The Buddhist Architecture of Gandhara

Home , Jamal Garhi, Jaulian, Kalawan, Loriyan Tangai, Ranigat, Sirkap

THE BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE OF GANDHARA

KURT A. BEHRENDT

BRILL LEIDEN • BOST&N 2004 CONTENTS list of Illustrations xv Acknowledgments xxvii

Introduction 1 Chapter One: Overview of Greater Gandhara 12 1.1 Historic Survey of Archaeology in Gandhara 16 1.2 Geography of Greater Gandhara and the Distribution of Buddhist Sites 22 1.2.1 Major Buddhist Sites in the Peshawar Basin: Ancient Gandhara 24 1.2.2 The Buddhist Complexes of Taxila 25 1.2.3 Buddhist Remains in the Swat Valley: Ancient Udayana 26 1.3 Characteristic Architectural Features of Gandharan Buddhist Centers 27 1.3.1 The Main Stupa 28 1.3.2 Small Stupas 29 1.3.3 Stupa Shrines and Direct-Access Relic Shrines 30 1.3.4 Direct-Access Main Stupas 31 1.3.5 Distribution of Sculpture in the Sacred Area 31 1.3.6 Monasteries 33 Quadrangular Monasteries 33 Mountain Vihdras 37 Chapter Two: Architecture and Sculpture from Phase I 39 2.1 The Mauryan Period in Gandhara 39 °.2 Phase I Architectural Evidence 41 2.2.1 Dharmarajika Complex in Taxila: Phase I .... 41 2.2.2 Buddhist Structures in the Taxila City of Sirkap: Phase I : 45 2.2.3 Butkara I in Swat: Phase I 47 2.3 Architectural Links to the Indian Buddhist Tradition During Phase I .1 50 VU1 CONTENTS

2.3.1 Thp Phase I Stupa 51 2.3.2 Use of Columns During Phase I 55 2.3.3 Phase I Sculpture 56 2.4 Conclusions About the Nature of Phase I Material from Northwest India 59 Chapter Three: The Development of Relic Shrines: Phases I and II 61 3.1 Chinese Pilgrims' Accounts of Direct-Access Relic Shrines in Gandhara 61 3.2 Architectural Evidence for Direct-Access Relic Shrines in and around Sirkap: Phases I and II 65 3.3 Two-Celled Stupa Shrines and Direct-Access Shrines: Phases I and II 73 Chapter Four: The Phase II Sacred Area 77 4.1 Taxila: Phase II Architectural Evidence 79 4.1.1 Kalawan: Phase II Architecture 81 4.1.2 The Dharmarajika Complex: Phase II Architecture and the Relic Shrine 84 4.1.3 Dharmarajika Satellite Monastic Complexes: Phase II Architecture 93 4.1.4 Mohra Moradu: Phase II Architecture 94 4.1.5 Pippala: Phase II Architecture 95 4.2 Peshawar Basin: Phase II Architectural Evidence 96 4.2.1 Ranigat: Phase II Architecture 97 4.3 Swat: Phase II Architectural Evidence 99 4.3.1 Butkara I: Phase II Architecture 99 4.3.2 Panr: Phase II Architecture 101 4.3.3 Saidu: Phase II Architecture 102 4.3.4 Butkara III: Phase II Architecture 104 4.3.5 Marjanai: Phase II Architecture 105 4.4 Architectural Organization and Development of the Sacred Area in Taxila, the Peshawar Basin, and Swat During Phase II 107 Chapter Five: The Phase II Distribution and Function of Sculpture 109 5.1 The Issue of Provenance: Late 19th and Early 20th Century Photo Documentation of Gandharan Sculpture 112 5.2 Narrative Reliefs from Phase II: In Situ Evidence .... 114 5.2.1 Sculpture from Phase II Main Stupas: Takht-i-bahi and Saidu 115 CONTENTS IX

5.3 Evidence of Phase II Original Sculptural Placement 116 5.3.1 Upper Nathou Sacred Area: Original Sculptural Placement 116 5.3.2 Lower Nathou Sacred Area: Original Sculptural Placement 117 5.3.3 Sikri: Original Sculptural Placement 118 5.3.4 Karkai: Original Sculptural Placement 119 5.3.5 Marjanai: Original Sculptural Placement 120 5.4 The Phase II Small Stupa: Sculptural Embellishment and a Proposed Reconstruction 121 5.4.1 The Base 124 5.4.2 The Drum: Developments in the Narrative Tradition 127 5.4.3 The False Gable: The Focal Narrative 132 5.4.4 The Dome, Harmikd, and Chattrdvall 133 Chapter Six: Phase III Architecture and Sculpture from Taxila 135 6.1 Introduction to the Phase III Developments in the Sacred Areas and Monasteries of Taxila and the Peshawar Basin 135 6.2 The Phase III Increase in Patronage 137 6.3 Taxila: Phase III Architectural and Sculptural Evidence 141 6.3.1 The Dharmarajika Complex: Possible Late Phase II Image Shrines 142 6.3.2 The Dharmarajika Complex: Early Phase III Stupas with Axial Image Shrines 144 6.3.3 The Dharmarajika Complex: Phase III Monasteries 145 6.3.4 The Dharmarajika Complex: Phase III Image Shrines Along the Northern Avenue 146 6.3.5 The Dharmarajika Complex: Phase III Additions to the Pradaksinapatha and Main Stupa 149 6.3.6 The Dharmarajika Complex: Late Phase III Architecture 150 6.3.7 Kalawan: Phase III Architecture and the Relic Shrine * 154 6.3.8 Jaulian: Phase III Architecture and the Image Shrine 156 X CONTENTS

