark in the history of Shakespeare’s feminist adaptations. In this play, the focus is not on Lear, but on his daughters, on the women who are affected by the events of the play: the Queen (who does not appear in ‘King Lear’), the three princesses, the Nanny (also absent from the Shakespearean play) and the androgynous Fool. Lear is depicted as a frightening tyrant, he figures as threat, a shadow of impersonal power, he is the embodiment of the ‘absent father’ image of today’s no longer nuclear families. Each daughter is given a special world, intimate thoughts, wishes and ambitions. Each sister insists upon her right to the throne, which is expressed symbolically in the final image of the play, when the crown is thrown into the air and caught by all three daughters at once. Lear’s preference of Cordelia to his other daughters provides a kind of emotional excuse for the evilness of the two sisters in ‘King Lear’. Feminist criticism and the feminist revision of Shakespeare create a space for a critical re-evaluation of mainstream values, as well as for reshaping and reviewing gender roles. They revise old models and structures and replace them by new ones,

66 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation which are based on tolerance, respect and variety, rather than superiority, inferiority and dominance. They create a stage on which there is room for all.

Bibliography Dusinberre, J. (1994): Shakespeare and the Nature of Women. London and New York: Routledge. Fischlin, D.—M. Fortier (eds. 2000): Adaptations of Shakespeare: A Critical Anthology of Plays. London and New York: Routledge. Goodman, Lizbeth (2001): Women’s Alternative Shakespeares and Women’s Alternatives to Shakespeare in Contemporary British Theatre. In: Chedgzoy, Kate (ed. 2001): Shakespeare, Feminism and Gender: Contemporary Critical Essays. Palgrave. pp. 70-92. McLuskie, Kathleen (2001): The Patriarchal Bard. In: Chedgzoy, Kate (ed. 2001): Shakespeare, Feminism and Gender: Contemporary Critical Essays. Palgrave. pp. 24-48. Moi, Toril (1985): Sexual/Textual Politics: Feminist Literary Theory. In: Eagleton, Mary (ed. 2004): Feminist Literary Theory: A Reader. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 257-260. Showalter, Elaine (1979): Toward a Feminist Poetics: Women Writing and Writing About Women. In: Eagleton, Mary (ed. 2004): Feminist Literary Theory: A Reader. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 254-257. Wandor, Michelene (1984): The Impact of Feminism on the Theatre: Feminist Review. In: Eagleton, Mary (ed. 2004): Feminist Literary Theory: A Reader. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 171-174.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 67 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation Margit ERDÉLYI Alterations of Values in Literature

alue judgements of today’s people are very much influenced by the literary V culture of the turn of the centuries, because it consists of the mixture and axiological entity of the classical, the modern, the avant-garde and finally of the popular culture. (Csokonai, Ady, Pilinszky, Shaskespeare, Beckett, Genet, etc. can be listed next to each other.) The only way an observer can conquest this land is the digestion and a good command of various fields of knowledge. If we do not want to notice that the classical shapes are still present in current writings, if we are not aware of the fact that the spiritual waves of the turn of the centuries: symbolism, impressionism, naturalism have changed from extremes and contradictions into a mature system of values and if we have not noticed the oscillations of the avant- garde within the intensity of visual and auditive effects and how all these have been transformed into an elite value system, in that case we can only come up with half- solutions. Postmodern literature (which is difficult to define yet) has been identified mostly with popular paradigm. This culture addresses the masses (though it has some elite ambitions as well); it provides entertainment and ease for “everyone”. It is a mixture of value and kitsch, the close relationship of the world of money and the so called world of stars, it is characterised by comfortable reception—highly supported by mass media without any doubt. (Here I mean the liberation of indecency, aggression, scandal creation, pornography, the awesome and the catastrophic.) Inevitably, the receiver is attracted by taboos, the absurd, frivol, cynics and aggression, but on the other hand also by depicting the defeat of these notions. The roots of the strong individuality of the current age and of the liberal behaviour that comes with it are identical with the birth of modernism; they go back to the emergence of enlightened thinking. The optimistic belief that the opportunities of the individual are endless can be turned down by the sceptical question of whether man flying on the edges of technology/electronics can have a vision for the future, if s/he goes on ignoring ecological catastrophe. The postmodern broadens this question and the opportunities of research in the discourse of science. In the field of arts, it represents relativity and pluralism: it does not respect the hierarchy of genres, it celebrates open forms. In literature it does not trust long narratives, gives up the need for originality, it is intertextual (dialogue between a piece of work and other works, a text and other texts); its two-faced understanding is dictated by self-identity and self- less-ness. The central topics of modern philosophic thinking—God, world, law—are highlighted in a contradictory way: the scientific and artistic intellect is laced with the direct or hidden ideas of Hegel, Marx, Dilthey, Gadamer, Bergson, Nietzsche, Kierkegaard, Camus, Heidegger and others.

68 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation In the second half of the twentieth century, the competency of literature and of its reader appears with a different focus in philosophic, linguistic and literary considerations. It is significant to point out that besides the newly born aspects and theories, the age-dependant analysis of traditional values is also taken into consideration—in a more or less selective way. I believe that teaching literature in our age will be effective only if we realise the fact that the value and meaning of literary works is not given once and forever, but it liberates the opportunities lying in its own immanence and in its relationship with the outside world through the dialogue with the reader in the reading process, only then it shows its real and acceptable positive features and minuses, when it starts communication, a process of influence and experience with the receiver. Since a multilevel dynamics is at stake, the teachers of literature have to be prepared for every phase in order to provide the best possible and the most adequate overview of the values hidden in the literary work and of the historical, cultural and educational “circles” surrounding the work. Of course, no interpreter, critic or teacher can have an unquestionable standpoint. Therefore, it is not surprising that the developing/changing (literary) theories throughout the centuries acquired a special impulse in the 20th century aiming at a certain kind of complexity and subjectivity. All of them, up to a certain extent, have an impact upon the current interpretative and critical practices, the problem of the competency of literature, the variety of methods and their comparison, but most of all, they influence the choice and the level of our readings. Here we can deal with the approaches and theories concerning alterations of values in the second half of the 20th century with restriction; our intention is: to what extent these approaches influence the spiritual aura, values of literary reception. Earlier theoretical investigations have hardly ever dealt with the receiver and the processes of reception. Out of the threefold structure of author—work—reader, much attention was paid mostly to the first two elements. Jacobson’s approach to communication—an expressive and even currently accepted system—serves functionality first of all. The six elements of communication: the addresser, the addressee, the message, the code, the contact and the context are dealt with in a flexible way according to the purpose. His investigations consider linguistic structures; the phenomena of poetics are examined in such a way. He emphasises that poetics deals with the problems of verbal structure, just like painting with pictorial structure. Since linguistics is the overall scholarship of verbal structure, poetics can be regarded the organic part of linguistics. (1969: 212) We accept Jacobson’s standpoint especially in the aspect that the examination of language in many respects is connected with the examination of literature; furthermore, the examination of poetic function does not merely apply to poetry, but to linguistics and to the linguistic phenomena outside poetry as well. Although Jacobson represented formalism and structuralism as a linguist, his work influenced the development of literary structuralism and his

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 69 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation investigations in language and poetics have brought a determining profit fro literary scholarship. The work of the members of the Prague Linguistic Circle (Ján Mukařovský, Felix Vodička) means a link to the direction of semiotics, more concretely, they take over some of its investigations, as well as the investigations of formalism. The particular signs of C. S. Peirce (icon, index, symbol), then his distinction between denotation and connotation help the creation of the system of a paradigmatic meta-language; which can be consistently and strictly shown in the structure of texts. Lotman’s investigations refer to the poetic or artistic text; they draw a comparison between the informational organisation of general communication and poetics in relation to semantic fullness. Out of the two, poetry is considered richer, because a literary text consists of several (lexical, graphical, metrical, phonological, etc.) systems, and the clashes of these systems, parallelisms, repetitions, oppositions and even their lacks become sources of high tension. Lotman explains that a poetic text is able to carry any word from the storehouse of intellectual capacity to the subset that determines the adaptability of language, and vice versa. (1971: 65) The meaning of the text is in connection with the expectations of the reader, in fact this is the functional (pragmatic) aspect of the text, which manifests the relationship between the human being and the text. Lotman’s ideas can be dealt with as parts of the theory of reception. His research influenced the exact (structuralist) atmosphere in the study of poetry, which changed both the reader’s reception and the critical one, and also the narration about this, i.e. narratology. The mode of perception and fixation of structuralism neglected the particular, and with its typically analytical techniques, many times exceeding the logic of common sense, it turned out to be very artificial, because it forced phenomena and experience into the terminological system of structure. However, besides its transgressions and lacks (e.g. it took no notice of the process of reading, the work was regarded as language, and it neglected the conversational opportunities of reading), its big advantage is that it provided a model, a pattern for the stratification of the literary work’s “system of regulations”. My comment is that it was the attitude of Husserl’s phenomenology that helped the transition in the systems of objective and subjective interpretations. In the train of thoughts of Husserl, the object and the subject are in fact one side of the phenomena, so phenomenology offers a cognizable world, which organises a central place for the human subject within its typical investigations. Via Martin Heidegger’s (Husserl’s student) critique and theory about the literary work, phenomenological elements become parts of hermeneutical thinking. On the other hand, in Heidegger’s mind the central place does not belong to the human subject, but the categories of being and time, the hermeneutics of being, as opposed to Husserl, who represents transcendental phenomenology. After the attitude of structuralism reached a kind of culminating point, other contrasting theories started to appear as well. This critical approach, which can also be called as theory of works of art, received different labels from contemporary

70 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation critiques; they used terms such as unhistorical, formalism, as well as value-nihilism. Simultaneously with the modification of the thinking of literary scholarship, which emphasised the impact and the reception of the literary work, related theoretical assumptions appeared which concentrated on these matters. It is worth mentioning the influential phenomenon explaining that discredited structuralist formulas are re- examined from the point of view of the speaking act theory by linguistics and by this in fact, the crisis of structuralism was justified. Although the speaking act theory is not a literary critical approach, it analyses the exploded theory of structuralism in details. On the other hand, it should be emphasised that despite the limits of the structuralist approach, after many re-evaluations, it can boast with many results that can be carried on and further developed. In Hungarian literary scholarship, in his book ‘Az irodalmi mű mint komplex model’ [the literary work as a complex model] (1985), Elemér Hankiss provides a synthesis of the work models connected with the systems of structures. When analysing the question ‘Structure or model?’, he actually asserts the idea of literary work as model. His confirmations—it seems—can be undeniable solutions, just like the application of Ingarden’s theory of layers during the analysis of particular works. Thus, structuralism has got generally acknowledged merits; its unsuccessfulness lies mostly in the fact that it eliminated subjectivism from its examinations, in spite of the fact that it cannot be absent even from the strictest, most objective readings. In his stylistic approach, František Miko follows the line of the above mentioned way of thinking, when he claims that the thesis of the analysability of a literary text—generally of every text—has to be attached more tightly to the criteria of function analysis performed simultaneously with the analysis of structure. (2000: 16) Modern hermeneutics has brought serious changes in the interpretation of the reception of the literary work. Its field of research is constantly getting larger. Dilthey claims that understanding is in connection with the process of identification. In his opinion, understanding, both objective and subjective, can only be achieved by the assertion of “concentric circles”. With his work ‘Being and Time’ and with his existential-ontological philosophy, Martin Heidegger, one of the most significant philosophers of the 20th century, renewed the examination of meaning and understanding and created a new basis for literary thinking, especially hermeneutics. His discussion on time draws attention to being in the world, to the human life proper. The proceeds of Heidegger from the point of view of hermeneutics are significant, because he uncovered its ontological basis; later on he improved it and his strategies referred to the essence of being, not just to the questions of being. All of these, however, enrich the domain of philosophy, rather than literary scholarship. The philosophy of modern hermeneutics is elaborated by Hans Georg Gadamer in his work ‘Justice and Method’ in 1960. He admits that he relies on the work of Schleiermacher, Dilthey and Heidegger. Bókay notices that Gadamer’s significance lies in the fact that he elaborated the relationship of hermeneutics and aesthetics, and interpreted hermeneutical reading and the processes of understanding and

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 71 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation interpretation on the basis of artistic theory. (1997: 313) Gadamer explains that understanding, interpretation and application are interrelated elements of the connection with tradition, they are based on the principle of correlation and dialogue; and the recipient’s interpretation is not necessarily identical with the idea of the author. We ourselves raise questions about a literary work, and understanding based on own questions are much worthier than accepting other people’s opinion. This is supported by the notion that there is always a connection between the past and the present throughout the hermeneutical process, and the work itself raises its questions to us as well. The reader brings the work into connection with him/herself, not with the author or with other, earlier potential interpretations. Gadamer’s philosophical hermeneutics lays the foundations of new approaches to literature and creates the need of updating literary scholarly thinking and then influencing the methods of teaching. Hans Robert Jauss announces the programme of literary hermeneutics—in which he mixes the results of structuralist schools with the attitude of hermeneutics—and strengthens the position of the reader, i.e. the principle that there is no literature without the reader. In his well-known work, ‘Literary History as the Provocation of Literary Scholarship’, discusses the condemnation of literary history. In Hungarian literature, Jauss has made an impact on the so-called postmodern tendencies; his writings have influenced the thinking of literary scholarship, especially literary education, which has been forced to revise the role of the reader. The studies and conclusions of the representatives of the aesthetics of reception in Constanz provided/provide plenty of materials for the discussion and comparison of other attitudes and approaches. (We mean the work of Wolfgang Iser, Paul de Man, Paul Ricoeur, Jacques Derrida, Umberto Eco, Roland Barthes and others.) One of the tasks of literary history that is based on the aesthetics of reception is to show the hermeneutical differences between the previous interpretations of literary works and the contemporary ones. The aesthetics of reception differentiates between the current and the possible meaning of a literary work. The fusion of diachronic and synchronic approaches changes historical attitude referring to literature, and provides a more acceptable historical dimension. Jauss’ theory makes the personality and the function of the reader more accurate, lifts him/her out of his/her common (rather passive) position and concentrates on the worldview resp. behaviour initiated/influenced by aesthetic experience. Jauss’ investigation is based on the three basic functions of aesthetic practise, i.e. poiesis (the creating, productive activity), aisthesis (the recipient, the process of reception) and the catharsis (the communicational process). These three functions gain a special emphasis in the realisation of the three phases of the hermeneutical process (understanding, interpretation and application). The most acceptable or best aesthetic experience can be achieved through the multiple and diverse realisation of the reader, the reading process and interpretation. Dialogues about value-changes in literature can and should be continued. Our discussion shows both the expansion of historical dimension and the development

72 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation of scholarship; it gives an outline of the paradigms and refused paradigms of literary scholarship, which provides a greater and greater space for academic theories. Only certain paradigmatic modes can lead to the service of the reader, i.e. his/ her education, by absorbing theories, leaving over-theorizing behind and by being acquainted with the notions of academic meta-language. Literary hermeneutics has efficiently reformed our research in literary scholarship already. The knowledge of other interpretations, simultaneously with the knowledge of specific, individual and recent data, is able to liberate the most acceptable or open interpretations. The referring didactic challenges will definitely be larger and I am convinced that we will be able to win back those readers who are alienated from books.

Bibliography Bókay, Antal (1997): Irodalomtudomány a modern és a posztmodern korban. Osiris Kiadó, Budapest. Hankiss, Elemér (1985): Az irodalmi mű mint komplex modell. Magvető Könyvkiadó, Budapest. Jakobson, Roman (1969): Hang—jel—vers. Gondolat, Budapest. Jauss, Hans Robert (1999): Recepcióelmélet—esztétikai tapasztalat—irodalmi hermeneutika. Osiris, Budapest. Lotman, J. M. (1971): Szöveg, modell, típus. Gondolat, Budapest. Miko, František (2000): Az epikától a líráig. Nap Kiadó, Dunajská Streda.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 73 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation Gyöngyvér HERVAI SZABÓ New Historicism and Poetics of Culture

uring the first decade of the 21st century much of the international and D intercultural discourse about international relations, literature, politics, culture and historiography was influenced by philosophical, political and historical thinking about modernism. Recent debate centred on identities, minority cultures, questions about “we” and “them” about the new place of minority cultures in post-modern societies. Rüsen1 has placed an accent on ethnocentric cultures of historiography, on master narratives that define togetherness and difference as essential for identity, “history as clashes of civilizations”. The main elements of ethnocentrism are: asymmetrical evaluation, teleological continuity, and centralized perspective. Rüsen replaces these asymmetrical elements in the post-modern era with normative equality, reconstructive concepts of development that emphasize contingency and discontinuity, and centralized perspectives with multi-perspectivity and polycentric approaches to historical experience. Adopting these possibilities would lead to a new mode of universal history rooted in a concept of humankind that can help solve the problem of ethnocentrism. This idea of humankind conceptualizes the unity of the human species as being manifest in a variety of cultures and historical developments. This is in fact the traditional concept of historicism, which can be further developed towards a historiography that responds to the challenges of globalization and cultural differences. New Historicism serves as a new paradigm in historiography and brings back narratives into the evaluating processes. New Historicism sees the world in complex instead of teleological development in processes of uncertainty, possibility and discontinuity, history as experience, humanity as plenty of cultures, altering different historical pathways, and seeks answers for cultural differences and globalisation processes. The most famous representative of New Historicism historiography is Stephen Greenblatt, who questions the methods of national historiographies, especially their totalizing tendencies. He thinks that capitalism moves between totalizing and differentiating trends: between uniformity and diversity. We cannot understand history if we only see generalisation tendencies and miss the details, differences, because the latter can help to understand contradictions, to think about history as an interpretative process. New Historicism focuses on those groups that decide on power discourses, focuses

1 Rüsen, J.: How to Overcome Ethnocentrism: Approaches to a Culture of Recognition by History in the Twenty-first Century . History and Theory, Theme Issue 43 (December 2004) 118-129.

74 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation on cultural activity as central to historical analyses, on political, anthropological and cultural values. The most often used phrases in New Historicism are the following: anecdotes, politics of body, bureaucracy, inclusivity, circulation of power in cultural and social texts and discourses. Discourses are concentrated not only for those in power (politicians, lawyers, policemen, writers), but all who are part of the regime. New Historicists study the model of how hegemonic forces consolidate the status quo, how they co-opt the centrifugal groups, make compromise in power games. New Historicism sees texts as embedded in a cultural-social context, sees history as un-continuousness of literature, hegemony as power of the dominant culture, culture as a means of formalizing power and institutions. It treats culture as capital for making power more abstract, as a means of influencing people by education, communication, publicity, mobilizing armies and police force for breaking the power of other cultures. New Historicism ends with historiography focused on political history, great stories, and places an accent on everyday small narratives legitimizing status quo. Instead of ideology as an external force (in Marxist historicism), New Historicism values ideology as personal matter, personal viewpoint. In contrast to ethnicity-centred national histories, New Historicians study the role of knowledge in history, processes of marginalization, narratives and discourses of movements behind mainstream stories, power as a non-physical one, but one as dynamic relationship: how we form our relationship with other people, power as the influence of a dominant group. Greenblatt reflects on Jameson’s theory about the dualism in case of public and private spheres, dualism of aesthetic and politics, about utopia, a society without classes, and questions Lyotard’s vision about a unified and monolithic capitalism without cultural, political, and aesthetic differences. The method of New Historicism called by Greenblatt as “Poetics of Culture”, sees historical and literary texts as autonomous entities, studies the relationship between texts and socio-historical contexts. Greenblatt understands that texts are not only documents of social forces that inform and constitute history and society, but that fashion individual identity and socio-historical situation. By means of an economic metaphor, Greenblatt explains how texts and other symbolic goods, by circulating in a society via channels of negotiation and exchange, contribute to the distribution of social energy, by which he means the intensities of experience that give value and meaning to life and that are also indispensable to the construction of self-awareness and identity. The beating heart, as it were, of this whole process of circulation is identified as a dialectics of totalisation and differentiation, as a powerful social force that oscillates between the extremes of sameness and otherness. In several books Greenblatt has elaborated the various aspects of this Poetics of Culture, such as the circulation of social energy, the dialectics of totalisation and differentiation,

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 75 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation and the process of self-fashioning.2 By Ankersmit, historiography is less secure in its attempt to represent the world than art is; historiography is more artificial, more an expression of cultural codes than art itself. Historiography is a suitable paradigm for studying certain philosophical problems, particularly epistemology, or codified representation. Representation always requires the presence of two sets of non-referential logical dummies; disturbing the symmetry between these logical dummies gives rise to the position of realism and idealism. Epistemology is strongly inclined to disturb this symmetry. The parallels between recent developments in art and those in historiography demonstrate how much historiography is part of the contemporary cultural world. The deficiencies of modern philosophy of history can largely be explained by its tendency to neglect the cultural significance of the writing of history.3 We no longer have any texts, any past, but just interpretations of them. The evident multi-interpretability of a text causes it gradually to lose its capacity to function as arbiter in the historical debate. It is necessary to define a new link with the past based on a complete and honest recognition of the position in which we now see ourselves placed as historians. In recent years, many people have observed our changed attitude towards the phenomenon of information. For postmodernism, science and information are independent objects of study which obey their own laws. Language and art are not situated opposite reality but are themselves a pseudo- reality and are therefore situated within reality. Because of the relation between the historiographic view and the language used by the historian to express his view—a relation which nowhere intersects the domain of the past—historiography possesses the same opacity and intentional dimension as art. The essence of postmodernism is precisely that we should avoid pointing out essentialist patterns in the past. There is reason to assume that our relation to the past and our insight into it will in the future be of a metaphorical nature rather than a literal one.4 Two new ways of looking at forms of knowledge were practiced in France roughly between 1965 and 1985. The post-war Annales school of history moved from “narrative” historical accounts to “non-narrative” accounts—synchronic, quantitative accounts not in story form. At the same time, the structuralists (eventually replaced by the poststructuralists) made history a special target as they began questioning the primacy and security of meaning and the strategies for constructing meaning in narratives. If structuralism and its aftermath is to be said to have had an effect on history, it would be the reinvention of reading, conceiving reading as a more complex and elusive process than it formerly had been, and exposing more and more of the accepted, fundamental components of human life as constructions. Three writers, Paul Ricoeur, F. R. Ankersmit, and Hayden White, recognise narrativity as a worldview, rejecting the Annales school’s distinction between narrative and non-narrative history. These

2 Jan R. Veenstra: The New Historicism of Stephen Greenblatt: On Poetics of Culture and the Interpretation of Shakespeare. History and Theory 34 (October 1995) 174-198. 3 F. R. Ankersmit: Historical Representation. History and Theory 27 (October 1988) 205-228. 4 F. R. Ankersmit: Historiography and Postmodernism. History and Theory 28 (May 1989) 137-153.

76 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation three scholars see story history as a genre. They agree with the poststructuralists on the allegorical nature of history, but their arguments are, unconventionally, morally based. Their discussions of the constructions of narratives serve less to undermine history than to reground it as a humane discourse. By Ankersmit the history is history of mentality, studying differences in historical representations, and metaphors are also historical products. So the voice of historian becomes important, his or her culture, personality, language and aesthetic style is crucial and interdisciplinarity became the method of new inventions. In case of narratives messages are mixed: historical discourses suffer in heterogeneity, and we have to raise the question of evaluation. It is about the question of historical knowledge, about synthesis of cognitive and normative discourses. Narrative combines “heterogeneous” language games in such a way that neither appeal to “truth content” nor to “justice” suffices to decide the question of which of two competing historical explanations is, as a whole, superior. Frank Ankersmit represents the so called narrative idealism, his critic, D. Carr, the so called narrative realism.5 A procedure of historical explanation is proposed which integrates two approaches used by contemporary historians. The motivational model, focusing on the various kinds of motives encountered in historical narratives, and the deductive-nomological model, which focuses on the importance of external events, can be linked together to yield a better integrated explanatory system. The two approaches can be bridged by establishing even more general laws underlying ones already applied, or by searching for substantiations of causes and laws in the origin of the entire historical process. One needs to recognize that both motives and external events can be found in the historical process. Sequences of causes and effects in narratives have as an essential feature the intertwining of causes interpreted as motives and causes interpreted as external events. The objective conditions explained by the deductive-nomological model should find their reflection in the motivational model in the way that agents take cognizance of these conditions.6 Historians holding a determinist view of actions do not think it appropriate to blame people for doing what they could not help doing; for those believing there is an overall pattern to history, individual morality is beside the point. Finally, since earlier cultures had values different from ours, it seems unjust to hold them to contemporary standards.7 How does New Historicism deal with historical processes? New Historicists think men are burned into the world of narratives. In western histories history and fiction are separated. The new task is to connect the two worldviews and to look after similarities in two genres. They think history-writing is an imaginative as novel-

5 Steven Crowell: Mixed Messages: The Heterogeneity of Historical Discourse. History and Theory 37 (May, 1998) 220-244. 6 Jerzy Topolski: Towards an Integrated Model of Historical Explanation. History and Theory 30 (October 1991) 324-338. 7 Richard T. Vann : Historians and Moral Evaluations. History and Theory, Theme Issue 43 (December 2004). 3-30.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 77 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation writing. The events are dispersed, but they are parts of stories, and the historian’s task is to dig into the stories. The event is partly an ontological phenomenon; the narrative is part of the linguistic and cognitive processes. The narrative is a result of cognitive processes as knowledge content, and it has also a poetic character, a result of creative activity, aiming to communicate historical experiences for everyday life- orientation.8 Historical narration is a system of mental operations defining the field of historical consciousness. It is poetic in that it is the performance of creative activity by the human mind in the process of historical thinking. The purpose of historical narration is to make sense of the experience of time in order to orient practical life in the course of time. Three elements distinguish an historical narration from other forms of narration: an historical narration is tied to the medium of memory; it organizes the three dimensions of time (past, present, future) in a concept of continuity; and it establishes the identity of its authors and listeners. In order to develop the concepts of continuity and the stability of identity, an historical narration must fulfil four functions: affirmation, regularity, negation, and transformation. Four types of historical narration correspond to these four functions: traditional, exemplary, critical, and genetic. There is a natural progression through these four types of narration, with critical narration serving as a catalyst. The four types are present in all historical texts, one dominating, the others secondary. Modern historical studies are unique in being informed by theoretically and methodologically organized empirical research. The articulation of theories in history means a progress in reasoning. This affects the role of the concept of continuity of time, which is no longer a given and has become a subject of discussion.9 As a contextual phenomenon, metaphor operates in fundamentally different ways in divergent universes of discourse. In historiography, Maurice Mandelbaum’s incisive typology of forms of historical discourse affords a comprehensive conceptual basis for foregrounding the three fundamental ways that metaphor functions. Each of the three functions of metaphor facilitates historical understanding on a different epistemological level. Heuristic imagery advances deliberative, analytic understanding and falls within the domain of explanatory discourse. Depictive imagery presentationally facilitates the (phenomenological) apprehension of meanings and occurrences; it is a component of narrative, which includes sequential, discourse. Finally, cognitive imagery, operative on the metahistorical plane, orchestrates interpretive discourse and thereby governs the way that events (or actions) may be known in and of themselves. There are competing meanings of “master narrative” in current theoretical debates over history and culture. The phrase “master or meta narrative” has grown popular for describing stories which seem to assimilate different cultures into a single course of history dominated by the West. Master narrative, but our increasingly global

8 Phillip Stambovsky: Metaphor and Historical Understanding History and Theory 27 (May 1988) 125-134. 9 Jörn Rüsen: Historical Narration: Foundation, Types, Reason. History and Theory 26 (December 1987) Bei. 26, 87-97.

78 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation situations demand stories that can describe and explain the worldwide interactions of diverse cultures and communities. From this convergence—a growing wariness of global stories coupled with situations which seem to demand them—has emerged a popular new double plot of world history in which cultural differentiation and cultural homogenization go hand in hand. But our new “post-modern” distinctions between master and local narratives have carried over the venerable antinomy of people with and without history, and the search for timeless formal principles differentiating “historical” and “non-historical” modes of discourse and ways of being threatens to create new varieties of essentialism.10 A new “annalistic” model of history and historical investigation implies a new concept of historical event: instead of being seen as an element within a historical narrative, the historical event is defined as the common reference point of many narratives that can be told about it. The annalistic model also implies a new concept of historical change: instead of being defined as the change of an “object” within a set of given historical parameters, historical change has to be perceived as the change of parameters related to a given historical object. A new concept of history follows from the annalistic model: instead of history being a metaphysical unity of space and time (the destiny of mankind, the positivist world of facts), in which everything is linked to everything, it is instead the product of historical judgment carried out by those who design stories about their own past, present, and future. To the “annalist” a world is imaginable in which no history has existed, exists, or will exist. The article analyzes three aspects of the concept of historical time: it demonstrates the huge variety of temporal structures in history; it argues for the foundation of the representation of historical time in linguistic concepts; and it discusses the relationship of fictionality and reality in historical discourse. Finally, the annalistic model is compared to the traditional concept of history established by historicism in the nineteenth century.11 What are the lessons for Central Europe using New Historicism: • First, the local history of CEE countries did not become part of the history of western metanarratives. Central European narratives are missing from western Canon, and live only in memories of the people of the sub-region. • Second, local histories are missing behind great events, and there is no correlation between micro and macrohistorical processes, microregional modalities. • The history of ethnic groups, diaspora histories is hidden histories in generalizing tendencies of ethnocentric national historiographies. It is time to insert ethnic narratives into dominant state histories, to analyse and study the power structure of cultural hegemonies. A place can be described in different narratives: Transylvania as part of meta-narrative in Daco-Roman theory, meta-narrative in ancient Hunnian history as land of Prince Csaba, narrative of renewing the

10 Kerwin Lee Klein: In Search of Narrative Mastery: Postmodernism and the Peoples without History. History and Theory 34 (December 1995), 275-298. 11 Lucian Hölscher: The New Annalistic: A Sketch of a Theory of History. History and Theory 36 (October 1997), 317-335.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 79 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation Hungarian Kingdom by Transylvanian Principality, and narrative intercultural and inter-religious co-operation of local Hungarians, ethnic Saxons, Romans, Vlachs and so on, and narrative as the borderland area in case of the premodern Habsburg Imperium. • In case of Komárom, Komarno new historicism can open new perspectives for diaspora communities: the historiography of diaspora in a new state formation, intercultural exchanges with recent and former state, new narratives in unifying Europe: about minority life-style strategies, strategies of differentiation against unifying strategies of new nationalist states, developing city-region histories as local histories.

Conclusion The new post-modern and alternative historiographies give new impetus for historiography and culture, give new chances for people and diasporas, native people, subaltern people for rewriting history as permanent exchanges of cultural experiences. The poetics of culture is about the circulation of social energies, about unifying and differentiating aspects of history, about narratives, metaphors, stories and discourses. It is time to integrate alternative knowledge contents of history of those who have not become part of the Canon.

80 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation József KESERŰ When the Face Speaks (To w a r d a n Et h i c a l Re a d i n g )

he relation between literature and ethics is so ancient that it does not need T verification. However speaking about the relationship between literature and ethics seems to be perhaps surprising but definitely anachronistic. It seems that ethics have become a suspicious notion for our recent comprehension of literature. It has not been doubted that ethical questions arise while reading a literary work of art, but these do not influence its aesthetical dimension. Talking about ethics presumes that a work of art is able to teach its reader. Nowadays however we are afraid of didactics above all. So why do we think that the theory (and also practice) of reading can hope to get answers to its essential questions just from ethics? Below I wish to argue that ethics have something to say about reading. However, to make clear what it can be I need to clarify the basic notions (reading and ethics) first. (My method is the following: first I try to explain what reading and ethics are not, than specifying these assertions I try to define the notion of ethical reading by affirmative statements.) Reading is a neutral concept; it does not refer to any method, proceeding or treatment. It is used by everybody because everybody (though not in the same way but) reads. There should be a stress on this neutrality because ethical reading does not mean a certain method of reading. Ethical reading neither has the strictness of a methodology (yet in his own way it is more rigorous than any other methodology), nor possesses the technical apparatus of an interpretation with its prefabricated schemes (even these are put in question). Naturally, ethics is not a coherent notion. If I take only the two traditions with the largest influence in its history into consideration, ethics can mean the pursuit of joy (Aristotle) and the moral law as an unconditional imperative (Kant). However I will not use either of these meanings. I would like to distance myself from those approaches which define a work of art as something that can be learnt consequently from something that contains ethical values. (Although no doubt that reading can teach us but in a complicated and a complex way and definitely not by mediation of a moral lesson.) The notion of ethics does not refer to considering the moral conflicts of characters or judging the actions of those characters. Ethical reading—as we will see further on—is not in relation with evaluation but with comprehension. At this point it is useful to present the notions of Same and other/Other. It can be said that reading is an activity that moves from the Same (from the reader) towards the other. One does not have to prove that a reader when opening a book encounters something strange that is other than himself. And if he

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 81 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation starts reading, his only (but not obviously conscious) aim will be to make that strange familiar at least. The event of understanding starts to work here. Reading can hardly be thought without understanding. What is not understood cannot be read. The text—when it is really read—is always understood. What steps comprehension takes is beyond my interest now. It is sufficient to see that reading always seeks to establish a complete meaning and in this process the world of the text opens up for the reader. Sometimes happens as we are crossing the imaginary threshold of fictions that the world of the text unfolds itself as a world somehow familiar in which we feel at home immediately. However sometimes this world cannot be entered so easily, we have to struggle for it, we have to build it up word by word. Either way it happens, we understand something in each case. Yet in these cases we can hardly get rid of the idea that something else remains uncomprehended. Something always stays outside the homelike, something we cannot understand entirely. The text offers itself for the understanding while reserving some space for incomprehension. The ethical reading comes to life by this very experience that something is always left out from understanding. The reader is involved in understanding. This does not mean that he only wants to understand the relations but he himself creates them. However during this activity he meets with obstacles because one of the essential features of any work of art is its resistance to fixing. The meaning that has been created breaks up permanently therefore creating a meaning appeals to the reader again and again. In this way understanding is an unfinished process. The reader who seems to be at home in the text perpetually feels restricted. He must face the fact that the other cannot be fully acquired what is more it has control over the reader in so far as it commands him to return to the text and the reader has become aware that his original homelike feeling has gone. Recognition of this restrictiveness is crucial but we need to understand it right. For the resistance of any work of art to fixing is not an error it is especially beneficial on the contrary. Since it provides accessibility for the work over and over again. The ethical reading that does not permit to reduce the other to Same has its source in the philosophy of Emmanuel Levinas. In his work ‘Totality and Infinity’ Levinas defines ethics like „the putting into question of my spontaneity by the presence of the Other”1 Levinas asks whether we can possess any knowledge of something without violating its alterity? The answer is unambiguous: we cannot. For it is typical of our thinking to take the alterity away from things in order to understand them. In the course of understanding we move things into the light of our horizons to make them familiar. However Levinas tries to show that the relation between the Same (Même) and other (autre/Autre) cannot be always traced back to occupation of the other by the

1 „On appelle cette mise en question de ma spontanéité par la présence d’Autrui, éthique.” Emmanuel Lévinas, Totalité et Infini,Kluwer Academic, 2003. 33.

