Luc Montagnier 15 in Their Own Words: Harald Zur Hausen 16 Françoise Barré-Sinoussi 17 Luc Montagnier 18

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elcome to this short Guide to the 2008 Nobel Laureates from Nobelprize.org, the official web site Wof the Nobel Foundation. The Guide aims to provide a handy digest of the 2008 Nobel Prizes and to offer a little insight into the work and people who have been the subject of this year’s awards. For each Nobel Prize category, you will find a ‘Speed read’ summary of the Prize-awarded work, together with a timeline noting some of the important milestones that led to each Prize. We also include a succinct profile of each Laureate, entitled ‘In his/her own words’ and based on our telephone interviews conducted immediately following the announcements, which reveal some of the motivations and remarkable stories behind their individual achievements.

The Nobel Prize, which was first awarded in 1901, rewards achievements in the five fields of physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature and peace, as stipulated by Alfred Nobel in his will. In 1968, Sveriges Riksbank established The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, and this is awarded on the same day as the Nobel Prizes. This year’s announcements have seen another twelve new Laureates added to the illustrious list, taking the grand total to 809 since the Nobel Prize’s inception. The addition of one new female Nobel Laureate in Physiology or Medicine, Françoise Barré-Sinoussi, now elevates the total number of women awarded a Nobel Prize to just 35.

Once again the scope of awarded discoveries takes us on a journey of extremes, from international trade and the source of global epidemics, to the miniature world of glowing jellyfish proteins and particle physics. Consistent with the global theme, a cross-cultural author and an international peacemaker have been awarded Nobel Prizes for their life-long achievements.

We hope that The Guide provides a taste of this year’s Nobel Prizes. To explore these and other Nobel Prizes and Laureates in greater detail, please visit Nobelprize. org to access our full range of freely available content, including audio and video interviews, official documentation from the Prize-awarding committees, articles, educational games and much, much more. 2008 nobel Laureates

Table of Contents

Physics The Nobel Prize in Physics 2008 1 Speed read: The importance of asymmetry 2 Timelines: Yoichiro Nambu 2 Makoto Kobayashi & Toshihide Maskawa 3 In their own words: Yoichiro Nambu 4 Makoto Kobayashi 5 Toshihide Maskawa 6

Chemistry The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2008 7 Speed read: Illuminating biology 8 Timeline: Osamu Shimomura, Martin Chalfie & Roger Y. Tsien 8 In their own words: Osamu Shimomura 10 Martin Chalfie 11 Roger Y. Tsien 12

Physiology The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2008 13 or Medicine Speed read: Finding the culprit 14 Timelines: Harald zur Hausen 14 Françoise Barré-Sinoussi & Luc Montagnier 15 In their own words: Harald zur Hausen 16 Françoise Barré-Sinoussi 17 Luc Montagnier 18

Literature The Nobel Prize in Literature 2008 19 Speed read: Language as belonging 20 Timeline: Jean-Marie Gustave Le Clézio 20 In his own words: Jean-Marie Gustave Le Clézio 21

Peace The Nobel Peace Prize 2008 22 Speed read: Crisis management 23 Timeline: Martti Ahtisaari 23 In his own words: Martti Ahtisaari 24

Economics The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel 2008 25 Speed read: Modelling trade in a world of plenty 26 Timeline: Paul Krugman 26 In his own words: Paul Krugman 27

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The Nobel Prize in Physics 2008 LIBRARY PHOTO KULYK/SCIENCE MEHAU

“for the discovery “for the discovery of the origin of the mechanism of of the broken symmetry spontaneous which predicts the existence broken symmetry in of at least three families of subatomic physics” quarks in nature” U niversity K yoto (KEK) z ation organi research H igh energy accelerator LLOYD DEGRANE/THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO LLOYD

Yoichiro Nambu Makoto Kobayashi Toshihide Maskawa 1/2 of the prize 1/4 of the prize 1/4 of the prize

Born: 1921 Born: 1944 Born: 1940 Birthplace: Japan Birthplace: Japan Birthplace: Japan Nationality: US citizen Nationality: Nationality: Current position: Japanese citizen Japanese citizen Harry Pratt Judson Current position: Current position: Distinguished Service Professor Emeritus, Professor Emeritus, Professor Emeritus, High Energy Accelerator Yukawa Institute for Enrico Fermi Institute, Research Organization Theoretical Physics (YITP), University of Chicago, (KEK), Tsukuba, Japan Kyoto University, Japan Illinois, USA

physics 1 2008 nobel Laureates

Speed read: The importance of asymmetry

uckily for us, the Universe is not symmetrical, would have resulted. Instead, a small imbalance, or at least at the subatomic level. If it was, the asymmetry, in the amount of matter and antimatter L newly formed matter at the Universe’s birth created led to a slight excess of matter, from which would have been annihilated by an equal and we are all eventually formed. Such so-called ‘broken opposite amount of antimatter, and nothingness symmetry’ is one key to our existence.

