Ancient , Vol. XXIV 25

The Discovery and Development of Buddhist Archaeologyof : An Appraisal Tauqeer Ahmad

Abstract: f The histo,y of archaeology in the Indian s11b-Conti11e11t spreads over more than one and a hal c�11turies. To re,·iew, highlight a11d emluate archaeological activities conducted in due passage of t1111e. an alfempt has heen 111ac/1 to leam .from the past experie11ces and to suggest strategy for how to proceed in a heifer ll'a_l'. l I comprehe11d academic problems and prospects related to the development of the su�ject III fter. a mn'�r

Introduction: however, a few novel issues carrying great The discovery of Buddhist archaeology of numismatic and historical values are pointed Gandhara is a by-product of the European out. They were of Apollodotus and quest for ancient coins who were fascinated by Menander discovered for the first time. Tod's the adventures of in the discovery of these coins constituted an era in cast. The accounts of these adventures are the history of Bactro-Indian numismatics given by classical writers, but nothing on the (Wilson 1841: 4 ). Another enthusia tic ground in the form of coins or monuments collector was Charles Masson. "In the July of substantiate them. Great was the joy when the present year ( 1833)", he states, "I left for chance discoveries of a few Bactrian Greek the city of Kabul to explore the districts north coins in the l 81h century CE set the ball rolling of it ... I soon learned that large number of in this direction. Footprints of Alexander' coins were continually found on the plain uccessors in the ea t were thought to be (called Begram)". Masson continued his emerging. The coin were deciphered and re earch for four year and, besides opening a published that stimulated the interest of large number of , collected more than various private collectors. The establishment 30,000 coins (Wilson 1841: 11 ). of the Asiatic Society by Sir William Jones on Meanwhile a French officer of the army of 1 the I 5 h January 1784 facilitated re earch work Ranjit Singh, the Sikh ruler of the Panjab, and the journal Asiatic Researche,· wa first General JB Ventura opened an ancient published in 1788. monument, actually a Buddhist , near the Encouraged by this development, Col. James village Manikiala/ (JB Ventura Tod, during his 12 year residency in , 1832). It was fir t reported by M Elphinstone, r collected 20,000 com of different who on his way back fom Kabul in 1808 sent denomination and published a memoir on a party to test Col. Wilford's view that Greek, Parthian and Indian coins in the fir t Mankiala marked the site of ancient . Elphin tone's party found no remains other volume of the Tran actions of the Royal Asiatic Society in 1824. He described most of than the lope, as the stupa was locally called, the collection as possessing no special interest; but twelve years afterwards Moorcroft, Ancient Pakistan, Vol. XXIV 26 crossing the spot, was informed by people that of that Hellenistic sculptural art which once old walls, potsherds, and ancient coins were adorned all Buddhist sanctuaries of this frequently discovered. Topes were also region. How destructive such digging usually observed by Moorcoft on the west of the Indus was and how often much of the poil, when and in (Wilson 1841: 31 ). The sold to amateur collectors, was ultimately "Tope" of Mankiala was not a solitary scattered or destroyed, is a story too sad to be example of its kind on this spot. M Court who told here". One of the most evocative visited the place hortly afterwards found no descriptions of "stupa-hunting" has been given less than fifteen Lopes in the neighbourhood by Major Herbert B Edwards ( 1851) of the 1 �1 which he opened and, luckily, found Roman Bengal European Fuzilier Regiment, m coins in one of them. An account of Ventura's connection with his notice of Akra mound discovery, effected in April and May 1830, near Bannu (Edwards 1851: 335-41 ). was forwarded to Calcutta and made known With this a vague outline of a Gandhara there about the end of the same year. In the school of sculpture showing Greek as well as beginning of March 1832, Lieutenant (later local influences started emerging. The first Sir) Alexander Burnes, then on his way to note on this subject is apparently by W Bokhara, visited Mankiala and inspected the Jackson (Jackson 1852: 511-13) who operations of Ventura. Burnes also made a illustrated two pieces of Gandhara sn1cco collection of coins which was published by found near . In the same year EC James Prinsep in the journal of the Society for Bayley (Bayley 1852: 606-21) found a June 1833 (Jame Prinsep 1833: ii, 310). detailed note on some sculptures found in the Discovery Peshawar district. These were collected by Ventura's work at Mankiala and Masson's Col. Lumsden of the Guides Corp and digging in Afghanistan opened up a new field, Lieutenant Stokes of the Horse Artille,y from namely, Buddhist archaeology, which a site known as . A sketch plan of stimulated general interest in images and the Jamal Garhi stupa and drawings of paved the way for plundering such sculptures and architectural pieces arc also monuments. Sir Aurel Stein ( 1929: 17) just at given. the outset of his famous