82 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation Same.2 It can be in the nature of the other to exceed the thought that wants to grasp it, to exceed the ideas that can be formed of it. Though only the absolutely other—the Other (person)—is able to do this. Therefore the ethical dimension first and foremost comes to light in relation to the Other. Another person facing me and speaking to me becomes someone whom I cannot control. The Other always contains more than the thought of it has ever been able to include. Its closeness surpasses the thought. Levinas approaches the concept of meaning which is independent from the initiative power of the Self. The totality wishing to trace back the other to the Same disrupts in the presence of the Other. Totality is not meant to be a situation or condition one is forced into— against his or her will. Levinas is fully aware that the original relation to things is tantalisation. Let me illustrate this with the metaphor of seeing. When I open my eyes, the things coming to my horizon are interpreted at once. While merely looking at things the Self involuntarily makes others transformed into the Same. The world we live in is other as far as it is able to avoid this violence of transitivity. Yet be the world ever so strange, one makes himself at home in it. Totalisation growing out of the egoism is the basic structure of human existence since man is active in the world and transforms the world by his work. Everything that exists in the world becomes home for the man due to the economy of acquisition. This spontaneity of the Self by which he makes world a place to live in expresses the freedom of the individual. Now it is apparent that the concept of ethics in Levinas is not even a distant relation to the classical concept of ethics. According to Levinas ethics is not a branch of philosophy but it is criticism—the criticism of the western philosophy called ontology including the criticism of ethics in the traditional sense. Therefore Levinas’s ethics can be considered to be „prima philosophia” or as Derrida said „an ethics of ethics“.3 At this point a question arises: Does the ethical dimension which primarily has its roots in the relation to the Other open up during reading? Can a work of art be a face? Levinas surely would answer no, so the only choice for us is to be—to some extent—unfaithful to him. Spontaneity Levinas talked about is also characteristic of the activity of the reader. Naturally the text on which it often takes effect can never act like another person. Nevertheless the text itself possesses certain strangeness or alterity and likewise it is able to put in question the spontaneity of the Self. Reading as a way or means of understanding tends to construct the Same. The desire coming from the movement of the Same aims at totality; however in the end it remains inaccessible. This movement can also be described as a pursuit of the centre. To grasp an idea, to fix a meaning can never be definitive, because the centre aimed at always moves. In fact that is why all the works of art preserve its strangeness or

2 Throughout this text I shall follow the standard translation of Levinas’s ‘autre/Autre’ by ‘other’ and ‘autrui/ Autrui’ by ‘Other’. 3 Jacques Derrida, Violence and Metaphysics: An Essay on the Thought of Emmanuel Levinas. In: Writing and Difference. London, Routledge, 1978. 111.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 83 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation alterity. The alterity of the text does not refer to a relation—the Other can bear no relation to the Same, because the Other is always more than the Self essentially, more than any idea ever formed about it. So it is nonsense to say that the alterity should be reinstated in its rights. Since the alterity is independent from the Self, the Self can endure it at most. This is exactly what behaves like a face during reading. The work of art similarly to the face does not have real presence because of its alterity that cannot be grasped and reduced. Not having presence indicates here not being present that is to say not grasped and does not mean ‚do not exist’. It is nonthematisable yet still exists, impossibly exists like the movement of disruption. That is what Levinas refers to as the function of Saying. In his later work Autrement qu’être ou au-delà de l’essence (Otherwise Than Being or Beyond Essence) the difference between Saying and the Said is expounded. According to this every statement conceals two moments: on the one hand it is the idea already understood, on the other hand it is the function of creating (or rather continuous recreating) this idea. The latter of them (that is Saying) can hardly be described for it is nonthematisable in contrast with the Said even saying itself makes thematisation possible. The Saying always exceeds the Said (that is the idea summed up in Said) and renders it possible for the Said to come about so the reading itself. Therefore the reading is not the event of understanding what we understand when we understand ourselves, neither is it the movement of the language making impossible any kind of understanding but reading is continuous fluctuation between forming and destroying the meaning. What are the consequences of this considering the ethics of reading? Appreciating the function of Saying entails acceptance of the consideration that everything Said during the reading is forced to give itself up to the movement in which Saying exceeds the Said. What has been Said (that is understood or presumed to be understood) is disrupted at the moment of the following Saying during the reading. To describe this movement which repeatedly sets out both disloyalty and appreciation (notions apparently in contrast) can be used. The ethics of reading is forced to become faithless to the text in some way. Of course not by reading the text against itself: against the intention of the author or the text. (For who can give a guarantee that anything at all can be identified as the intention of the author or the text?) Rather in a way that a reading aimed at totality is not allowed to come to existence. Since that would bring the alterity to an end. Thus the relation to the text is filled with care and appreciation. To set out again and again, that is to be exposed to the power of the Other putting the Self of the reader into question—the ethics of reading lies in here. To become faithless to the one and only true meaning so give back to the text what is its own. That exactly means to explore those efforts in the text which make the reading aimed at totality impossible. At the same time the ethics of reading includes denial of the established methods, prefabricated schemes and abstractions. For example the abstraction that a novel reports the series of events taking place in space and time told by a narrator. It is

84 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation not easy to get rid of these abstractions since they are usually engraved deeply in our mind. (I venture to say they can belong to the nature of language.) So the ethics of reading does not sort into schemes but tries to give back the beginning, the origin, the being in progress, the function of Saying. How is it able to do this? Solely by using a language effacing the idea that has already been understood again and again to give itself up to a new one. Just as the waves dash against the rocks endlessly, the ethics of reading sets out again and again hoping to grasp the centre but being aware of the illusion of the grasping, making any kind of fixing, arrangement and destination impossible. If abstraction and sorting into schemes are the original features of the language, the ethics of reading must succeed against the language. Or is it not the most essential feature of language—in spite of all generalization—that nothing is let reposed invariably?

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 85 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation Krisztina KODÓ Past within the Present? Cyberculture versus the Traditional Heritage

he advance of computers and online networks, and with it especially the T internet, has introduced a new dimension of human experience into the daily lives of modern man. The opening up of this “domain” has provided the user with an experience into hitherto unknown areas, and even “worlds”. While technology is continuously booming, and developing day-by-day (but perhaps too quickly for the majority of the people), the traditional forms of art, music and literature are expected to gradually disappear and die out. Can this really happen? Does technological development really seek to extinguish art and literature that is as old as Man himself? Or is there a bridge between the old, traditional forms, and the new? And where and how does the past fit into the present? Based on the information given in Towards a Poetics of Cyberpunk (www. freesideeurope.com) the new world that was created was called ‘cyberspace’. Cyberspace is the home of the Cyberpunks and the Cyber underground. Hackers, phreakers and other cyberpunks, who do not want any laws or rules, rule this world. Some people tend to call this “net democracy”, where everyone, regardless of status, wealth, race, gender, etc., starts off from the same level. “What determines your influence on others is your skill in communicating (including writing skills), your persistence, the quality of your ideas, and sometimes your technical know-how.” (www.rider.edu/~suler/psycyber/basicfeat.html) William Gibson a well-known cyberpunk writer defines cyberspace in the following manner:

Cyberspace. A consensual hallucination experienced daily by billions of legitimate operators, in every nation, by children being taught mathematical concepts … A graphical representation of data abstracted from the banks of every computer in the human system. Unthinkable complexity. Lines of light ranged in the non-space of the mind, clusters and constellations of data. Like city lights, receding… (W. Gibson, Neuromancer)

Altogether cyberspace presents a different world. This world is a network of information, that is at hand and ready to use. We can explore and travel anywhere in the world through the internet, and experience the things others before us experienced in a lifetime or never. We just have stay glued to the screen.

86 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation The term “cyberspace” has been mentioned and used so often that it now seems a trivial and somewhat over commercialized term. Still, the “experience created by computers and computer networks can in many ways be understood as a psychological ‘space’.” (www.rider.edu/~suler/psycyber/psychspace.html) When the users of computers log on to an online service, send an e-mail, they often feel (either consciously or subconsciously) that they are entering a “place” or “space”, which will provide them access to a seemingly unlimited world of meanings and information. According to Douglas Adams, writer, the computer “like a catalogue” contains numbers, graphics and information with “no natural boundaries”. And the “space” can be considered as a door that the computer user can step through, where he will encounter another door, and each door will lead the user to another region of information. (Cyberspace, Documentary film) To continue this thought “on an even deeper psychological level, users often describe how their computer is an extension of their mind and personality—a ‘space’—that reflects their tastes, attitudes, and interests. In psychoanalytic terms, computers and cyberspace may become a type of ‘transitional space’ that is the extension of the individual’s intrapsychic world. (www.rider.edu/~suler/psycyber/psychspace.html) This may be referred to as an interesting experience between the self and the other, which inevitably allows for all sorts of fantasies and “transference reactions to be projected into this space”. (www.rider.edu/~suler/psycyber/psychspace.html) On the one hand, this provides an opportunity for the individual to explore his or her identity, while seeking out the identity of others. But there is a negative side to it as well where “people use this psychological space to simply vent out or act out their fantasies and the frustrations, anxieties, and desires that fuel those fantasies.” (www. rider.edu/~suler/psycyber/psychspace.html) This idea coincides with the views of internet and cyberspace experts, who say that “modern man lives in a sexually frustrated age” therefore it is no wonder that “sex is the best market for cyberspace”. (Cyberspace, Documentary film) What makes all this so interesting and fascinating is that electronic culture uses unusual sounds, lights, forms, colours, images and visions, which also serve to attract the ardent users of the computer, but especially the younger generations. For many the screen provides an outlet for creativity, by presenting ready-made images. The new forms of technology, creativity and the internet all help the individual to explore his / her identity. But we ultimately have to deal with reduced sensations, because “the sensory experience of encountering others in cyberspace—seeing, hearing, and combining seeing and hearing—is still limited. For the most part people communicate through typed language.” (www.rider.edu/~suler/psycyber/basicfeat.html) In other words we cannot see the other smile, laugh or cry; there is no physical contact, such as a handshake, a pat, a hug or even a kiss. Still, one can say that the lack of face-to-face contact has a curious power on how people present their identities in the boundless world of cyberspace. “Communicating only with typed text, you have the option of

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 87 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation being yourself, expressing only parts of your identity, assuming imaginative identities, or remaining completely anonymous. …Anonymity has a disinhibiting effect that cuts two ways. Sometimes people use it to act out some unpleasant need or emotion, often by abusing other people. Or it allows them to be honest and open about some personal issue that they could not discuss in a face-to-face encounter.” (www.rider. edu/~suler/psycyber/basicfeat.html) To an onlooker someone sitting quietly and staring at the computer does not entail much, but for the person in question it can “become an altered state of consciousness”. How is this possible? According to John Suler, while one is reading an e-mail or is engaged in text talk, that is chatting, some people experience a blending of their mind with that of the other person, in other words the experience becomes “surrealistic”. This is similar to a state of consciousness that resembles dreams. Therefore, these altered or dream-like states of consciousness in cyberspace may be one of the possible reasons for why it is so attractive for some people. And this may ultimately help to explain some forms of computer and cyberspace addiction. (www.rider.edu/~suler/ psycyber/basicfeat.html) This dream-like state of mind appears in literature as well, especially in dramatic presentations, that is drama. We can also state that the appeal of the Theatre is primal, and it continues to be so even in its most modern forms. The more a primal quality in feeling is involved, the more effective it is as theatrical art. Drama basically begins with the “words printed on the page, but it rapidly moves off the page, through the imaginations of those who ‘realize’ the words in performance and those who share the dramatic experience as audience and participants, into a new creation.” (Banks, 1998: 15) C.G. Jung was not really interested in the theatre or even literature, and the internet or even cyberspace was something still unheard of in his lifetime, but there are one or two references to either the theatre or drama in his Collected Works. Jung writes that: “One might describe the theatre, somewhat un-aesthetically, as an institution for working out private complexes in public.” (Davies, 1977: 145) Furthermore, “dreams may dip into the past and revive old memories; more importantly, they are—or at least some of them—projects for realizing the aims of the developing personality. They point to the future as well as to the past.” (Hall and Nordby, 1973: 119) This view is very much valid for the users of cyberspace, who, too, seek to explore and define their own personality and identity within a boundless space that seeks to project visions of the future, still the past lingers on forming a bridge between the present, the future and the past. One might say that the dream-world is the area of human experience in which the Conscious Mind and the Unconscious Mind meet and the elements of the dream come from both realms in varying proportions. Therefore, literature (with poetry, novel and drama included) is a product of its creator (the writer, novelist, dramatist, etc.) that draws upon conscious experience and reflection, but the important elements included here basically come from the Unconscious realm. The reader or playgoer is

88 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation extremely affected by the elements of the poem, the novel, or the play that arise from the writer’s unconscious, and anyone who is at all sensitive to literature is sensitive to this dream-like aspect, which speaks and reaches out to the dreamer himself. The more powerful this dream-like aspect is the more powerfully it will affect him or her. Viewing literature from this perspective is especially appropriate for drama, because in the theatre an audience, large or small, encounters the play at one time, and in so far as the play they encounter is a dream, they may be said to dream it together. Among the primitive peoples the great dreams of the race are common conceptions. They are also believed to contain great lessons and great riches of spirit for all the tribe. The great dreams of mankind or the tribe may be said to be the epics of Homer, the Greek tragedies, the Bible, the plays of Shakespeare, the novels of Cervantes and Dickens, a mass of poetry, and much, much more. But in the theatre we dream together, and the sense of community gives special power to our dream. (Davies, 1977: 191) One of the things that Jung emphasized was that in a dream all the elements (this includes all the characters, even the evil ones, the terrifying monsters, benign spirits, and also the landscape of the dream) were aspects of the psyche of the dreamer. Thereby, he or she was the observer of his/her inner theatre, in which the full company of actors, the scene-designer, the director, and the author were included in himself or herself. (Davies, 1977: 193) This idea is well emphasized in the conception that human life is basically a varying degree of tension between opposites. And in this respect it resembles our dreams that arise from a realm within us not otherwise attainable, and understandable only from these symbolic messages. The forces of opposition are one of the factors of cyberspace and cyberculture. Within the domain of cyberspace we encounter oppositional forces constantly in the form of people and newsgroups that are willing to help and have similar views and opinions in certain matters, but there are again those who abuse our privacy by sending advertisements, ‘spam’ letters or even virus infected messages. But for whom is cyberspace? Anyone or just a select crowd? The well known slogan that “cyberspace will make us healthy, wealthy and wise!” is viewed with scepticism by many mainly because the physical world presents another vision of the world. Through the development of the telecommunications network global culture will eventually reach all sections of the world. This has both its positive and its negative sides. Developing countries such as India, just to mention only one, can only continue developing if it introduces high technology. But can a country like India, whose manner of living and lifestyle is still heavily influenced by traditional values, and religious dogmas that go back for many centuries, shed its traditional cloak in a manner of years and follow in the footsteps of the US or Western Europe? Hardly. But there is a definite danger that the forceful spreading of global culture will cause the existing cultures to disintegrate in the near future. For the present the new forms of telecommunication serve as an attraction for the younger and the more adventurous within these countries, which are willing to widen their own intellectual horizons.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 89 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation But for the older generations, and those already in their late thirties and their forties, this will continue to remain foreign and unacceptable in their entire moral, religious, and ethical vision. The introductions of high technology, mass culture and cyberspace will eventually also have the effect of widening the gaps between the generations and enforcing generational conflicts. The spreading of modern telecommunication and with it the use of the internet also has its benefits, whereby the cultural intimacy spreads a new way of talking with others. This facet allows for an openness to learn about other cultures, traditions, religions, and people, but cyberculture and cyberspace do not give advice and help on how to preserve one’s own culture from simply being gobbled up. What is the solution? Is there a solution? The world of the computer is a seemingly endless world. Many experts say that it basically depends on us how, and in what manner, we will use this new technology. But the ultimate aim of Man should be to maintain one’s integrity, and to remain at all costs a human being. The importance of man’s identity and the preservation of one’s heritage are some of the main aspects that Albert Wass (Hungarian Transylvanian writer; 1908-1998) focuses on in his novels and short stories, and especially a work of his titled Heritage (1985). How does he define his and ourHeritage ? According to the definition of the word, ‘heritage’ is “something transmitted by or acquired from a predecessor, a legacy, a tradition; the word may also imply anything passed on to heirs or succeeding generations”. (Webster’s Dictionary) This implies that the past bears a crucial importance on the present and also the future. In his work Wass also goes back to the history of the Hungarians and presents a history of legends that appear to be true with all its wonders and miracles. These acts of wonders and miracles have been passed on orally from generation to generation. This, however, is not enough, because these stories of miracle workers and ‘seers’ run parallel with a strong belief in God. The chronicler seeks the truth of life, which as he gradually realizes is only attainable through a sincere belief in a God, who will help and guide man in moments of peril and crisis. But only man himself can find his own salvation. And ultimately man must know the past in order to understand the present, and with it create a better future for himself in this world. Therefore, the past is a vital part of the present that fundamentally influences the future. The tendency of man to hark back to the past is evident. Only through our past history and experiences can we learn from our mistakes. Therefore, the past forms a bridge to the present and ultimately the future. Traditional forms of literature also attempt to bridge this gap between past and present through the various genres (prose, poetry and drama) that help us to create the images in our minds depending on our own fantasies and dreams. Traditional forms of literature satisfy man’s need to live out his most inner dreams. Does cyberculture and cyberspace have the same effect? Can it be compared at all? Through cyberspace the user is confronted with a static presentation of art. This is also referred to as a form of organic art with an aesthetic quality. These forms of art

90 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation allow the computer user to create his/her own art. This visual approach of art moves toward a new direction and targets a different audience, a so-called subculture. And this is not the audience that goes to galleries, but who use the computer. Is this the end of traditional art? No. Many things will probably change in the coming future, but not everything. And one of the things that will certainly not disappear is books and the pleasure that reading provides. Old, traditional forms will continue to exist, but will be dressed in a new form to suit the requirements of the new technological culture (such as encyclopaedias and dictionaries, paintings etc. on CD-Rom or DVD or even literature to be accessed online). Ultimately, cyberculture that is recent and has no ‘past’ represents a new age and a new way of seeing and approaching life. This is based on the rapid development of communication technology. In contrast, traditional art, music and literature carry within it a heritage of many-many centuries. The past of mankind is ‘bred into our bones’ and even though cyberculture is supposedly popular, works by Albert Wass and other contemporary writers (be it Hungarian, English, American or any other nationality), who seek to bridge the past, the present and the future are even more popular today, will continue to satisfy our imagination and deepest fantasies.

Bibliography Davies, Robertson (1977): One Half of Robertson Davies. Canada: Penguin Books. Hall, Calvin S.—Nordby, Vernon J. (1973): A Primer of Jungian Psychology. USA: Mentor Books. Banks, R.A.—Marson, P. (1998): Drama and Theatre Arts. London: Hodder and Stoughton. Cyberspace. (1996). Documentary film. Directed by Lawrence Moore. Meridian Broadcasting Ltd. Suler, John (1996): Cyberspace as Dream World. [online]. Rider University. Available at: http:// www.rider.edu/~suler/psycyber/cybdream.html [Accessed 1 June 2005] Suler, John (1996): The Basic Psychological Features of Cyberspace. [online]. Rider University. Available at: http://www.rider.edu/~suler/psycyber/basicfeat.html [Accessed 1 June 2005] Suler, John (1996): Cyberspace as Psychological Space. [online]. Rider University. available at: http://www.rider.edu/~suler/psycyber/psychspace.html [Accessed 1 June 2005] Rétfalvi, Györgyi (2005): Towards a Poetics of Cyberpunk. [online]. Székesfehérvár, Kodolányi University College. Available at: http://www.freesideeurope.com [Accessed 1 June 2005]

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 91 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation Imre KURDI Kodolányi House of Literature and Research Centre as a Scientific and Literature Project1 Kodolányi House of Literature and the attached research centre as well as reception archives were founded in Székesfehérvár in 2004. The project is organised under the department of German language and literature and it is located in a Budapest building of the college. As the name shows the founders envisaged two objectives: the project should function as a house of literature2 and research centre in order to find its place in the scientific and cultural life of Hungary and Europe. The idea behind the initiation of the project was the fact that while the Hungarian reception of German Literature can be regarded as a thoroughly researched and analysed topic, very little attention was given to the Hungarian arts of literature in German speaking countries, even though Hungary was the honorary guest in the Book Fair of Frankfurt 1999, and Imre Kertész won the Nobel Prize for literature in 2002. The German-Hungarian literary relationship has always been bilateral and the German reception of Hungarian literature has always contributed to winning worldwide fame for the Hungarian authors since the 19 century.3 Considering the facts above it is really surprising that the topic has only been processed in a sporadic and random way in Hungary. Besides the basic bibliographies of Werner Schweikert4 and Tiborc Fazekas issued in Germany, one can refer to the compilation carried out by Júlia Bartha-Wernitzer in the Petőfi Literature Museum, the results of which are to be found on the homepage of the PIM,5 as well as the four volumes in which Árpád Bernáth and Attila Bombitz, research fellows of the German Institute of the University of Szeged, documented Hungary’s presence, results and effects in Frankfurt.6

1 Translated by László Mezei. 2 The name House for Literature may sound strange in Hungary, but in German speaking countries it denotes institutes dealing mainly with the popularization of contemporary literature. 3 Szász, Ferenc: Der Weg den ungarishen Literatur in die „Weltliteratur” oder ihre aufname im deutschen Sprachraum. Ein Rückblick von der Jahrtausendwende.- In: Ungarn in Europa. BTK Department of German Language and Literature. International conference, 3-4 June 2004. pp. 152-170. 4 Schweikert, Werner: Bibliographie der ungarischen Literatur des 20. Jahrhunderts in deutscher Sprache.— Flein bei Heilbronn: Verl. W. Schweikert 2000; Fazekas, Tiborc: Bibliographie der in selbständigen Bänden erschienenen Werke der ungarischen Literatur in deutscher Übersetzung 1774-1999.—Hamburg: Eigenverlag des Verfassers 1999. 5 See at. http://www.pim.hu 6 Frankfurt ‘99. The Participation of Hungary in the Book Exhibition Presented in the German Media. Editors: Bernáth, Árpád and Bombitz, Attila.—Szeged: Grimm 2002; The Hungarian Literary Presence in Foreign Context. Editors: Bernáth, Árpád and Bombitz, Attila. Szeged: Grimm 2003; Why Do Germans Read Hungarians? Acceptance and Literary Translation. Editors: Bernáth, Árpád and Bombitz, Attila. Szeged: Grimm 2004; Posthumous Renaissance. Studies on Sándor Márai’s Post-life in German Language. Editors: Bernáth, Árpád and Bombitz, Attila. Szeged: Grimm 2005.

92 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation 1. The Scientific Activity of Kodolányi House of Literature and Research Centre

The project as a research centre has the aims of building up an archive about the post-war reception of the Hungarian literature in the German speaking countries and to make accessible the processed material for further scientific research. The year 1945 serves just practical reasons for the compilation would be endless without a starting date. However, we would not wish to imply that Hungarian literature has only been received in Germany after the Second World War. In the archive one can find printed and electronic medias that document the reception of Hungarian literature in German speaking countries in the given period. The German translations of Hungarian authors have a prominent place in the compilation, as well as reviews of these arts of literature and electronic medias (e.g. recordings of radio emissions and theatre plays as well as web pages). From our foundation, we have been monitoring the latest publications of German books dealing with the topic and we aim at a systematic processing of scientific literature (e.g. books, studies, theses and dissertations) issued after 1945. Thus the entire processed and systematised material will be accessible for scientific research. Because it is evident that even an approximately holistic approach to the German reception of Hungarian literary works is a lengthy and strenuous undertaking, we made a ‘top 50 list’ of the 20 century Hungarian authors who we concentrate on at the beginning of our work. The list is of course arguable, for we are aware that important authors are missing from it.7 The list is neither finalised nor exclusive, but it serves practical purposes, namely to function as guidance and support in the enormous mass of material. We also plan the organization of scientific conferences, symposiums and exhibitions that would enable researchers to get acquainted with the activity of the archive and to have the material at their disposal. Therefore, we established relationships with Hungarian and Austrian representatives of partner institutions (Petőfi Literature Museum, Literaturhaus Wien, Innsbrucker Zeitungsarchiv) who provided useful experience, advice and ideas about the further development and operation of the archive at the symposium organised in Székesfehérvár, in March 2005. The further explicit objective of the project is to give such a scientific profile for the German Language Department of Kodolányi János University College, which would make the department an attractive cooperation partner in the eyes of the scientific and literary institutions of German speaking countries. This goal is more important than ever in the unifying European higher education. At the same time, the processing and research of the archive material is a golden opportunity for the department to provide intriguing and fascinating fields of study for students who

7 Plenty of the canonised authors, for not having significant reception in German language countries.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 93 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation are writing their theses, drawing them even further into the research work of the department.

2. The Cultural and Literary Activity of Kodolányi House of Literature The project defines itself not only as a scientific, but as an (inter)cultural and literature institution. In other words it desires to become a meeting place for the German and Hungarian contemporary literature, similarly to the houses of literature functioning in German speaking countries. We will regularly organise possibly bilingual literary evenings and roundtable discussions that will view the Hungarian literature and its reception in German language through the eyes of those authors, translators, critics and publishers who are involved in it. The experience of partner institutions functioning in German language countries like Literaturhaus Wien and Literaturhaus Mattersburg will certainly be of great help in our activity. The public début of Kodolányi House of Literature will be in February 2006 with a literary event that claims wide interest among the reading public. This partly scientific, partly literary event about the acceptance of the Hungarian contemporary author in German speaking countries will be entitled ‘Why Do Germans Read Esterházy?’. The event will be organised in Székesfehérvár with the participation of German and Hungarian scientific researchers, critics and translators as well as the author Péter Esterházy.

94 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation Attila MÉSZÁROS Literature in the Net—Net Literature?

Internetted ome time ago, in the middle of the nineties, an American businessman called S Bill Gates, leader of the Microsoft software company, was asked, what he thinks about the internet. His answer was: “The Internet? We are not interested in it“1. The same Bill Gates is now one of the richest men in the world, due to the fact that he revised his opinion about the web. The dotcom sphere is a great business till now—but it is not my intention to describe this. The structure and mechanism of the internet is well-known for all of us. It is the “new media” of our days, a virtual world, offering all kind of knowledge, entertainment and communication—and of texts, of course. In spite of all the multimedia contents the web is basically text-based, just like in the beginning, in 1992, when the WWW (World Wide Web) by the CERN was released2. Combined with the relative freedom of the web, the internet offers the possibility for the evolution of new textual genres— see examples just like the chat-communication or the blog-literature. The result of this “textual boom” was the birth of a special art of literature, the so called n e t l i t e r a t u r e.

Literature in the net—net literature? Every new kind of media brings new possibilities for the man to express himself. If we look into the past, revolutionary changes were brought by the printed book—the oral literature of the middle age changed into printed literature. The internet is the new media of the p o s t m o d e r n m a n, it has an influence on his language, speech, lifestyle and communication. The n e w m a n is the captive of the web, he builds up his virtual ego and virtual world. How should we understand the term “net literature”? Just like in the case of the “traditional”, offline literature, the answer is not obvious. Is it the whole of texts, which can be found in the web, without reference to their genre, structure and quality—or such texts only, which were built especially for web purposes, based on hypertextuality, etc? With other words: the Faust written by Goethe, typed in as a simple text and uploaded into the net by someone, is it net literature already, or just in the case, that

1 Quotes and Sayings: Bill Gates from Microsoft 2 Storrer: Was ist „hyper“ am Hypertext?

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 95 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation the text is combined with multimedia content (pictures, music) and structured as hypertext? After a short tour through the internet, we have the feeling, net literature means all except simple linear texts. On the well-known web portal, dedicated to this theme, www.eliterature.org, we will find the following categories:

- hypertext - reader collaboration - other interaction - recorded reading - animated text - other audiovisual animation - generated text3

So, we should talk about “more-than-texts”, about texts, which make a special reader interaction necessary. The traditional “trinity” of literal genres can be found there, too—there are works of drama, lyre and epic. Hermann Rotermund, the well-known guru of German-spoken net literature separates the following 4 categories of texts in the web4:

a) simple linear texts b) only-texts, non-linear texts, based on the principles of hypertextuality c) textual experiments, texts combined with audiovisual elements, like the works of Appolinaire d) multimedial texts, combinations of text, music and picture, with the aim to realize the perfect artwork, the so called “Gesamtkunstwerk”

The wreader We are talking about texts, we have to research the two sides, connected by the text, too: the writer and the reader. Every new kind of media brings changes into the life—the internet revolutionised the relation between writer, text and reader. The common stations of publishing— writer, editor, press and reader—are the past now. Texts in the web are written, edited and published by the same person, by the writer—and as final products sent directly to the reader. The internet is an anonymous world, here comes the question, can we talk about writer in the common meaning of the word? The same text can be found in the web in more versions, under another title or another name of author. Roland Barthes said

3 www.eliterature.org 4 Rotermund: Die Laudatio zum 2. Internet-Literaturwettbewerb

96 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation in 1968, the writer was dead5, the same idea was presented by Michel Foucault in his famous work “What Is An Author?”6. So, the author as individual leaves the text, his role is substituted by the collective of authors. The process of reading is not steered by the writer anymore, it is the task of the reader—we can see the birth of the w r e a d e r. Like the reading process, the writing is changing, too—cut’n’paste, that is the style of the future, the writer becomes editor. Are we totally free? Does the writer belong to the past? Maybe. But, when we research these texts, the author is always present, he is just hidden in the background. Let us take just the hypertext—it is based on the principle, the reader can always leave the text to step into another. This possibility of “stepping-out-of-one-into-another” is realized by so called links. The freedom is just relative, we can not open links anywhere, there are built in by the author—he navigates us. We can see, the new medium has a strong influence on the meaning of both terms, writer and reader, too—let us take now a look on the origin of texts. In the internet, there exists a text not just in a version only. It is typical that we find the same text in three or four versions, one is shorter, one is longer, but they are the same—but which one is the original? Zoltán Szűts introduces the term of “text clone”, he says, it is better to talk about “first release”7. But, to copy segments from a text into an other is just a moment—should we then talk about the versions of the same text or not? These are questions for text theory but for literature theory, too.

The myth of the hypertext8 The web is a useful source of information, can be accessed by anyone, but there are a lot of myths, legends about his existence, just like “there are no more languages”, “a virtual world, in which the man is losing his ego” or “a virtual world which is changing the real one”. It is not my job to decide about the truth, but it is real: the web is the first step to realize an old dream of mankind, total wisdom. The basic principles of this virtual world were developed by Vannevar Bush, in his Memex-concept9; the Xanadu-project by Ted Nelson was based on the same idea, on the idea of the “world library”. The term of “hypertext” was presented by Nelson, too—he writes, the hypertext is “non-sequential writing with reader controlled links”10. This project was never realized, just the hypertext. Douglas C. Engelbart presented in 1968 his On-Line-System, the first system based on hypertext structure. That was just the beginning—the possibilities of the system were discovered by the U.S. Army, the result of this was the birth of the ARPANET. Some years later the U.S.

5 Barthes: The Death Of The Author (1968) 6 Foucault: What Is An Author? (1968) 7 Szűts: A hypertext 8 For the typology on hypertexts see Joyce: Authoring as Architexture: Toward a Hyperfiction Poetics. and Phelbs: The Choicest Bits 9 Bush: As we may think 10 Nelson (1974): Computer Libdream Machines

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 97 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation universities joined to the program, too, they developed the CSNET and the NSFNET, the forerunner of a phenomenon called WWW—or the World Wide Web.

Short history of the net literature We can talk about net literature just since the birth of the internet, but the tradition of this art of literature is much older. The forerunners were surrealism and Dadaism, there were several experiments with texts to connect different parts of sense, just like the poems of G. Appolinaire. Two names from the sixties and seventies: Italo Calvino and Raymond Queneau. The roman “The Castle Of Crossed Destinies” by Calvino is based on the rules of tarot card, every new card is the starting point for new story lines. Queneau is well-known on his sonnets “Cent milliards de poémes”. By combining the lines we can produce 100 milliards of different sonnets. In 1975 his work was digitalized, there was born a new school of art, too, the so called “Oulipo-group”. His aim was experimenting with possibilities of combinatory in poetry, today they are researching the online literature. On similar principle is built up the work “Disztichon Alfa. Első magyar automatikus versgenerátor.” (Distichon Alfa. First Hungarian automatic poem generator) by Tibor Papp. The German-spoken net literature is based on the tradition of the “konkrete Poesie” (concrete poetry), the first group was formed around Max Bense and Reinhard Döhl, this was the so called “Stuttgarter Schule” (Stuttgart School). In the eighties there was a big project called “Imaginäre Bibliothek” (Imaginary Library) started by Heiko Idensen and Matthias Krohn, with the aim to realize a worldwide virtual library. In 1996, the popular German magazine ZEIT organized the first competition in online literature—since then is net literature handled “normally”, not just as a subculture. The first groups of English-spoken net literature were formed in the U.S., the most important was the one about George Landow at the Brown University. Today, there are classics, too, just like the electronic roman “Afternoon” by Michael Joyce, the “Patchwork Girl” by Shelley Jackson or the works of Stuart Moulthrop. Another school is represented by Jim Rosenberg, he and his group, “The Language Poets” are experimenting with multimedial texts. The traditions of the Hungarian-spoken net literature are not so rich, but there are interesting projects, too. The roman “Dúlalav. 100kezes netregény” was published in the Hungarian newspaper “Magyar Nemzet”, written by the readers. The “Trinapló” is a common diary of three men, published in the web. The idea of “world library” is present in the Hungarian internet community, too. There are two popular projects to realize this: the first one is the “Hungarian Electronic Library”, originally started by some freeware-enthusiasts to digitalize Hungarian and Non-Hungarian texts. This library is now part of the Hungarian national library, of the “Országos Széchényi Könyvtár”, offering hundreds of texts to download for free. The second similar project is called “Digitális Irodalmi Akadémia”, there are the works

98 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation of contemporary Hungarian authors available for free. And there is an outstanding project at the Loránd-Eötvös-University, too—the BIÖP-project (Informatics in the arts). Its aim is the digitalizing of printed literature, the producing of “free”, “online” and “critical” publications. And in the end, some words about the newest art of net literature: this is the so called “blog-literature”. The “blog” is the shorter form of “weblog”, that means a special art of web diary. The author of blogs is called “blogger”, but it is a question whether blogs can be handled as literature or not. Blogging is one kind of exhibitionism, and like this, it is very popular in the circle of internet-newbies—less at internet-oldies. Is it the truth or not, “weblogs are making the Internet more interactive, more »writerly«.”11 To summarize, my aim was to give a short presentation on the net literature—on his existence, forms, directions and genres. We can see, there are several projects, it is not the culture or mania of closed groups anymore. I think, the “convential” theory of literature should discover this phenomena and search place for it, in the circle of traditional literal genres.