Understanding symmetry, or the lack of it, is an ongoing task, and the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physics rewarded two discoveries concerning symmetry violation in the field of particle physics. In the 1960s Yoichiro Nambu, who had been working on asymmetries underlying superconductivity, was the first to model how broken symmetry can occur spontaneously at the subatomic level. The mathematical descriptions he formulated helped refine the standard model of particle physics, the current working theory that best explains much, but not all, of the way that fundamental particles and the forces that govern their behaviour interact to create the known Universe.

In the early 1970s, Kobayashi and Maskawa formulated a model that explained certain symmetry violations that had recently surprised observers in particle physics experiments. Their model suggested that the collection of subatomic particles known at

Tsung Dao Lee and Chen Ning Sheldon Glashow proposes how two of Building on Glashow’s theories, Yang propose that the laws the four fundamental interactions in Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam of mirror image symmetry nature, electromagnetism and the weak formulate the uniﬁcation of the are broken in the world of interaction, are uniﬁed, on the basis of electromagnetic and weak subatomic physics spontaneous symmetry breaking interactions in the Standard Model

1956 1960 1961 1964 1967–1968 1973

Yoichiro Nambu Several physicists propose that Studies at CERN, describes how broken symmetry breaking gives rise to Geneva provide the ﬁrst symmetry can occur a particle that provides mass to experimental evidence spontaneously at the all other particles — later to support the Standard subatomic level known as the Higgs boson Model

Timeline: Milestones for the 2008 Nobel Laureate in Physics, Yoichiro Nambu.

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the time was insufficient to explain the observed behaviours, and predicted the existence of as yet undiscovered elementary particles. It did not, how ever, specify precisely what form these particles should take. Kobayashi and Maskawa hypothesized the existence of a third family of quarks, which are some of the building blocks from which all matter and antimatter are formed. They then had to wait almost three decades for the experimental results L ibrary arlic K/S cience P hoto that would fully verify their hypothesis. The existence of all three families was finally confirmed when the M ark G last member was observed in the mid 1990s.

Symmetry breaking in particle physics continues to be the focus of intense speculation and investigation. One of the most infamous examples of symmetry breaking, the particle or set of particles known as the Higgs boson, thought to be responsible for breaking the symmetry between electromagnetism and the so-called weak nuclear force, could help solve one of the greatest outstanding questions in physics – how particles acquire mass. Whether or not this mysterious particle exists will be the main subject of scrutiny at the Large Hadron Collider, the giant particle accelerator soon to go into operation outside Geneva, Switzerland.

James Cronin and Val Fitch experimentally detect a new Charm quark discovered at First quark of the third violation in the symmetry Stanford Linear Accelerator family, the bottom laws in a subatomic particle Center, USA, and CERN, quark, discovered at known as a kaon Geneva, Switzerland Fermilab, USA

1964 1973 1974 1975 1977 1994

Kobayashi and Maskawa publish their Martin Perl discovers Top quark model proposing why symmetry is broken the ﬁrst new member discovered in subatomic particles, and predict the of the third family: at Fermilab existence of a third family of quarks the tau lepton

Timeline: Milestones for the 2008 Nobel Laureates in Physics, Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Maskawa.

physics 3 2008 nobel Laureates

In his own words: Yoichiro Nambu

y his own admission the concept that Yoichiro Nambu devised in the early 1960s — that Bof spontaneous broken symmetry in particle physics — is “a bit difficult to explain” in simple terms. But while lecturing the day before he had been awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics, Nambu chanced upon an elegant analogy to describe how such broken symmetry can occur spontaneously.