Swat trip bitterly The development of archaeological activities remarks: "My first vi it was to Nat, at the foot which finally re ultcd in the discovery of of the Mora pass, where, above a small Gandhara School may be divided into three village, diggings made for Col. Deane in 1897 phases. The first pha e was dominated by had brought to light a mass of fine Greco­ Cunningham, the second by Marshall and the Buddhist relievos. These had been excavated third by the Italian Mission in Swat, the from fine stupas or shrines by local Pathans Department of Archaeology, University of without supervision or guidance; but, at least, Peshawar and the Japanese mission . they were safely lodged in the Calcutta Museum. Much regrettable damage and loss First Phase have been caused, before and since, in tribal A systematic enquiry into the ancient past of territory and elsewhere along the Peshawar India started with the establishment of the border, by "irresponsible" digging for remains Archaeological Survey of India in 1861. Ancient Pakistan, Vol. XXIV 27

Alexander Cunningham, then in his 4gth year It is not possible to cover all the and freshly out of the army with the rank of archaeological activities of Cunningham in Major General was appointed as it first head this brief note. His initial appointment for two (Chakrabarti 1988: 57). Cunningham years was extended up to 1864-65 season identified the ancient city of with when the government of India appreciated the the two large towns of Parang and Charsada results of the surveys carried out by him, but, and in the same general area two mall stupa without recommending further extension. As a sites mentioned by Xuan Zang. The site of result Cunningham left for England on 9th Varusha with a cave and a spring wa February, 1866. identified with the village, Palodheri, near But the need for systematic exploratory Shabaz Garhi and ancient Utakhanda with activities was soon felt so that in a dispatch Hund. Salatura, the birth place of Par:iini was dated 11th Januaty 1870 the Duke of Argyll, identified with the modem town Choia Lahore the then Secretary of State, wrote of the and with Aomos of the classical necessity of centralising the archaeological writers. Cunningham's major achievement in activitie under the government and putting the Panjab was the identification and them on a secure basis. The government of description of the ruins of Taxila in which he India under the Viceroy Lord Mayo accepted mentions the ramparts of Kacha-Kot and the suggestion and wanted Alexander and the great city of each of Cunningham at the head of new central which being as large as the imperial city of department, the Archaeological Survey of Shah Jahan at Delhi. But the ize and number India. Cunningham was back early in 1871 to of the stupas, monasteries and other religious take over. buildings, he remarks, is even more wonderful than the great extent of the city. Hasan Abdal In the introduction to the report of 1872-73 with its Buddhist ruins was identified with the season, Cunningham began with a reference of place of the legend of the Naga Elapatra. In the increasing number of sculptures coming the same general area he laid a trench to a from the north western regions. The ruins depth of 22 feet at a stupa near Boati Pind which first came under scrutiny during this while Balar stupa was opened by a local chief. season were those in Peshawar valley. At He mentions the stupa of Badalpur as one of Shahbazgarhi, Cunningham satisfied himself the three largest stupas in the Panjab (the by taking a fresh copy of the Ashokan others were Mankiala and Shahpur). He also inscription ig. 5) and noting the existence of refers to Buddhist remains at Tarnawa, an extensive city in the vicinity. The Kurmal and or Gajipu.r. He visited excavations at Takht-i-Bahi were Mankiala and excavated a large mound superintended by Sergeant FH Wilcher of the (200x l 80x I 0-12 feet) north of the stupa Sappers and Miners. The stupa of Jamal opened by Ventura. At Sonalia Pind, near Garhi, opened by Col. Lumsdem, was Mankiala, he opened a stupa and found, along surveyed and cleared by Sergeant Wilcher. with coin , a stupa model in its relics' The remains of Sawal Dheri, Nogram and chamber. Khairabad were briefly mentioned. In I 878- 79, he reported the finds of beautifulGandhara Ancient Pakistan, Vol. XXIV 28 heads at Rokhari, near Mianwali (Cunningham Marshall laid bare all the important 2002: Vols. I, 11, V, XIV, XIX). monuments that we see there at present. The discovery of the Indus Civilization during this The reports from the north western frontier period would seem to have shifted the focus were sporadic. In the third volume of Indian but the work on Taxila and other sites of less ( 1874) there was a report on the Antiqua,y importance was not allowed to suffer. Buddhist ruins at Jamal Garhi with the plan of the excavated monastic and stupa structures. In Gandhara the mounds of Bala Hisar, Mir The excavations were done in March and Ziyarat, Palatu and Ghaz Dheri were partly April 1873 by the 81h Company of Sappers and excavated. The work at Takht-i-Bahi, done in Miner under the command of Lieutenant two seasons, 1907-08 and 1911-12, by