Bibliography Auer, Johannes: 7 Thesen zur Netzliteratur. Accessed on 15. 4. 2004. http://netzliteratur.net/ thesen.htm Auer, Johannes: Der Leser als DJ, oder was Internetliteratur mit HipHop verbindet. Accessed on 10. 5. 2004. http://netzliteratur.net/dj.htm Auer, Johannes: Schreiben und Lesen im Internet. Accessed on 15. 4. 2004. http://netzliteratur. net/interlit.htm BIÖP-Homepage. Accessed on 14. 4. 2004. http://magyar-irodalom.elte.hu/ Blood, Rebecca: Weblogs: a History and Perspective. Accessed on 23. 5. 2004. http://www. rebeccablood.net/essays/weblog_history.html Böhler, Christine: Der digitale Literaturbetrieb: 10 Thesen. Accessed on 15. 4. 2004. http:// netzliteratur.net/boehler/thesen.html Bush, Vannevar: As we may think. In: The Atlantic Monthly, July/1945. Accessed on 16. 4 . 2004. http://www.theatlantic.com/unbound/flashbks/computer/bushf.htm Cramer, Florian: Kombinatorische Dichtung und Computernetzliteratur. Accessed on 28. 4. 2004. http://netzliteratur.net/cramer/kombinatorische_dichtung.html Cramer, Florian: Literatur im Internet. Accessed on 28. 4. 2004. http://netzliteratur.net/ cramer/alg-literatur_im_internet.html Idensen, Heiko: Intertext-Interaktion-Internet. Accessed on 22. 5. 2004. http://netzliteratur. net/idensen/Schnittstellen_Siegen.html Jerz, Dennis G.: On the Trail of the Memex. Vannevar Bush, Weblogs and the Google Galaxy. Accessed on 22. 5. 2004. http://www.dichtung-digital.org/2003/1-jerz.htm

11 Jerz: On the Trail of the Memex. Vannevar Bush, Weblogs and Google Galaxy

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 99 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation Joyce, George Stuart: Authoring As Architexture. Toward a Hyperfiction Poetics. Accessed on 20. 3. 2004. http://skycraper.fortunecity.com/dns/689 Phelbs, Katherine: The Choicest Bits. Accessed on 20. 3. 2004. http://www.glasswings.com. au/modern/choice.htm Quotes and Sayings.com: Bill Gates from Microsoft. Accessed on 24.11.2005. http://www. quotesandsayings.com/gbillgates.htm Rotermund, Hermann: Laudatio im Literaturhaus Hamburg, 29. 10. 1997. Accessed on 20. 5. 2004. http://netzliteratur.net/rotermund/laudatio_2internetliteraturpreis.html Storrer, Angelika: Was ist „hyper“ am Hypertext? In: Kallmeyer, Werner (Hrg.): Sprache und neue Medien. Jahrbuch des Instituts für deutsche Sprache 1999. Berlin/New York: De Gruyter. 2000. Schröder, Dirk: Vagabundierende Literatur. Literatur im Internet und Internetliteratur. Eine Einführung für Anfänger. Teil 1. Accessed on 22. 5. 2004. http://netzliteratur.net/schroeder/ vl1.htm Schröder, Dirk. Was kann die Literatur für das Internet tun? Accessed on 22. 5. 2004. http:// netzliteratur.net/schroeder/wklt.htm Szűts, Zoltán: A hypertext. Accessed on 20. 11. 2003. http://magyar-irodalom.elte.hu/vita/ tszz.html Wirth, Uwe: Der Tod des Autors als Geburt des Editors. Accessed on 15. 4. 2004. http:// netzliteratur.net/wirth/autoreditor.htm Wirth, Uwe: Literatur im Internet. Oder. Wen kümmert’s wer liest. Accessed on 22. 5. 2004. http://netzliteratur.net/wirth/litim.htm

100 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation Imre PERES The Role of the Bible In Strengthening Literature and Culture

Introduction t is quite certain that the question is often being raised today, is there any I significance and contribution of the Bible and faith towards literature, culture, in general and towards shaping human life and society in particular1. In the following this problem is to be dealt with an outlook on historical development.

1. The mission and role of Jesus and his disciples in promoting the faith and culture The Bible and Jesus are the primary sources of faith. The apostles as Jesus’ disciples guarded, proclaimed and developed his teaching. Jesus was the one who first proclaimed the Gospel, the Good News about the love and salvation of God. That offered the possibility of new life for all peoples. The New Testament informs us, that some of Jesus’ disciples came to him voluntarily, others were sought and called by himself.2 We know that he called first Twelve disciples to himself, who were people of various professions: fishermen, carpenter, tax collectors, merchants, revolutionaries etc. People who belonged to the lower strata of society, or periphery; women, and men; young and old; sick, sinners, criminals; hungry and tortured; persecuted and outcast, who met Jesus at various places and listened to him in the courts and halls of the Jerusalem Temple, in synagogues, in the open air, by the seaside, in the hills, sometimes in the midst of big gatherings, or in private homes of families, or eye to eye with some. In addition to the outcast and despised some learned ones of higher classes also came to listen to him such as rabbis, priest, scribes, and teachers of law, Pharisees, and rulers.3 Along with the Twelve a larger circle of 70 disciples developed (Lk 10:1). Later on he had about 500 committed followers came into existence(1Cor 15:6). Jesus had close relationship with most of these people. He spoke Aramaic and knew both the Palestine-Judaic and Galilean dialects. He also knew Hebrew that

1 Németh Géza, Hidak és torlaszok, Budapest 2000. 2 Peres Imre, Aspekty výchovy a vzdelávania v antike a v spisoch Nového zákona, BAB 1, Bratislava 2001, 134. 3 Peres, Aspekty výchovy a vzdelávania, 134.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 101 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation as the language of the Old Testament was the lingua sancta, the holy tongue of the forefathers. While in Egypt in his childhood he became also familiar with the tongue of Northern Egypt the Coptic language. He also spoke Greek and probably Latin. He studied the scriptures of the Old Testament and the contemporary apocrypha, and also the midrashim, the sayings and explanations of rabbis. Already at the age of 12 he was involved in a dispute with learned scribes that amazed his parents and adversaries (Lk 2:46-50). Thus Jesus presents himself as a teacher, pedagogue and andragogos, who teaches, enters into disputes quotes the Scriptures, and other Jewish literature, and so spreads knowledge, the erudition of faith. At the same time he also helps the sufferer and the sick. He helps people to organize closer communities, offers them a healthy national self-consciousness, hope for a new life, and of improving their situation. In other words he offers meaning both individual and community life. The reaction of people to all these is summed up by Matthew. The evangelist: people were amazed, and enthusiastic about his teaching. He carried them with himself those who acknowledged the power of his words that shaped his audience with irresistible power (Mt. 7:28).4 Before his ascension Jesus authorized his disciples to go to the whole world and make all people disciples. In other words: they were to go among peoples to teach, to proclaim the Gospel, to organize communities, and live according to the new order and new world. i.e. in compliance with the order of the Kingdom of God. The disciples obeyed the commission and acted accordingly. They took the roads of the Roman Imperium and followed the will of their Lord. As a result of their activities at first smaller communities, house or family congregations came into existence led by elected leaders. As these small communities kept on growing, and built up communication among themselves result was the appearance of the larger community, the Church already in apostolic times. In order to give to understand how they worked and war was the lasting effects of their activities, I bring forward to typical examples: 1. According to Acts 17:10-15 in Berea, small town in Asia Minor the apostle Paul and his fellow workers did mission work. After their departure those who accepted their message kept on coming together regularly every day to study the Scriptures, ancient scrolls naturally with a particular aim: to be strengthened in their faith about Jesus being the Messiah by means of d separating false arguments form the right ones. So they carried on a work of making spiritual/intellectual decision making. I so doing while serving the Gospel in particular, they also contributed towards raising the level of cultural life in general, spiritual attitude and community-building. Thus they brought about a new tradition that transformed their life, their communities and the social life of the town. 2. The second example comes from the Book of Revelation that gives us reliable information about the life of Christians at the turn of the first-second centuries. In

4 F. Normann, Christos didaskalos, Münster 1966. Peres Ime, Aspekty výchovy a vzdelávania, 139.

102 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation the city of Ephesus—where the apostle John had missionised—a strong intellectual community, the so called Johannine school was established with very serious intellectual—theological and literary—activities.5 They collected documents of Gospel traditions, the epistles of the apostles. Songs, hymns, poetic texts, were written or collected. Out of these liturgical collections a were also brought about for the use of family and congregational worship. In addition to forming new traditions and so enriching the life of the church they also contributed towards the enrichment of the cultural life of the whole city. The so called Pauline and Antiochian schools came into existence in the same pattern and performed the same role.6 Their members came together regularly, organized their own community life, collected traditions, copied the writings of the apostles, wrote similar new ones; and so educated themselves and indirectly also their neighbours in literary knowledge. That pattern was to continue in the time of the apostolic Fathers and the church Fathers resulting in establishing the Canon of the New Testament,7 which is the most excellent product of apostolic theology and cultivating literature.

2. The role of the Bible and faith in Hungarian history Hungarian culture and literature cannot be separated from the Bible and from Christian faith. Analysis of literary products from the 10. century onwards clearly shows how many valuable pieces of literature including spiritual ones came into existence that shaped our development, culture and national identity. Perhaps the most important event of this development was the humanism and the reformation that had an effect on the whole population of the land. According to Antal Szerb: “The Christianity of St. Stephen was taken up so unconsciously by most in the country as infants take baptismal water. It is today that Christianity is being consciously struggled for and accepted.”8 It is true that the Reformation took place among much labour pain and had also side effects , but it did bring to Hungarian soil from Germany and Switzerland new spirit, renewed faith, new theology, new language and thereby new literature and new society, and last but not least a complete renewal of the church.9 From the point of view of our subject matter the emphasis is to be put on two tendencies: One is the problem of writing, that of literature. The other one is self-organization. 1. It was the achievement of the Reformation, that in the church—in accordance with the inspiration and example coming from German and Swiss sources—there was a desire and demand for renewal, new theology resulting from a faithful study

5 Bolyki János, Liturgiai elemek a Jel. konyvében, in: Magyar Egyházzene IV (1996/1997), 19-31. 6 Georg Strecker, Theologie des Neuen Testaments, Berlin-New York 1996, 19. 7 Helmut Köster, Einführung in das Neue Testament, Berlin—New York 1980, 780. 8 Szerb Antal, Magyar irodalomtörténet, Budapest 1934, 57. 9 Szerb Antal, Magyar irodalomtörténet, 57.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 103 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation of the Scriptures for the sake of the whole community. That could not have been done without the translation of the Holy Scriptures. It was in this spirit that after various attempts the full translation of the Scriptures was published (1590) by Gáspár Károli (1530-1591).10 Not long afterwards the Roman Catholic György Káldi (1573- 1634) followed suit and completed his Bible translation (1626).11 The latter has not been so well known and used as the Károli Bible,12 which became the foundation of Hungarian national literature and culture.13 Along with the „Vizsoly Bible”14 several other part of Scripture were translated15 along with volumes of sermons (postilla), sums of faith (institutions), educational fairy-tales and examples (fabulae). These were used mostly by preachers for illustrations. All these amounted to the development of literary language, the style of public speech became more elevated, vocabulary enriched by tactful and colourful expressions. Thus the dignity of the language was deepened.16 In addition to the biblical texts significant contributions were made by the theological debates, polemic dialogues that actually lead to the beginnings of drama writing.17 2. Along with the contribution afforded by church literature towards general literary development it had a great influence on other fields of cultural-educational development. A leading role way played by clergy and lay leaders in the church involved in establishing new church organizations. The fact that the Bible became available for the public afforded important help for public education, up-building communities, common prayers and community singing. In the liturgical renewal Albert Szenczi Molnár (1574-1634) had a leading role to play. He made the first revision of the Károli Bible. 18 He also translated the Geneva Psalter into Hungarian offering thereby a treasury for faith and for literature.19 His Psaltery has been taught and used in the Reformed Church ever since. Along with the Hungarian Reformed the Slovak Reformed—whose number was growing from the 18th century—also used

10 Cf. Peres Imre, Mi indította Károli Gáspárt a bibliafordításra? in: Kálvinista Szemle 61 (1990/XI), 5. 11 Kaldi first published his translation in Vienna in 1626 under the title:Holy Bible translated into Hungarian out of the Latin version accepted by the whole Christianity by priest György Káldi belonging to the company fiughting under Jesus in Nagyszombat. The followibng editions: Nagyszombat 1732; Buda (1782); Eger (1865 and 1892). The Eger edition had the title: The Scriptures of the Old and New Testament according to the Vulgateta taken also into consideration the original text as an edited version of György Káldi with notes. = Rácz Kálmán, A Károli Gáspár és Káldi György bibliafordításai és a Károli-biblia védelme, 1892. 13 Cf. Ötvös László, Károli Gáspár bibliafordításának jelenléte a népi vallásosságban, Szolnok 1995. 14 The common name of Karoli’s translation: Szent Biblia, azaz Istennek Ó- és Újtestamentumának próféták és apostolok által megíratott szent könyvei. Magyar nyelvre fordíttatott egészen és újonnan az Istennek Magyarországban való anyaszentegyházának épülésére, Vizsoly 1590. 15 Nemeskürty István (ed.), Magyar Biblia-fordítások Hunyadi János korától Pázmány Péter századáig, Budapest 1990. 16 Budai Pál, A’ köznép babonái és balvélekedései ellen való prédikátziók. Nagybajom 1811-1824 (reprint by Szacsvay Éva & Szalánszki Edit, Budapest 2005). 17 Szerb Antal, Magyar irodalomtörténet, 69. 18 Szent Biblia az az: Istennec O és UY Testamentomanac prophetac és apastoloc által megiratott szent könyvei. Magyar nyelvre fordítatott egészszen, az Istennec Magyarorszagban valo anyaszent Egyházának épülésére. Caroli Gaspar Elöljarobeszédével. Ez masodic kinyomtatast igazgatta néhol megis jobbitotta Szenci Molnar Albert. Hanoviaban MDCVIII. Esztendőben. (Hannover: 1608) 19 Németh László, Az én katedrám, Bratislava-Budapest 1983, 107.

104 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation in the translation of the one hundred and fifty Psalms of King David translated by János Margitai.20 This translation is “true interpretation of all Psalms of Szenczi”.21 There is another piece of church literature that had an enormous influence the prayer book of György Szikszai 22became a means of personal and family piety in homes and is in use even today.

3. The presence of the Bible and faith in literature The influence of the Bible and faith could not be limited to church circles alone. The Bible itself and the literature mentioned above have been used and/or build upon by writers, poets and students of literature not only in the past but also today. Hungarian literature is unimaginable without Biblical material, figures of speech, sayings, instructions that influenced even permeated the whole language. There is hardly any author who would not have availed him/herself with certain ideas and forms of speech of the Bible some in positive others in negative sense. When our writers speak and write about our past, traditions, struggles, love, or death, the society, and future they reach out for the Bible. Some of them taking up critical or even inimical positions towards the message of the Scriptures. All these testify to the fact that the Bible and faith did touch many people—among them so to speak secularized authors—in whose works, ideas and message directly or indirectly the Biblical message reaches secularized people and society. Dealing with these questions we have to point out that the so called religious literature constitutes a special category that is aiming at interpreting the message of the Bible with its particular language and means of expression. This intention here is to reach out primarily to those communities within the church Protestant or Roman Catholic alike. However they also want to address wider layers of society outside the ecclesiastical communities. This kind of “spreading the message” is directly related to both theological literature—such as Bible-commentaries, liturgical texts—and also to belles-lettres including poetry and other genres. Among these writers we find also leading church personalities with literary charismata. We have to be aware of the fact—as István Nemeskürty puts it—“the impact of the Bible upon Hungarian literature has been uninterrupted for one thousand years.23

20 Király Péter, A keletszlovák nyelvjárás nyomtatott emlékei, Budapest 1953. 21 Csanda Sándor, Szenczi Molnár Albert zsoltárainak szlovák fordításai, in: Csanda Sándor-Keserű Bálint (ed.), Szenci Molnár Albert és a magyar késő-reneszánsz, Szeged 1978, 227. 22 Szikszai György, Keresztyéni tanítások és imádságok a keresztyén ember különböző állapotai és szükségei szerint a velük élni akarók lelki hasznára, Makó 1786 (Budapest, 1993). 23 Nemeskürty István, Magyar Biblia-fordítások, 19.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 105 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation 4. The task of the Church in strengthening biblical influences on literature and culture

The Bible and faith must not be wiped out of the life of contemporary persons and society. It is first of all the bounden duty of the church not only to preserve and strengthen her spiritual values, but to offer them to all, who fell responsible for the history, life and future of our people. It has just been pointed out how important role the Bible and faith has had in our past and roots and in shaping our identity. This must continue today with much vigour and enthusiasm. Writing and reading together have been constitutive in the life of the church from the very beginning. The Bible itself, prayers books, hymnaries, postils and mediations have been given in the hands of people. The were the sources of learning primarily matters belonging to faith and indirectly enriching the fullness of culture. The written and spoken word using literary means of high level expressions is of great importance even today. If someone is touched by the history and present language within the church, he/she might be motivated from cultivating further literary means of (self- )expression. Naturally the Bible serves first of all expressing and composing matters of faith. However, these are of such value that can be usefully applied in wider fields of society. This consideration is strengthened by observing that the Bible and faith urge us for up-building a higher level of communication and of creating values. All these afford us significant help for not only higher claims for values and culture, but also for actually creating these over against destructive tendencies in society.24 The Bible and faith are such sources that offer us the possibility of continual personal and national hope. It prompt on for creating products of positive, spiritual culture that helps in finding the right way of orientation of living. Thus they have an impact of a catalyst (purification) in society. It is the great challenge for ecclesiastical communities, congregations, smaller groups of the faithful to offer all these values for society that struggling with establishing strong identity and with shaping its future. Last but not least Scriptures and faith open up the eschatological orientation in this world closed in itself,25 as they point with expectation towards the transcendent future. That is exactly which is of the highest significance for our view of life both individual and national. From all these we are taught to trust, to live, work and create for the future.

24 Boross Géza, Szószéki küzdelem a társadalmi devianciák ellen, Budapest 1999. 25 Fritz Buri, Christentum und Kultur bei Albert Schweitzer, Leipzig 1941, 31ff.

106 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 2. Literature in the Age of Globalisation These are the values offered to us by the Bible and faith as represented in an the impressive, colourful and pluralistic ways by writers ecclesiastical and secular. They challenge us to carry on doing the same: i.e. to cherish, widen and deepen the impact and influence of what has been and is being done in the church communities directly and in the public sphere perhaps more indirectly in university education and other fields of cultural life. This is the way of being effective contributors for cultural and social life, for nation-building and preserving26 in the contemporary world.

26 Kozma Zsolt, Önazonosság és küldetés, Kolozsvár 2001, 51.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 107 108 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 109 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe Andrea GLAVANOVICS Magyar Magic, Hungary in Focus (Th e r e c e p t i o n o f Ma g y a r Ma g i c o n t h e b a s i s o f c ontemporary Br i t i s h p a p e r s )

he aim of this short essay is to emphasise how important it is for a nation to T know what other nations think of her and to show how difficult it is to change automatic responses, well-conditioned stereotypes. „As individuals getting in touch with each other they more or less create a social picture about each other similarly to national communities, the members of collective subjectum also transform neighbouring and distant nations in their spiritual life and general thinking. The question „What are we like?” most often emerges how others see us uhether they are individuals or another nation.” Researchers point out that even on the basis of just fragments or organised knowledge, but they get a picture from each other, and form an evaluating opinion about other nations. Thus, we face an unavoidable and necessary fact: Hungarian society—even if we want it or not—is also the object of outer reflections.1 Hungarian psyche is even more sensitive to outer reflections as we often think that we are alone in the world because of our origin and language. Outer reflections also strengthen, and confirm this feeling. Even if it is a positive or negative attitude towards us through very often mosaic-like pieces of information full of gaps, exotic extraordinary, bohemian life is tangible, which is and was owed to Hungarians as a nation. This ambivalent sympathy and contradiction were well summed up by Laval, the French Prime Minister when he said: „You are forming a bizarre island in Central Europe but unfortunately you are so nice and likeable.”2 The intensity of attention towards us has changed a lot during the centuries. Between 1894 and 1906 for 13 years 80 editorials dealt with Hungarian political topics in ‘The Times’ besides the almost daily news about Hungarian home and foreign affairs. Between 1890 and 1918 there are almost 100 pieces of British publications dealing with Hungary. At that time not only the world was smaller than now but Hungary was also more important as part of a world power and in many aspects significant half of its politics.3 Moreover to see to what extent an authentic image of a country and a nation depend on politics and historiography can be proved by the fact that at that time between 1904 and 1914 two energetic and determined young

1 Pataki, Ferenc: Magyarságkép és történeti változásai. In: Pataki Ferenc, Ritoók Zsigmond (eds. 1999): Magyarságkép és történeti változásai. Budapest, Magyar Tudományos Akadémia. 9. 2 Ibid. Ormos, Mária: Képek Magyarországról az első világháború után. 57. 3 Ibid. Jeszenszky, Géza: Magyarország változó képe Nagy-Britanniában. 87.

110 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe Britons (R.W. Seton Watson and Wickham Steed) watched Hungary in the rival camp and respectable papers were open to them such as ‘The Times’, ‘The Spectator’, ‘The Manchester Guardian’ and ‘The Morning Post’. The two men originally felt solidarity or sympathy towards Hungary and the Hungarians, they were friends of us, then their contemporaries were hurt by their friendly advice, after that both of them (the two Britons) were hurt in their honour. They were accused of being bribed and of being the tools of Vienna and the Czechs. Thus both of them were alienated, and they became enemies. The change of the image of Hungary at that time had particular significance because during the First World War and in 1919 at the peace conference it became a factor which formed politics. 1956 and 1989 restored the lost prestige and made Hungary popular again but old prejudice came to the surface again after 1990 and had a significant role in that Hungarian foreign policy concerning its neighbours and minorities was received with doubts and reservation.4 I want to show the changes of this confirmed picture in that short introduction without being holistic/ exhaustive on the basis of different articles appeared in British papers. There is one thing in common between them, thus all of them appeared in British papers during the series of events called Magyar Magic Hungary in Focus 2004. After preparations and a four-month-long ‘Summer Preview’ series of events, Magyar Magic was a year-long celebration of Hungarian culture in the UK under the joint patronage of Her Majesty, Queen Elizabeth II and Dr. Ferenc Mádl, President of the Republic of Hungary. The festival offered a unique opportunity for Hungary—first among the newly accepted members of the EU—to introduce its cultural heritage. The opening of Magyar Magic was harmonically adjusted to the opening ceremony of one of the world’s most significant tourist fair (World Travel Market) which promoted Hungarian tourist services and products throughout the whole year. The co-partner of the Hungarian Cultural Centre in London, the Hungarian Tourist Co. has had successful debuts since 2001 when we showed our cultural values in France and Italy the next year.5 Katalin Bogyai welcomes the guests with the following words in the program booklet of the festival: “Culture is us, it is democratic, and it is about experiences and relationships. For me, culture is a framework for collective creativity. Now at the threshold of the new Europe, within the framework of Magyar Magic, we will share with you in a very intense way, our thousand-year-old cultural heritage, which is full of unique, high-level but often lesser-known artistic values, and also full of glamour and good-tempered fun. Hungarian culture is a wonderful mixture of traditional and contemporary elements. As members of Europe, we are in position to absorb peacefully and of our own free will, one another’s cultural influences.

4 Ibid. Jeszenszky, Géza: Magyarország változó képe Nagy-Britanniában. 89. 5 Kadelka, László: Magyar Magic. www.terasz.hu (accessed in July 2005).

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 111 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe I see the festival as the beginning of a new cultural dialogue that will continue well into the future.”6 “Hungary’s cultural heritage has played a great part in ensuring a nation’s survival throughout centuries of political turmoil. Though Hungarians lived in a completely different world for decades as we join Europe Magyar Magic will help show our British friends that our way of thinking has never changed”7—said she in an interview. The first period of the events lasted from November 2003 to February 2004. During this period Hungarian culture was introduced in London, Huddersfield, Bradford, Bristol and Glasgow, from March to June 2004 London, Cambridge, Liverpool and Cheltenham and in the third period London, Cardiff, Canterbury, and Belfast could enjoy the cultural palette of Hungary. In the first period the series of programmes cooperated with 70 British co-partners in 64 locations, in the second and third period 85 partners and 60 locations were introduced.8 The different articles and interviews concentrated on the artistic and cultural events but we can find directly or indirectly the image of us and our culture in the commentaries. The first article I have chosen is about the accession and characterises the newcomers in the EU while originally it appeared as the critique of a literary event: “Tomorrow (if you credit our hard-of-thinking press), the invasion begins. The entry of Slavs and Balts into the European Union will swamp Britain with colour-blind Latvian taxi-drivers and knock-kneed Slovak roofers. Marauding Magyars will pinch your job and abduct your grandmother. Czechs will bounce around our streets and Poles descend in shoals on hospitals. In one way, it seems apt that the arrival in the EU of peoples famed for their absurd sense of humour should trigger a feast of media fools. In another, the panic represents—as bigotry often does—a precise inversion of the truth. Above all, the new Europeans (or restored Europeans) are trying to escape their long history of real invasion and occupation, at the hands of one big bullying neighbour or another. For these states, the freedom from coercion underlies the freedom to vote, move or trade. So forget the scare stories, and read some proper literature instead. Given that most British publishers ignore East and Central Europe, that is more easily said than done. However, the cupboard of welcome gifts is not entirely bare. ‘Celestial Harmonies’, Péter Esterházy’s playful epic of Hungarian history and his dynasty’s role in it, has just appeared.”9 Going on with literature, which was a significant phenomenon of Magyar Magic Tonkin calls the anthology of ‘An Island of Sound’ published under the banner of Harvill’s series of anthologies, ‘Leopard’ edited by George Szirtes and Miklós Vajda

6 www.magyarmagic.com (in Messages) (accessed in July 2005) 7 www.magyarmagic.com (in Essays and Articles) (accessed in July 2005) 8 www.terasz.hu (accessed in July 2005) 9 The Independent (on-line edition) 30. April 2004. http://enjoyment.independent.co.uk (accessed in July 2005)

112 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe far the best and boldest literary calling card which refers to the unique Hungarian language in its title too. The title of Tonkin’s article at the beginning of which he characterises a little bit sarcastically the newcomers with some truth in it is a real praise to us: “Hungary’s purse is bursting with riches.” Amongst the writers and poets mentioned in the anthology are the following authors: Péter Esterházy, Sándor Márai, Ottó Orbán, György Petri, Sándor Weöres, Zsuzsa Rakovszky, György Konrád, Péter Nádas, and Imre Kertész. Most of their names were first heard by British audience. The Guardian also writes a long article about the same anthology with the title ‘Budapest Boom’: “Has the fall of the wall affected Hungarian literature? Not really—writers enjoyed considerable latitude in the 80’s, and anyway seem to need time to digest events. Democracy brought a brief golden age when distinguished banned foreign writers such as Orwell and Solzhenitsyn and distinguished banned Hungarian writers such as Konrád and Petri were piled high in the bookshops, but the porn and the pulp quickly engulfed the shelves. The good news is that bookshops in Budapest are booming. There are megastores with internet facilities and cafés, dozens of second-hand bookshops and scores of all-weather stallholders in the streets greeting you with, „How about a little book today?” Like their equivalents in London, New York or Paris, most of what they sell is of little literary value. As in the Hungarian music scene, facsimiles abound. There is a Hungarian Bridget Jones, a Hungarian Harry Potter. Anything successful will be knocked off and magyarised. But the quality writers have survived.”10 The article of The Guardian goes on like this: “Appearing somewhat belatedly as an accompaniment to the „Magyar Magic” season bringing Hungarian culture to the UK, Leopard V, ‘An Island of Sound’ is an attempt to provide a snapshot of Hungarian letters, both prose and poetry, in the Soviet era and its aftermath. In his introduction, George Szirtes refers to certain subjects having been taboo in communist Hungary. That is not quite right. There were no forbidden subjects (although certainly some topics were viewed as less savoury than others, the Holocaust for example), only forbidden opinions. You could write about the revolution of 1956, as long as you did not do so with evident approval. By the mid-1980s, writers had a Trabant freedom, rather third-rate but workable. The live wires of 20 years ago, such as Esterházy, Konrád, Nádas and Krasznahorkai, are the household names of today.” The article also mentions Sándor Márai and Albert Wass whose names and works could not have appeared in an anthology ten years ago and praises „the splendid job of Szirtes and Vajda in collecting the greatest hits of Hungarian literature in translation” saying that this is “the first primer of contemporary Hungarian literature that is likely to reach your bookshop.”11 “While Europe unites politically, we forget the culture we used to share. But as it

10 Fischer, Tibor: Budapest Boom. In: Guardian, 1. May 2004. www.books.guardian.co.uk (accessed in July 2005) 11 Ibid.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 113 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe joins the EU, Hungary can teach us to dream of new possibilities”, argues Julian Evans in an article titled ‘A Literature of Accession.12 Another important event of introducing Hungarian literary masterpieces was the appearance of Márai’s ‘Conversations in Bolzano’. “After the posthumous success of ‘Embers’ we have another opportunity to rediscover one of Europe’s most celebrated novelist, Hungarian born Sándor Márai.”—says a book review.13 The name of Péter Esterházy also appears in the reports quite often. Ruth Pavey uses self criticism when saying that “if the name Esterházy means anything to people in this country, it usually brings to mind Haydn, because of the patronage the composer received from the Esterházy family. But in Hungary it has a far greater and more complicated resonance, thanks to the family’s centuries-long eminence and wealth, followed by drastic demotion under communism... Peter Esterházy was a child in the 1950’s when his name designated a born enemy of the people. This translation of the novel he published in Hungarian in 2001 puts before us a vast interwoven web a motet written for innumerable voices, a postmodernist thicket… oh well, a big book about Hungarian history, all centred around that one name: Esterházy.”14 BBC also dealt with Esterházy on the occasion that his book appeared and that he got the prestigious peace prize and award at the Frankfurt Book Fair.15 Amongst the events of the cultural year Zoób Kati’s fashion show was a real dessert, which was accepted by British audience with great enthusiasm and acknowledgement. Her new collection was shown in Christie’s Auction House main hall which was the launching event of the third and final phase of the year-long festival. The article emphasises that “this is a country that takes great pride in its creativity and independence of mind “, praises the designer and thinks to know that she will be launching a ready-to-wear collection in February and will be using London as her launching pad into the rest of Europe and also states that the designer has enough talent and the necessary infrastructure to quickly overtake other fashion newcomers in the UK market.16 “Hungary’s Heritage: Princely treasures shine again”17 writes the Financial Times about the 50 pieces of works of art from the treasury of the Esterházy Collection which went on display at Somerset House in London. The Refresh Magazine writes about the same topic several times: “The exhibition is being presented by the Hungarian Cultural Centre as part of a year-long celebration of Hungary’s accession to the European Union. The treasury was founded by

12 Prospect (May, 2004.) www.magyarmagic.com: Press, English Coverage (accessed in July 2005) 13 www.magyarmagic.com: Press, English Coverage (accessed in July, 2005) 14 Pavey, Ruth: Celestial Harmonies by Peter Esterhazy in The Independent on line edition 30. April 2004. http://enjoyment.independent.co.uk (accessed in July 2005) 15 BBC 10. October 2004. www. magyarmagic.com: Press, English Coverage (accessed in July 2005) 16 Fashion Business International (October-November 2004) in www.magyarmagic.com: Press, English Coverage (accessed in July 2005) 17 Bartók Season, Financial Times Weekend, 16. October 2004. www.magyarmagic.com: Press, English Coverage (accessed in July 2005)

114 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe Hungarian military leader Miklós Esterházy in the 16th century and maintained by future members of the family. Visitors will be treated to one of the finest examples of 16th and 17th century gold and silver, shown for the first time outside Hungary.18 Among exhibitions, concerts and theatrical performances the introduction of Hungarian film was a speciality in the Edinburgh Film House hosting a retrospective of István Szabó’ s work with films like ‘Mephisto’, ‘Sunshine’ and ‘Father’. The Guardian Guide is promoting the Hungarian film season in Cardiff with film directors like Károly Makk, Ferenc Török, Benedek Fliegauf and Gábor Detre as also part of the festival.19 Perhaps the most colourful palette was represented by music and art of dance: the multi-coloured series of events meant folk music and dance, operas, operettas, ballets, choirs, and recitals. Our national opera ‘Hunyadi László’ was an introductory event of the festival and it got criticism but all in all the story of hard of understanding was well received by the British and critics also expressed their acknowledgement about the artistic performance. It has become clear that they like us as we are, which also warns us and shows us that we have to make the most of our national character and we can sell those things that are Hungarian in us. ‘The Times’ gives a vivid picture about Hungarian musical phenomenon: “Next year we are going to be bombarded with Hungarian culture as part of Magyar Magic 2004. … You long for more of the specifically Hungarian, moaning violins from the puszta, the outrageous rubatos and rhythmic snaps of the czardas, the augmented intervals of folk scales and generally some of the soaking melancholy of Central Europe... It’s rare enough to hear the dactylic rhythms of Hungarian, masses of syllables and short vowels, forced into Italian forms.”20 A magazine also praised similarly our national opera, Hunyady László: “It will be a woeful pity if this production is not brought back as part of the year-long celebrations, to give a wider audience a chance to experience Hungary’s favourite opera.”21 At another opening night Imre Kálmán’s operetta, which also proves how national characteristics are important, ‘Countess Maritza’ also had a great unanimous success: “Yet English feet at the Wells are tapping this week in time with those of visitors from Budapest in the audience who infuriatingly get the jokes faster than we can read the giant subtitles. Yet not even the expat Hungarians can beat us to the tunes… Those who prefer their music small and neat might be better served elsewhere. Anyone, however, who is stirred by an eisteddfod or a male voice choir should make a beeline for Islington before it is too late. Evidently, Brussels is going to be a livelier place in the

18 Refresh Magazine (November, 2004) www.magyarmagic.com: Press, English Coverage (accessed in July 2005) 19 The Guardian Guide (September 2004) www.magyarmagic.com: Press, English Coverage (accessed in July 2005) 20 Thiknesse, Robert: Hunyadi Laszlo in The Times (UK) 08/21/2003 Features, Opera, 19. EBSCOhost (accessed in July 2005) 21 A review by GP-W. in Blackmore Vale Magazine 22. August, 2003. (accessed in July 2005)

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 115 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe future.”22 “This is pure joy. If you are looking for an evening out that brings a glow to the heart, a tear to the eye and a lift to the spirits, then head for one of the remaining performances of ‘Countess Maritza’, a show of terrific exuberance and panache. You sometimes wonder whether visiting companies ever get tired of championing their local produce, instead of touring with something that might highlight a breadth of scope, there is every good reason for having a Hungarian operetta. The prospect of authenticity in the way of language and musical style is a plus, and the fact that this production is sung and spoken in Hungarian is certainly no bar to enjoyment.” The critic emphasises that the “production is pacy, and has the sort of polish that comes not from any sense of routine but from natural instinct and long experience. Don’t miss it.”23 The compiling of the 2004 events of the Canterbury Festival was also dominated by Hungarian characteristics. The audience of the Tomkins Vocal Ensemble could enjoy the musical finale of both the program series of the Festival and Magyar Magic. This time the singers were accompanied by Robert Mandel, who has discovered and introduced the repertoire of an early, forgotten instrument the hurdy-gurdy. The artist as the ambassador of Hungarian culture promoted Hungary and the instrument not only in the cathedral but also in 26 countries on 4 continents. Liz Eburne wrote the following about the concert: “I have never experienced the instrument at such close quarters before but I do hope I get the chance again because I was very impressed by its diversity and the passion of its player, who clearly loved what he was doing… It was a real treat to have them in Canterbury. I hope they will return.”24 Another musical event, the performance of „Varnus Xavér was also in the programme of the Canterbury Festival. He was characterized as Hungary’s most acclaimed living classical musician, organist, something of a superstar.” According to papers his fame is based on his recitals and improvisations, it may be hard to imagine here but it is altogether natural in a small country with a busy cultural life.” His compilation of Bach, Mozart, Albinoni in 1992 was the number one bestseller among the best sold discs in Europe with its 220.000 copies. 25 European music connection has played an important role since the Baroque in forming the 20th century image of Hungary. Not only did the name of Haydn and Liszt become well known but others also got into close connection with the German music culture. Bartók is between those Hungarian composers who are known all over the world. His name sounds familiar to everybody.