“I saw a roomful of people all looking towards me and I thought that’s strange, why do they look only in one direction?” But if one person in that crowd D e G rane /T he U niversity of C hicago L loyd turns their head and looks in the opposite direction then of course people nearby will turn around to Yoichiro Nambu at the University of Chicago. see what that person is looking at. “So there is a kind of wave propagating from that person. And that is the wave associated with broken symmetry.” Nambu eventually joined his group, and thanks Having begun his career as a theoretical physicist to Tomonaga’s recommendation Nambu was able in Japan during the Second World War, Nambu to get a job first in Japan and then at Robert is no stranger to looking for explanations in the Oppenheimer’s Institute at Princeton University. midst of turmoil. Nambu describes being “lucky The few years he originally planned to spend in enough” to get a research position at the University America would become a lifetime. “I was not able to of Tokyo after the war, though he was working do good research to my satisfaction while I was in under conditions that are a world away from the Princeton, so I wanted to stay for a few more years conditions enjoyed by most physicists nowadays. in America before going back to Japan.” Fortunately “I spent two, three years sleeping in my office, Nambu was able to get a postdoctoral position at shared with maybe eight or so people. Everyday I the world-renowned Physics Department at the had to go shopping, and sleep on my desk.” But the University of Chicago. “I jumped at the opportunity! bleak conditions did provide one huge advantage, I came here and I have stayed here ever since.” says Nambu: “I kept thinking about physics.” All of which illustrates the virtues of being in the By good fortune, a student of Sin-Itiro Tomonaga, right place at the right time, and Nambu feels who would receive the Nobel Prize in Physics in grateful to have been a theoretical physicist at the 1965, happened to be working at the neighbouring time he began his research. “I was very fortunate. desk. By discovering what Tomonaga was doing Particle physics was created in the early 1930s. Ernest Lawrence invented the cyclotron on the one hand, and [Hideki] Yukawa in Japan invented “If one person in that crowd particle physics, the theoretical side, and they went turns their head and looks in along side by side.” the opposite direction then When asked whether young physicists should follow of course people nearby will his example and only eat and think about physics, Nambu laughs. “Yes! That’s a very good thing! turn around to see what that My whole career was formed by the three years I person is looking at” was in Tokyo.”

This article is based on a telephone interview with Yoichiro Nambu following the announcement of the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physics. To listen to the interview in full, visit http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2008/nambu-interview.html

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In his own words: Makoto Kobayashi

hen recalling the groundbreaking theory predicted that there had to be one more. he developed with Toshihide Maskawa “At first we were not confident about this six quarks Wthat has been rewarded with the 2008 scheme, but gradually we came to believe that this Nobel Prize in Physics, Makoto Kobayashi reveals actually is the case.” a refreshing degree of honesty. “We were confident about the first part because it’s quite logical. “Gradually” might seem like an understatement. But the second point was quite uncertain at that After all, Kobayashi was 28 years old when he time.” devised his theory, and it “At first we were not would take almost 30 years “Our work consisted of two to discover the new types of parts”, Kobayashi goes on to confident about this quarks in particle accelerators. explain. The first part of the six quarks scheme, but Yet this illustrates that theory, that the number of gradually we came to sometimes theoretical physics subatomic particles thought at leads experiment, and at other the time to make up all matter believe that this actually times experiments produce were not enough to explain a is the case” results that theoretical physics long-standing mystery in particle must explain. Kobayashi feels physics called broken symmetry, “is a quite logical very fortunate to have started out as a theoretical consequence of the argument”, says Kobayashi. physicist at the time he did, “particularly in the However, the second, trickier part of the theory 1970s”, a time he describes as being a “liberation involved forecasting what these extra, new particles in particle physics”, because “at that time we had actually are. And as Kobayashi admits “there are many chances to do many things.” many possibilities logically”. Only two families of a particular subatomic particle known as quarks were Now the situation is different, says Kobayashi. known at the time, and Kobayashi and Maskawa “This is actually quite a new phase … we are waiting for some kind of new physics. Theoreticians predict, propose many theories, and we just wait for experimental proof of those models.” Kobayashi particularly hopes that the new particle accelerator called the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland, will help fill in missing information in the so-called Standard Model of particle physics, the best theory that physicists currently have to explain how fundamental particles and forces interact to create the known Universe. “We need to add something on top of this Standard Model. That is what we expect at L ibrary D esign /S cience P hoto L aguna the LHC experiment.”