DB Arthur Crompton. There was also a note on Spooner and H Hargreaves, was mainly of the the collection of the Gandharan sculptures by nature of clearance to prepare a plan of this GW Leitner in Indian A11tiqua1y of the ame monastic complex. Its ground plan had year. become necessary because, as Spooner ( 191 I: 180) has rightly remarked, "many of the best Second Phase pieces of Gandhara sculpture now to be found Archaeological activities m the next phase in the museums of Europe were originally filled the museums with sculptures. recovered from this site". The site of Sahri Clandestine diggings also increased to fill Bahlol possessed, in addition to its main stupa private collections. In fact the arrival of Lord mound, a large number of mounds in the Curzon as the Viceroy of India in 1899 vicinity, including a small town ite. The stupa marked the dawn of a new era for Indian mound was excavated by Spooner in 1909-10, archaeology. He reorganized the while Aurel Stein ( 1911-12) investigated archaeological survey and recreated the po t another six mounds in this area. Sahri Bahlol of the Director General which had been yielded a large number of sculpture including abolished after the retirement of Cunningham. the tallest Buddha images now exhibited in the John Marshall was appointed the new Director . Work on Shah-ji-ki-dheri, General. He joined the department on 2211d outside the Ganj Gate of Peshawar city, was February, 1902 and continued to work in thi undertaken by Spooner in 1907-08. The capacity till I 928 (Chakrabarti 1988: 128). famous relic ca ket wa found in But he stayed on in various capacities to 1934. 1908-09 season. The ite wa identified with All field researches done in this period except Kanishka Vihara. In 1909-11 Hargreaves the work of MA Stein in Central Asia in the unde11ook complete clearance of this area th early part of the 20 century, were either expo ing thereby a cruciform stupa. In 1915- directly due to his planning and direction or 16 Pandit V atisa Aiyar (1915-16: 115-16), closely linked to the work begun by him. then superintendent of the Frontier Circle, Marshall unleashed a vigorous programme of described with plan and mea urement a tupa excavations. called Shpola 27 miles (43 km) from Peshawar on the road to Landi Kotal in the Spreading over 25 square miles (40 sq km), Khyber pass. In 1920-22 Hargreaves Taxila was a world by itself. During the 24 conducted clearance work at Jamal Garhi and years ( 1912-36) of hi work on this site Ancient Pakistan, Vol. XXIV 29 al o located stupas at Haji Bela, Beddadi, from the sites are now on display in the Chitti Gati, Palosa Khpa (near Jamal Garhi), Dir Museum, Chakdara. In the second Asota, Kor Sirkap near Mansehra and another campaign, before shi fling attention to Swat, Kor near Takht-i-Bahi (see Chakrabarti 1988: the site of Charg Pati and a few other sites of 134-35). There was no place to properly lesser importance were excavated in Dir. In preserve all these finds. Therefore a new Swat the site of Butkara ill and Shnaisha, museum was established at Peshawar and excavated by Prof. Abdur Rahman, yielded a filledup with sculptures and other finds. rich crop of sculptures now exhibited in the SSAQ Museum of Archaeology and Third Phase Ethnology, University of Peshawar (Dani & In the third phase the marginal areas of Rehman Ancient Pakistan: Vols. 1-111, VII, Gandhara such as Swat and Dir became major VIII). fields of archaeological investigations, while Gandhara itself was relegated to a secondary The main sites of our interest excavated by the position for the simple reason that spoliation Italian Mission in Swat include Butkara I, of cultural sites had been going for o long Panr I, Gumbat, Saidu Stupa, Bir-Kot­ and at such a rapid speed that nothing much Ghundai at , and U<;ligrrn. Pa11 of the was left for proper investigation after the culptures found from these sites is to be middle of the 20th century when the found in the , , and Department of Archaeology, University of another part in Italy in the IsMEO Museum at Peshawar, initiated its programme of Rome. excavations in lower Dir, around Chakdara, The Japanese archaeological team from Kyoto the crossing point, at which a proper bridge University excavated in the district built during the British period, provides access between 1959 and 1967, at sites situated to upper Dir, Bajaur and Chitral. within Gandhara proper. These sites include The research programme of the Depa1tment of Kashmir Smast, Chanako Dheri, Tarelli and Archaeology, University of Peshawar, was Mekhasanda. Another Japanese team from the caITied out in two separate campaigns. In the ame Univer ity brought the great site of first campaign, 1963-64 to 1968, the work was Raniga! under the excavation and expo ed started at two ancient cemeteries at very interesting sculptures. Meanwhile the Timargarha and a settlement site at Government Department of Archaeology and but it went on developing towards the Museums carried out its research programme investigation of Buddhist sites in the vicinity at Nimogram in Swat and more recently at of Chakdara. Thus the sites of Damkot Garh Moriyan, Haji Shah Mor and Jinnan Chatpar, Andan Dheri, Ramora and Bambolai Wali Dheri. were excavated and published in the journal of Karl Jettmar's work in the Karakoram in 1980 the Department entitled Ancient Pakistan. It opened up a new field in which rock carvings may be remembered that the Department had scattered in the whole area preading over already can-ied out excavations at Shaikan hundreds of miles became the focus of Dhe-i, near Charsada, bringing to light a attention of successive Gennan teams. number of fine schist sculptures. The materials Ancient Pakistan, Vol. XXIY 30