22 Catchpole, Cavin: Countess Maritza. In: The British Theatre Guide 2004 www.britishtheatreguide.info/ reviews (accessed in July 2005) 23 Noris, Geoffrey: An All-singing, all-dancing treasure. In: The Daily Telegraph, 10. June 2004 www. magyarmagic.com: Press, English Coverage (accessed in July 2005) 24 10. July 2004. Canterbury Festival http://www.magyarmagic.com/content/press/english/choir_prov_real.jpg (accessed in July 2005) 25 September 2004. Canterbury Festival http://www.magyarmagic.com/content/press/english/canterbfes.jpg (accessed in July 2005)

116 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe He went to London in 1922 for the first time. Sculptor Imre Varga’s Bartók statue was inaugurated on 2 October 2004 at South Kensington metro station in London. The journalist mentioned the statue as the perfect and privileged tenth as Varga’s works are to be found in nine countries around the world among them in Budapest, Brussels, and Paris. It was also reported that the sculptor was also coming to London to see the unveiling. 26 Although critics did not accept the staging of Bartók’s works with undivided satisfaction everybody acknowledged his genius and spoke about it in superlatives. The Evening Standard Review also criticised basically Hungarian cultural policy for not promoting Bartók and his universal work better: “...besides that of all the 20th century’s musical transformers—Mahler, Schoenberg, Janáček, Stravinsky, Shostakovich—Bartók is the least discussed, the least central to world culture. Since the last flurry of activity in 1981 for the centenary of his birth, no orchestra outside Hungary has showcased his music, no reinterpretation has quickened international attention. …The majority of his music is rooted in Budapest. …’Violent’ is an adjective often attached to Bartók’s dissonances if reflects an indigenous reality …”27 After unveiling the statue a week-long Bartók festival started. During the festival Bartók’s three works for stage ‘The Miraculous Mandarin’, ‘Duke Bluebeard’s Castle’ and ‘The Wooden Prince’ were shown. The Independent wrote the following about the success of the performances: “Something is happening in Scotland that should go on record. Scottish audiences used to clap glumly and then skulk off into the night. Lately, there have been shouts, cheers and whistles—even in Glasgow, that most Scottish of Scottish cities.”28 Let me quote some interesting notes from different papers about Hungarian musical tradition and talent: “Combined opera and ballet evenings are too rare, and Hungary’s independent musical tradition in the Soviet hegemony makes it a fascinating, dissident voice.”29 Both the ‘Dances of Galánta’ from Kodály and ‘Romanian Folk Dances’ from Bartók were real successes and were greeted with undivided acknowledgement but they missed the tradition from the appearance of Gergely Bogány: “He could have played some Liszt rather than two doses of (Pole) Chopin.”30 “Scotland and Hungary share deep rooted musical traditions that expresses themselves in fiery dance music” when the press writes about the joint concert of John Rae’s Celtic Feet and the Romano Drom.31

26 October, 2004. The Resident, http://www.magyarmagic.com: Press, English Coverage (accessed in July 2005) 27 29. September 2004, Evening Standard Review http://www.magyarmagic.com: Press, English Coverage (accessed in July 2005) 28 Monelle, Raymond: Duke Bluebeard Castle in The Independent on line edition 14. October 2004. http:// enjoyment.independent.co.uk (accessed in July, 2005) 29 6 October 2004, Daily Telegraph http://www.magyarmagic.com/content/press/english/the_daily_telegpraph_ hnob.jpg (accessed in July 2005) 30 Anderson, Colin. In www.classicalsource.com. 19. November 2004 (accessed in July 2005) 31 www.magyarmagic.com/content/press/english (accessed in July, 2005)

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 117 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe “Hardly an English word was spoken but the music said it all. This was traditional Hungarian music at its powerful best.”32 Here are some further musical “crumbs” about the studio concert of the Budapest Opera: “The singers were coached by Katalin Alter, who accompanied their extracts with great sensitivity and panache on a Bosendorfer piano which she could transform within seconds from cimbalom to full Puccini orchestra.”33 Arnie Somogyi’s group of Hungarian and British musicians was also a success: “you find yourself reflecting on what a thoroughly heart-warming evening this has been“—writes The Guardian.34 The Covent Garden Magazine evaluates the more than a-year-long series of events and “the best team (i.e. the organizers) since Puskás” in its 2004 issue: “Over twelve months they have introduced a British audience of 1,000,000 to 2,000 artists in more than 120 venues… From opera to jazz, from gastronomy to fine art and from ancient antiques to modern literature; all artistic tastes have been catered for. 500 distinct events have exhibited the cream of Hungary’s crop through Covent Garden and beyond, all with typical Magyar magnetism. As the festival is nearing its glittering finale we look back on some of the highlights of what has been a memorable year… Many Brits know little of Hungarian music beyond Ferenc Liszt and Béla Bartók, however this year Covent Garden’s ears were opened. Hungary’s rich vein of talent in classical musicians gave us searing minor chords and major crescendi, the soul of melancholy and spirit is almost tangible”.35 The article declares the prodigious Klára Bábel’s wizardry on the harp outstanding and so does Gergely Bogány’s recitals on the piano. It calls Katti Zoób’s couture as Hungary’s gift to the fashion world and which met with universal approval. Also emphasises that the designer recalls the art and craft of her ancestors. The summary also mentions the richness of the Esterházy Collection, the exhibition on Márai’s fascinating but tragic life and the launch of the English translation of his novel ‘Conversations in Bolzano’. It also calls the closing event of the festival a celebratory crescendo which is not to be missed and will be held on 20th November 2004, at the Royal Festival Hall highlighting the name of Márta Sebestyén. Her voice is identified by the haunting vocal style, the poignant ‘Marta’s song’ in Minghella’s ‘The English Patient’ and sites Bartók referring to Hungarian folk music which, according to him, is the equal of the greatest music ever composed. It is difficult to find the optimum between the expectations full of stereotypes and the palette of exhibitions and performances wanting to show nuisance representing universal artistic achievements. The following quotation also shows how difficult it

32 McConnell, Louis: Belfast Festival www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk 2. November 2004 (accessed in July 2005) 33 Finch, Hilary: Budapest Opera Studio. 26. December 2003, The Times (UK) EBSCOhost (accessed in July 2005) 34 Griffiths, James:Arnie Somogyi’s Improvokation. 18. May 2004. in www.guardian.co.uk (accessed in July 2005) 35 Covent Garden Magazine. November 2004. In: www.magyarmagic.com: Press, English Coverage (accessed in July 2005)

118 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe is to meet expectations and represent what is Hungarian and universal at the same time and what can ease and strengthen the traditional image of Hungary and the Hungarians at the same time: “How little we know of that wild land. A festival of Magyar Magic this past nine months has reached a million people across Britain, but our arts minister, in her opening address, was unable to mention one Hungarian artist and the pianist brought over for its final concert will be playing a Chopin concerto, not Bartók.”36 All in all we can state that the British including critics as well highly appreciated the artistic palette and the realisation and outcome of the series of events. The expression ‘Magyar Magic’ first thought to be a bit provocative and pompous set everybody thinking and reached its aim. I think the expression will make the British long remember the history of the almost one and a half year long series of events even if the background content and the particular events disappear. A great advantage would be if we could find the method to fill in the gap again and again with new contents that was cut by the festival on the image based on stereotypes and widen the picture which is full of quite deep-rooted clichés about us, Hungarians.

36 Lebrecht, Norman: A voice of lust and blood in The Arts. In: The Evening Standard Review. 29. September 2004. www.magyarmagic.com: Press, English Coverage (accessed in July 2005)

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 119 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe Gyula H. VARGA The Linguistic Map of the EU

From the linguistic point of view the world shows an unbelievably varied 0. picture. The layman believes, that on the American hemisphere, for example, everyone speaks English, French, Spanish (possibly Portuguese). In turn the number of living American Indian languages is around 550. It is widely known about Africa and Asia that they are amazingly varied linguistically. A good quarter of the 6-6 and a half thousand living languages today are only spoken by less than 10 people. Practically speaking, these are dead languages. According to some evaluation nowadays mankind loses 10-15 tongues a year, which is about one language per month. Australia and some part of South-America are the most threatened areas in this regard. Contrary to the thousands of languages of Africa and Asia Europe, the smallest continent, has less but more differentiated (or detached) and discovered languages. On our continent today the recorded number of living languages is under one hundred, thirty-five of which are spoken as mother-tongues outside the given country and there are fifty-five languages without their own country and spoken by a minority. For many it may be surprising but Europe has also languages nearly dying out. Unfortunately that is the situation with some languages of the Finno-Ugrian phylum: ‘vót’ is practically dead, ‘lív’ and ‘inkeri’ are barely spoken. ‘Manx’, a language in the area of the European Union, is also threatened by the danger of extinction: only one percent of the underage society speaks it. The European Union has declared several times that it is a political entity rich in the variety of cultures and languages. What does this variegation mean? What languages are spoken by the citizens of the Union in 2005? What legal guarantees does the Union give its citizens to speak their mother tongue? Is there an assurance that the present-day living languages will not be displaced by world languages? These are the questions that need to be answered when trying to figure out what the Union’s linguistic map looks like. 1. Of the 192 separate countries of the world 45 are located in Europe, 25 of which are members of the European Union. The languages used by the population (500 million) of the community are well-known, unlike many other languages of the continent. Yet, we are in trouble if we want to give the exact number of the languages in the area of the European Union. Now every state has its own formal language that is acknowledged by the community as an official (working) language. It is important to notice here that the expression working language is often treated in the same way as official language. However it has a narrower interpretation, meaning the (great, world) languages that are actually in use. It is certain that EU’s most often used working language was French previously; by the Swedish, Finnish and Austrian entry (who

120 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe speak English and German better) the English language gathered ground. With the recent expansion, it seems, French fell back to the third place because of the mostly German-speaking Eastern countries. The “linguistic history” of the EU can be dated to 1958, when the original six countries named Dutch, French, German and Italian as “official and working language” of their institutions. In 1973 the number of the working languages grew to 6 (English, Danish) by Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom joining the community. In 1981 Greek, in 1986 Spanish and Portuguese, in 1995 Swedish and Finnish became official languages. (The combination of the 11 languages was 110 by this time; when translating all languages for each other they needed this many interpreters and dictionaries!) In the same year the council affirmed “the significance of linguistic diversity as an operating principle of European identity and common cultural heritage”. It also emphasised “the equality of the official and working languages of the Union’s institutes”. The enlargement in 2004 has brought a great change: the number of the Union’s languages has grown to 20 (without enough skilful interpreters the language of Cyprus is Greek and Malta’s is English). With this the combination of languages has grown to 380. The linguistic variety and the EU commitment to treat all languages equally create a big question: is this great cavalcade of languages sustainable or is it only possible at the expanse of work and understanding? 1.1. In the beginning the European Union was the home of only Latin and Germanic languages. The Germanic languages were the first (German, Danish, Swedish, Dutch, English), Neo-Latin languages were represented by French and Italian. With the Greeks the first cognate language appeared (although it originated in another branch of the Indo-European languages). Later the Latin languages were strengthened by Spanish and Portuguese, the Germanic languages by Austria and Ireland (these two languages did not raise the total number of the languages). The linguistic variety was brought in by the first non-Indo-European language, Finnish. Nevertheless, real variegation came true with the expansion in 2004. With the Hungarian and Estonian entry the range of Finno-Ugrian speakers expanded. The big change came with the Slavic languages (Czech, Slovakian, Polish and Slovenian). Theoretically with the entry of Cyprus another phylum is represented but because of the division of the island the Turkish language is not in the Union. (The membership of Turkey is still doubtful.) Besides the Slavic, two Baltic languages appeared: Latvian and Lithuanian. (The third Baltic language, Prussian is extinct, so Baltic is the only phylum that is completely (and only) spoken in the EU.) Considering the population of the Union’s countries we get the following order:

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 121 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe

Population Country (thousand persons) 1. Germany 82542 2. France 59626 3. United Kingdom 59086 4. Italy 57072 5. Spain 40683 6. Poland 38214 7. Netherlands 16193 8. Greece 11018 9. Portugal 10414 10. Belgium 10356 11. Czech Republic 10203 12. Hungary 10152 13. Sweden 8941 14. Austria 8058 15. Denmark 5384 16. Slovakia 5379 17. Finland 5206 18. Ireland 3961 19. Lithuania 3463 20. Latvia 2331 21. Slovenia 1995 22. Estonia 1356 23. Cyprus 805 24. Luxemburg 448 25. Malta 397 European Union 453 283

The table shows the number of the population and not the number of the native speakers. We can see that the countries with the greatest population are Germanic, and the most populous is Germany. It is incontestable that English has the highest reputation in the EU and it is also likely that English is spoken by the most as a second language. Behind the dominance of the Germanic languages confidently stand the Neo-Latin languages. They are followed by Slavic languages (with some lagging behind) than Finno-Ugrians with 18-19 million speakers. At the end of the line we find the Greeks and the Baltic countries. Maltese, the special variant of Arabian Maghreb dialect with Italian and English elements, is a curiosity in this area. 1.2. In the district of the EU not only official or national languages are spoken. If we want to draw the linguistic map of the Union, we should consider what mother tongue the members of the community speak. Our research seems to be simple: we have to ask the citizens what language they speak as a mother tongue. But this is not as simple as it seems. What mother tongue have the youths on the uplands who

122 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe perfectly speak both Hungarian and Slovakian? Or those who grew up in a Hungarian (German, Gypsy, etc.) family, but studied in a Slovakian (Italian, Hungarian) school, so they are stronger with some fields of life on one language and on other fields on another? Be it ever so odd, mother tongue has several interpretations. One says that mother tongue is the first acquired language. This approach may turn out to be a wrong one when looking at some practical example: when people emigrate from their home culture for a time they may return having forgotten their mother tongue or having only limited speaking ability. According to another interpretation mother tongue is the best known and most frequently used language. This emphasises function. The third approach is based on inner identification: mother tongue is what the individual (or its environment) identifies to be his/her mother tongue. All three approaches have many good elements and all of them are possibly valid, but just not simultaneously. (Principally the first and the third approach are used simultaneously). In essence, none of them precludes the possibility of having more mother tongues; moreover, the same person can have different mother tongues based on the different definitions. And somebody’s mother tongue can change several times during his/her life. Henceforward come some data based on the census. 2. It is interesting that, beyond declarations and stressing cultural variegation, no one emphasises that apart from the Union’s official (working) languages the citizens of the community speak many more languages. These are not official languages (not acknowledged by the state). Their speakers usually live in ethnic or cultural minority, so they are restricted in their use of the mother tongue (media, education, offices). It is important to mention here that language minorities are not necessarily minority languages. The situation of Hungarian minority in Slovakia is not identifiable with the situation of Lappish or Romany. a) In the district of the Union there are guest languages brought in by the modern age migration in the second half of 20th century. For example the numerous Turkish speakers, temporarily or permanently living in Germany. (We can observe the same phenomena in Italy or England.) b) Comparing to these minorities there are substantially differing groups that seceded from central language territories because of political or historical reasons. The regional language means a powerful presence of a language (sometimes majority), distinct from the state language. That is, for example, Hungarian in Slovakia, German in France, in Italy or in Poland, Polish in Lithuania and most recently the Russian population stuck in Baltic countries. c) There are minority languages, completely differing from the previous groups, used by a minority and scattered geographically. These are spoken in blocks in one country or scattered in more countries. These languages have no mother country, so their speakers are their protectors and preservers at the same time. Some of them are acknowledged by the state, qualified as official, like Lappish or Irish. d) And in the end we have to mention the languages, the speakers of which

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 123 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe do not live in blocks but scattered (generally in several countries), together with speakers of other languages (usually majority) and have no support by institutions of cultural, educational areas or by the media. These scattered spoken languages are highly threatened by the danger of extinction. Within the Union Yiddish and Romany (Gipsy) are such scattered languages. There are certain efforts to qualify minority languages as official language. One of these is Irish. It seems obvious that Ireland presses for taking up the Irish language. With the entry of Ireland Irish did not became an official language because Irish people speak English, Irish is only spoken in the villages of the Western coast. There are national efforts recently to save the language. It was introduced in education, but the truth is that Irish people learn their ancient language almost as a “foreign language”. The situation is different with the Welsh, although they are bilingual too. This is spoken by around the quarter of the population, opposing the other Gael language: Scotch. Roused by Irish and Welsh efforts Spanish people also meditate to pass some minority language. In December 2004 the Spanish Foreign Minister has passed in a proposal to acknowledge Gallego (Galician), Basque and Catalan-Valencian languages as official languages of the EU. (Valencian and Catalan-Valencian are often viewed as one language, same as Galician and Portuguese.) By acknowledging Catalan they expect Catalan nationalists and extreme right organizations to acknowledge the European Constitution Contract. 3. Euromosaic made a survey about the minorities of the EU some years before integration, based on the data of the 1996 census. It turned out that within the Union the 59 linguistic ethnic groups in that year used thirty-six regional and minority languages. In the year of the survey more than 20 million people spoke a minority language as their mother tongue. Around half of these speakers live in Spain, a quarter in France, the others live mostly in Ireland, Italy and in the Netherlands. Today in the district of the EU the 9% of the 453 million citizens, around 40 million people speak a different mother tongue than their country. Among minority languages, considering the number of the speakers, Catalan is at the top. Among state languages German is the most important minority language. (It is possible that with the entry of Romania the Hungarians will win this not-so- glorious lead.)

124 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe

Number of speakers Language (thousand persons, 1996)

1. Catalan 7 200

2. Gallego 2 420

3. German 2 200

4. Provencal 2 100

5. Sardinian 1 300

6. Irish 1 240

7. Basque 683

8. Welsh 508

9. Frisian 400

10. Friuli 400

11. Luxembourgian 350

12. Finnish 300

13. Breton 180

14. Corsican 125

So within the EU, before the integration Euromosaic calculated on several dozens of minorities, and at the same time predicted about this figure would double. Thus the Union should “care for” the linguistic (and other) minorities. A notable prior event of this was the European Charta of Minority Languages (1992), which was passed by Council of Europe (not the Union), but the European Parliament made numerous proposals for the support of minority languages as well. The Charta declares the rights of minority language use in the following fields of life: education, judicature, administrative authorities, civil service organizations, cultural activities and institutions, economic and social life foreign exchange programs. The emergence and advance of individuals is obstructed by the weakness of EU institutions, and the strength of the member states. Not all of these member states take the responsibility for the status of their minorities; some of them (like Greece and France) do not acknowledge that different national, ethnic or lingual minorities live on their territories. The vast majority (nearly half) of EU citizens is considered to be bi- or multilingual. Though this is not necessarily the consequence of belonging to a group of minority, but may also mean the acquisition of foreign languages. Within the Europe of the fifteens, this showed the following figures:

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 125 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe

Native speakers Non native speakers Language Total (%) (%) (%)

German 24 8 32

French 16 12 28

English 16 31 47

Italian 16 2 18

Spanish 11 4 15

Flemish 6 1 7

Greek 3 0 3

Portuguese 3 0 3

Swedish 2 1 3

Danish 1 1 2

Finnish 1 0 1

According to an EU brochure, in the Union of the fifteens, 66% of people aged 15-24, 53% of people aged 25-39, 38% of people aged 40-54 and 18% of people aged above 55 speak English. The fortune of minority groups, and the individuals living in minority status are very important among Hungarians. Taking the number of native speakers in the EU (with the citizens of Austria, Slovakia and Slovenia whose mother tongue is Hungarian) approximately 11 million of us speak Hungarian. With these statistics we are ranked 9th in the EU. Though after the admission of Romania we will be ranked 10th, with the notable Hungarian population of Transylvania the Union will have approximately 12.2 million citizens who speak Hungarian as their mother tongue, when this happens we will overtake the Czech and the Portuguese. The Hungarian minority is traditionally and historically split into two groups. One of them are groups of native inhabitants of the Carpathian Basin who live in blocks on the other side of the borders of the motherland due to the new political borderlines set after the WWI. They number around 2.5 million (including those 60 thousand who live in the neighbouring countries though not on the territories of historic pre- WWI. Hungary). The other group is formed by the sporadic Hungarians immigrants living in Western Europe, North and South America, and Australia. We can only estimate their number. The majority of this 2-2.1 million Hungarians do not or barely speak their mother tongue. (According to a survey in 1990 1 582 302 Hungarians were living in the United States, but only 147 902 of them could speak Hungarian.)

126 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe The alteration of the number and rate of Hungarians on particular territories abroad (According to the censuses of 2001 and 2002) Territory In all Hungarian % Transylvania (Romania) 7 221 733 1 415 718 19,6 Uplands (Slovakia) 5 379 455 520 528 9,7 Vojvodina (Serbia) 2 031 992 290 207 14,3 Subcarpathia (Ukraine) 1 254 614 151 516 12,1 Nord-Croatia 4 437 460 16 595 0,4 Burgenland (Austria) 277 569 6641 2,4 Mura-land (Slovenia) 12 698 5212 41,0 Total 20 615 521 2 406 417 11,7

Of course there are minority groups living on the territory of Hungary. Here all the communities which have at least 1000 members are recognized to be minorities (not linguistic). Today there are 13 registered minorities. According to the minority institutions, the number of minorities living in the Hungarian Republic is around 1 million. The estimated number of gypsies is around 400-600 thousand. (There is no data available to say how many of them use a minority language as mother tongue.) The percentage of minorities in Hungary is approximately 8-10%.

Minorities Estimated number (thousand people) Gypsies 400-600 Germans 200-220 Slovakians 100-110 Croatians 80-90 Romanians 25 Polish 10 Russians 6 Serbs 5 Slovenians 5 Bulgarians 5 Greek 4-4,5 Armenians 3.5-10 Ukrainians 2 Total 845.5-1092.5

Finally take a look at the fact that Slovakia is one of the EU member states where, according to the population, the largest number of minorities lives: 20% of the population belongs to minorities. In 2001 10% (520.528) of the Slovakian citizens were Hungarian; around 76.000 (1.46%) avowed themselves to be gypsies, though their number in reality is a lot more, around 3-500.000. (If we count 400.000 then it is 7.4%.) The other minorities number significantly less: Czech 59300 (1.1%), the

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 127 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe rate of Russians (17.200) and Ukrainians (13.300) is around 0.6%, the compound number of Germans, Jewish, Polish, Morva minorities are altogether less then 20.000 people which is 0.4% of the population. 4. How much do the citizens of the Union know about this linguistic diversity? How much do the Hungarians know about it? That question was addressed on a survey of 65 freshmen of the communication department of Eszterházy Károly College. They were given the outline map of Europe with only the contour and the main rivers of the continent indicated and without the state borders. The students put 22 languages on the map, most of them could place the French, Spanish, Italian, English and German languages correctly. The most significant (countries) and widely spoken languages were found by at least ¾ of the students, and above 50% knew the place of Polish and Greek. It is obvious that in most of the cases (62), Hungarian was on the map, while it is not so obvious that it was followed by three Latin languages (French: 61, Spanish: 60, Italian: 59), and only after them came English and German (56 and 51 mentioned them). The geographical closeness, the more significant number and political influence of Hungarians in Slovakia might have made 75% of the students recognized the Slovakian language, while in the case of Slovenia this figure was only 29%. The Baltic states seem almost completely insignificant for our students. They frequently mix up even the names ofthese countries. A similar uncertainty is obvious about our southern neighbours. The place of Slovenia, Croatia and Serbia is dubious. Among the non-state languages only Irish (26%) the Scottish (11%), and Basque (1 person) could be found on the mental lingual map of the students. In contrast, some of them added languages from around the EU like Norwegian and Croatian, as if these students would see the EU as a whole Europe without Russia that belongs rather to Asia. On the edge of the field of their vision we can find the Baltic states and the Balkans. In the second part of the survey students had to list languages (a. official, b. non- official) spoken as mother tongues within the territory of the EU (with an estimated number of speakers). The mentioning of official languages can be grouped into three: the indication of notable languages is unambiguous; they take the first five places on the list. Though only 58.5% of the students categorized Hungarian as an official language, (for 23% it was non-official and for 20% non-existing) it is still amongst the next five languages. The fact that some of the students consider Norway and Croatia EU member states has come to light once more. According to the figures 35% of the students (30% as official language) listed Norwegian, and 26% (20% as official) listed Croatian, while in contrast only 9% of them mentioned the candidate Romanian. The fact that none of the students mentioned Slovenian among the official languages is more than alarming. (Even Maltese was given 2 “votes”.) It is edifying to count how many of them do not mention some languages. It is understandable that the mother tongue of those surveyed falls into line with the languages mentioned in the 75% of the cases. The 50-75% category only consists

128 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe of Polish, Portuguese, and Greek. All the other languages of the Union—with the exception of Slovenian and Maltese—are mentioned in 25-50% of the cases. This survey shows that the integration campaign brought measurable but not very satisfying results in the field of knowledge about the languages, cultures and peoples of the European Union. We can assume that if the citizens from small ones (like the Hungarian students in this research) know this little about the larger states and each other, then in the contrary we would see an even more depressing picture. We can only hope that the continuous education and establishment of cooperation will help the citizens of Europe get to know more not just about the Europe of regions—as it is written in the slogan of the conference—, but the regions of Europe too.

Bibliography Mit tudsz az Európai Unióról? (Szerk.: Elsässer Klaudia, ford.: Tőkés Bence) Korona Kiadó, Budapest, 2004.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 129 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe

Ap p e n d i x

The Mental Lingual Map of the European Union (February, 2005) Official languages Non officiallanguages Mentioned altogether 1. English 65 1. Hungarian 15 1. English 65 2. French 60 2. Polish 10 2. French 62 3. German 60 3. Spanish 9 3. German 62 4. Italian 57 4. Slovakian 9 4. Spanish 60 5. Spanish 51 5. Portuguese 8 5. Italian 57 6. Hungarian 38 6. Greek 7 6. Hungarian 53 7. Portuguese 33 7. Finnish 6 7. Polish 41 8. Polish 31 8. Dutch 5 8. Portuguese 41 9. Greek 30 9. Latvian 5 9. Greek 37 10. Swedish 29 10. Romanian 5 10. Swedish 30 11. Danish 23 11. Croatian 4 11. Finnish 28 12. Finnish 22 12. Norwegian 4 12. Dutch 25 13. Czech 20 13. Gypsy 3 13. Danish 23 14. Dutch 20 14. Estonian 3 14. Norwegian 23 15. Norwegian 19 15. Irish 3 15. Czech 21 16. Latvian 15 16. Scottish 3 16. Latvian 20 17. Lithuanian 15 17. Turkish 3 17. Croatian 17 18. Croatian 13 18. Basque 2 18. Lithuanian 17 19. Estonian 12 19. Swiss 2 19. Slovakian 17 20. Irish 11 20. Slovenian 2 20. Estonian 15 21. Slovakian 8 21. Lithuanian 2 21. Irish 14 22. Russian 7 22. German 2 22. Russian 8 23. Belgian 5 23. French 2 23. Belgian 6 24. Turkish 3 24. Ukrainian 2 24. Romanian 6 25. Bulgarian 2 25. Albanian 1 25. Turkish 6 26. Maltese 2 26. Belgian 1 26. Scottish 4 27. Albanian 1 27. Bulgarian 1 27. Bulgarian 3 28. Bosnian 1 28. Czech 1 28. Gypsy 3 29. Flemish 1 29. Gaelic 1 29. Albanian 2 30. Austrian 1 30. Hebrew 1 30. Basque 2 31. Romanian 1 31. Lapp 1 31. Maltese 2 32. Scottish 1 32. Russian 1 32. Austrian 2 33. Sardinian 1 33. Austrian 1 33. Swiss 2 34. Serbian 1 34. Ret roman 1 34. Sardinian 2 35. Vallon 1 35. Scandinavian 1 35. Serbian 2 Together: 660 36. Swedish 1 36. Slovenian 2 37. Sardinian 1 37. Ukrainian 2 38. Serbian 1 38. Bosnian 1 Together: 130 39. Flemish 1 40. Gaelic 1 41. Hebrew 1 42. Lappish 1 43. Ret roman 1 44. Scandinavian 1 45. Vallon 1 Together: 790

130 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe Endre KISS About Meso-Level Dimensions of Globalization

he present system, the whole and differentiated form of globalization is not T the same as what is often—on purpose, but often without any purpose—being called the globalization of economy. A collection of examples from common language, where the ‘interpretation’ of globalization: ‘economy becoming international’ is being fit to the idea of globalization or some of its equivalents as an ‘interpreting’ category of descriptive linguistics, could make a stand as a document of economical history, or even as a history of everyday thinking. The present, differentiated form of globalization is by no means to be identified with the globalization of economy, although economy, mainly and relevantly the globalization of capital movements is of course of an outstanding importance among globalized systems. For a little bit more abstract examination it could be a central question, how do other globalized systems acquire ‘capital-like’ characteristics, how they start to be similar to the original capital in the economic sense. A qualitative difference can be shown between ideas of globalization restricted to economy and more extensive ones (which still take economy as a basis). In this difference, the special relationship between the sub-systems of politics and economy manifesting itself in the history of societies as well as in each concrete social segment, appears with a classical clarity. While each sub-system (in a strictly system-theoretical sense) manifests itself in its coherent and independent logic, which excludes principles of other systems, the interweaving and mutual determination of these two sub-systems is so strong, that none of these sub-systems can describe society alone, in its clear, system-theoretically legitimate way. The era of globalization opens a new chapter of this very old paradox. First, by interpreting general globalization of huge systems as the globalization of ‘economy’, the basic phenomenon itself is being critically simplified. Second, now getting to the sphere of economics for real, the relationship of ‘politics’ and ‘economy’ is often being considered as if general relations of globalization, or specific characteristics specifying and manifesting the basic relations of globalization wouldn’t have basically changed the whole system of relations binding politics and economy together. It is especially important to be constantly aware of the specific relationship of the political and economical sub-system among the relations of globalization, because on the medium level of globalization’s present structures, which is the main subject of our analysis, we are supposed to show as a result the system-like and system-level degradation of politics as a sub-system.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 131 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe The problem of the duality of politics and economy can also make a typical example for showing the new qualities of globalization on it. If namely, we examine the present’s objective complexes determined by globalization solely from one (political) or the other (economical) starting point, we probably cannot show up anything unprecedented at the end of our analysis. We make the present time’s new contents— determined by globalization —looking from separate perspectives of these two systems—an object of a past, pre-globalization reconstruction. Instead of a new language and conceptuality of the multiple pervasions of the two systems, and their gradation into one another evolving in globalization, choosing one sub-system as an exclusive starting point makes the language of an exceeded normality valid (gültig). This new incommensurable reference of economy and politics to one another before the horizon of globalization’s relations gives us a chance to describe new structures of globalization. But the description of this same new system (and that is where the essence of the paradox element outlined above can be apprehended) could by no means be used in case of starting solely from any of the two sub-systems. If we describe globalization from the side of economy’s sub-system, we shall hardly find any significantly unprecedented, dramatically new element. We may expect the same if we start from the side of the political sub-system alone; normality will exceed over extraordinary and unique in this case too. Both of these starts, unlike decisively new descriptions of globalization, stick to theoretical conditionings of the near past, which in both cases leads to significant conceptual narrowing. Theoretical perception of defining new contents may fail to come about. If we examine new structures of globalization e. g. with traditional political terminology, we come not just to an image of a normality simply to be achieved in the political sub-system, but straight to one of an idyllic normality, to the same image by the way, which has been developed so often in the early nineties, by a simplified interpretation of Francis Fukuyama’s famous theory: about the victory of liberal values, the world-wide victory of democratic structure, and its extension switched on extraordinarily new energy. A view of the globalizing world starting solely from the economical sub-system may not be so idyllic, but similar in its direction and nature, as beside the fact of globalization itself (and other facts tightly connected with it), all details of economy and globalization seem to be describable with the language of normality, as there has always been unemployment, inequality, centre-periphery- problem or economical cyclicity. A specific reconstruction, if we like, the social philosophy or social theory of globalization, on the three levels of main approaches, shows three different images, which of course can be unified from a well-chosen, higher point of view. Globalization—obviously—can be described most organically as a macro-theory. Here, of our interpretations so far, we would only emphasize, that our standard definition of globalization is a critical magnitude of huge functional systems (in the Luhmannian sense) becoming global. Although the previous definition of course cannot be considered eventual or

132 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe exhaustive, but of course, every word is equally important in it. It is crucial that functional systems globalize, so first and mainly capital, but as we have already referred to it, the globalization of capital, economy becoming international is still not a sufficient basic phenomenon of the globalization of our time. It is crucial that a critical magnitude of extensive functional systems should globalize in order to pronounce a whole state of the world global. A critical magnitude cannot be defined in a school way, according to previous or external criteria, but of course, presuming a critical range or measure takes more than a guess. As globalization means global functioning, in a certain sense, the experience of global functioning itself can be the criterion. So the nuclear catastrophe at Tshernobil, Perestroika, or the financial crisis in Mexico could have made the globalization of a critical magnitude of extensive functional systems an everyday experience already. But not everything is global, which is international or global in a balanced and evenly sparse way. Only system-character and real functioning make a phenomenon or institute—even a most international one—global. Globalization put this way has a history of its own, not simple or short at all. The examination of this, as an actual real process proves that globalization put this way has no metaphysically predestined specification or realization. In another way, however highly structured and interpretable form globalization may take, none of the highly structured forms could be considered to be without an alternative. On the level of the macro-theory, globalization in its actual highly differentiated form is called monetarism. The legitimation of using this name has been done at another place, and we are aware of other meanings of this notion the same way as a certain optionality of what to call a highly developed actual state of a global structure. A felicitous element of this name is a direct reference to the outstanding significance of money circulation, which refers to the amount of money, or this way indirectly also to the problem of e.g. state debt. Of course, the idea is not the same as the theory of an economical school of the same name. The micro-theory of globalization has also become reconstructable by these days. But before everyone could directly sense and interpret the micro-world of globalization without any obstacle, one can acquire models and schemes which make this well- known micro-world recognizable as the micro-world of globalization only through a sovereign possessing of a reconstruction of macro– and medium level. The middle, medium sphere takes an exclusive position in the theoretical reconstruction of globalization. This exclusive position is not solely of a theoretical origin, as it is obvious that because of its essential definiteness, globalization needs a macro-theoretical explanation most of all. But medium sphere doesn’t only show a new side of the phenomenon of globalization, but it shows a most relevant new side of it, as this is the level where the new world of globalization faces society, which doesn’t (or doesn’t only) exist in the network of huge functional systems, but also in the historical and at the same time actual boundaries of values, contracts and tradition. As we named the globalization of a certain critical magnitude of functional systems the