The six types of quark (clockwise from top left: “This is actually quite a new up, charm, top, bottom, strange and down) from the three families predicted by phase… we are waiting for some Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Maskawa. kind of new physics”

This article is based on a telephone interview with Makoto Kobayashi following the announcement of the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physics. To listen to the interview in full, visit http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2008/kobayashi-interview.html

physics 5 2008 nobel Laureates

In his own words: Toshihide Maskawa

“For a theorist, the most exciting period is waking “For a theorist, the most exciting early one morning to discover a truth that you could not have imagined.” Toshihide Maskawa period is waking early one describes the intellectual thrill of being a theoretical morning to discover a truth that physicist, perhaps matched only by witnessing one’s you could not have imagined” theories eventually being proved true. In 1972 he and Makoto Kobayashi formulated their model for broken symmetry, which predicted the existence at a time after a brutal and reckless war and before of a third family of elementary particles called the calmer period of the 1960s was first coming quarks, but did Maskawa ever have any doubts that into view,” he says. “What was often said was experiments decades later would prove their bold that as there are no natural resources in Japan, theory to be correct? “In any research thesis there we must survive on the strength of science and is always an element of supposition,” he candidly technology.” It was within this testing environment states before revealing, “to be honest, I didn’t that Maskawa says he gained his yearning and an imagine that the top quark would ever be as heavy affinity for science. as it is.” All young and eager scientists require nurturing, For anyone trying to understand the concept of and Maskawa was no exception. He cites his broken symmetry Maskawa offers the following professor at university, Shoichi Sakada, as the analogy: “There is a saying that if you put the grass person who provided especially useful direction that a cow likes in a circle around the cow, then on his path to becoming a physicist. He describes whatever grass the cow eats, as far as the cow is Sakada as “a pioneer in Quark Theory”, and concerned, will be the same. However if the cow Maskawa recalls how he and his colleagues were sooner or later chooses a encouraged to collectively certain direction in which to gather and discuss research. eat the grass, then we have “It was there that I studied a state of broken symmetry.” how to think and in what form things should be Maskawa provides more accomplished,” says Maskawa. food for thought when U niversity angyo discussing whether there And now that the student is

was anything particular S K yoto himself a mentor, what advice about the Japanese would he offer young people educational system that thinking of entering theoretical helped him and his fellow physics today? “My advice to Nobel Laureates develop young people is to be ambitious as theoretical physicists. and to have sincerity toward “The period in which I was our natural world.” raised as a researcher was “To be honest, I didn’t Toshihide Maskawa was imagine that the top encouraged and inspired to collectively gather quark would ever be and discuss research. as heavy as it is”

This article is based on an interview with Toshihide Maskawa following the announcement of the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physics. To read the interview in full, visit http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2008/maskawa-interview.html

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The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2008

“for the discovery and development of the green fluorescent protein, GFP” J. H enriksson /SCANPIX diego , san  U niversity of california laboratory kleindinst / marine biological tom Osamu Shimomura Martin Chalfie Roger Y. Tsien 1/3 of the prize 1/3 of the prize 1/3 of the prize

Born: 1928 Born: 1947 Born: 1952 Birthplace: Japan Birthplace: United States Birthplace: United States Nationality: Nationality: Nationality: Japanese citizen US citizen US citizen Current position: Current position: Current position: Professor Emeritus, Marine William R. Kenan Jr Professor, University of Biological Laboratory (MBL), Professor of Biological California, San Diego, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, Sciences, Columbia La Jolla, California, USA USA, and Boston University, New York, University Medical School, New York, USA Massachusetts, USA

chemistry 7 2008 nobel Laureates

Speed read: Illuminating biology

The story begins with Osamu Shimomura’s research into the phenomenon of bioluminescence, in which chemical reactions within living organisms give off light. While studying a glowing jellyfish in the early 1960s he isolated a bioluminescent protein that gave off blue light. But the jellyfish glowed green. Further studies revealed that the protein’s blue light was absorbed by a second jellyfish protein, later ibrary L hoto P /S cience P hantatomix called green fluorescent protein (GFP), which in turn re-emitted green light. The ability of GFP to process blue light to green (its fluorescence) was found to be integral to its structure, occurring without the need for any accompanying factors.

he discoveries awarded the one-hundredth In 1988, Martin Chalfie heard about GFP for the first Nobel Prize in Chemistry are a shining example time, and realised that its ability for independent Tof how fundamental research in one area of fluorescence could perhaps make it an ideal cellular science can sometimes lead to highly beneficial beacon for the model organisms he studied. Using applications in another. In this case, finding the key to molecular biological techniques, Chalfie succeeded how a marine organism produces light unexpectedly in introducing the gene for GFP into the DNA of the ended-up providing researchers with a powerful array small, almost transparent worm Caenorhabditis of tools with which to visualise cell biology in action. elegans. GFP was produced by the cells, giving off