Marshall's three volumes on Taxi/a and his establishments) rather opened a new field of The Buddhist Art of Gane/hara, in addition to Buddhist archaeology which greatly attracted the contributions made by A Foucher and scholarly attention of both art historians and other art historians, had made major portions archaeologists all over the world. In course of of this art accessible to the scholarly world. time such cholarly discourses and Then Islay Lyons and Harald Ingholt ( 1957) discussion , regarding the ongm and published a catalogue entitled The Gandhara development of this particular art, led scholars art of Pakistan based on a collection of to present their own point of views. Thus, as a excellent photographs taken by Mr. Lyons of result, we are now left with confronting sculptures then available in the Museums of scholarly views as well as theories. Now, this Pakistan. A catalogue of the Gandhara art is generally known a "Gandhara Art" Sculptures in the by W Zwalf which obviously derived its name from the ( 1996) and (2) Gandharan Art by Isao Kurita country where it was originated and flourished ( 1990) ha made the job a little more handy. almost for one thousand years. As, it is As Ingholt, Zwalf and Kurita are easily commonly believed that in ancient times the available mo t of our illustrations refer to Peshawar valley was known as Gandhara, these works. which was first time recorded by one of the Chinese travellers with its measurements. Concluding Remarks However, Gandhara art has differently been The antiquarian activities initiated in the 2"d termed by a number of scholars such as 1h half of the J 8 century by European antiquity Greco-Buddhist art, Romano-Budd.hist art, collectors ultimately resulted in paving the Kushano-Buddhist art etc. way for systematic archaeological researches. These early antiquarians were mainly However, the sad aspect of such antiquarian interested in collecting the coins of Alexander activities was that the sculptural wealth of the and subsequent Greek rulers of the east. Buddhist art of Gandhara was started to be However, the chance discoveries of the Greek ruthlessly robbed, drained and to be sold both rulers encouraged these antiquarians to in local and abroad markets. Such plundering enhance their activities. Moreover, activities, in fact, destroyed the very decipherment of the legends found on the archaeological evidences which may coins generated their interest in the ancient otherwise be greatly beneficial m hi tory of South Asia. So far as the discovery reconstructing the true story and history not of the Buddhist archaeology of Gandhara is only of Gandhara School of Art but also the concerned, at first, early antiquarians history of this land. So far as the systematic identified the Budd.hist "topes" as the "tombs study of the Buddhist archaeology is of the unknown kings". However, translation particularly concerned it took start with the works of the early literature of South Asia e tablishment of Archaeological Survey of such as the Vedas, Buddhist and Jain India in 1861 under its first Director General scriptures as well as Puranas, greatly named Major General Alexander facilitated such activities. Coupled with this Cunningham. Cunningham had mainly been the discovery of sculptures from these topes or engaged in historical geography of this land stupas and mona terie (the Buddhist though he laid down archaeological trenches Ancient Pakistan, Vol. XXIV 31 at a number of Buddhist sites. In fact, he was independence the archaeological researches mainly guided by the Chinese traveller's were accelerated more vigorously by local and diaries as well as classical accounts. A a foreign archaeologists but, nowhere in whole result, he succeeded in identifying a number of of Gandhara they succeeded in discovering oblivion ancient cities of South Asia a well as any clue which may help in finding out about Buddhist establishments. But the misfortunes both ends, i.e., origin and decline of the of the Buddhist archaeology did not stop as Buddhist art of Gandhara. Although, scholars merciless antiquity collectors plundered its have been grappling with this an enigmatic material wealth to such an extent that it could and extremely perplexed problem 111 not recover this blow, just for earning their reconstructing its precise history, and living and financial ends. Thus, the job of hopefully one day they would untie this scholarly circles, interested in history, culture, apparently complicated problem. religion and art history of Gandhara, became more challenging and painful. After A11cie11t Pakista11, Vol. XXIV 32

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