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 133 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe most basic definition of globalization, the most dramatic confrontation takes place at the medium-sphere. That is where functional and non-functional spheres meet, that is where these two spheres grow into one another like cog-wheels. To the medium sphere of globalization belongs also the problem of globalization as a learning process, a problem exciting and independent even on its own. One component of this learning process is dejection, moreover disapproval showing up in several social surroundings, by which a definite part of society gets down to treating these processes. This attitude we witnessed in the past decade multiple times, could be compared to classical mental resistance. This resistance can be explained by facts and connections reviewed so far: microsphere’s set of facts being immediate and incommensurable with globalization, the difficulty of macro-interpretation, abstract and in need of a professional task so far, and third, obvious possibilities, by which even the most specific new characteristics of the middle-sphere of globalization could (seemingly) be explained with traditional principles and ideas. From the perspective of the learning process this means, globalization can be rejected first on a ground that it doesn’t require any radical break-up with the contents of everyday life or actual consciousness, or it’s right the enduring of traditional structures and organizations that means ideological or objective balance contrary to the new contents of globalization. Confusing in language or discourse the whole process of globalization and one of its details not once almost conspicuously particular and random, appears as a new problem. So today, we can read inquiries about the ‘globalized woman’, some of which discuss the relation between feminism and globalization in connection of the low wages of globalizing production going on at peripheral premises. This phenomenon is a problem, even if the underlined connection apprehends a totally legitimate and correct fact. The severing duplication of total and particular use of language can also be shown in a case when they call statements anti-globalization ones, which stand on the ground of globalization’s theoretical and practical acceptance with perfect unambiguity, but within that they formulate a negative point of view in some concrete connection of globalization. That is how a political measure of the United States can be called ‘anti-globalization’ in a way that only the existence of globalization created a ground to bring or not to bring the whole decision. The process of understanding globalization is a sophisticated intellectual task; it is like the way Niklas Luhmann defined the functions of each sub-system of intellectual understanding, and that is simplifying the complexity of contents and thus making their building into social practice possible. At the end of this process of understanding will appear some mimetic variant of globalization, the ‘image’ of globalization in a particular mind. On this trace is the understanding of globalization linked to the great problem-cycle of information society. First, information society itself is global, because of the today structure of communication and spreading of information, and at the same time—and of course eventually—also of a mimetic nature itself. The processes of understanding globalization, the multiple interweaving of this problem with the problem-cycle of information society takes us directly to the

134 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe problem of simulacrum-simulation or virtuality, as while globalization or information society can be totally legitimately defined by the definite forging-ahead of simulation, symbolical figures, signs and virtual phenomena, we must draw the attention also to the fact that the dynamical accomplishment of globalization and information society tightly interwoven with it on several traces is also the reason and origin of all these phenomena. The form of globalization’s topical specification is the system called monetarism. The most important medium-level characteristics of this ‘state of the world’, this dynamic structure can change of course, according to the interwoven symbiosis of functional systems and societies based on values, contracts, and tradition, as these are not unalterable necessities, as neither are macro-level actualizations of globalization. This medium-level characteristics are at the same time important components of the new reality of the past decade, but of course they do not get into our field of vision as their direct or concrete actualities, but as the medium-level crystallizing points, as crucial phenomena of globalization. Their reconstruction is a necessary, maybe decisive element of the argument, which is for many, still about whether there is globalization at all, and if there is, how can it be described. The most important one of these medium-level new characteristics is the devaluation of politics as a sub-system, in connection of the functional systems of globalization. By this, we have turned back to the preface of our inquiry, to the already paradox systematic relation of economy and politics, or to this special relation becoming incredibly special in the age of globalization. The thesis can of course only show a relative devaluation of politics as an autonomous sub-system, which is at an advanced stage as a process of the medium- level of globalization. This process came into being neither unconditionally nor according to metaphysical suggestions; it does not stick to the phenomenon of globalization with unconditional necessity, but it is in a close connection with its monetarist form. This can be sufficiently illustrated by a today widespread argument about the possibility of a ‘world government’. In principle, it is by all means sufficient to raise, that in case of a possible functioning of a world government we could by no means talk about the effect of globalization aiming the devaluation of the political sub-system. Globalization in general has a new role different from previous ones, as it took the direction of economy, functional systems and great real processes out of the hands of politics, while their control would still behove politics today, based on contract-theories as well as on other basic theories of representative democracy. A deep-reaching task comes from this, one not only prescribed for professional politics or politically active intellectuals: rethinking and partial re-evaluation of the whole view of the political sphere. All significant notions of political philosophy and political practice went for the era and situation, when the political sub-system had an obviously supreme and integrating role. What shall we do with contract-theories or human rights in a situation where they although get no challenge within the political sub-system, but at the same time,

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 135 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe in cases of actual relations within the relations of globalization-monetarism that can’t be made morally or politically responsible (of which functional origins we’ve referred to, at the preface of our paper), homelessness or unemployment, they get violated most apparently. Although the Yugoslavian war had not yet been broken out at the time of elaborating the thesis of our paper, we believe we still have the right to point out the interpretation of human rights interpreted and instrumentalized here, as a phenomenon which uses these rights in a negative and positive way at the same time within the frames of globalization, and this sufficiently demonstrates the relative devaluation of political sub-system within the relations of globalization. Globalization-monetarism at a medium-level puts basic political principles and values remaining intact within the political sub-system itself between special frames, and it questions them in a new way. In the new situation it’s not the only outstandingly new element that a—within its system—invulnerable and intact political system, at the same time trustee of the final direction and leading of human society doesn’t control global processes, but more is the fact that the devaluation of this sub-system happens in a new way and as a result of new motives. Thus theoretical recognition must be immediately followed by a recognition of the fact that at the moment there is a principal and practical inaccessibility concerning the correction of this situation. The relative devaluation of political sub-system leads to revealing specific new archaeological and therefore hidden dimensions. Who would have thought that Marxism, getting to its critical decline in the seventies and eighties, still carried a respectable magnitude of civilisatorical-utopical potentials in itself? It only revealed as this Marxism eventually fell for ever. Who would have thought that the frames of nation-states carried the functions of a social state so naturally and unexpounded, that by their historical wavering also the future of the institutional bearer of social politics became strongly questioned? On this analogy, looking back at the near past, paying attention to the present, forecasting the future, we can draw up, there can be hidden and archaeological dimensions revealed even for politics, of which existence we would hardly even think of. Thus the relative devaluation of the political sub- system has already shown it so far, that the devaluation of politics is at the same time the devaluation of ‘society’ at evolving the most important connections, moreover, the devaluation of politics can even lead to the devaluation of man. All this can justify, how can dimensions of politics—which remain hidden in case the sub-system goes on normally—come to the surface, but in case of a (relative) devaluation of the sub-system they can be outlined as hidden, coded, ‘tacit’ functions. In the highly-structured system of globalization-monetarism we could point out several causal phases which all play a role in the relative devaluation of the political sub-system discussed above. Of these, we would emphasize the state running into debts, partly because it is the most expressive factor, partly because it is a factor of highest practical significance. Representative democracy changes its political elite according to free elections, but as the result of the elections, these elites still

136 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe always gain the power above the state, the operation of the state, bound to definite conditions. But a state running into debts because of globalization-monetarism can not be operated, or can only be operated partially, so the elites gaining power by legitimate elections practically cannot fulfil their democratically made promises because of the state running into debts. That is how the devaluation of the political sub-system is being constantly reproduced in the age of globalization-monetarism. The impoverishment of a state that had reached a certain level of civilization is critically taboo-breaking even if neither the state itself, nor the theoretician who describes phenomena stands by the point of view of the social state unconditionally, in a doctrinaire way. As the state critically running into debts is not a problem of ‘welfare’ any more, but a problem of ‘human rights’, and thus, at the end of the description of the cycle we came to the starting point of the cycle again. It is the basic values of the political system which inescapably suffer damage during the activity of a state run into debts. Of course, the relations of globalization-monetarism do not only act towards the relative devaluation of the political sub-system through the problem of a state running into debts. In the circulations of globalization, even fundamental and—within the immanence of political sub-system unattackable—basic values get damaged, like human rights, or they become literally relative in a new way, like civil society. From the aspect of judging Pinochet, the ex-president of Chile, there are two civil societies nowadays, one for the ex-dictator, the other one against him. And in the post-socialist sphere, there is a possibility of the winners of the gradation making up a civil society opposed to the losers of the gradation, as it is plausible among the circumstances given, that the losers would not even have the strength for this. The relative devaluation of the political sphere—contrary to reasonable but naive possible expectations aiming this—won’t free society from at least the usual influence, possible repressivity of the state. As another, also defining result of globalization- monetarism is the fact that economy and several other sub-systems can get around (the otherwise impoverished) state. So while on one side, the impoverished state at the medium-level of globalization will not be able to control a row of sub-systems any more, on the other side, it can expend all of its energy on controlling the ones it cannot help at their existence or reproduction figured at the level of civilization.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 137 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe Ilona KÓNYA The Dutch-Hungarian Cultural Connections

n a long run the condition of saving a group’s mother tongue is that „O the language should be used and useful in every area of social sphere and activities.”1 The lack of a mother-tongue public life causes sooner or later the narrowing down of the spoken language and with it the culture of its nation. This process is not typical only for the nations living in minority positions but also for users of languages living in Diaspora, the regular passing of this process has been justified by history in uncountable cases. My aim with this essay is to map the Hungarian linguistic and cultural situation in the western Diaspora—especially in the Netherlands. I am looking for the answer for the question what can be the reason that the Hungarians living in the Netherlands— in spite of the differences of the culture of these two nations—regard especially important to foster the Hungarian language and the survival of Hungarian culture. The extraordinary good co-existence of these two nations and the common respect towards each other can be understood if we look back into the past, at close and far- reaching connections. In order to understand the present it is inevitable to know the past. If we examine the historical connections of the Netherlands and Hungary, it becomes unambiguous that the characteristics of the connections of these two nations are quite different from the connections of the Netherlands and its neighbours. Behind the fact, that the Dutch are said to be facing the sea, in a Dutch mind America seems to be closer than Germany. And if we look back into the history of the Netherlands, we can see—using the words of Harry Mulis—that there is not just a simple difference existing among any different nations. Already the difference of the old Republic of the Provinces of the Low Countries and the other neighbouring monarchies was more than a simple difference of cultures, but it was the difference of relativism and absolutism, individualism and collectivism, scepticism and dogmatism, doubt and certainty.2 The Dutch relativism and the absolutism in the neighbouring countries always existed as the difference of Protestantism and Catholicism, too. So we can say based on the knowledge of Dutch-Hungarian historical connections that the way of the Netherlands and Hungary in its relationships—in some people’s opinion in a very strange way—are quite different form the connection of the Netherlands and its neighbours. Let us have a look at what common events characterise the life of these two small nations.

1 See in the quotation of Kiss 2002 (originally Herman-Imre: 1987:529) 2 cf. the writings of Harry Mulis in Sivirsky, 1957

138 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe The first—mainly historical-political—connection between the Hungarians and he Dutch came into being between 1531 and 1555, when the wife of Lajos II, Mária, after the death of her husband on the Mohács battlefield became the governess of the Netherlands due to the wish of the emperor Charles V. She was Maria von Hongarije of the Netherlands. The second very important chain in the development of Dutch-Hungarian relations was the movement of reformation and the following events. After the separation of Northern and Southern Netherlands the Seven Provinces held a strong contact with Transylvania. They offered mainly material support for the peregrines, the students of the enlightened Transylvanian Principality who sympathised with Protestantism and wished to study at the universities of the Netherlands. It can be due to the fact that the reformation—based on the increased want and needs—multiplied the number of peregrines, which also changed the directions of the peregrinate movement. The universities so popular until then: Paris, Vienna, Krakow and Bologna became less interesting, and the main destinations of students became Wittenberg, Leipzig, Heidelberg; and from the third decade of the 17th century the Hungarian students preferred visiting the universities of Leiden, Franeker, Utrecht, Groningen and Hardewjik, and the athenaeums of Amsterdam and Deventer. We can still find traces of this period in the Netherlands, e.g. in Franeker, Utrecht, Amsterdam, etc. Getting to foreign universities was promoted by the Stippendium Bernardium, founded in 1761, and later the support of the Teleki family. These old connections arose the opportunity after the first and second world war for helping Hungary—and the Netherlands was the first to help—in a form, that under the guidance of Queen Vilhelmina trains of children were sent to the Netherlands. Thousands of children got this way to Dutch families, where they could recover physically and psychologically.

1. The beginnings of organisation of Hungarians in the Netherlands— the period between the two world wars and 1956 The beginnings of organisation of Hungarians in the Netherlands can be put after the first world war, when the Hungarian miners of Limburg founded the “Szent Borbála Egyesülete—St. Barbara Organisation”, which worked until the 60s. The “Amszterdami Hungária Klub 1929—The Amsterdam Hungarian Club 1929” was founded between the two world wars and is working until the present, mainly as a meeting point of Hungarians living in Amsterdam and its surroundings. “Első Hágai Magyar Női Klub—The First Hagan Woman Club” was founded also between the two world wars, and during the second world war it pursued very important activity in saving people.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 139 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe Every year on the 2nd of May in the Netherlands the whole country is remembering the victims of the second world war with a two-minute silent standing up. This act was only once done in the Netherlands for the victims of another nation, namely the Hungarians in November 1956. In this year the Dutch sportsmen were withdrawn form the Olympic Games, because they were not willing to enter the lists against Soviet Union as if nothing had happened after what they had done in 1956. In 1956 Hungarian refugees presented a Hungarian revolutional flag to Queen Julianna. It is still kept in the Royal Archives in Hague, among the most important relics of the country, and the biggest organisation of Hungarians in the Netherlands— “Hollandiai Magyarok Szövetsége—The Alliance of Hungarians in the Netherlands” can get it in every five years for the anniversary. In 1956 with the great number of political refugees the number of Hungarians living in the Netherlands was grown, so nowadays there are 25–30 000 Hungarians living in the country.

2. The Hungarian organisations in the Netherlands and their importance Nowadays we can find a wide spectrum of the scenes of Hungarian language and culture in the Netherlands. The organised Catholic and Protestant (mainly Calvinist) spiritual care started in 1948 in the Netherlands, which was in progress within the Hungarian Roman Catholic Congregation Council (Utrecht) and Netherlands’ Hungarian Protestant Christian Spiritual Care Service (Utrecht). There is a Hungarian kindergarten in Utrecht Province, in Maarsen and Rotterdam. In the Southern Netherlands Province there is a club of Hungarian children and youth, which is mainly concerned with the education of children of Hungarian origin, teaching them Hungarian language, literature, history, science, arts and other Hungarian studies. Within the Finno-Ugric Department of Groningen University (Rijksuniversiteit Groningen) there is an education of Hungarian language and culture as well. The Amsterdam City University has an Eastern European Institute, which offers courses of Hungarian language and culture, and each year at this university the students can take up Hungarian Language Studies as a subsidiary subject. The Hungarians living in diaspora in the Netherlands get their information connected with Hungarians from the regularly published reviews. The review “Window” published in every second month in Dutch language, is about Central Europe. A very efficient intermediate of the Hungarian culture and arts is the Dutch- Hungarian bilingual review: “Most magyarul!—Now in Hungarian!”. The publishing

140 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe of the Finno-Ugric Department of Groningen University, “De Suffix” also deals with the cultural and other events of the life of Hungarians living in the country.

3. General conclusions From the above mentioned facts it is unambiguous that the Hungarians have found an active part in the society of the Netherlands; taking over its positive aspects, but preserving their being Hungarian. This fact can be traced back as far as when the first Hungarians were studying in the Netherlands, the great ones of our country, e.g. Albert Molnár Szenczi, who made a good use of everything they had learnt there in their native country after they returned home. It is partly due to the fact that the peregrination dividing into several branches in time and space as well, the foreign experiences of Hungarian students abroad had a great impact on the historio-cultural, political and social changes. It has been a very important bond to Europe for Hungarians who lived separated linguistically, geographically and politically as well. The young people who studied abroad were very important intercessors of the values seen and experienced abroad. The former peregrines who came back home as intellectuals—priests, teachers, doctors and lawyers—have been very important factors of the native intellectual, political and social life up to the present moment. It is important to mention that in the Netherlands, the second generation of Hungarians, the youth does not learn the Hungarian language and culture in exclusiveness, but joined with their Western European background; otherwise the Hungarian world, their own Hungarian world would become unreal for them. They would lose their affection before they had really learnt it. If we examine the surroundings of the survival of Hungarians in the Netherlands, we can see that they were above all inspired by the general human values mediated by Hungarian history; and the Hungarian language got an important role in it. The values and references of the Hungarians living in the Netherlands do not correspond in everything to the world of values in Hungary. But their consciousness of community of fate with the whole Hungarians is valid, and Europe unites us. Our common aim is to strengthen the common meeting points and crystallization points of values, because the future of Hungarians can be found in three important factors. On one hand in the educated people with wide intellectual horizon; on the other hand in the awareness of our values, which has its bases in the history of Hungarians and common human values, and at last—and probably this is the basic pillar of all—the co-operation of not only with other Western European nations, but of Hungarians living anywhere, too. Because it is the teaching of our history and the task of the Hungarians of the 21st century.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 141 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe

Bibliography

A. Jászó Anna—Bódi Zoltán (2002): Szociolingvisztikai szöveggyűjtemény. Tinta Kiadó, Budapest. Crystal, David (2003): A nyelv enciklopédiája. Osiris, Budapest. Kiss Jenő (2002): Társadalom és nyelvhasználat. Nemzeti Tankönyvkiadó, Budapest. Sivirsky Antal (1986): A holland-magyar kulturális kapcsolatok öt évszázada. Den Haag. Sivirsky Antal (1957): Holland nyelvkönyv. Amszterdam. Trudgill, Peter (1995): Dialektusok és szociolektusok az új Európában. In: Valóság 1995/11. 107-110.

142 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe Edit LŐRINCZ BENCZE Croatia’s Cultural Policy

1. Croatian identity ttempts to geographically define the counties which are in the Balkans and A which are in the Central-Europe seem at first not to create much difficulties. According to geographers the Balkan region as an area bounds by the Sava-Danube demarcation line in the north, stretching to the south to the Mediterranean and Aegean seas. So the Balkans consists of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, FR Yugoslavia, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece and the European part of Turkey. The problems concerning the definition of the Balkans, namely the Balkan identity has come into sharp focus after the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact. Newly established countries on the territory of the former Yugoslavia, Slovenia and Croatia, as much as for the direct war events as for their wider civilization, religious and economic conditions and interests, have endeavoured on every occasion to point out that they did not belong to the Balkans and that they belonged to the group of the Central-European countries.1 Why? The concepts of „Balkans” and „southern” bring incomplete images of unique civil wars, hatred, barbarism, primitive, poor, irredeemable. The concept of „central” brings something which is similar to civilized, developed and western values. Croatia’s unique position on the crossroads of Europe between Eastern and Western Christendom, the Mediterranean, and the Balkans. Taking into consideration the debates on this issue, Croatia partly belongs to the Balkans (geographically), and partly to the Central-Europe. The latest shows that Croatian identity is based on their historical background, their cultural traditions, their language, their early established institutions, charters agreements as well as their religion.2 According to all these issues Croatia ranks among Central-European countries and so do the official Croatian policy and the Croats. President Tudjman said when the independent Croatia arose, that it is a fulfilment of the Croats „thousand-year-old dream of independence, as the Croatian people/nation (‘narod’) is one of the earliest among European nations.”3 In his promotional article „The Clash of Civilizations” Huntington presented a cultural and religious division in Christian countries of the Western and Orthodox civilization and the Islamic countries of Europe. He divided with the line the Western

1 Radovan Vukadinovic: Security in South-Eastern-Europe. Politicka kultura, Zagreb, 2002. 7-15. 2 Szilágyi Imre: Horvátország a Balkán és Közép-Európa határán. In.: Kiss J. László (szerk.): Nemzeti identitás és külpolitika Közép-és Kelet-Európában. Teleki László Alapítvány, Bp., 2003. 211. 3 Szilágyi Imre: Horvátország a Balkán és Közép-Európa határán. In.: Kiss J. László (szerk.): Nemzeti identitás és külpolitika Közép-és Kelet-Európában. Teleki László Alapítvány, Bp., 2003. 212.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 143 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe Christian, Catholic World from the Eastern one. In the Western Zone he placed the countries from the Visegrád group4, Croatia, divided Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, divided Romania and Ukraine and to a small extent Estonia and Latvia.5 The political definition of extended European Union is equal with this division. Central Europe, according to Huntington, is formed by countries characterized by the Catholic-Protestant culture, and Croatia is also included here, however the country does not belong to the European Union. That is why the European Union has its own regional approach and it refers to Albania, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Yugoslavia and Macedonia as to the West Balkans. In Huntington’s map Croatia is situated in the Catholic area of Europe. Not accidentally, that religion plays a central role in Croatian identity. „In Croatia the Church acts as a careful mother taking care of the Croats’ thousand-year-old cultural traditions.”6

2. Historic background After the Second World War, Croatia was a republic in the second Yugoslav Federation. Its cultural policy was governed by socialist realism; science and education governed by the canon of dialectic and historical materialism. The 1960s and 1970s ideological control over culture loosened, followed by political liberalisation that ended with the emergence of the „Croatian Spring” in 1971.7 This was a national movement in which cultural and educational institutions played the main role, mainly Matica Hrvatska (a publishing house established in the 19th century with branches around Croatia) and the Zagreb University. The decentralisation of cultural and other public policies led to greater autonomy of the republics in the federation. From the 1970s to the end of the 1980s the introduction of self-management in culture and other public fields led to the establishment of quasi-market measures. In the 1990s, the cultural policy of independent Croatia was politically and administratively centralised and incorporated in everyday life with special emphasis on the symbols of national tradition. „The main objective of Croatia’s development is not economic growth but cultural development, including not only the arts and

4 Poland, the Czech Rebublic and Hungary constitute the pillar of the Visegrad group. 5 Huntington, S. P.: Civilizációk háborúja. in.: Külpolitika 1995. 3-4. sz. 13-145. 6 Gereben Ferenc: Vallási és nemzeti identitás Közép-Európában. In.: Ábrahám Barna—Gereben Ferenc— Stekovics Rita (szerk.): Nemzeti és regionális identitás Közép-Európában. Pázmány Péter Katolikus Egyetem, Piliscsaba, 2003. 48. Az idézet Sanjek, F.—Krajlevic, T. :Religion und nationale Identitat der Kroaten kéziratából származik. 7 Új Magyar Képes Újság, horvátországi magyar hetilap, VI. évf. 48. sz. 2001. dec. 13.

144 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe cultural heritage but also scholarship and education”.8 So spoke Zarko Domljan, speaker of the first parliament in 1990. At the time such statements and sentiments may have come as a surprise. The culture was designed to foster a sense of national cohesion, especially at the beginning of the period when the country was drawn into war. Since 2000, there has been a broader implementation of cultural policy in the sense of a pluralist cultural orientation. A more balanced approach to tradition and a new evaluation of the national and the multicultural is being undertaken with steps towards further decentralisation and direct co-operation with NGOs. Since the beginning of 2004 when the new government was appointed, there have not been any major shifts in cultural policy even though the new government announced its intention to undertake some reforms in the cultural sector.9

3. General directions of cultural policy When the new state was created in December 1990, the principles and objectives of Croatian Cultural Policy were set forth and not long after many laws, decrees, ordinances and by-laws were passed. As the country was looking for its identity, it is not accidental that Croatia was among the first countries answering for the initiation of the Council of Europe Culture Committee and Secretariat in 1998. The National Report on the Cultural Policy of the Republic of Croatia was introduced in 2001 on the basis of this transnational project. According to this the term cultural policy refers mostly to the driving mechanisms: sets of rules, measures and methods in achieving the goal of cultural developments. Cultural policy does not take place in a vacuum; it is based on the judgement on the needs, aspirations and power, it takes into consideration the priorities of the development, but it also leaves some room for manoeuvre. According to this document the focal points of the Cultural Policy are:

– preserving the cultural heritage; – re-creating the representational image of national cultural identity (festivals, Croatian design, publications in foreign languages) and history (lending a spectacular note to historical themes, e.g. through staging historical battles in Croatia);

8 Cultural policy in Croatia From Barriers to Bridges—Reimagining Croatian Cultural policy. Strasbourg: European Programme of National Cultural Policy Reviews, 1999. www.culturelink.org/review/25/c125ce. html Report by the European Panel of Examiners stresses the idea of establishing a culture centre-stage shared by all the members of the team. The idea is elaborated in the chapters on „Moving Culture Centre- Stage” and The Opprtunity for Croatia”. Preferring the strategic approach rather than one more narrowly directed towards micro-details of each cultural sector, the Examiners focused on recommendations that could have the biggest impact in Croatia. 9 The Council of Europe/ERICarts Cultural policies in Europe: a compendium of basic facts and trends in Europe, 6th edition, 2005. Croatia. http://profiles.culturalpolicies.net

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 145 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe – fitting both the above into Croatia’s tourist offer; – further computerization of cultural planning and cultural activities; – democratisation, encouraging coordination and cooperation on all levels of governmental administration, co-operation between the public and the private sector to increase efficiency, quality, employment and innovation, and, as the most ambitious goal of all, bringing culture into the focus of interest in the country; – cultural pluralism (aesthetic and multiethnic); – creative autonomy; – the increase and diversification of sources for financing culture; – decentralisation, polycentric cultural development; – realising individual projects (such as building museums of contemporary art in Zagreb.10

The „Strategy of Cultural Development—Croatia in the 21st Century”, drawn up in co- operation between the Ministry of Culture and a team of independent experts and accepted in the Croatian Parliament in early 2002, gives a detailed presentation of these goals and the instruments necessary to achieve them. Unfortunately, it can be argued that few efforts have been made to follow-up on this Strategy. The project Cultural policies in Europe: a compendium of basic facts and trends is the transnational project initiated by the Council of Europe Culture Committee and Secretariat, and has been running as a joint venture with the European Research Institute for Comparative Cultural Policy and the Arts (ERICArts) since 1998. It is an on-line and off-line information system, a compilation of cultural policy country profiles, realised thanks to the collaboration of a network of national partners, governments, experts and research institutes co-operating in the context of the European Cultural Convention.11

4. Administrative and institutional structures Decision-making and the implementation of cultural policy involve procedures and interaction between the Ministry of Culture, the Government and Parliament, on the one hand, and consultative arts councils, local government and self-government, cultural institutions, NGOs, and individual artists and their associations, on the other. Cultural Councils are consultative bodies, first introduced in 2001. The following cultural councils were established by law:

10 www.culturenet.hr/v1/english. The Croatian Government pages „Croatia int he 21st Century” offer the integral text in Croatian and a summary in English of the Cultural Development Strategy. 11 At this moment the Compendium offers profiles of 23 Europea countries. The Croatian section ofthis project was written by the team of authors. The structure of the Compendium profiles echoes the priorities of the Council of Europe and its Member States and those States party to the European Cultural Convention: promotion of identity and diversity, support of creativity and participation in cultural life.

146 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe – protection of Croatian cultural property; – archival; – film and cinematography; – music and performing arts; – theatre arts; – visual arts; – books and publishing, library; – the new media culture; and – the Council for international relations and European integration.

The Ministry of Culture regularly co-operates with other ministries in fields in which the competencies of various ministries are involved. Some important areas of culture do not fall fully under the responsibility of the Ministry of Culture, such as art education, research and minority cultural groups. Co-operation between national, regional and municipal levels of government continues to be a very important segment of cultural policy, particularly investment projects in renewing old or building and setting up new cultural institutions such as libraries, archives, museums and theatres.12

12 The Council of Europe/ERICarts Cultural policies in Europe: a compendium of basic facts and trends in Europe, 6th edition, 2005. Croatia. http://profiles.culturalpolicies.net

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 147 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe Organisational structure (organogram)

Source: The Council of Europe/ERICarts Cultural policies in Europe: a compendium of basic facts and trends in Europe, 6th edition, 2005. Croatia. http://profiles.culturalpolicies.net

5. Sectorial recent policy issues

5.1. Pr ov i s i o n s f o r cu l t u r a l m i n o r i t i e s There are 16 officially organised minorities in Croatia: Serbs, Montenegrins, Italians, Hungarians, Jews, Austrians, Albanians, Germans, Slovenians, Ukrainians, Ruthenians, Czechs, Slovaks, Bosnians, Macedonians and Roma. All of them receive state support through the Government Office for Ethnic and National Communities and Minorities. The total population of Croatia is 4.43 million. According to the 2001 census, Croats made up 89.63% of the population and 7.47% were ethnic minorities (the remaining% did not respond to the census). Minority cultural activities are predominantly traditional: preserving language,

148 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe nurturing folk traditions, music and art, organising exhibitions, acting and reciting groups. Relations with the Serb minority are still burdened by political issues, such as the issue of minority autonomy.13

5.2. La n g u a g e i s s u e s The official language is Croatian. Laws passed in May 2000 regulate the status of minority languages and alphabets and their official use on the local level. The laws are especially effective in areas where language groups are concentrated e.g. the use of the Serbian language and Cyrillic alphabet in East Slavonia, Italian in Istria, etc. These laws were received favourably by ethnic minority groups. Croatian Radio and Television have special and regular news programmes in several minority languages. Local radio stations also have special programmes in minority languages. The school curricula include supplements in minority languages (language, literature, history, art and music).14

5.3. Ne w t e c h n o l o g i e s a n d innovations Both of them are very important in widening culture, in bringing culture closer to the people. It can be said that information and communication technologies are used as a „bridge” between culture and other sectors, and towards the public. New technologies are mainly introduced in libraries and keeping archives. There is a network of non-for profit, independent cultural organisations, called CLUBTURE which member-clubs and initiatives operating as a programme platform for exchange. In the first two years of its existence, the CLUBTURE network involved more then 40 organisations and organised more then 500 different events across Croatia. The number of Internet users in Croatia is also growing rapidly: from 2.1% active users in 1999, to 12% in 2001 and 23.2% in 2004.15

5.4. Ed uc a t i o n Since the establishment of the independent Croatian State in 1991, the Croatian educational system has gradually changed and transformed. The compulsory education was increased to the age of 16, and following a break of 16 years, the humanistic secondary school (Gymnasium) was reintroduced, subjects such as philosophy and

13 www.culturelink.org/culpol/croatia. 14 The Council of Europe/ERICarts Cultural policies in Europe: a compendium of basic facts and trends in Europe, 6th edition, 2005. Croatia. http://profiles.culturalpolicies.net 15 The Council of Europe/ERICarts Cultural policies in Europe: a compendium of basic facts and trends in Europe, 6th edition, 2005. Croatia. http://profiles.culturalpolicies.net

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 149 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe sociology were re-established and some new ones were added: ethics (philosophy and religion). The new Law on Secondary Education was passed, which defines arts schools, such as musical, dance, fine arts schools, and others; they are to be more precisely determined by their curricula and programmes.16 About 14 000 pupils, 1 300 teachers and 230 other staff are included in this system. But new problems have emerged, the most important among them being reduction of hours for arts education in primary and secondary education by one hour a week.17

5.5. Cultural heritage The term cultural heritage covers historic sites and archaeological monuments, museums, archival institutions, and libraries. The war in Croatia and the transition processes affected cultural heritage in many ways: physical damage, destruction and theft of museum property— some 20 per cent of the total number suffered direct damage to the museum buildings and/or collections—, decrease in the number of professional staff and a drastic fall in the number of museum visitors.18 The register of historic buildings at present lists 327 historical sites and 4,451 individual properties enjoy legal protection. The urban centres of Dubrovnik and Split appear in the List of World Cultural Heritage, as well as Trogir and the Euphrasia basilica in Porec, while the Episcopal complex in Zadar and the Amphitheatre in Pula are candidates for the List. Application will also be made for the town walls of Ston, the urban centre of Tvrdja in Osijek, the Baroque town of Varazdin, and Sibenik Cathedral. During the bombardments of 1991-1992 the historic centre of Dubrovnik was entered on the List of Endangered World Cultural Heritage.19 The Law on the Preservation of Cultural Assets was issued in 1999 in order to make clear the important work in preserving cultural heritage.

6. General legislation Some countries may have hundreds of laws have while others may have only one „Culture Act”. Croatia belongs to the first category, so there is no one single, unified law regulating culture. Since acquiring independence in 1990 several laws, decrees

16 www.culturelink.org/culpol/croatia 17 The Council of Europe/ERICarts Cultural policies in Europe: a compendium of basic facts and trends in Europe, 6th edition, 2005. Croatia. http://profiles.culturalpolicies.net 18 The Council of Europe/ERICarts Cultural policies in Europe: a compendium of basic facts and trends in Europe, 6th edition, 2005. Croatia. http://profiles.culturalpolicies.net 19 European Heritage Network: country profile Croatia www.european-heritage.net/sdx./herein/national- heritage/voir.xsp?id=1.3_HR_en

150 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe with the force of law, and executive acts have been passed and many have gone through several stages of revision and amendment, including the Law on Theatres, the Bill on Books, the Law on Library Activities, the Law on Museums, the Law on the Protection of Cultural Property, the Law on the Protection of Archival Material, the Law on Film, Media, Radio-Television etc.20 The Constitution of the Republic of Croatia (adopted in 1990, amended in 2001) guarantees the freedom of scientific, cultural and artistic creativity and prescribes that the state is obliged to stimulate and help their development (Article 69). It guarantees freedom of thought and expression, freedom of the media, freedom of speech and public activities, and prohibits censorship (Article 38). The Constitution also guarantees the right to a healthy life and environment and demands of government bodies and legal entities to pay attention to the protection of human health, nature and the human environment. The sea and other natural resources and items of special cultural, historic, economic or ecological significance enjoy special protection by the state (Articles 69 and 52).21

7. Financing of culture Resources for financing culture come mostly from the state budget. In 1992, culture received 0.52% of the state budget, in 1996 0.66%, in 1999 0.8%, and in 2001 1.1%. In 2003, the total budget of the Ministry of Culture was 641 729 660.77 HRK. Compared with the 2002 budget, which was 604 008 987 HRK, this represented a 9% increase. However, the Ministry of Culture’s share of the total state budget in 2003 only represented 0.78% of the total state budget. According to the Statistical Yearbook, the structure of personal consumption in households in 2002 showed that 7% of total household expenditures included recreation and culture. To attain the goal of cultural development is necessary to significantly increase extra-budgetary financing by donations and sponsorships.22

7.1. Public cultural expenditure broken down by level of government (%, 1999/2000)

20 www.culturelink.org/culpol/croatia 21 Croatia’s Constitution 22 The Council of Europe/ERICarts Cultural policies in Europe: a compendium of basic facts and trends in Europe, 6th edition, 2005. Croatia. http://profiles.culturalpolicies.net

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 151 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe

Year 1999 2000 Ministry of Culture 38 43 Towns 30 27 City of Zagreb 24 22 Counties 5 5 Municipalities 3 3 Total 100 100 Source: Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Croatia23

7.2. Pu b l i c cu l t u r a l e x p e n d i t u r e b y s e c t o r The total budget of the Ministry of Culture for 2003 was 641 729 66077 HRK which represents a 9% increase from the previous year (8% increase for programme activities and 29% for investment in cultural infrastructure).24 Public cultural expenditure: by sector, by level of government (2003 budget figures):

Field/ Domain/ Sub-domain % Cultural Heritage Historical monuments 43,3 Museums 5,0 Archives 1,3 Libraries 10,3 Arts Performing Arts 10,1 Music 2,1 Theatre 6,8 Multidisciplinary 1,1 Media Books and Press 5,8 Cinema 10,5 Radio - Television - Other Cultural Relations Abroad 3,7 Total 100 Source: Ministry of Culture, 2003 and 2004

23 Unfortunately, the latest data on public cultural expenditure by level of government is from the year 2000. 24 The table does not include figures for the running costs of the Ministry of Culture, salaries for employees in public cultural institutions (143 266 686.23) and figures for investment in cultural infrastructure (69 928 697.00). The Ministry of Culture is also providing funding for three major public institutions: Croatian News Agency (16 185 000.00), Matica Hrvatska (7 233 098.00) and the Croatian Heritage Foundation (11 371 290.00).