Osamu Shimomura purifies a blue Martin Chalfie hears luminescent protein from the jellyfish about GFP for the first Aequorea victoria that he names time, and realises it could Chalfie expresses GFP Mikhail Matz and Sergei aequorin; he also isolates a protein be used to map proteins in C. elegans and shows Lukyanov discover six displaying bright green fluorescence in the transparent it can be used to track GFP-like proteins in that is later named green fluorescent nematode worm, the location of specific fluorescent corals, including a protein (GFP) Caenorhabditis elegans proteins red protein called DsRED

1962 1979 1988 1992 1994 1994–1998 1999 2000–2002

Shimomura shows that Chalﬁe obtains the GFP gene from Roger Tsien shows how the Tsien and collaborators tweak Tsien produces stable variants GFP contains a special Douglas Prasher, and Chalﬁe’s PhD GFP chromophore is formed the structure of GFP to of DsRED that glow in shades chromophore, a student Ghia Euskirchen expresses in a chemical reaction that produce new variants that of red, orange and pink – chemical group that it in Escherichia coli – the bacteria requires oxygen, without the shine more strongly and complex biological networks absorbs and emits light glow green in UV light without the help of other proteins produce different colours, can now be labelled using all addition of any other factors such as cyan, blue and yellow the colours of the rainbow

Timeline: Milestones for the 2008 Nobel Laureates in Chemistry, Osamu Shimomura, Martin Chalfie & Roger Y. Tsien.

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its green glow without the need for the addition of any extra components, and without any indication

of causing damage to the worms. Subsequent work an D iego showed that it was possible to fuse the gene for GFP to genes for other proteins, opening-up a world of possibilities for tracking the localisation of specific alifornia , S proteins in living organisms.

The opportunities offered by GFP were immediately obvious to many, as was the desirability of extending the range of available tags. Roger Tsien first studied precisely how GFP’s structure produces the observed

green fluorescence, and then used this knowledge to sien lab , university of C tweak the structure to produce molecules that emit T light at slightly different wavelengths, which gave tags of different colours. In time, his group added further fluorescent molecules from other natural sources to the tag collection, which continues to expand. Complex biological networks can now be labelled in an array of different colours, allowing visualisation of a multitude of processes previously hidden from view.

1962 1979 1988 1992 1994 1994–1998 1999 2000–2002

chemistry 9 2008 nobel Laureates

In his own words: Osamu Shimomura

“To get success, everybody has to overcome any

difficulty on the way.” Osamu Shimomura arine can speak from experience. As a teenager living /M 12 kilometres away from Nagasaki, he felt the blast of the atomic bomb explosion in August 1945. leindist K

“I was soaked by black rain. So, I was contaminated om T by the radioactivity, a lot of strong radioactivity. L aboratory B iological But fortunately still I’m alive.” “I don’t do my research for application or any benefit. I just Osamu Shimomura holding some of the do my research to understand hundreds of thousands of jellyfish specimens why jellyfish luminesce” that he collected from Friday Harbor.

The thousands of scientists worldwide who have benefited from the fruits of Shimomura’s labours jellyfish did he need to collect? “Our schedule was will no doubt share his sentiment. Thanks to his 50,000 per summer, in one or two months.” These discovery of green fluorescent protein (GFP) in remarkable expeditions took place every summer for jellyfish they have one of the most important tools at 19 years, collecting a staggering 850,000 jellyfish in their disposal for visualizing life at the microscopic total. “That’s classical biochemistry, not genetics or level; although Shimomura is quick to point out that something like that,” says Shimomura. there was only ever a single purpose behind his Shimomura says that GFP is one of many, still studies. “I don’t do my research for application or undiscovered, molecules in nature that emit light, any benefit. I just do my research to understand why but he fears that the demands of carrying out such jellyfish luminesce, and why that protein fluoresces.” labour intensive and uncertain research will deter young scientists from looking for them. “They prefer Discovering GFP in jellyfish took considerable effort. easier research. And they prefer research subjects “What we needed to do to study that protein is we that you can see the results; that you are sure to have to get large amounts of that protein. So, we get the results.” So, what advice would Shimomura collected huge numbers of jellyfish by going to Friday give to young people who are interested in entering Harbor, Washington, every summer.” Just how many science? “Study whatever they are interested in, and don’t give up on the way until they finish the subject. Good subjects have a lot of difficulty. If one gives up, on the way; that’s it, that’s finished.” By way of illustrating his philosophy on never finishing until the job is done, Shimomura continues S himomura O samu to work in a laboratory set up in the basement of his house, despite officially retiring in 2001. Recently he has been working on writing papers, and also helping other people, but he resigns himself to the When Osamu Shimomura started studying inevitable change that will result from being awarded glowing jellyfish, he had no idea that it would the Nobel Prize. “I think it’s hopeless to work out of lead to a scientific revolution. the laboratory for the next several months, I guess.”