6.3.9 Mohra Moradu: Phase III Architecture and Additive Imagery 159 6.4 Phase III Taxila: Site Typologies and Religious Affiliation 161 6.5 The Phase III Small Stupa 163 6.6 Phase III Use of Images and Relics in Quadrangular Monasteries 166 6.6.1 Phase III Use of Personal Devotional Images in Monasteries 167 6.6.2 Monastic Images: Phase III Pedestal Images and Image Shrines Built in Pre-existing Residential Cells 169 6.6.3 Monastic Images: Late Phase III Gandhakuti Image Niches 171 Chapter Seven: Phase III and IV Architecture in the Peshawar Basin 175 7.1 Mekhasanda: Phase II and III Architecture 177 7.2 Takht-i-bahi: Architecture 181 7.2.1 Takht-i-bahT: Phase II Remains 182 7.2.2 Takht-i-bahi: The Earliest Phase III Remains 183 7.2.3 Takht-i-bahT: The Second Period of Phase III Construction 185 7.2.4 Takht-i-bahT: Late Phase III Construction 186 7.2.5 Takht-i-bahT: A Summary of Its Development 188 7.2.6 Takht-i-bahi Patronage and the Phase III Multiplication of Sacred Areas 189 7.3 Thareli: Phase II and III Architecture 191 7.3.1 Thareli: Mountain Vihdras 194 7.3.2 Thareli: Monastic Small Sacred Areas 195 7.4 Jamal Garhi: Phase II and III Architecture 197 7.5 Ranigat: Phase II to Phase IV Architecture „ 200 7.6 Phase IV: The Decline of Buddhism 204 Chapter Eight: Phase III Sculpture in the Peshawar Basin 211 8.1 Loriyan Tangai: Loose Sculpture 212 8.2 Takht-i-bahi: Loose Sculpture 215 8.2.1 Takht-i-bahT: The Upper and Lower Sacred Areas: Loose Sculpture 216 CONTENTS XI

8.2.2 Takht-i-bahT: Sacred Area XX: Loose Sculpture 218 8.2.3 Takht-i-bahT: Two-Celled Shrine XXIII: Loose Sculpture 219 8.2.4 Takht-i-bahT Small Sacred Area XIV: Loose and In Situ Sculpture 220 8.3 Loose Sculptural Finds from the Sahrl-Bahlol Sites 221 8.3.1 Sahrl-Bahlol B: Loose Sculpture 222 8.3.2 Sahrl-Bahlol C: Loose Sculpture 222 8.3.3 Sahrl-Bahlol D: Loose Sculpture 223 8.4 Thareli: Loose Sculpture 224 8.5 Mekhasanda: Loose Sculpture 226 8.6 Ranigat: Loose Sculpture 226 8.7 In Situ Imagery from Sites in the Peshawar Basin and Swat 228 8.7.1 Sikri: In Situ Sculpture and the Architectural Organization of the Site 228 8.7.2 SahrT-Bahlol: Some Possible In Situ Sculpture 230 8.7.3 Mekhasanda: In Situ Sculpture 231 8.7.4 Thareli: In Situ Sculpture 232 8.7.5 Saidu: In Situ Sculpture 233 Chapter Nine: Buddhist Architecture and Sculpture of Gandhara: Conclusions 234 9.1 Phase I 235 9.2 Phase II 237 9.3 Phase III 244 y.4 Late Phase III and Phase IV 253 Appendix A: The Four-Phase Chronological System 255 Al Phase I 256 Al.l Phase I Dating Evidence from Sirkap 256 A1.2 Phase I Character of Masonry in Taxila 258 A1.3 Phase I Structural Types 259 A2 Phase II 259 A2.1 Phase II Dating Evidence 259 A2.2 Phase II Character of Masonry in Taxila 260 A2.3 Phase II Structural Types 261 A3 Phase III °. 262 A3.1 Phase III Dating Evidence 262 Xll CONTENTS

A3.2 Phase III Character of Masonry in Taxila .... 264 A3.3 Phase III Structural Types 265 A4 Late Phase III 266 A4.1 Late Phase Ill-Phase IV Character of Masonry in Taxila 266 A4.2 Late Phase III Structural Types 267 A5 Phase IV A5.1 Phase IV Dating Evidence 267 A5.2 Phase IV Structural Types 267 Appendix B: Dating Gandharan Sculpture 268 Bl Relative Chronological Development from Narrative Sculpture to Iconic Images and the Development of Mudrds: Phase II to Late Phase III 274 B2 Dating Gandharan Sculpture on the Basis of Stucco Evidence: Phases III and IV 277 B3 Dating Monumental Schist Devotional Icons of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas: Late Phase III 281 B4 Schist Images with Inscribed Dates 281 B5 The SravastT Devotional Icons: Phases III and IV .... 284 Appendix C: Reuse of Images and Its Bearing on the Dating of Gandharan Sculpture 288 Cl First Period of Reuse: Phase III 290 C2 Second Period of Reuse: Late Phase III and Phase IV 292 Appendix D: Numeric Count of Sculpture Types from Some Peshawar Basin Sites 296 Dl Loriyan Tarigai 296 D2 Takht-i-bahT 297 D2.1 Takht-i-bahT Upper and Lower Sacred Areas IV-V 297 D2.2 Takht-i-bahT Sacred Area XX 298 D2.3 Takht-i-bahT Two-Celled Shrine XXIII 299 D2.4 Takht-i-bahT Small Sacred Area XIV 299 D3 Sahrl-Bahlol Sites 300 D3.1 Sahri-Bahlol A 300 D3.2 Sahn-Bahlol B 300 D3.3 Sahn-Bahlol C 301 D3.4 Sahn-Bahlol D * 301 CONTENTS Xlll

D4 Thareli 302 D5 Mekhasanda 303 D6 Ranigat 303 Glossary 305 Bibliography 311 Index 323