152 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe The Council of Europe/ERICarts Cultural policies in Europe: a compendium of basic facts and trends in Europe, 6th edition, 2005. Croatia. http://profiles. culturalpolicies.net

8. Cultural institutions The key issue of recent cultural policy is decentralisation. The right to found public institutions has been transferred from the state to the counties, towns and municipalities, but every decision to close an institution must be approved by the Ministry of Culture. Cultural institutions are now usually founded by town, more rarely by counties, and sometimes by the wealthier municipalities. But on the other hand the status and number of state-owned institutions has remained almost unchanged. The reason of it is the negative experiences in privatising culture industries which slowed down or stopped the process of privatisation.25

9. Participation trends and figures Participation trends stabilised in the mid-1990s, but the participation is still lower than it was in the 1980s. The reasons are: a lower standard of living, changed habits in cultural consumption (greater consumption within the home), and the disappearance of the outlets through which tickets were sold en masse, an infrastructure typical of the 1980s which has not yet been replaced by new electronic systems to provide information about and sell tickets. A special section for selling tickets is being planned within the national cultural information portal (CultureNet Croatia). Major theatres, concert halls or festivals offer on-line booking-services.

25 The Council of Europe/ERICarts Cultural policies in Europe: a compendium of basic facts and trends in Europe, 6th edition, 2005. Croatia. http://profiles.culturalpolicies.net

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 153 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe

Number of visitors in specific cultural fields (in thousands)

Professional Children and Professional Year Cinemas Museums* theatres amateur theatres orchestras and choirs

1983 1 101 21 324 ------

1998 624 2 738 -- 389 333

1999 634 2 295 -- 344 293

2000 658 2 743 845 337 246

2001 815 2 935 1 402 389 185

2002 879 2 766 1 474 426 279 Source: Central Bureau of Statistics of the Republic of Croatia: Statistički ljetopis Republike Hrvatske 2001. 2002. (Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Croatia). Državni zavod za statistiku RH. Zagreb, 2001, 2002.26

10. Cultural associations According to data from the Ministry of Culture, the number of cultural associations is rapidly increasing by about 30 new associations per year. One of the reasons is the new legislation introduced in 2001 which provides greater tax benefits than before. According to data from the Government Office for Associations (February 2001) there were a total of 18 981 associations; 2 174 of these are in the cultural field. Associations play a traditionally important role in cultural life, maintaining professional standards in culture and providing guidelines for overall cultural policy. One of the main characteristics of cultural life in Croatia is a very diversified landscape of amateur cultural activities which usually take place in halls and in schools; considered to be the most evenly distributed form of cultural infrastructure in the country. Although the Ministry of Culture considers that local authorities should take responsibility for amateur activities, it nevertheless provides considerable funding. The reasons for the Ministry’s support are:

• there are hardly any other major forms of cultural life in many towns / villages; • the difficult financial situation in many local communities; • protection of valuable forms of traditional heritage; and

26 Note: Data for 2001 cannot be compared with the data for 2000 as they have for the first time included data for the Museums in Dubrovnik which explains the significant increase in the total number of visitors in all Croatian museums while in fact, most of the museums reported a minor, if any, increase in the number of visitors.

154 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe • to stimulate awareness about the importance of culture for the identity and revitalisation of a town or region.27

11. Summary The main strategic goal is to secure a culturally sustainable development and to establish and maintain a modern cultural identity of Croatia. This includes development of such knowledge and skills that should stimulate the population’s interest in high quality products of the mainstream, the alternative and the traditional national cultures, as well as the interest of entrepreneurs in cultural investments. Such knowledge and skills are expected to strengthen the non-traditional forms of social cohesion, to contribute to equilibrium between environmentalism, maintenance of infrastructure and economic growth.28 Whoever wants to be familiar with Croatian culture, it can be seen not only in the country’s official Cultural Policy and its aims, but also in the Croats’ real life. Croatia should be viewed in its natural, cultural and historic landscape, its traditions and cultural institutions, its legal and political institutions, people and customs. One should listen to Croatian songs, get acquainted with Croatian literature and art, observe its cities and villages, spiritual and secular life, taste the cuisine and wines.

Bibliography Central Bureau of Statistics of the Republic of Croatia: Statistički ljetopis Republike Hrvatske 2001. 2002. (Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Croatia). Državni zavod za statistiku RH. Zagreb, 2001, 2002. Croatia’s Constitution Cultural policy in Croatia From Barriers to Bridges—Reimagining Croatian Cultural policy. Strasbourg: European Programme of National Cultural Policy Reviews, 1999. Development Guideliness of the Rebublic of Croatia—Croatia int he 21st Century (Hrvatska u 21 Stoljecu) Strategic Planning Office. http://unpan1un.org/intradoc/groups/public/ documents/UNTC/UNPANO015745.pdf European Heritage Network: country profile Croatia. Gereben Ferenc: Vallási és nemzeti identitás Közép-Európában. In.: Ábrahám Barna— Gereben ferenc—Stekovics Rita (szerk.): Nemzeti és regionális identitás Közép-Európában. Pázmány Péter Katolikus Egyetem, Piliscsaba, 2003. Huntington, S. P.: Civilizációk háborúja. in.: Külpolitika 1995. 3-4. sz. 13-145.

27 The Council of Europe/ERICarts Cultural policies in Europe: a compendium of basic facts and trends in Europe, 6th edition, 2005. Croatia. http://profiles.culturalpolicies.net 28 Development Guideliness of the Rebublic of Croatia—Croatia int he 21st Century (Hrvatska u 21 Stoljecu) Strategic Planning Office. http://unpan1un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/UNTC/ UNPANO015745.pdf

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 155 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe Radovan Vukadinovic: Security in South-Eastern-Europe. Politicka kultura, Zagreb, 2002. 7-15. Szilágyi Imre: Horvátország a Balkán és Közép-Európa határán. In.: Kiss J. László (szerk.): Nemzeti identitás és külpolitika Közép-és Kelet-Európában. Teleki László Alapítvány, Bp., 2003. The Council of Europe/ERICarts Cultural policies in Europe: a compendium of basic facts and trends in Europe, 6th edition, 2005. Croatia. http://profiles.culturalpolicies.net Új Magyar Képes Újság, horvátországi magyar hetilap, VI. évf. 48. sz. 2001. dec. 13. www.culturelink.org/culpol/croatia www.culturelink.org/review/25/c125ce.html www.culturenet.hr/v1/english The Croatian Government pages „Croatia int he 21st Century” offer the integral text in Croatian and a summary in English of the Cultural Development Strategy. www.european-heritage.net/sdx./herein/national-heritage/voir.xsp?id=1.3_HR_en

156 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe Andrea SZÉKELY The Cultural Situation of National Minorities of Neighbouring Countries Living in Hungary

he aim of this paper is to present the cultural situation of six national minorities: T Slovakian, Ukrainian, Romanian, Serbian, Croatian, and Slovenian. The legal status of the minorities in Hungary is based on the Law about national and ethnic minorities’ rights accepted in 1993. Even if the rights of the 13 minorities are the same, the real possibilities vary in a wide range. Dispersed and small minorities have less chance to get education or to receive TV and radio stations in their native language. The paper presents the connection between the availability of education institutions, press, media, cultural associations and the minorities’ geographic situation.

Theoretical Background In minority researches, the question of the definition of minority is problematic. The present research chooses the definition of the Hungarian Law about the national and ethnic minorities’ rights (1993), because the research subject is the minorities living in Hungary. By the definition of that law, a national and ethnic minority is each ethnical group which: • lives for (at least) one hundred years on the territory of the Hungarian Republic; • is outnumbered by the population of the state; • members are Hungarian citizens; • is differing from other part of the population in its own language, culture, tradition; • gives evidence of conscious togetherness; • preserves their language, culture, and tradition. 13 minorities correspond to this definition, so officially Armenian, Bulgarian, Croatian, German, Greek, Polish, Romanian, Ruthenian, Serbian, Slovenian, Slovakian, Gypsy and Ukrainian minorities live in the territory of Hungary. One of the researchers, A-L. Sanguin divides the minorities into two groups. He identifies the national minority and the ethnics without state. The national minority is a community living in a zone in the State „A”, but its ethnics, language, traditions, national sympathy are relevant to the State „B”. In some cases, a national minority lives in the border zone of State „A”, and State „B”

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 157 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe is the neighbouring country. The national minority living in State „A” speaks the language of the State „B”. Ethnics without state means a little isolated community that is obliged to protect alone a nowhere else spoken language. This community can not recline upon a mother sovereign nation or upon a linguistic hinterland.” (Sanguin, 1993)

Figure 1: Interference of nation and state

Source: Sanguin, 1993

By this definition, in the case of Hungary two minorities belong to the ethnics without state: the Gypsy and the Ruthenian (there is not motherland, the most important group lives in Ukraine). This analysis concentrates on national minorities for which State A is Hungary, and State B is one of the neighbouring countries of Hungary: Slovakian, Ukrainian, Romanian, Serbian, Croatian, and Slovenian. The research rules out the German minority, because among Hungary’s neighbouring countries Austria is present, but the national sympathy of German minority is relevant to Germany. The paper is constructed as follows: first, I analyse the situation of the six chosen minorities, than I compare their possibilities.

158 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe The Slovak Minority

By the last Hungarian census (2001) 17 692 persons declared themselves belonging to the Slovak minority. Among them 11 618 persons indicated using the Slovak language as their mother tongue. (KSH, 2002) The geographical situation of the Slovak minority in Hungary concerns six counties. The most populated is Békés county. Here, the presence of the Slovak minority is related to historical reasons. They are present also in Nógrád, Pest, Komárom-Esztergom, Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén counties, near the borderline with Slovakia. After the disjunction of Czechoslovakia, in 1996, a treaty was contracted between the Hungarian and Slovak Republics about the understanding, the cooperation and the good neighbourhood. There are Slovak minority autonomies in the country; the National Autonomy of Slovakian Minority was formed in 1995. Its centre is in Budapest. In 2001, a Consulate was opened in Békéscsaba. (Euport, 2002) The biggest civil organisation called Association of Slovakians in Hungary formed in 1948 with around 7000 members. There are many others associations for example Association of Slovakian Youths (1990), Free Association of Slovaks (1990), Association of Slovak Writers and Artists in Hungary (1990). The cultural life of the Slovak minority is abundant. They have possibilities to satisfy their own cultural necessities. Where numerous members of the Slovak minority live, villages have community centres, libraries. One third of these villages have a Slovak association. In the frame of association, they founded several music bands, dance groups—among them the Pramen is the most famous. The most important museum of Slovak minority is in Békéscsaba where the traditional life of the minority is presented in an old house. There are four regional libraries in Szentendre, Salgótarján, Békéscsaba and in Sátoraljújhely. Some new cultural houses have been inaugurated during the last ten years in Bánk “Slovak Educational and Cultural Centre” (Szlovák Kultúrális és Oktatási Központ) and “Slovak Cultural House” (Szlovák Kultúra Háza) in Békéscsaba. In 1998, a regional centre of Association Vernost’ in Szarvas was created and a regional centre of Slovaks of Pilis mountain was inaugurated in Pilisszentkereszt. (Jegyzőkönyv a Magyar-Szlovák Kisebbségi Vegyes Bizottság II. üléséről, 1999) There are nursery schools in the whole territory of Hungary. The highest number of nurseries can be found in Békés and Nógrád counties. Two types of nursery schools exist: in the first type, the education is made only in Slovak as mother tongue. In the second type of nursery school is bilingual. In a primary school in Budapest, all education is made in Slovak. In the frame of bilingual education in many primary schools (Békéscsaba, Szarvas, Tótkomlós, Sátoraljaújhely) history, geography, Slovak civilization, natural sciences, music, drawing, technical education, physical education are taught in Slovak. In some primary schools the literature, grammar and civilisation

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 159 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe are educated in Slovak in four hours per week. There are some schools where the Slovak language is taught as a second language. There are secondary schools for the Slovak minority in Budapest, Békéscsaba, Balassagyarmat and Sátoraljaújhely. Among them, in Balassagyarmat and Sátoraljaújhely, the Slovak language can be chosen as a foreign language. It is possible to be Slovak language teacher in Szarvas, at the Tessedik Sámuel College, at the Teacher Training College in Esztergom, and in Szeged. The possibility to study the Slovak language at university level is open at the Eötvös Lóránd University and at the Pázmány Péter Catholic University. (Magyar Köztársaság Kormánya, 1999) L’udové Noviny (a weekly) appears for the Slovak minority, and there are some local newspapers (Pilišan, Čabän). These local newspapers are supported by the municipalities. Some local newspapers have supplementary pages in Slovak. The Slovaks located in the south of the Great Plains have an international newspaper titled: Dolnozemský Slovák. The Hungarian Radio ensures 30 minutes radio program in Slovak daily, and there are local radio programs from Szeged and from Miskolc, too. The studio of Szeged assure 90 minutes program per day. The Hungarian Television diffuses 25 minutes television program weekly in Slovak. Some regional and local studios broadcast programs about the Slovak minority events. (Csaba Tv—Békéscsaba, Komlós Tv—Tótkomlós, Zemplén Tv—Sátoraljaújhely, Oroszlányi Tv—Oroszlány). These programs not always speak in the Slovak language. The Slovak minority is not able to get the national television program from Slovakia in the whole territory of Hungary. (Magyar Köztársaság Kormánya, 1999)

The Ukrainian Minority Since 1993, the Ukrainian minority is officially declared a national minority living in Hungary. Their number is officially counted from this year. In 1990, 674 peoples declared using Ukrainian and Ruthenian language as mother tongue. In 2001, 5 070 persons were registered to belong to this minority. The number of persons who use Ukrainian as a mother tongue was 4885 in 2001. (KSH, 2002) There is no specificity in their geographical location in the country. They are totally dispersed in the whole territory of Hungary. The most important community can be found in Budapest, and Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg and Pest counties. On the international level, two agreements assure possibilities for the minorities. The first was signed in 1991; this is the Declaration of the principles of co-operation about guaranteeing minority rights in the Republic of Hungary and in the Soviet Socialist Republic of Ukraine. The second agreement was contracted in 1996: Treaty between the Hungarian and Ukrainian Republics about the cooperation and the good neighbourhood. The Ukrainian minority autonomies have been established by the result of the

160 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe second elections of the minority municipalities in 1998 in Budapest, Szeged and Komárom. The Ukrainian Minority National Autonomy exists since 1999. A consulate works in Nyíregyháza. (A Magyar Köztársaság Külügyminisztériuma, 2005) From 1991, the representation of Ukrainians and Ruthenians was assured by the Cultural Association of Ukrainians and Ruthenians in Hungary. After the adoption of the Law about the national and ethnic minorities’ rights in 1993, the Ukrainian and Ruthenians has become two different minorities, consequently the old Cultural Association of Ukrainians and Ruthenians divided into two parts. Since 1995, the Ukrainian branch of the old association has been working under the name of Cultural Association of Ukrainians in Hungary. (Magyar Köztársaság Kormánya, 1999) There is no educational system in the Ukrainian language in Hungary. Only a language school exists at weekends in Budapest. The cultural and educational centre works since 1999 in the building of the National Autonomy of the Ukrainian Minority. The „Hromada” appears monthly since 1996. Any other media destined to this minority seems to be poor: there is no TV program for the Ukrainian minority in their language. The Hungarian radio ensures a 30 minutes program in Ukrainian daily. (Magyar Köztársaság Kormánya, 1999)

The Romanian Minority The number of those belonging to the Romanian minority in Hungary was 7 995 persons in 2001. This number decreased by 2 745 persons, as 10 740 persons were counted in 1990. In 2001, the number of persons using the Romanian language as a mother tongue was 8 482. (KSH, 2002) This minority is autochthon on the Hungarian territory. They do not speak the literary Romanian language, but its archaic dialect. (Kurdi, 2001) Historically, the Romanian minority is present in Békés county, but they live in Csongrád and Hajdú-Bihar counties, too. The most populated county is Békés, where there live around 3000 minority members. They are concentrated near the borderline with Romania in all three counties. The communication between the two neighbouring countries is founded by the Agreements of 1996—Treaty between the Hungarian and Romanian Republics about understanding, cooperation and good neighbourhood. There is a Consulate in Szeged. (A Magyar Köztársaság Külügyminisztériuma, 2005) Between 1995-1999, this nationality was represented by the National Autonomy of the Romanian Minority. Its centre is located in Gyula. From 2000, a new institution is in function: the National Association of Romanian Autonomies in Hungary. The most important community of the Romanian minority is present in Gyula. Several civil organisations (on the national level) are here: the Cultural Association of Romanians in Hungary, the Community of Romanian Researchers. The protection of culture is very important for them. Since 1947, an Association for the protection

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 161 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe of tradition works in Elek. Two museums are destined to make well-known the Romanian traditions in Hungary in Békéscsaba and Gyula. In Battonya and Gyula, two famous choirs are in function. In Kétegyháza the cultural life of the minority has become important: they have founded a choir and renewed an old house to be able to show the old minority’s traditions. These are good examples for a rich cultural life especially in Békés county. The Romanian language education is done at 14 nursery schools in eleven villages, and at 11 primary schools. At seven primary schools (Battonya, Bedő, Elek, Kétegyháza, Gyula, Méhkerék, Pusztaottlaka) the education is bilingual. In Hungary, there is a secondary school destined for the minority members in Gyula. A college belongs to this school, to make unnecessary the daily commutation for the students. In the secondary school Miklós Zrínyi of Budapest the Romanian language is also spoken. Two technical schools in Békés county (in Békéscsaba, in Gyula) propose this language for their students, too. Among the high schools, only the teacher training colleges offer Romanian language teacher formation in Budapest, in Szeged, in Békéscsaba, and in Szarvas. (Magyar Köztársaság Kormánya, 1999) For Romanian language teachers in Hungary, a continuative education is regularly organised in Romanian territory by the support of the Romanian government. The teachers and their students are received in Romania for a 15-day visit. The Romanian language education is financed partly by the Romanian government especially in the case of textbooks and methodological handbooks. (Jegyzőkönyv a Magyar Köztársaság és Románia…, 1998) This minority has a daily „Foaia Romaneasca”. The centre of the regional radio and television in Gyula ensure 60 minutes radio program in Romanian daily, and 30 minutes television program bi-weekly. The whole Romanian minority gets the national television program from Romania in the territory of Hungary. The Romanians in Hungary Publishing publishes works of writers and artists of members of the Romanian minority, too.

The Serbian Minority In 2001, the number of the persons who declared themselves members of the Serbian minority was 3 816, and who declared using the Serbian language as mother tongue was 3 388. These numbers show an increase, because during the census of 1990 only 2 905 persons declared themselves to belong to the Serbian minority, and just 2 953 used the Serbian language as a mother tongue. (KSH, 2002) Their geographical situation in Hungary: the Serbian minority lives with the highest number of population in Budapest, but there are several communities in Pest county, Csongrád, Baranya and Békés counties. It is interesting to state that among the minorities living in Hungary the most numerous which is present in Budapest is the Serbian minority. Generally, they live in the cities. If we compare the schooling

162 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe level of the minorities living in Hungary the highest percent of graduates is present in the Serbian minority. (Magyar Köztársaság Kormánya, 1999) From 1995, the National Autonomy of the Serb Minority works for the minority. Its centre is situated in Budapest. The representation of that minority was assured until 1990 by the Democratic Alliance of Southern Slavs1. After the decomposition of Yugoslavia and after the decomposition of the Democratic Alliance of Southern Slavs one of the successor institutions was the Democratic Alliance of Serbs in Hungary, which was in function until 1995. The main goal of this civil organisation was to reorganise the educational system and the cultural independence of the Serbs. This organisation laboured a lot for the conservation of the Serb culture and tradition. There are numerous cultural events annually organised in Deszk, Szeged, Szőreg, Pécs, Százhalombatta, Lórév, Szigetcsép, Budakalász, Csobánka, Pomáz, and Szentendre. Several cultural associations are in function in Szentendre, in Deszk and in Pomáz. A Serb Theatre called „ Joakim Vujity” works in Hungary. Some dance groups and folklore groups protect—by their representation—the traditional Serb culture, for example in Pomáz, Deszk and Hercegszántó. Among them, the most famous is the Group Vujicsics, a dance group in Budapest. The Serb orthodox church also finances the protection of Serb culture and tradition. Given that the Serb culture is founded on the Orthodox religion, the Serb tradition is present through the Orthodox church and its monuments. 42 churches and 3 chapels belong to the Serbian Orthodox Bishopric of Buda, which have an ecclesiological art collection in Szentendre. Several of its churches are classified among the historical monuments like the churches of Ráckeve, Szentendre, Grábóc, Eger, and Székesfehérvár. (Magyar Köztársaság Kormánya, 1999) Since 1992, the educational system of the Serbian language has been reorganised. Before this year, between 1948-1992 the education in the primary schools was common for all „Southern Slavs”. Nowadays, there are 11 nursery schools, 2 bilingual primary schools in Battonya and in Lórév. There is a Serb secondary school in Budapest. The most important is the educational centre in Budapest where nursery, primary, secondary schools and a boarding school is in function. The young members of the Serbian minority have no possibility to learn in Serb, they have only the Serbian language at the departments of the University of Budapest, of Szeged, and in the Teacher Training College of Budapest. For the Serbian language teachers in Hungary an ongoing education is organised by the support of the National Autonomy of the Serb Minority. (Magyar Köztársaság Kormánya, 1999) This minority has a daily „Srpske narodne novine” in Serb; this newspaper is present on the web since 1998. Some information about the media situation: The centre of the regional radio and television in Pécs ensures a 60-minute radio program in Serbian daily, and 25 minutes television program bi-weekly. The Serbian minority

1 The Southern Slavs are all Slav nations living on the territory of Yugoslavia.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 163 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe does not get the national television program from Serbia and Montenegro in the whole territory of Hungary.

The Croatian Minority This minority counted 15 620 persons in 2001. In the questionnaire of the census 2001, there was a question about the usage of the Croatian language as mother tongue, so this way 14 345 persons considered Croat as their mother tongue. (KSH, 2002) Their geographical situation concern Baranya county, near to the Croatian borderline and in Zala and Vas counties. The highest number of them live in Baranya county: 4 608 persons. (KSH, 2002) Their presence here is linked to historical reasons. The Croatian minority does not constitute a homogeneous unit. According to their origin, numerous different groups can be distinguished (according to some specialists 7-12) who are connected with the same religion: Catholicism. (Kurdi, 2001) In 1995 a „Bilateral convention about the Croatian minority rights in Hungary and the Hungarian minority rights in Croatia” was undersigned by the Government of Hungary and the Government of Croatia. From this year the consultations of the two partners are regular and fruitful. (A Magyar Köztársaság Külügyminisztériuma, 2003) Nowadays, the number of the Croatian minority autonomies is around 75 on the whole territory of Hungary. Since 1995 the National Autonomy of Croatian Minorities works in Budapest. (Magyar Köztársaság Kormánya, 1999) Next to the Embassy of Budapest, two Consulates were opened: the first in Pécs due to the war events in 1996, the second in Nagykanizsa in 1999. In the first case this step was necessary because of the Serb-Croat civil war between 1991-1996 in Croatia, the thousands of refugees needed official certificates. In the second case, the Consulate is very useful due to its geographical situation. (HTMH, 2001a) The oldest civil organisation that works since 1990 is the Association of Croats in Hungary (Magyarországi Horvátok Szövetsége). Their aim is to represent the right and interest of the Croatian minority. The cultural life of the Croatian minority is organised by local, regional and national associations. In a lot of villages a dance group, a musical ensemble or a choir were created. The financial support of these associations is occasionally a problem for the local autonomies, which are not in a favourable financial situation. However, their activity is very important, especially the preservation of the national specificity. We can name as examples: the Fáklya and Tamburica group of Budapest, Zora group of Mohács, Dola group of Kásád, Baranya and Tanac group of Pécs, Morica group of Murakeresztúr, and the Gradistye Association of Szentpéterfa. Based on the cultural life, the twinning contacts with the villages of the motherland are very efficient. The only theatre apart from Croatia works in Hungary, in Pécs. From 1994 the Croat Theatre is independent. The town of Pécs and the Hungarian government share its costs. In the libraries, destined for the minority members, basic books and newspapers in the Croatian language are missing, too. (HTMH, 2001a)

164 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe The Croat language educational system is complete from the nursery school to the university degree. Generally, in the primary schools, education is in Hungarian, Croat is taught in 3-5 hours per week. There are seven bilingual primary schools. Since 1996, new educational centres in Budapest and Hercegszántó work with a nursery school, primary, and secondary school. In Hungary it is not possible to learn Croat on the tertiary level, only the Croat language at the departments of the Eötvös Loránd University of Budapest, of the University of Pécs, at Berzsenyi Dániel College (Szombathely), at Benedek Elek Pedagogical College (Sopron), Eötvös József College (Baja). (Magyar Köztársaság Kormánya, 1999) A daily is published titled “Hrvatski Glasnik” in Croat for the minority in Hungary, financed partly by the National Autonomy of Croatian Minority, by the Association of Croats and by the Hungarian government. A literary periodical named “Rijec” and a religious press titled “Zornica” are published in Croat, too. The centre of the regional radio and television in Pécs ensures 30 minutes radio program in Croat daily, and a bi-weekly 25 minutes television program titled “Hrvatska kronika”. By the Croatian minority’s opinion the television program is on screen at an inconvenient time. The Croatian minority not living near the Croatian border does not get the national television program from Croatia.

The Slovenian Minority 3 040 Hungarian citizens declared themselves belonging to the Slovenian minority in 2001. (KSH, 2002) In Hungary, the Slovenian minority is concentrated in Vas county. They live near the Slovenian borderline and the triple point of Austria- Hungary-Slovenia. The Slovenians live traditionally in “Rábaland” (Porabje in Slovenian). The “Rábaland” situated in the South-West part of the river Rába, its surface is 94 km2. In this territory there are 6 villages populated mostly by the Slovenian minority. Its economic and cultural centre is the city of Szentgotthárd. The “Rábaland” is part of the “Muraland” (territory by the river Mura) from geographic, linguistic, cultural and ethnic point of view. (Munda Hírnök, 2002) In 1992, a bilateral convention was contracted about the Slovenian minority rights in Hungary and the Hungarian minority rights in Slovenia. (Official Journal of the Slovene Republic 6/93) Next year another bilateral convention about cultural and scientific cooperation was also signed. (Official Journal of the Slovene Republic volume 6, 3.7.1993) In 1998, after the autonomy elections, the National Autonomy of Slovenian Minority was formed in Felsőszölnök. Similarly to the previous organisation, the National Autonomy of this minority seems to be very active. In 1998 a Cultural and Information Centre was inaugurated in Szentgotthárd. In 2000 the Slovenian Consulate was open in Szentgotthárd. In 1990, the Association of Slovenes was founded in Hungary. The activity of this civil organisation can be recognised in financing folklore groups, publishing several

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 165 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe documents, and organising meetings of sport clubs. (Following the interview with the president of the Association of Slovenes, Márton Ropos, 2002) Education in the Slovenian language is not completely assured for the minorities. At nursery and primary school level the situation is quite good. Due to the minority’s presence in the tri-border zone (Hungary, Slovenia, Austria), in the nursery and primary schools the education is bilingual or trilingual. However, on the secondary level there is only one school in Szentgotthárd, where the education is bilingual. Many pupils have to choose to learn in Slovenia on the secondary level if they wish to really use the Slovene language. If we analyse the possibilities at university level, the situation is worse: it is impossible to learn anything in Slovenian. The students can only choose the Slovenian language at the Department of Slovenian Language at the Berzsenyi Dániel College, in Szombathely. For resolving these problems, in 1999, the two neighbouring states signed an agreement about the recognition of diplomas/ certificates. (HTMH, 2003) A newsletter titled „Porabje” appears twice a month in Slovenian by the support of the Association of Slovenes. (Munda Hírnök, 2002) The centre of the regional radio and television is in Szentgotthárd. It ensures a radio program in Slovenian one hour a day, and 25 minutes television program bi-weekly. The problems of the Slovenian language press and media do not seem to be catered for. (Székely, 2000)

Conclusion As the table shows, the dispersed and small minorities (for example the Serbian and Ukrainian) do not have the same possibilities as the other minorities. The Ukrainian minority is in the worst situation among all minorities living in Hungary. Its complete education system is missing, and they do not have a TV program in their mother tongue. The Croatian, Slovakian, Romanian minorities have the largest possibilities to preserve their culture. Each of the three minorities count numerous members, and they do not live only in the border area with their motherland (except the case of the Croatian minority). They have quite well-constructed educational systems in Hungary, and the media in their mother tongue is available. In the case of higher education, one insufficiency is present: the minority members cannot learn any speciality in their mother tongue, only in Hungarian. That way, lot of young are under the necessity of going back to the homeland to continue their studies. In many cases, the homeland ensures scholarships for their members living abroad.

166 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe Table 1: General characteristics of the cultural situation of the minorities Number Geographical Primary Secondary Radio Television Minority University in 2001 situation school school (daily) (biweekly) 30 mixed, not only minutes Slovakian 17 692 in the border many 4 6 50 minutes +local area radio 30 Ukrainian 5 070 dispersed ------minutes mixed, not only 60 Romanian 7 995 in the border many 4 4 30 minutes minutes area 60 Serbian 3 816 dispersed many 1 3 25 minutes minutes along the 30 Croatian 15 620 many 2 5 25 minutes border minutes along the 60 Slovenian 3 040 several 1 1 25 minutes border minutes

Another general problem related to the education is the lack of good textbooks in the minority languages. This problem concerns the teachers teaching minority languages in Hungary, the schools, and indirectly the government of the motherland. To tide over these types of difficulties the two concerned States—in some cases— create a Mixed Committee on minority rights that try to resolve all types of minority problems. To summarize, I think the geographical situation of the minorities is one of the determinant elements in their cultural situation. If they are near the motherland, they have more possibilities to get the TV and radio programs of the motherland, and they must not be content only with the TV and radio programs destined for the minorities in Hungary. Without the minority efforts, one State alone can never do enough for the minorities living in its territory.

References A nemzeti és etnikai kisebbségek jogairól szóló 1993. évi LXXVII. törvény Law about the national and ethnic minorities’ rights (1993) Euport (2002): www.euport.hu, 17/07/2003 HTMH (2001a): A Magyar-Horvát Kisebbségi Vegyes Bizottság 2001. január 25-26-án, Eszéken megtartott V. ülésének ajánlásai. HTMH (2001b): A Magyar Köztársaság Kormányának és Románia Kormányának egyetértési nyilatkozata. 2001. december 22. Jegyzőkönyv a Magyar Köztársaság és Románia Aktív Együttműködési és Partnerségi Kormányközi Vegyes Bizottsága Kisebbségügyi Együttműködési Szakbizottsága II. üléséről. 1998 október 13.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 167 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe

Jegyzőkönyv a Magyar-Szlovák Vegyes Bizottság II. üléséről, 1999. szeptember 29. Pozsony Jegyzőkönyv a nemzeti kisebbségek jogainak biztosításával foglalkozó magyar-ukrán vegyes bizottság VIII. üléséről, 1998. december 10-11. Jegyzőkönyv a nemzeti kisebbségek jogainak biztosításával foglalkozó magyar-ukrán vegyes bizottság X. üléséről, 1999. december 16-17. KSH (2002): Népszámlálás 2001, 4. Nemzetiségi kötődés. KSH, Budapest. Kurdi, K. (2001): A magyarországi nemzeti és etnikai kisebbségek kulturális helyzete. József Attila Alapítvány, Budapest. Leclerc, J. (2005): L’aménagement linguistique dans le monde. Québec, TLFQ, Université Laval, http:// www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/index.shtml, 18/02/2005. Magyar Köztársaság Kormánya (1999): A Magyar Köztársaság Kormányának J/1397. számú beszámolója a Magyar Köztársaság területén élő nemzeti és etnikai kisebbségek helyzetéről, 1999. június. Budapest. Munda Hírnök, K. (2002): Magyarországi szlovének. www.hu-embassy.si/Index_files/hu_files/magyar_ files/Munda.htm, 08/09/2002. Official Journal of the Slovene Republic volume 6, 3.7.1993. Sanguin, A-L. (1993): Quelles minorités pour quels territoires? In: Sanguin, A-L. (ed): Les minorités ethniques en Europe. L’Harmattan, Paris. Székely, A. (2000): The role of Slovenian minorities in the Hungary-Slovenia-Austria co-operation. In: Region and Regionalism, No 6. Vol 2. Eds: Heffner, K. and Sobczyński, M. Lodz-Opole, Poland, pp. 117-124.