This article is based on a telephone interview with Osamu Shimomura following the announcement of the 2008 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. To listen to the interview in full, visit http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2008/shimomura-interview.html

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In his own words: Martin Chalfie

or many scientists, the phone call from a Nobel , Prize Awarding Institution informing them that Fthey have been awarded the Nobel Prize must rank as one of the most important moments of their lives. Martin Chalfie will remember the moment somewhat differently. A recent change of ring tone ald w ell L aboratory on his home phone meant he slept through the call U niversity of A labama from Stockholm, thinking it was for someone else. T he C Chalfie laughs when recalling how he received the happy news. “I woke up, and I realised that they must have given the Prize in Chemistry, so I simply C. elegans glowing with green fluorescent protein. said, ‘Okay, who’s the schnook that got the Prize this time?’ And so I opened up my laptop, and I got to the Nobel Prize site and I found out I was the schnook!” answered the phone and said something to the effect of ‘Marty Chalfie, never heard of him’,” recalls Looking back at the moment 20 years ago when he Chalfie. “And so Douglas Prasher got the idea that first heard about green fluorescent protein (GFP) I had dropped out of science. He didn’t tell me in a seminar, Chalfie recalls his instant realisation because he didn’t think I was interested anymore.” that GFP could be used as a cellular beacon in his studies in the nematode worm, known as Chalfie says fortune eventually shone on him after Caenorhabditis elegans. “One of the great things an opportune search of a medical database revealed about working on C. elegans was the fact that it that Prasher had cloned GFP, and the pair was transparent, and so when I first heard that re-established contact. By that time, several research seminar describing GFP, and realised, ‘I work on groups were investigating whether GFP could glow this transparent animal, this is going to be terrific! in other organisms. However, through no fault of I’ll be able to see the cells within the living animal’.” their own, the manner in which they were excising Prasher’s GFP gene to create more of the gene The story from initial themselves was creating a protein thought to seeing cells “I work on this that didn’t glow. “That fragment had glow in C. elegans involved transparent animal, this extra little bits of sequence on either an extraordinary chain of is going to be terrific! I’ll end,” says Chalfie. “Apparently, it’s events over the following those sequences that were poison. two years. Chalfie contacted be able to see the cells The extra DNA interfered with the a researcher called Douglas within the living animal” protein production.” Chalfie, on Prasher who was studying the other hand, had done things GFP, and they agreed that once Prasher had cloned differently. “We simply amplified exactly the coding the gene that encodes GFP they would see if they sequence from the clone, and didn’t have any of the could make it glow in C. elegans. But while Prasher extra DNA.” When Chalfie tested whether his GFP finished cloning the GFP gene, Chalfie had taken a was working, it glowed. sabbatical, moving from Columbia University to the University of Utah to work with his then new wife. Given the unlikely chain of events, and the manner “When he finished the cloning, he got in touch with in which he discovered the news about his Nobel me, or he tried to,” recalls Chalfie. Prasher tried to Prize, Chalfie can be forgiven for wondering if he is contact Chalfie at Columbia University, and then at still sleeping. “I’ll try to wake up tomorrow and say the University of Utah, “…but someone must have that it wasn’t a dream!”

This article is based on a telephone interview with Martin Chalfie following the announcement of the 2008 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. To listen to the interview in full, visit http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2008/chalfie-interview.html

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In his own words: Roger Tsien

ike many Nobel Laureates, Roger Tsien says his love of science began at an early age,

carrying out chemistry experiments at home, an D iego S L alifornia , accompanied with “a mixture of fear in my parents and a little bit of encouragement”. By the relatively early age of 9 or 10, he knew he wanted to be a scientist. “I think I did go through the usual small- child phase of imagining being a fireman and so on, but yeah, I think being a scientist was more of a sien L ab , U niversity of C possibility for me than probably for most kids.” T