168 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe Gábor UJVÁRY “Foreign Sentinels of Hungarian Culture”1 Th e Pa s t o f Hu n g a r i a n Sc i e n t i f i c Fo r e i g n Po l i c y 2

1. The premises he international cultural relations and national education of Hungary T were strongly influenced from the 12th century onwards by young people who studied and graduated in foreign universities—first predominantly Italian and French, later German, Dutch and Swiss—and who returned home only after spending several years in foreign countries. The attempts at founding universities in Hungary were unsuccessful (Pécs, Óbuda, Pozsony and Buda) in the Middle Ages and the Early Modern Times, so people desiring to obtain high clerical and secular positions could only study in foreign universities. This situation only changed in 1635, when Nagyszombat University (the predecessor of today’s Eötvös Loránd University) was founded but several people still continued to study abroad as one single university was unable to cater for all higher education needs. Peregrination was an important factor even in the 20th century after the full development of the modern Hungarian higher education system, and in a period of a relative overproduction of intellectuals. It is true, though, that in the second half of the 19th century and between the two world wars Hungarian citizens went abroad predominantly for specialised and elite training and—in the case of the Jewish—because of the regulations known as

1 Translated by Bálint Szele. 2 The literature of my chosen topic is rather poor. Hardly anyone has dealt with this topic using primary archive sources. All the readers interested, therefore, have to be directed to my own Hungarian and German publications that contain quite a lot of references to archives, manuscripts, and library resources. These are the following: Magyar állami ösztöndíjasok külföldön 1867–1944 = Levéltári Szemle, 1993/3.; Tudományszervezés— történetkutatás—forráskritika. Klebelsberg Kuno és a Bécsi Magyar Történeti Intézet (Győr, 1996.); Das Institut für Ungarische Geschichtsforschung in Wien und die auswärtige Wissenschaftspolitik Ungarns in der Zwischenkriegszeit = Österreichische Osthefte Jg. 39/1997. H. 2; A Római Magyar Intézet története 1912–1945 között. In: Száz év a magyar–olasz kapcsolatok szolgálatában. Magyar tudományos, kulturális és egyházi intézetek Rómában 1895–1995 (Szerk. Csorba László) (Bp. é.n. /1998./) (also in an Italian version); Auswirkung Preußens auf die ungarische Wissenschaftspolitik in den 1920er Jahren. Friedrich Schmidt- Ott, Carl Heinrich Becker und Graf Kuno Klebelesberg. In: Wissenschaften und Wissenschaftspolitik. Bestandaufnahmen zu Formationen, Brüchen und Kontinuitäten im Deutschland des 20. Jahrhunderts (hrsg. Rüdiger vom Bruch, Brigitte Kaderas) (Berlin, 2002.); Klebelsberg Kuno és Hóman Bálint kultúrpolitikája. In: Társadalom és kultúra Magyarországon a 19–20. században (Szerk. Vonyó József) (Pécs, 2003.); „A magyar kultúra külföldi őrszemei.” A magyar kulturális és tudományos külpolitika és a külföldi magyar intézetek, tanszékek és lektorátusok. In: Stratégia és kultúra. Kulturális külpolitika az új kihívások tükrében (Szerk. Éger György, Kiss J. László) (Bp. 2004.); Das ungarische Institut der Berliner Universität, das Collegium Hungaricum und die deutschen Wissenschaftsbeziehungen (1916–1944) In: Wissenschaftsbeziehungen und ihr Beitrag zur Modernisierung. Das deutsch-ungarische Beispiel (Hrsg. Fischer, Holger) (München, 2005.)

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 169 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe numerus clausus. From 1947-48 until the 1980s the primary stream of peregrination was directed towards the countries belonging to the soviet bloc—due to an “away with all your superstitions” approach. In our days, shorter or longer study trips abroad are gaining an increasing importance. One of the most important points of the Bologna Declaration dealing with European higher education concerns the international mobility of students and lecturers. Besides peregrination, the institutions founded abroad from the second half of the 19th century were extremely important from the point of view of scientific and cultural foreign policy, the opinion of foreigners about Hungary, and the image of the country. These institutions were used to popularise Hungarian culture and science, and to provide a calm background for research activity serving the interests of the Hungarian state. There were two kinds of institutions: some founded by the Hungarian state or private individuals, some run by the host state, but also enjoying some kind of support from Hungary. Two important representatives from the first group are the Pázmáneum in Vienna (1623), and the Hungarian Historical Institute in Rome that was organised according to modern principles of science management (1895). Both were founded on the basis of private initiative, according to the plans of the archbishop Péter Pázmány and the bishop–historian Vilmos Fraknói, and both are still working today. To this list we can also add the Hungarian Scientific Institute in Constantinople (1917–1918), and the Collegia Hungarica founded between the two world wars (1924: Vienna and Berlin, 1927: Rome). The organisation of these latter was helped by the work of one of the best Hungarian Ministers of Culture, Kuno Klebelsberg, whose work still has an effect on today’s thinkers. All Collegia were Hungarian state institutions operating in another country. Their leaders were outstanding personalities of Hungarian science, and most of their scholarship holders, after returning to Hungary, became members of the intellectual, artistic, or public administration elite. Besides these, there were Hungarian university language courses, reader’s offices, and departments that had been founded in the 19th century with a variety of purposes. These were not founded by Hungary but by the host country. Nevertheless, they also served Hungarian interests as they played an important role in the dissemination of the Hungarian language, culture, and science. Their staff almost always included visiting professors and readers from Hungary. This system was extended in the period between the two world wars, primarily in European metropolises.

2. The beginning—the period before World War I. Hungary was not an independent state during the four centuries of the formation of the new Europe, from the Battle of Mohács in 1526 to the fall of the Hapsburg Empire in 1918. The country had its say in internal affairs to a lesser or greater extent, but as far as foreign affairs were concerned, it was submitted to the dynastic policy of the Hapsburgs and to the politics influenced by the status of the Monarchy as one of

170 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe the great powers. This situation did not change after the Compromise of 1867, when Hungary was given back its independence in home affairs, but in foreign policy it had to follow the common decisions of the federal empire, where Hungary had to serve the real or putative interests of the whole of the Empire. The enforcement of the Hungarian interests was either impossible or strongly limited. The control of religious affairs and public education, however, was the exclusive competence of the Hungarian government. Independent Hungarian cultural policy based on state interests only existed after the achievement of the basic civil rights in 1948-49, and later from 1967 on. This cultural policy, however, because of its dependence on common foreign policy, could not prevail in foreign countries, only in Hungarian territory. It was impossible to open cultural or scientific institutions run by the Hungarian state in foreign countries. At the same time, the representatives of the Hungarian cultural government, two outstanding statesmen of the period of the Compromise, József Eötvös and Ágoston Trefort, realised that the state should take on a leading role in supporting all foreign studies that help us reach European standards and keep up our cultural and scientific relations with Western Europe. Therefore the Hungarian government decided to include items in the first, 1868 state budget (and in each following year) that were set apart for the Ministry of Cultural Affairs to be spent on foreign scholarships. The most important of these, the so- called “travel scholarships” were aimed at raising the standards of Hungarian primary and secondary teacher education and at securing the supply of university and college lecturers. Cultural foreign policy, therefore, did not support foreign expansion but helped internal development. The number and total sum of “travel scholarships” awarded to university lecturers and teachers of law and engineering did not change significantly until the end of the 1870s. From this date to the 1890s the numbers became lower, but there was a significant increase from the beginning of the 20th century and the scholarships reached their peak shortly before World War I. Besides the “travel scholarships,” there were other items too in the budget of the Ministry of Religion and Education that were designed to finance study trips abroad. This way, 15–20 persons were given scholarships—but in some years, between 1906 and 1909, even more, about 40 scholarships were allocated. The scholarships were usually given by the minister on the basis of the recommendation of the universities or the institutions where the applicants worked. Besides the Ministry of Cultural Affairs, other ministries also had money to be spent on study trips abroad. There were some university foundations, too, that had the aim of fostering education abroad. Most of the scholarship holders carried on their studies in Austria, Germany, France, and Italy, in the universities that had been frequented by Hungarian students for a long time. The majority of state scholarship holders came from the University of Sciences in Budapest. Although the proportion of Hungarian students getting state scholarships during the period of Dualism was not more than 1–3%, although the concrete aim of most

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 171 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe of the half-year, one-year, or longer scholarships was not defined, and the organised establishment of the international cultural relations of Hungary was set back by the common treatment of the foreign policy of the Monarchy, if we look at the list of the people studying abroad with state scholarships, we can state the system of state scholarships before the Great War was very successful. Among the students and scholars who got state scholarships, we can find almost all the most important representatives of Hungarian science and art of the fin-de-siècle, the beginning of the 20th century, and the period between the two world wars. Let us now see a selected list in a chronological order: Bernát Alexander, Gyula Pasteiner, Ármin Vámbéry, Ignác Goldzieher, Ákos Timon, Zsigmond Simonyi, Henrik Marczali, Jenő Ábel, Ferenc Riedl, József Szinnyei jr., Aurél Stein, Jenő Klupathy, Sándor Dietz, István Apáthy, Aladár Richter, Alfréd Doleschall, Gyula Hornyánszky, Radó Kövesligethy, Ödön Polner, Bódog Somló, Bálint Kolosváry, Cholnoky Jenő, János Kossalka, Dávid Angyal, Ákos Pauler, János Melich, Lajos Szádeczky, János Horváth, Károly Szladics, Móric Tomcsányi, László Négyesy, Lipót Fejér, Oszkár Jászi, Győző Zemplén, Imre Szentpéteri, Gyula Kornis, Dezső Szabó, Géza Laczkó, Lajos Bakay, Tibor Gerevich, Gusztáv Buchböck, Antal Hekler, Gyula Germanus, Dénes Csánki, Ferenc Eckhardt, Róbert Gragger, Imre Lukinich, Elemér Vadász, György Pólya, Tivadar Thienemann, Béla Zolnay, József Trostler, Zoltán Magyary, Jenő Kastner, Sándor Eckhardt, János Hankiss, Tihamér Fabinyi, Gyula Moór, and József Huszti. Some foreign research institutes were already frequented by Hungarian students at that time: the Stazione Zoologica in Naples had a permanent place for a Hungarian biologist or zoologist from 1883, and, from 1909, Hungarian researchers worked in the Physiological Institute of Boulogne-sur-Seine. Between 1908 and 1914, 8–10 Hungarian students a year took part in language courses in France or England. The launching of an organised system of scholarships and the realisation that systematic scientific research in foreign countries was getting more and more important was the merit of Kuno Klebelsberg and Vilmos Fraknói. Fraknói realised during studying Hungary-related material in the Vatican Archives—and Klebelsberg Kuno in 1917, when he was elected president of the Hungarian Historical Society, as a real modern manager of science, called for the exploration of foreign archives that might contain material related to Hungary—that a centrally governed institution that is capable of integrating and co-ordinating several scholars’ work makes work easier in a foreign country (and also at home), replacing independent scholars who often hamper each other’s work and whose fields of study often overlap. Vilmos Fraknói received scholars who studied the history of the Hungarian churches with the support of different foundations from 1895 in his Rome residence. In 1912, he bequeathed his villa with all its furniture, library and plot of land to the Hungarian state. The Hungarian Historical Institute, maintained by the state and governed by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences was to receive two scholars each year, but the ceremonial opening that was planned around October 1914 was thwarted by the outbreak of World War I.

172 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe The short-lived Hungarian Scientific Institute in Constantinople, which operated from January 1917 to September 1918, the end of the war, was organised by Kuno Klebelsberg, who also took the chair of executive vice-president. Before 1918, this institute was the only Hungarian state-owned institution that received scholarship holders and that worked continuously. The scholars working in this institution— among them Zoltán Oroszlán, Ferenc Luttor, Géza Fehér, Ferenc Zsinka and Károly Kós (then: Kósch)—could well be proud of the results of their research. The decision-makers of Hungarian cultural policy faced the problem of teaching Hungarian as a foreign language first in the period of Dualism. In foreign countries, several Hungarian courses were advertised in a growing number of universities, and in Hungary—due to the 1848 nationality act and its amendments—the teaching of the Hungarian language and some subjects in Hungarian became compulsory in ethnic schools. The series of laws pursuing the dream of cultural and linguistic “Hungarianisation”—which proved to be absolutely futile—was started in 1879 (Law XVIII.) and finished in 1907, with the so-called Lex Apponyi (Law XXVII.), that was never enforced rigidly in Hungary, but which caused much harm to the international judgement of Hungary. The institutions and departments were opened in foreign universities due to several reasons. One was being a part of the same empire (Vienna and Prague), being “interesting,” or personal interest (Uppsala and Paris). In the Hapsburg Empire, there were masters of language in Vienna and Prague who taught Hungarian as a foreign language even before the Compromise. In Vienna, there was József Márton, the excellent lexicographer, who taught between 1806 and 1814, then from 1835 to his death in 1840; in Prague, Szende Riedl between 1854 and 1860 (here, the teaching of Hungarian continued from 1883). Hungarian courses started in Helsinki in 1869, in Uppsala from the autumn of 1900. In Sorbonne of Paris, Ignác Kont held lectures in the field of Hungarian language and literature, and from 1907 until his death in 1913, he worked as an extraordinary professor of Hungarian literature. The real breakthrough in the history of foreign university departments came by the establishment of the Hungarian Seminar in 1916—from 1917, Hungarian Institute—in Berlin, which had then one of the best universities of the world. This was established and developed by the best cultural diplomat of all times, Róbert Gragger. He was helped by his friend Carl Heinrich Becker, who was known world-wide, being an authoritative politician of the period between the two world wars (he also held the position of Minister of Culture in Bavaria for a few years), and he also got active help from Kuno Klebelsberg from 1922. The Institute was regarded by the Germans as one of the best-equipped and most prominent departments of the Faculty of Arts at Berlin University. The Hungarian departments abroad regard it as an example and model to be followed even today.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 173 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe 3. Hungarian cultural policy and the foundation of Hungarian institutes and departments between the two world wars Before World War I.—lacking an independent Hungarian foreign policy—Hungary tried to exploit every opportunity that enabled the country to establish international relations. Hungarian interests were largely identical with the primary aim of Austro– Hungarian foreign politics, the preservation of status quo. After 1918, Hungarian foreign politics became independent, but its latitude was extremely narrow. The role of cultural foreign politics, which provided more opportunities, became much more important. The main difference was that foreign policy did not strive to preserve the existing situation—the realities created by the Paris Treaties—but to change the situation by destroying them. The new countries tried to isolate Hungary, which had achieved its much longed- for independence at a horrible cost, the laceration of the country, in every possible way. This activity, however, could only be successful from a political and economic point of view, but not in the field of culture. This was virtually ensured by the Hungarians who lived in the surrounding countries, as their identity was set by a strong dependence upon Hungarian language and culture. It was obvious that Hungary could only break out of its almost total isolation by relying on cultural politics. In the period following the Trianon treaty Hungarian cultural politics was reorganised by Kuno Klebelsberg in the spirit of a conservative reform. This programme, partly inspired by Germany, was very demanding and ambitious. The basis of consolidation and future development of the Hungary that was considered as incapable of living— also by its neighbours—was defined as a systematic policy of cultural and scientific development that involved all the fields of strategic importance, such as public and higher education, science, art, and public education, physical education, the churches and the media that reached all social strata in Hungary. According to Klebelsberg, the task was not only to make the Hungarian nation recognised as a unified cultural nation, but to improve our image that hadbeen deteriorating in foreign countries, to launch and operate a kind of cultural propaganda in the best sense of the word, to make Hungary known in the world. Cultural policy thus became extremely important in his plans. He believed that revision, the aim and watchword accepted and confessed by the whole Hungarian society, can only be realised through a successful cultural foreign policy. Together with the support of “traditional” foreign politics. In his programme, there were several important pillars, like the setting up and expanding the network of Hungarian institutes, departments, reader’s offices; a new, conscious system of state scholarships that was different from that of earlier times because it served elite education; helping Hungarians in the surrounding countries to preserve their cultural identity; making the values of Hungary’s culture and science known to the whole world. His ambitious plans—that

174 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe were justly criticised for not being realistic—were supported by the other important cultural politician of the time, Bálint Hóman. Klebelsberg’s initiatives—supported by outstanding scientists like Zoltán Magyary or Róbert Gragger—led to the establishment of several of the “sentinels of Hungarian culture,” even in spite of the economic difficulties that were literally strangling the country. The exploration of Hungary-related material in the archives of Vienna and Rome were realised by the Vienna institute established in 1920, and from 1923—as a successor of Fraknói’s institute founded in 1895—the Hungarian Historical Institute. Similarly, the Collegia Hungarica opened in 1924 in Vienna and Berlin, and in 1928 in Rome were owned by the state, and were capable of receiving scholars from different fields of study. The support of students studying in Paris was realised through the Hungarian–French University Information Office that was called Hungarian Study Centre in France from 1933. It was also established by the Ministry of Culture. The scholarship holders could also carry out research and study in other towns and countries lacking Hungarian institutions with the help of the Hungarian government—in the USA from 1924, in France and England from 1925, in Switzerland from 1926. (The French government gave scholarships to Hungarian students already from 1921.) Talented Hungarian students could also study in other countries, as they could finance their stay by using the so-called “petty cash” scholarships of different institutions, public bodies, private persons, and Hungarian and international foundations, which could be budgeted and spent in the destination country. Although foreign relations were chiefly organised by the Foreign Ministry, the coordination of foreign cultural and scientific relations was taken over by the Ministry of Religion and Education, partly because Klebelsberg and Hóman were the most influential and powerful ministers in Hungarian governments. The most important aim of cultural foreign policy was elite education. Young people, usually with a university degree or sometimes with a doctorate were sent to the centres of world science where they could deepen their knowledge and see things in an international horizon. They were given a thorough education with the help of the system of state scholarships. When they came home, they quickly got into the elite of Hungarian intellectuals and civil servants. From the 1930s they made up a group of leaders that dominated the cultural, economic and scientific life of Hungary until the 1960s (provided they did not go abroad or were not exiled) or sometimes even longer, as it is exemplified by the career of Domokos Kosáry. Every institute had its own individual colours and image. They received scholars from the fields of study that were carried on at the highest possible level inthat particular town or that were of crucial importance from the point of view of national science. Vienna thus received the students of history (in the broadest sense) and medicine, Berlin the students of engineering and natural sciences, Rome the students of art and religious history. Historians were primarily interested in the field of the history of relations. Natural scientists and engineers studied fields not known in Hungary, they made experiments, and familiarised with new technologies and

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 175 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe methods. The inspiring world of Paris and Rome had a profound effect on artists, industrial artists, and architects. Besides these towns, Hungarian scholarship holders could also visit other countries on the basis of the same principle—Western Europe, the USA, and Japan were also popular destinations. It is very difficult to give a selection from the list of these persons; I can only do it on a subjective basis. Here, I try to list some of them, divided according to the institutions where they studied: Hungarian Historical Institute in Vienna (from 1933 Gróf Klebelsberg Kuno Research Institute of Hungarian History): András Alföldi, István János Bakács, Tibor Baráth, Kálmán Benda, Jenő Berlász, Ida Bobula, Csaba Csapodi, Lajos Csóka, József Deér, Sándor Domanovszky, Győző Ember, Lajos Fekete, Antal Fekete Nagy, István Genthon, Mátyás Gyóni, István Hajnal, Jenő Házi, Egyed Hermann, Bálint Ila, Zsigmond Jakó, Dénes Jánossy, Domokos Kosáry, Miklós Komjáthy, Bernát Lajos Kumorovitz, Imre Lukinich, Elemér Mályusz, Gyula Mérei, Gyula Miskolczy, Károly Mollay, Oszkár Paulinyi, József Perényi, Oszkár Sashegyi, István Sinkovics, István Szabó, Pál Török, Péter Váczy, Anna Zádor; Collegium Hungaricum in Vienna: István Barta, István Bibó, László Bogsch, Károly Czeglédy, Andor De Chatel, Kálmán Eperjesy, Edith Fél, István Gál, Domokos Gyallay Pap, Barna Horváth, János Kalmár, Jenő Katona, Dezső Keresztury, Sándor Koch, Iván Lajos, Emma Lederer, Béla Lengyel, Tibor Mendöl, Bence Szabolcsi, Ákos Szendrey, Lóránd Szilágyi, Lajos Treml (Tamás), Eszter Waldapfel, Béla Zemplén; Collegium Hungaricum in Berlin: András Alföldi, Miklós Asztalos, János Barta, Zoltán Bay, Tamás Bogyay, Béla Brandenstein, Béla Bulla, Tibor Erdey Grúz, Nándor Fettich, József Fitz, Pál Harkai Schiller, Béla Issekutz, Mihály Kerék, Dezső Keresztury, Adorján Kesselyák, István Kniezsa, Ferenc Koch, Ferenc Maksai, Mihály Malán, Elemér Moór, Károly Móra, István Náray-Szabó, Antal Németh, Zoltán Oroszlán, Lajos Prohászka, László Rásonyi Nagy, Rezső Soó, László Szebellédy, Kálmán Sztrókay, János Tuzson, Dezső Wiczián; Hungarian Historical Institute in Rome: Tamás Bogyay, Dezső Dercsényi, Mihály Ferdinandy, Ferenc Galla, István Genthon, József Huszti, Jenő (Koltay-)Kastner, Gyula Moravcsik, Zoltán Oroszlán, Lajos Pásztor, Lajos Tamás, László Tóth, Péter Váczy, Tihamér Vanyó, Pál Voit; Collegium Hungaricum in Rome (Hungarian Academy): Vilmos Aba-Novák, Bertalan Árkay, Barna Basilides, József Breznay, György Buday, Barnabás Buza, Gyula Hincz, Szilárd Iván, Ernő Jeges, György Kákay-Szabó, Tibor Kardos, Jenő Kerényi, Dezső Kurucz, Jenő Medveczky, László Mészáros, Antal Meszlényi, Béla Nemessányi- Kontuly, Pál Molnár C., Károly Patkó, Pál Pátzay, János Polikárp Radó, László Rónay, Vladimir Szabó, Kornél Szentgyörgyi, István Szőnyi, Tibor Vilt. This list, albeit it is makeshift, makes it clear that the system of scholarships was very successful. It had considerable results in one particular area: the students, who spent one year or a longer time abroad, did not only expand their knowledge but they—in the most of the cases—learnt to see their home country with the eye of the

176 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe foreigner. They got first-hand experience on what, why, and how other nationalities thought about Hungary. They came face to face with “alien” cultures and had an opportunity to establish an open scientific and cultural dialogue with people from other nations. Due to this they built relationships that they could exploit during their lifetimes and that provided them with the opportunity to work for themselves and also for their country. Klebelsberg reached his goal—at least if we think in longer periods, not only in the years that he spent as minister of culture. If we consider what he had said several times, namely that the success of a country of the size of Hungary depends on the skills and knowledge of about 3000 well-educated, intelligent, intellectual leaders, he was certainly right. His aim was to “bring up” these 3000 persons capable of getting on abroad, with good negotiation skills and appropriate behaviour, by means of education in foreign countries. He was partly successful as between the two world wars, about 2800 Hungarians could study abroad with different scholarships, and two thirds of them held state scholarships. The biggest success of Hungarian cultural diplomacy in the 1920s was connected to Vienna, the Hungarian Historical Institute, the Collegium Hungaricum, and to the Hungarian Embassy that worked together with them. In May 1926 they signed an agreement that came into force in 1st January 1927. This was the secret agreement called the Baden Archive Agreement that is operative even today. This agreement is unparalleled in the history of international agreements, as it declared that the historically significant documents were “the common heritage” Austrian and Hungary. These papers provided generations of archivists and researchers with material to be studied for a long time. The agreement had several provisions. 1. Hungary was given back the files that concerned Hungary; 2. The papers stored in Vienna became the common property of the two countries if they had belonged to central authorities that were involved in Hungary in the period between 1526-1918; 3. The institution of a permanent Hungarian delegation in the Vienna archives was established to cater for Hungarian interests. Some years later similar provisions were accepted in the Venice Agreement of 27 November 1932 concerning museums and libraries. There was an appendix to this with a list of valuable pieces, codices, etc. that were mutually handed over to the entitled country. The belongings handed over by Austria were of course much more valuable than the ones going back to Austria. Hungary got back more than 30 Corvinas, lots of manuscripts, paintings, statues, and other pieces of art. These treasures were exposed in 1933 in a representative exhibition in the National Museum. At the same time, lots of library and museum matter labelled as common heritage remained in Vienna. The status of these was regulated similarly to the archive files: the Hungarian commissioner was also responsible for the “common” material. From 1935 the director of the Collegium Hungaricum, the Gróf Klebelsberg Kuno Research Institute of Hungarian History, and the leader of the archive and library– museum delegation was one person, Gyula Miskolczy, the excellent historian. While

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 177 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe the archive agreement is operative even today, the library–museum agreement was “forgotten” after 1948, when Miskolczy was forced to leave the director’s position. In this period there emerged a new field of interest for Hungarian cultural foreign policy, the co-ordination and support of Hungarians in the surrounding countries by the motherland. The establishment of the Alliance of Expatriate Hungarians and the periodical titled Külföldi Magyarság [Expatriate Hungarians] (1920-1925), the different donations, books, and the foundation of the World Federation of Hungarians (1938) all served the purpose of maintaining and strengthening the Hungarian identity and the feelings toward the motherland in communities loyal to Hungary. The bilateral cultural and scientific relations were invigorated by societies such as the Mathias Corvin Hungarian–Italian Scientific, Literary, Artistic and Social Association (from 1920), the Finnish–Estonian–Hungarian Alliance, or the series of Finno-Ugrian education congresses—that of 1928 was organised in Budapest—that started in 1921. The interest in our kin languages and our putative Turanian, Eastern, or even Far-Eastern “race kins” was very strong in this period, primarily because of the disappointment with the Western World after the Treaty of Trianon. The departments and reader’s offices in foreign universities were even more important. Although Hungary could not control their work, their systematic financial support enabled the Hungarian state to influence their work tosome extent. As these were institutions founded by the host states, nobody could blame them for making political propaganda through culture—as it sometimes happened in the case of Hungarian Institutions established in foreign countries. (Despite the fact that Klebelsberg was serious when he thought that in science politics—and the institutions served purposes of science politics and elite education—there should be as much science, and as little politics as possible.) While in the 1920s Hungarian institutions were established, the 1930s were characterised by the establishment of Hungarian departments and reader’s offices. This latter activity was pursued by an eminent historian of the Middle Ages, Bálint Hóman, who was also minister from 1932 to 42 with a short break. He thought that the Hungarian milieu of the Collegia Hungarica was rather bad for language learning and self-reliant life. He continued to maintain these, but he did not develop them. He paid more attention to the support of Hungarian departments and reader’s offices. Most of them were established during his minister’s period, with considerable help from Hungary. He can also be credited with the development of the full system of Hungarian institutions abroad and the development of the supporting basis of Hungarology in the motherland. In the field of cultural foreign policy, a German–Italian–Austrian orientation was apparent already in the Klebelsberg era, as our intellectual relations were the strongest with these countries, due to our geopolitical situation. On the other hand, Hóman, who was known as a friend of Germany—and who, nevertheless, confronted Germany several times in the field of cultural politics—was successful in establishing and maintaining various relationships with France, America, and England. What is

178 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe more, Hóman—as opposed to Klebelsberg who did not have a written version—had a historically well-based, elaborate conception of cultural foreign politics, in which the exchange of cultural values had a serious role. He wrote one of the best essays on the history of cultural politics or the politics of history titled Külpolitikai irányok a magyar történelemben (1931) [Directions of Foreign Politics in Hungarian History], in which he argued for a multidirectional Hungarian foreign policy. Later he slightly modified his ideas. He believed that Hungary was between the German and the Russian powers and had to choose between the two. And in that case, Germany was a natural choice for Hungary. But in cultural foreign politics—partly to counterbalance the German pressure and expansion—he kept and tried to develop the West-European and American interests of Hungary. Hóman tried to secure the maintenance and undisturbed work of Hungarian institutes, departments and reader’s offices by means of bilateral scientific, cultural, and educational agreements—also called agreements on intellectual co-operation— that were regarded as modern in the era. For the sake of an active cultural foreign policy, he signed such agreements with Poland, Italy, and Austria in 1935, with Germany in 1940, with Estonia, Finland, and Japan in 1938, and, finally, with Bulgaria in 1941. These were all proclaimed in acts. Several things were regulated in these agreements: visits of scientists, student exchanges, mutual exchanges of scholarship holders, opportunities of co-operation in the field of science, literature, art, radio, and sports. Hungarian departments and reader’s offices were also mentioned, usually on a parity basis. In 1932, the first year of Hóman’s office time, the official register of officers only contained the addresses of the Berlin, Tartu, Stockholm, Helsinki, and Warsaw Hungarian departments besides the three Collegia and the Hungarian–French University Information Office as Hungarian scientific–cultural institutions abroad. (What is more, in Warsaw there was no real department but only a Library of Hungarian History.) In his speech on 20th May 1936 before the parliament, Hóman could already mention three departments (Berlin, Rome, Lancaster), two professor’s chairs (Vienna and Ankara), and seven commissioned lecturers (Helsinki, Tartu, Stockholm, Warsaw, Sofia, Amsterdam and Paris). He also told the representatives that there were several language teachers teaching Hungarian as a foreign language: at the universities of Vienna, Berlin, Munich—they were preparing another one in Leipzig—Rome, Milan, Genoa, Turin, Trieste, Paris, Warsaw, Krakow, Lvov, Poznan, Pittsburgh, and London. Similar work was going on in the Instituto per l’Europa orientale in Rome, in the Circulo Filologico in Milan, in the Instituto Culturale Fascista in Fiume, and in the institute for foreign languages in Paris. “Hungarian language, literature, and history are educated in 27 cities in 36 venues”—he claimed. He also added that besides the universities there are further institutions in Vienna, Rome, Berlin, and Warsaw, and in the Paris Office. Hóman’s foreign visits were primarily intended to expand this network of

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 179 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe institutions. He travelled to Austria, Italy, and Poland in 1935, to Germany in 1936, and to Bulgaria and Yugoslavia in 1941 to sign bilateral cultural agreements. His hosts always found him a pleasant partner. His corpulent body, his friendliness, his exceptional erudition and joviality found the way to anybody in foreign countries— just like in Hungary. In 1942, 7 Hungarian university institutes (Ankara, Berlin, Helsinki, Leipzig, Rome, Stockholm, Sofia), 31 reader’s offices (Amsterdam, Berlin, Vienna, Bologna, Breslau, Firenze, Genoa, Grenoble, Helsinki, Lille, Leipzig, London, Lyon, Milan, Montpellier, Munich, Naples, New York, Nyjmegen, Padua, Paris, Pisa, Rome, Stockholm, Stuttgart, Sofia, Turin, Toulouse, Trieste, Utrecht, Venice), 2 professor’s chairs (Geneva, Nizza), 1 course of Hungarian as a foreign language (Fiume), 6 Hungarian Departments (Berlin, Vienna, Bologna, Paris, Rome, Stockholm), and 1 Hungarian Study Centre (Bologna) were registered—48 institutions altogether. Some of them were under organisation, and did not open at all (Lille, Nizza, Amsterdam, Nyjmegen). Some of them discontinued their activity because the host state was at war with Hungary (London). It is true, though, that it was in London—although the education of Hungarian was stopped—that through the Swedish Embassy, which was responsible for the Hungarian interests, the Hungarian reader’s salary was still forwarded. Besides the 48 institutions, there were 3 Collegia Hungarica (Vienna, Berlin, Rome) 2 Hungarian libraries (London, New York), 2 Hungarian Institutes (Munich Paris), 1 Hungarian Religious Institute (Rome), 4 Hungarian Cultural Institutes (Berlin, Milan, Rome, Stockholm), 1 Hungarian–Italian school (Milan), 2 Hungarian Historical Institutes (Vienna, Rome), and 1 scientific society (Bulgarian– Hungarian), so there were 64 Hungarian scientific and cultural agencies, with such renowned delegates as István Barta, László Dobosy, Gyula Farkas, Géza Fehér, Gyula Fleischer, Miklós Fogarasi, István Genthon, János Lotz, Ferenc Luttor, László Mikecs, Gyula Miskolczy, Oszkár Paulinyi, László Pálinkás, Béla Szent-Iványi, László Tóth. There were, of course, several towns where there were several Hungarian institutions— often under the leadership of one person—that were separate organisations, but in reality belonged together, like Collegia Hungarica, university institutes, departments, and reader’s offices (Vienna, Berlin, Rome). The role of cultural foreign policy grew again after the outbreak of World War II. In this field, Hungary could more effectively be a “reluctant henchman” to Germany than in “great politics”. At the same time—with a face to the treaty coming after the war—Hungary tried to remain impartial and void of one-sided propaganda (especially in the agencies that were located in neutral countries), trying to give a favourable picture of the country to other states. This activity was consistent until the German occupation, and during the office time of the Prime Minister Miklós Kállay, it was even more emphatic. At the end of the period, in 1944, there were 69 Hungarian institutions in 38 cities of 13 countries (if we count Austria separately, which then belonged to the German Empire, the total number was 14). At least, in a legal sense, as in reality—mainly

180 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe because of the complicated situation at the end of the war—there was no work going on in most of these institutions. There were 12 institutions in Italy, 8 in the German Empire—including Vienna and Breslau (Wroclaw)—4 in France, 3 in the Netherlands and Switzerland, and 1 in each other country. Listed by country and city: USA: New York; England: London; Bulgaria: Sofia; Finland: Helsinki; France: Paris, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier; the Netherlands: Amsterdam, Nyjmegen, Utrecht; Germany: Berlin, Vienna, Breslau, Heidelberg, Leipzig, Munich, Stuttgart, Tübingen; Italy: Rome, Bologna, Firenze, Fiume, Genoa, Milan, Naples, Padua, Pisa, Turin, Trieste, Venice; Portugal: Lisbon; Spain: Madrid; Switzerland: Geneva, Basel, Neuchatel; Sweden: Stockholm; Turkey: Ankara. There is an interesting duality in the evaluation of the cultural foreign policy in the period between the two world wars. The results are impressive if we take into consideration that they were produced by a divided country that had been considered as incapable of living. On the other hand, this whole campaign had very little practical results. The young and intelligent people with an excellent education, coming home from the Collegia, were integrated into the intellectual and administrative elite to no avail. Lots of foreign students were taught to love and respect Hungarian culture, to know Hungary—in vain. The Hungary of the 1930s was under an extreme pressure from several sources that it was unable to shake off, and was riding for a fall, as cultural politics, using up-to-date methods in an obsolete society could only move within its own limitations, it had a narrow elbow-room. Still, we can say it was worth it, and there is a lesson to be drawn. The network of cultural institutions inside and outside today’s Hungary—although we often forget about it—is built on the foundations erected by Klebelsberg and Hóman. Their cultural policy—which was initiated and realised in an age with much less effective methods than ours—was absolutely compliant to European requirements and standards. Their activity served the establishment of a “knowledge society”—mentioned over and over again today—, the augmentation of the number of educated people, the extension of the role played by culture and science.