As an adult chemist, Tsien has been instrumental in making the green fluorescent protein a more Roger Tsien’s range of fluorescent proteins have effective beacon for visualising processes inside brought some colour to laboratory work. cells. By understanding what made GFP glow and by tweaking the structure he could create molecules that emit light at slightly different wavelengths, molecular engineering, “at least our approach producing tags of different colours. From the tens of to it, because we try to build molecules to solve thousands of papers that have been published using problems.” the probes he has developed, Tsien finds it difficult Does Tsien worry about these academic labels? to single out any of the applications that he likes “I try not to,” he replies, but adds that it becomes the most. One of the “showiest applications”, dangerous “when students let themselves get he says, is the trick of painting neurons in a whole pigeon-holed, or let their thought processes get kaleidoscope of colours – known as the brainbow. pigeon-holed, and they say ‘Oh, I could never do A love of pretty colours can be said to have been that, that’s chemistry. I don’t know any chemistry’.” the driving force in Tsien’s research career. It’s surprising how often biologists develop an “I have to say I myself do not find pipetting attitude about chemistry or chemists an attitude colourless droplets of liquid from one plastic about biology, says Tsien, which unfortunately tube to another awfully inspiring.” says Tsien. creates an “instinctual fear that, ‘Oh, that’s a subject “At least without having to worry about whether I can’t do, and nobody should expect me to know the work would be successful in 5 or 10 or 20 how to do, and so I will just not pay any attention to years, I could get some direct aesthetic pleasure questions that lead me in that direction’.” If there is out of the experiments as I went along.” one thing that Tsien has illustrated over the years, it’s the importance of being illuminated by any direction When asked to comment on the observation that the subject that you are interested in takes you. this Nobel Prize in Chemistry is being awarded of for work that is basically involved in cell biology, Tsien notes that it’s an area that has an D iego

been categorised as being chemical biology, niversity biochemistry, or as Tsien sometimes calls it, U , ab L alifornia , S C sien T “We try to build molecules Scientists can now use a palette of different to solve problems” coloured tags to visualise processes inside cells.

This article is based on a telephone interview with Roger Tsien following the announcement of the 2008 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. To listen to the interview in full, visit http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2008/tsien-interview.html

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The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2008

“for his discovery of “for their discovery human papilloma of human viruses causing immunodeficiency cervical cancer” virus” (DKF Z ) entrum /SCANPIX akutin z S /SCANPIX M agunia krebsforschungs

deutsches Harald zur Hausen Françoise Luc Montagnier 1/2 of the prize Barré-Sinoussi 1/4 of the prize 1/4 of the prize Born: 1936 Born: 1932 Birthplace: Germany Born: 1947 Birthplace: France Nationality: German citizen Birthplace: France Nationality: French citizen Current position: Nationality: French citizen Current position: Professor Emeritus and Current position: Professor Emeritus and former Chairman and Professor and Director, Director, World Foundation Scientific Director, German Regulation of Retroviral for AIDS Research and Cancer Research Centre, Infections Unit, Virology Prevention, Paris, France Heidelberg, Germany Department, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France

physiology or medicine 13 2008 nobel Laureates

Speed read: Finding the culprit

identification of the virus associated with AIDS, occurred within just a few months amid a flurry of global research activity directed towards finding the cause of the then-new epidemic.

Harald zur Hausen’s suggestion that human papilloma virus (HPV) infection might lie behind cervical cancer flew in the face of general opinion in the early 1970s, which held that another commonly present virus, herpes simplex virus, might be the cause. Realising that there were a multitude of different HPV subtypes, and hypothesising that unknown subtypes might cause the cancer, zur Hausen’s group began a painstaking search for such novel ooking back over the two discoveries rewarded viruses. By the early 1980s they found novel viruses with the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physiology in genital warts. Their subsequent identification of L or Medicine reveals two different timelines two novel HPV subtypes in cervical cancers formed for discovery research. One, Harald zur Hausen’s the essential piece of evidence linking HPV infection realisation that subtypes of a virus that produces to the onset of the disease. harmless warts can also lead to cervical cancer, took a decade of work to prove, initially against a Françoise Barré-Sinoussi and Luc Montagnier’s backdrop of considerable scepticism. The other, discovery of the virus that later came to be known Françoise Barré-Sinoussi and Luc Montagnier’s as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) occurred

zur Hausen identifies two new Harald zur Hausen publishes tumorigenic types of HPV in The first preventive HPV his first report attempting to cervical cancer biopsies – HPV16 vaccine is approved by the find human papilloma virus and HPV18 – and subsequently US Food and Drug Adminis- (HPV) DNA in cervical cancer shows that they are present in tration; two HPV vaccines are and genital wart biopsies the majority of cervical cancers currently on the market

1974 1976 1983–1984 1985 2006

zur Hausen and his zur Hausen demonstrates that parts of the team identify multiple, HPV DNA are integrated into the host genome previously undiscovered, in cervical cancer cell lines, providing an strains of HPV opening to study the role of the transferred viral DNA genes in malignant transformation

Timeline: Milestones for the 2008 Nobel Laureate in Physiology or Medicine, Harald zur Hausen.