4. From value-conserving openness through complete intellectual isolation towards new opportunities— foreign Hungarian institutes and departments between 1945 and 1989 After the war that Hungary fought through side by side with the losers again, Hungarian cultural foreign policy was in a similar situation than 25 years earlier. Hungary reached its ever-lowest international reputation. What is more, until 1947, the signature of the Paris Treaty, Hungary’s independence was rather limited. It is sad but true that after a favourable international change, the formal restoration

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 181 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe of Hungarian sovereignty—due to the fact that the Communist Party managed to seize the power—the room to manoeuvre became much smaller than in the period between the two world wars. Foreign policy was determined by ideology, to a greater extent than ever before. Between 1945 and 1947, however, cultural foreign policy had an important role again, helping and partly substituting “diplomacy proper.” Dezső Keresztury, the excellent Minister of Cultural Affairs—who was a scholarship holder of the Vienna and Berlin Collegium Hungaricum, and later a reader at the Hungarian Institute of Berlin University—knew very well how important our foreign institutions were. In the spring of 1947, there were still 50 scientific and cultural agencies registered beyond our borders. In comparison with the 69 in 1944, we can see that they tried to conserve the positions from before the war. We also have to consider that all the Hungarian institutes, departments and reader’s offices in Germany were closed, with the exception of the one in Berlin that continued its work with a Finno-Ugrian profile. There is an interesting paradox in Hungarian political life at that time: while Bálint Hóman, the most outstanding personality of Hungarian cultural foreign policy was imprisoned for life as a war criminal, the foci of his cultural policy changed only slightly. The foreign institutions continued their work, and the directions in cultural policy did not change too much. Some of Hóman’s reforms, such as the 8-year school, the principles and regulations of selecting and supporting country talents, were taken over—without mentioning their origin. At the same time, they fiercely criticised and condemned him in person and also the whole period before the war. The conditions that had developed in the international status of the area after the war constrained Hungarian democracy to a short two-year period. The three-year office period of Gyula Ortutay (1947-1950) who was a left-winger in the Smallholder’s Party brought a total change and Sovietisation in Hungarian cultural policy and international cultural relations. Schools were nationalised, higher education was “renewed”—and torn out of the European model—on the basis of the Soviet model, and the Academy was reduced into a budgetary institution instead of being a public body: like everything else, it became a servant to politics. After the communist turn, the one-sided and ideology-based cultural policy gradually discontinued the support of institutions in non-socialist countries, and their leaders were called home. The process finished with the establishment of the Institute of Cultural Relations in 4th June, 1949, and with putting an end to the scientific work in the institutions that were located in Western countries. The use of these for political purposes was strongly encouraged. According to a resolution of the College of Foreign Affairs of the Hungarian Workers’ Party (2nd November, 1949), “the work of the institutions in Western countries should be temporarily stopped and the institutions should work under the control of the embassies.” Klebelsberg’s and Hóman’s conception about the role and mission of Hungarian institutions was forgotten for a long time—then, it seemed, for ever.

182 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe Cultural foreign affairs were, from this time on, no longer co-ordinated by the Cultural Ministry—the names “history,” “religion,” “public education” were deleted from the ministry’s name in 1951—but the Ministry of People’s Education, under the control of the Foreign Ministry, through the Institute of Cultural Relations. Its task was the dissemination and popularisation of Hungarian culture in other countries and other people’s culture in Hungary, the preparation and the implementation of cultural agreements, and the maintenance of scientific and artistic relations. Its activity—especially in the 50s, 60s, and 70s—was just as connected to internal affairs and secret services than to foreign affairs, culture, or science. The institute was re-christened in 1962, and it continued its work until 1989. From the point of view of cultural foreign politics—despite the fact that the Institute kept a leading role throughout—, the period between 1949 and 1989 can be divided into several phases. The 15 years after 1947 was the period of “falling back” in every respect. Our historically embedded relationships were absolutely forgotten by the then political leaders. It is true, however, that our relations with the “socialist” countries became the livelier. But the ideological conflicts arising from the atmosphere of the cold war determined our cultural life as well. Our orientation became narrow and one- sided. It was not only forbidden to show an interest towards Western Europe—with the exception of communist intellectual properties—but they tried to take our own past and values as well. Or, rather, it was adjusted to the current ideology—rather arbitrarily. In the world of a false internationalism that was also watching word usage, the utterance of the word “Hungarology” resulted in accusations with nationalism and chauvinism. The respect for the “sensitiveness” of our neighbours was more important than the protection of our own interests. It is thus easy to understand that the remaining institutions—in Vienna, Rome, and Paris—still existed legally, but in fact they did not work at all. The university workshops of specialised Hungarian education in Western-Europe ceased to exist, or—like Hungarian Departments in Italy, or the Finno-Ugrian Department in Göttingen—continued their work without support from Hungary. 1956 was a turning point in Hungarian history, but in cultural foreign policy it was only in 1963 that changes began. The few days of freedom in 1956 could not bring a change, and later the Hungarian diplomats—as the “Hungarian question” was still on in the U.N.O., it was very difficult to make Hungary accepted internationally—had more important things to do than deal with foreign cultural institutions. (If they did deal with the matter, however, there was not much to thank for; for example, in 1961, they sold the building of the Vienna Collegium Hungaricum—the Bodyguards’ Palace, one of the most beautiful monuments of Vienna.) The situation changed quickly and dramatically after 1963. Hungary, for the first time among the socialist countries, began to look for relations with Western Europe. The recipe that worked well between the two world wars—namely, that foreign politics can largely be helped by smooth cultural relationships—appeared again. Hungary, under strong political

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 183 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe control, was allowed to sign a series of bilateral cultural, scientific, and educational agreements with European “capitalist” countries. These were signed in 1959 with Finland, in 1965 with Belgium and Italy, in 1966 with France, in 1967 with Great Britain, in 1969 with Holland, Norway, and Austria, in 1971 with Denmark, in 197 with the USA and the Federal Republic of Germany—a year earlier, than with the German Democratic Republic! Most of these agreements provided for the (re) organisation of Hungarian departments and reader’s offices as well. Looking for relations with expatriate Hungarians—which would have been unimaginable in the 1950s—began in this period, albeit with a political purpose, sometimes that of “shaking up.” The preservation of the identity and mother tongue of expatriate Hungarians, mostly second or third generation youths—typically the children of 1956 emigrants—became important from the point of view of Hungary too. The Mother Tongue Conferences from 1970 and the mother tongue movement issuing from it (the Balaton camps and the Sárospatak Summer College), the edition of Hungarian grammar books, the launching of the periodical Nyelvünk és Kultúránk [Our Language and Culture] (from 1971), the trainings for teachers of Hungarian as a foreign language, and the spreading of the folk dance movement among expatriate Hungarians bound the Hungarians beyond the Carpathian Basin with stronger ties to the motherland than before. The so called “peaceful coexistence” of the 1970s and 1980s that stressed the mutual interdependence of capitalist and socialist countries became a reality at least in this respect. It seemed that this was the way of remaining free of politics even in an age that was soaking with politics and ideology. (It is true, however, that this “freedom from politics” very often served political purposes.) “Either we keep in contact with socialist Hungary, or we lose every contact with her”—this is how Dénes Sinor, the orientalist professor of Indiana University explained the principles of co-operation in the 1st (1970) Mother Tongue Conference. “Viewed from the other side: either the motherland accepts the way we live, or she loses us. It is very important from both points of view that this conference remain free of politics. There is not one single individual in this hall who is not happy of the fact that we were able to look very tactfully and cleverly for not what divides us, but what binds us together.” Or as Imre Kovács said, who never returned to Hungary, on behalf of the emigration: “I would not leave this Hungary now, but I would not return to this Hungary yet.” Although almost all the Hungarian university institutes in Western Europe that had been occupied with specialised Hungarian courses ceased to exist after the 1940s, due to political reasons and the cold war, some of them—without any support from Hungary, solely depending on the host university—continued to work. On the other hand, new departments were established in “friendly socialist countries.” From the middle of the 1960s, new university departments were opened throughout Western Europe, in close succession, usually in the universities that had hosted them before the war. Most of them were established on the basis of bilateral agreements, with help from Hungary, due to the relative independence of Hungarian cultural foreign

184 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe policy. This cultural policy, which could by no means be called free, but which was much more independent than that of other socialist countries, also wanted to use departments in western countries for the purposes of political influence, by means of cultural propaganda—meant in the worst sense. On the other hand, due to this, we could again speak—albeit with a little fear—about Hungarology and the necessity of international co-operation in this field from the end of the 1970s. The leaders of Hungarian cultural foreign politics made many declarations—from the middle of the seventies on—that stressed the importance of a many-sided, open cultural policy that is open towards Western Europe and “the capitalist world,” besides the traditional ideological commitment. We all know the declarations of György Aczél, who led Hungarian cultural foreign policy with an excellent skill and cleverness, and who could divide and manipulate different communities of interest in order to achieve his own goals. His utterances often served tactical purposes and did not originate from true commitment. Instead of his words, I would like to quote those of the under-secretary Ferenc Rátkai from 1982 who had an important role in determining the direction of cultural foreign policy. Rátkai was not a doctrinaire dogmatic—in that period it was no longer important for leaders to be so. So, after a compulsory ideological credo, he could speak up for the freedom of culture and arts: “International cultural relationships do not have to follow the ‘fluctuations of potential’ in world politics on a daily basis, their continuity can be preserved even in difficult periods. […] We can say that the development of cultural co-operation is a fourth dimension in Hungarian foreign politics besides the political, the economic, and the trade dimensions. And we do not have to withhold that—like every other small country with a culture existing within the limits of a less widespread language, and with a definite scientific capacity—we are especially interested in international cultural exchanges and divisions of labour. To sum it up: co-operation is an important condition of our internal development.” The network of Hungarian institutions abroad was growing steadily too. Besides the Vienna Collegium Hungaricum (which existed in the Cold War but did not carry out substantial activity), the Hungarian Academy in Rome, and the Hungarian Institute in Paris, there were new institutions too. There were institutions from 1948, in Sofia and Warsaw—in both cities there were antecedents—, from 1953 in Prague, from 1970 in East Berlin, and from 1974 in Cairo. Today, there are 18 institutions in 17 countries. Among them, the five Collegia Hungarica, following the traditions before the war, provide scientific services, and receive scholarship holders (Vienna, Berlin, Moscow, Paris, and Rome), the others (Brussels, Bucharest, Helsinki, Cairo, London, New York, Bratislava, Prague, Stuttgart, Sofia, Tallinn, New Delhi, Warsaw) are solely occupied with cultural transmission. The status of the Hungarian Institute in Munich is interesting. This scientific institute was founded by Bavaria in 1963, and from 1999 it got a quarter of its support from Hungary, so that it can also organise cultural events. I think, in the future, jointly financed institutions could carry a leading role.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 185 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe That is why I think it mistaken that the Hungarian state tries to “withdraw” from this institution on the quiet after only a few years’ time. Hungary had signed bilateral educational, cultural, and scientific agreements with more than 50 countries by the end of the 1970s, and 75 by 1980—among them 12 socialist, 20 capitalist, and 43 developing countries. In the academic year 1967/68, there were 1676, in 1980/81 1725 Hungarian students—among them 400 first-year students—who were involved in all-round training abroad. With the exception of Finland, solely in socialist countries: Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, the GDR, Romania, and the Soviet Union. At the same time, there were 1723 foreign students in Hungary in 1967/68, and many more, 2742 in 1980/81—1277 and 1655 of them from developing countries—who carried out their higher education studies in Hungary. There were 32 delegated lecturers in 1976, whereas in 1981, there were 33 Hungarian readers and visiting professors teaching in 33 universities of 17 countries. At the end of the previous era and at the beginning of the new one—in the academic year 1990/91—there were 50 visiting lecturers and 7 professors delegated by the International Centre for Hungarology, which was established in 1989, and which took over the tasks of the Institute of Cultural Relations. Today, Hungary can send 43 guest lecturers to 37 universities of 23 countries. The process is organised by the co-ordination institution of the national and international network of Hungarology, the Balassi Bálint Cultural Institute, which was established in 2002 by merging the International Centre for Hungarology, the Institute of Hungarian Language, and the Council of Hungarology. Of course, the Institute is in close co-operation with many more universities teaching Hungarian. (Hungarian guest lecturers are received in the following towns: Ankara, Vienna, Belgrade, Bordeaux, Bucharest, Presov, Osijek, Helsinki, Jerusalem, Izhevsk, Jyväskulä, Cairo, Cluj Napoca, Krakow, Lille, Ljubljana, Maribor, Tirgu Mures, Moscow, New Brunswick, Nitra, Paris, Beijing, Poznan, Bratislava, Prague, Strasbourg, St. Petersburg, Skopje, Sofia, Tartu, Turku, New Delhi, Warsaw, Veliko Tarnovo, Zagreb.) The aim of this fragmentary and sketchy survey can be no more than the enumeration of my conclusions. It is obvious what we lost in the 1950s and 1960s with our complete isolation from Western Europe after the “golden age”—even in spite of social underdevelopment—of Hungarian culture and science between the two world wars. This was followed by an illusory openness that was in fact politically based and served the interests of the socialist regime. Today, we still have to fight for changing the system. We have to study—on the basis of strict professional considerations—where, why, and with what kind of help is it necessary to establish and maintain institutes, departments, and reader’s offices. We also have to consider which institutions should be closed, and which ones should be give stronger support—even if this means the closing of other institutions. Still more important is to establish an institution that follows the European example (Goethe Institut, British Council, Alliance Française, the Spanish and Portuguese etc. networks) in co-ordinating and directing Hungarian cultural foreign politics as an integrated system, based on clear conceptions,

186 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 3. International and Interregional Connections in Europe harmonising the work and tasks of the Hungarian institutes, departments, and other agencies. We have to realise as soon as possible that the maintenance of politically contaminated cultural “shop-windows” with the support of the Hungarian state does much harm from a political point of view. And our diplomats have to know that the possibility and significance of cultural and scientific diplomacy is growing steadily in the beginning of the 21st century—at the expense of political and economic diplomacy, which have always been regarded as the most important and effective. This is why it would be very important to work out an up-to-date and modern strategy for Hungarian cultural foreign policy—we have not had one for 60 years, since the departure of Bálint Hóman. It would be very important to think about this seriously in an age when Europe is becoming one huge economic unit and, at the same time, the continent of varicoloured culture.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 187 188 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 4. Media in the Europe of Regions

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 189 4. Media in the Europe of Regions Mónika ANDOK News as a Text Type vs. Genre Alternation in the Age of Information Society

1. Introduction iterature on text theory and typology suggests six aspects for analysis and differentiation of text types (Based on Tolcsvai Nagy, 2001): the degree of L expounding in the text, the indication of point of view, the characteristics of the communicational scenes, the typical features of its meaning structure, the sub-features of the whole text concerning text types and finally the style of the text. Based on these points of view, examining the structure, several text types could be differentiated in texts appearing in the media as news. An important achievement of the study is the representation of the fact that these different text structures can be differentiated with the help of topical fields. That is, there is a difference between the structure of political, economic and sports news. Another point of view in creating text types is the communicational scene. Diverse news structures can be observed in printed news, on the radio, on television or the Internet. The third aspect of examination in creating different text types is style. It is closely connected to a question of news writing, that is, what kind of reading public, audience or listener the particular news is addressed to. Do we need quality papers or tabloids, perhaps a specialist periodical or a magazine? All in all, there are three main fields, important from the point of view of social communication, that influence the process of news construction in a way that they create diverse text types in the end, which are presented as the same genre. These three fields are: the topical classifiability of news events, the medium of news service and the audience, the receivers of the news. On the basis of the typical features of meaning structures different text types could not be distinguished. Neither could they be by the degree of expounding. However, I must add to this view that news with or without titles are differentiated by books on the theories of media genres, in which case variety in the length of texts and also the changes of the degree of expounding refers to the differences in genre. This line was not analysed in detail in my study since books mention news without titles as a genre, yet having examined daily papers I could hardly find any examples of it. Or at least not enough to treat it as a leading genre. News without title seems to be disappearing from the practice of news writing. The only text typological feature that was compulsory with every type of news is the point of view not indicated in the text. This lack of indication could be traced on

190 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 4. Media in the Europe of Regions all levels of the text since news writers especially tend to “hide” the author. It is such a crucial rule that should it be broke, that is should there be any references to the author, the text will be categorised as a report rather than a piece of news. Before passing on to the detailed explanation of certain typological aspects I would like to emphasise the most important points of the text typology of news based on the results so far. In accordance with the creation and perception of texts as news the six research factors mentioned previously are not of the same importance. It means that the typological features within a certain aspect give more freedom to both the creator and receiver of the news. In other cases, however, we can meet rules not to be broken. The two marginal rules are style and indication of point of view. From a stylistic point of view, although we can talk about an ideal news style, news writers have a wide range of opportunities. It is so because the more specialised a news programme is, the more specialised audience it aims at and it causes stylistic variety. Let us take a tabloid or a quality paper as an example. In their cases the same piece of news bears different stylistic features depending on the publishing medium. On the other hand we should not ignore the fact that the news on television and radio are more similar to the style of spoken language than the printed news of the dailies. It is well reflected for example in the length and complexity of sentences. The other marginal rule is the indication of point of view. In the case of news it proved to be the most crucial criterion. That is the speaker or composer must not be indicated in the text of the news in any way. Should the composer be revealed, the text will immediately be excluded from the concept of news and regarded as a report.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 191 4. Media in the Europe of Regions Figure 1: The typological possibilities of news texts Tolcsvai’s categories Characteristics of news Degree of influence

1. Degree of expounding News texts are full of details; If the minimum requirement A minimum requirement is fulfilled, it is classified as can be given: who said what, news (in extreme situations, when, where and why etc. like wars, little uncertainty is acceptable).

2. Indication of point of view Author is never indicated The most crucial criterion, grammatically. should point of view be Point of view is not indicated. indicated, it must not be regarded as news but another genre, like a report.

3. Characteristics of written + picture; The differentiation within the communicational scenes spoken + picture; news genre is indicated by the planned A B C D; different mediums. spontaneous—-—- ; A—printed press; B—printed press, with illustration, Internet; C—radio; D—television;

4. The sub-features of Highly differentiated, It represents the general structure typical of the macrostructure of differentiation within the text type texts classified as news is news genre, diverse schemes different (see van Dijk, “news can be observed belonging to schemata”). diverse topical fields.

5. Meaning structure and General characteristics Not excluding requirement. macrostructure typical of of micro,- meso,- Not crucial criteria. the type macrostructure.

6. Style Neutral or sophisticated. Not crucial criteria. Diverse stylistic subtypes can be observed within news depending on paper types— quality or tabloid.

192 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 4. Media in the Europe of Regions 2. The sub-features of general structure typical of text type

In my study I took van Dijk’s “news schemata” as a starting point and introduced its topical alternatives in the same material observed.

Figure 2: The superstructure of the text of news

Having examined certain topical subcategories within news I could draw the following conclusion. The original superstructure seems to be favourable to divide into three main units. The first unit contains the Summary with Headline and Lead. The second main unit is the situation belonging to the History. The third unit is the Comments also belonging to the History unit, which I treat as a third, individual unit not included in the History. My reason for it is the fact that in most news all the important information has already been mentioned in the Lead so sometimes revising of the story is left out. In the case of some news types, like economy news, this kind of story can not be told but the Comments unit can be traced in the news text. That is why I think it does not need to be included in the History, it can be treated individually from a text-structural point of view. On the basis of the previous three main units the following can be stated. In every case, in every topical field theSummary with Headline and Lead is compulsory and not to be left out. This is the minimum that has to be involved in the news from a text- structural point of view. The other main unit in van Dijk’s structure is the Story and also Situation, Episode, Main events, Consequences, Background, Context, Circumstances, Previous events and History involved in it. This kind of structure can be observed in war news, police and crime news belonging to tabloids. This text structure can be found in news types that are based on a story of an activity or a series of activities. In events where something similar is not included the text needs to construct the world in a different way, it will have a different structure.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 193 4. Media in the Europe of Regions Two highly diverse alternatives of the second unit could be recognised in news texts. One of the alternatives occurs in news relating to some kind of speech. It can be either the speech of a politician, a decision-maker, an informer or a speech heard at a press conference, an assessment or either a propaganda speech etc. In these cases the unit following the Summary summed up two or three of the most significant ideas of the speech (press conference), one of them in the form of a quotation. The second other alternative is not news deriving from speech but rather from a written text, statistical data or the summary of an account. These pieces of news are based on and inform about events dealing with long processes. They can not be fragmented into episodes, they are usually segmented into time units, daily, monthly and yearly. Economy news are typical examples of these. The third main text-structural unit is the Comments and the Verbal reactions, Expectations, Evaluations and Conclusions connected to it. In news construction a tendency of more and more often asking an expert about a piece of news can be noticed. In political news it is often a member of the opposite party. It can be attributed to the fact that in order to assure objectivity and neutrality a new technical tool appeared or more exactly grew stronger in the last decades. I would like to mention one more unit of text structure which can appear as the fourth main unit in news texts. Only in police news, the closing of a text can be a police announcement to the public. Having presented the examples and analysis, let me give a summary of the superstructure of news indicating the alternatives of structural elements.

Figure 3: Alternative superstructures of news texts First structural unit Second structural unit Third structural unit Forth structural unit Compulsory element of One of the alternatives A: not compulsory but Topically bound, only every news text appear, not compulsory common in police news but common B: topically bound, in cultural news, in A: activity containing subtypes of programme episodes, news trailers B: news deriving from speeches C: news deriving from accounts, texts A: Summary A: Story, Situation, A: Comments, Verbal A: Appeal Headline, Lead Episode, Background, reactions, Conclusions, Main events, Expectations, Consequences, Context, Evaluations History, Circumstances, Previous events

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First structural unit Second structural unit Third structural unit Forth structural unit B: Resume 1 B: Expectations (not Resume 2 individually, connected Resume 3 below to the Verbal - one is in the form of a reactions) quotation C: Account (summary of any kind of written document, typically with a lot of statistical data)

To the table above I would like to add that it always depends on external, technical aspects what the piece of news includes besides the compulsory element of the Summary and how long it is. It is not dependent on the importance and exceptionality of the event itself but news writers make a decision on the basis of a relationship with other news appearing on the same day. Drawing the chart of structural alternatives it can be seen that it is basically the source of news that determines the structure of the news and which of the alternatives are to be used. It is also the event, happening etc. that the piece of news is about.

3. News on the Internet In what ways does news on the Internet differ from a text-structural point of view from the one published in printed press? First of all I would like to emphasise that the material of my examination was the news on the “origo” and “index” websites so I did not include the web versions of printed dailies. The most important to state is that all pragmatic reasons for the text differences I studied stem from the characteristics of the Internet as a medium. • The whole news text can never be seen at first on the Internet. There are 5-8 news presented with headline and lead, the other pieces can be seen only with the headline on the front page. • As far as quantity is concerned, much more news can be listed here, usually it is between 30 and 80. There is more on “index” and less on “origo”. • 120-150 recent pieces of news appear on webpages every day and more recent ones come every five minutes. • These slightly selected pieces of news are stored in the so-called “News centre” for a week and after a stronger selection for another week.

Concentrating on text-structural diversity we can observe the following differences on the basis of van Dijk’s “news schemata”: In the Summary the Date is inserted between the Headline and the Lead and it shows the day, hour and minute. It is meant to indicate the topicality of the news.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 201 4. Media in the Europe of Regions The Headline can be supplemented, that is the individual text units can be separated by headlines within the text in case of a longer piece of news. Besides all these a new unit appears at the end of the news text, the Previously unit, where all the previously appeared news treating the same topic can be available for the reader. It is mainly the same as the Background in van Dijk’s structure, which could be divided into the Context and History units and into the Circumstances and Previous events within the Context. It now appears in the news as a reference to a previously appeared text. Moreover, there can be links within the text from where we can get to another text using the opportunities given by the hypertext.

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The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 203 4. Media in the Europe of Regions S. J. Petőfi—Zs. Benkes (1998): A szöveg megközelítései. Kérdések—válaszok. Bevezetés a szemiotikai szövegtanba. Iskolakultúra, Budapest. Petőfi S. J.—Zs. Benkes (2002): A multimediális szövegek megközelítései. Iskolakultúra, Pécs. Schudson, Michael (1978): Discovering the News: A Social History of American Newspapers. New York: Basic Books. Schudson, Michael (1998): The Good Citizen: A History of American Civic Life. Free Press, Harvard University Press. Schudson, Michael (1998): The Power of News. Harvard University Press Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England. Silverstone, Roger (1994): Television and Everyday Life. London, Routledge. Magyarul egy fejezete jelent meg: A közönségről. Replika 38. 1999 december. 63-91. Stryker Munson, Eve—Warren, Catherine A. (eds. 1997): James Carey. A Critical Reader. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. Tolcsvai Nagy G. (2001): A magyar nyelv szövegtana. Nemzeti Tankönyvkiadó, Budapest. van Dijk, Teun A. (1985): Discourse and Communication: New Approaches to the Analysis of Mass Media Discourse and Communication. Berlin: de Gruyter. van Dijk, Teun A. (1988a): News as Discourse. Hillside, NJ.: Erlbaum. van Dijk, Teun A. (1988b): News analysis: Case stadies of international and national news in the press. Hillside, NJ.: Erlbaum. Neuberger, Christoph—Tonnemacher, Jan—Biebl, Matthias—Duck, Andre (1998): Online— the future of newspapers? Germany’s dailies on the World Wide Web. Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, 4, http://www.ascusc.org/jcmc/vol4/issue1/ neuberger.html Schultz, Tanjev: Interactive Options in Online Journalism: A Content Analysis of 100 U.S. Newspapers. http://www.ascusc.org/jcmc/vol5/issue1/schultz.html

204 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 4. Media in the Europe of Regions Lajos Mihály DARAI The Hungarian Principles of Programme Making and Broadcasting— Supplement to the New Media Law1 1. Introduction he media law can promote the programme broadcasting Hungarian institutions T in their qualitative step forward to accomplish their mission. By making clear the objectives of the media law, the programme makers have to enhance the concept of national unity, as well as the life and decisions of the members of society. The primary consumers of the media are Hungarians living in a country who are the creators, supporters and promoters as well as the economic and cultural factors of this great geographic region. The secondary consumers of the media are citizens supported by us, subjects to different taxes and other matters. The regulator of the first ones is the Hungarian cultural life expressed by the historic creation, the entire Hungarian culture, morality and poetry. The second ones are regulated by the combination of present laws and ethics adapted to the world. Therefore, television cannot be exclusively the messenger of our second identity, the mouthpiece of politics. Yet, it has to support and guide us in the formation and organization of our lives. By providing this guidance, the burden and concern of our different-level orientation can be eased in harmony with the conceptualized world and the spiritual and material promotion and support of their interests.

2. The moral basis, requirement and experimental principle of information The most basic supporter of our social existence is mutual cooperation: Meeting the challenges of adaptation the multiplying communities spread human efficiency over an enlarging natural and intellectual area. For the use of all these we developed the following: suitable devices to inform each other that have evolved as promoters of the advantages resulting from social relations. The direct connections leading from brain to brain have been substituted first by the speech and then by its picture and written version, the latest versions are programme diffusing as well as distance watching and appearing instruments. The information of people cannot exceed the effects of adults, local community

1 Translated by László Mezei.

The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 205 4. Media in the Europe of Regions and nation. Programme makers and broadcasters can direct children’s attention towards generally accepted values aiming at their lifelong development. At the same time, programmes about communities and regions present the most balanced pieces of information, presenting facts from different viewpoints and giving a summary analysis of meaningful arguments. When presenting the questions, cases, events, principles, opinions, objectives, plans, intentions, endeavours, wills referring to the whole nation or a part of it and the place and situation of the nation among other nations one has to take into account the nation’s own will as well as the expression and effect of its interest. With the empowered monitoring of information, the adult and community effect can be increased and transmit all the blessings of the human community. Everyone can have full access to scientific devices, pieces of art, religious rites, physical educational and health processes, entertainment, but all the good and bad experiences of various subjects and groups. Inclinations existing in people should not be revived, activated or stopped. Strong stimuli lead to greater flux of force and direct spiritual and mental effect that relates to swift and not cooperating processes. The weak stimuli cause smaller flux of force that activate at cooperative, indirect and more conscious levels. Thus, the weaker stimuli have a deeper and more lasting effect on the acceptor than the stronger ones since they integrate his or her spiritual and mental response in the caused effect. For their lack impedes the realisation of the similarity principle, one has to strive for developing certain human skills and inclinations. The level of arousal can be made possible by weak stimuli producing new thoughts and inclinations from the old ones. The conveyance of strong stimuli should be avoided that are activities causing the arousal of certain inclinations. With reference to information; qualities like attention, sympathy or satisfaction develop deeply and last long in those who are not embittered by the rude, merciless and inhuman effects. So a good programme has a cultural content, while the lack of culture is disgusting.

3. Conveying the European system of values During the European segregation the idea of European unity was a European myth. Nowadays the lack of European spirit that accompanies the European institutional unity presents a problem. The notion of Europe is not connected to harmonised traditions; the European culture has spread over the whole world. That is in some respect the extension of Europe not presenting the close relation of separated Europeans. However, Europe is a mosaic viewed from a perspective and presents a unified picture only from the distance representing a unique European value. Europeanism is carried by the national-humanity of every nation that is naturally the Hungarian- humanity in our case. Therefore the common treaties represent a lower social level and cannot be elevated above the national-humanity level. The Hungarian Europeanism-cosmopolitanism is a humanity level and not a social one.

206 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 4. Media in the Europe of Regions The genuine European traditions and spiritual unity are represented by the national excellence. They are the organically developed national centres and social achievements of exemplary national peculiarities that have the unified European way of thinking and acting as well as possessing spiritual and political independence beside creative freedom. The political and spiritual leaders of the European nations are different. The national centres of spiritual value or spiritual self government are different from the representatives of the democratically elected politicians that are in power. The European harmony is represented by the former, while the national interests by the latter ones, even if it seems to be the other way around here. This way there should be European understanding and harmony among the spiritual and the political layer of nations, in other words among the interaction of principles and the creation of spiritual people as well as in the practices of different national leaders. In order to support the promotion of the country at European level with sciences, arts and achievements and then elevate the political culture as well as the success and security of business life. The task of the media and public information is to present the aspirations of spiritual people and to convey the achievements of public representatives. To approach objectively the political and business life and to analyse the outcomes of the political will and business points of view, to help fulfil the expectations of the spiritual self-governments, to spread at home and abroad the scientific and artistic achievements and popularize the particular national solutions. National vales and their unconditional relations have to be conveyed. Not only the bourgeois and social culture, but the principles of individualism, liberalism, humanism, rationalism and organicism cannot be excluded. Opening a new spiritual front spiritual forces coming from original, prevailing traditions and the depths of the soul have to be included as well as the representatives of old and existing values, laws, aptitudes, behaviours and actions. In order to renew the ancient European tradition spread for a long time over the world that is common in most prominent European nations. Since people are variations of almost the same kind of men who are repetitions of nearly identical variations of genes. These people were originally humble and without aggression and destructive emotions against others. Conveying a higher order a supranational binding bridge are also tasks that eliminate the egoistic boundaries of narrow-mindedness and connect with the new forces aiming at the European unification, as well as spread this new orientation leading to the resurrection of humanity. Introducing the own and other national spiritual centres, the spiritual self-governments that provide some kind of spiritual resistance against outdated ideologies. With the international and supranational solidarity and affection joint efforts are created to exceed every centralisation of any hierarchical organisation.

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4. Conveying our Hungarian values, popular and cultural unity and continuity The Hungarian people and language has always been similar to the present definitions of these notions. The culture of Hungarian people does not mean a homogenous having the same root, because its double culture, popular and authoritative branch has been detected for a certain time. The Carpathian Basin has been continuously populated since the Stone Age. Certain cultures have progressively developed and changed in this region. The cultural elements of the Subalyuk (Szeleta) Culture have always been present. At the same time the human signs of Istállóskő Culture can also be traced back. The Neanderthal man mingled here with the Caucasian one giving birth to the Cro- Magnon B type of humans who are present even in the tombs of the Árpád Era. This Cro-Magnon B type can be found even today, even if mixed with the Pamiran, in the feature of the present-day humans. This theory is also supported by the analysis of our Y chromosome: the genetic substance of the people living in this area contains 73 per cent ancient European and 84.4 per cent ancient Stone Age genes. The pre New Stone Age population of people living in this area possesses a large quantity of Cro-Magnon. Other peoples were also coming from Middle Asian steppe: Dacians, Huns, Hungarians of Árpád, Bulgarian Turks and their descendants. Hungarians relate to two of the basic subgroups of the unique human race: the Europids and the Mongoloids. The Cro-Magnon type can be found in Western Europe, while the Cro-Magnon B type is characteristic for Middle and Eastern Europe. In Hungary the B type can be found north-east of the Great Plains, but is generally characteristic of the region situated to the north-east, north and in the vicinity of the Carpathians. It is possible that the two human types evolved from the mixture of the Bükk and Carpathian cultures of the Caucasian and the Neanderthal people. Some people give credit to the archaeological evidence (bone) that was found supporting this theory, others deny this thought. The key to Hungarian history is the home and state organization interpreted differently by every participant. The two components of this process are the two nations and one authority: (1) those people who had lived within the sweep of the Carpathians, (2) the incoming warriors and people (3) who had previously lived outside this area but were equally cultured. Since this event the Hungarian nation and state have been continuously and unbreakably present in this region. The history of these groups of people can be regarded part of the universal European pre-history enriching it with a good deal of historical data. It can therefore be excluded to narrow the history of Hungary to the pre-history of a group of people. So, the actors of the Hungarian pre-history have been present from the very beginning and from a certain time on even in various near and distant forms of archaeological cultures. One can assume from the state and characteristics of the Hungarian language that

208 The Europe of Regions: Literature, Media, Culture 4. Media in the Europe of Regions it acquired its logical structure, its rich sound system, prefixes and suffixes as well as its ability of word and verb formation and sentence construction in a long time settled, closed and densely populated area due to a community and rural form of life. The logics and grammatical system of the Hungarian language have developed and crystallised for a long time. The circumstances needed for this development were present for the Hungarian people only in the Carpathian Basin and its immediate vicinity for many thousands years that is an indirect proof of the Hungarian continuity linked to the Carpathian Basin. The analysis of the Hungarian culture shows that the incoming military leaders were not Hungarians as it is depicted I every book and sample of pictures dealing with the Hungarian folk arts. This folk art is not characterised by warlike, heroic representation of animals and subordinating way of thinking, but is shows a basically peaceful, settled and plant cultivating people with a co-ordinating way of thinking. Hungarian tombs of this era show that our predecessors were settled down. Their arts were characterised by elements of plants and birds and dear was the only quadruple, while representations of predators were not to be found in tombs. The burial with horses was typical only for the incoming people. The cult of the bull was represented in these graves but not the cult of the horse. Folk tales confess the same thing. Gods were not named in the Hungarian belief, but there was heaven and hell as well as this and the other world. There is no Hungarian genesis legend; the ones existing in chronicles had a biblical provenance showing a dual and inferior way of thinking, so they belong to the ruling nobility and do not come from the saga of the settled people. The words expressing this world of faith are predominantly of Hungarian origin. This world of faith can be described by the faith of the soul and by the respect of nature and fertility. In the Hungarian folk tales the good is rewarded and helped by good people, while beauty, noble and good were considered useful in Hungarian legends. They knew that their good and bad fate depended on their good or bad decisions. Their proper deeds were naturally rewarded with good consequences, for the divine decrees are perfect, just and unalterable because they come from the infinite law of nature. During the period of coming into the Carpathian Basin the Hungarians had a developed faith and spirituality. It inherited the form and hierarchy of the church, but the former belief of Hungarians greatly harmonised with Christianity that is also evidence of a settling people who cultivate plants. The medicine man was a wise man that educated and cured others. The folk tales are also evidence of the developed spirituality and belief of Hungarians. There are no legends referring to genesis and gods connected to that. In Hungarian culture the animal symbols of living souls cannot be interpreted as a totem. The two genesis legends of the state founding elite who were an insignificant minority are not Hungarian, but are of later provenance and are connected to the biblical legends coming from Babylonia. According to the ancient Hungarian concept, the soul of the deceased is reborn in the other world and keeps coming back to this world. These two worlds are on

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