14 physiology or medicine 2008 nobel Laureates

just two years after the first reports of cases of what we now know as AIDS. An infective agent was suspected by many to cause the disease, and Barré- Sinoussi and Montagnier decided to test whether it might be a so-called retrovirus. Retroviruses are relatively uncommon among the viruses that infect humans and rely on the host’s cellular machinery to replicate their RNA. The gamble proved correct; their studies revealed retroviral activity in cells taken from a patient’s lymph nodes, and demonstrated that viral particles from these cells could infect and kill white blood cells. Within the year, Barré- Sinoussi and Montagnier had isolated HIV from several patient groups. Soon afterwards several research groups provided convincing evidence that showed HIV to be the cause of AIDS. protection from the two HPV subtypes found in the majority of cervical cancer cases. Barré-Sinoussi Identifying the viral culprits behind two human and Montagnier’s discoveries led to a greater diseases that impact greatly on global health understanding of HIV and the way it interacts with provided crucial insights into the workings of each humans, allowing the development of diagnostic virus, which, in turn, led to the development of tools and a range of antiviral drugs aimed at much-needed treatments. zur Hausen’s discoveries controlling HIV, and with it providing hope that the enabled the development of vaccines that provide disease could eventually become treatable.

April: Barré-Sinoussi and Montagnier isolate the virus and show it infects and A serious new medical kills lymphocytes from both diseased syndrome is described in An international virus and healthy patients, and reacts with California and New York, defined taxonomy consortium antibodies from infected patients as Acquired Immune Deficiency names the virus Human Syndrome (AIDS) by the US Jun–Oct: They obtain isolates of the virus Immunodeficiency Virus Centers for Disease Control from several patient groups type 1, or HIV-1

1981–1982 1983 1984 1984–1985 1985

Françoise Barré-Sinoussi and Luc Several research groups Montagnier detect activity from a new publish reports that help to type of retrovirus in cells cultured deﬁnitively show that the from the lymph nodes of patients virus causes AIDS showing early symptoms of AIDS

Timeline: Milestones for the 2008 Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine, Françoise Barré-Sinoussi and Luc Montagnier.

physiology or medicine 15 2008 nobel Laureates

In his own words: Harald zur Hausen

“I’m of course totally surprised. And it’s of course involved in this cancer, together with the fact that a great pleasure for me.” Sitting in his office at the so many questions remained unanswered about German Cancer Research Center, the news that papilloma viruses. “I was not from the beginning Harald zur Hausen had received the 2008 Nobel mainly interested in papilloma virus, I was mainly Prize in Physiology or Medicine had yet to fully sink in. interested in infectious agents in human cancer. Perhaps surprise is an apt response; for years, few Papilloma viruses came up as the most likely considered zur Hausen’s proposal, that cervical cancer candidate from my viewpoint.” was caused by the same virus that caused skin warts, worthy of serious discussion, let alone a Nobel Prize. The key breakthrough in finding that two subtypes of human papilloma virus, called HPV16 and 18, When zur Hausen first suggested publicly that human are found in most cervical cancer cases wasn’t papilloma virus, or HPV, caused cervical cancer at a automatically followed by the successful development meeting in Key Biscayne, Florida, in 1974, it flew in of vaccines, mainly because companies were the face of the prevailing view that the culprit was unconvinced that this was a worthwhile investment. herpes simplex virus. “It was As zur Hausen recalls, one not very welcome,” recalls zur “My statements were not German company showed some Hausen. “My statements were well received, and I felt as interest, but it pulled the plug not well received, and I felt as a on the project after carrying out lonely voice in that meeting.” a lonely voice” some damning market analysis. “According to this market When asked what gave him the dedication to analysis there would be no market for such a vaccine. persevere for years and eventually prove the link And then they stopped the funding.” between HPV and cervical cancer, zur Hausen responds that it was the combination of a personal Now the opposite appears to be the case; results conviction that there must be an infectious agent from trials on cervical cancer vaccines within the last decade have been enormously promising. zur Hausen sees this as clear evidence that vaccination programmes should be widened; however, he cautions that “The major disadvantage at this stage is that it is too expensive for those parts of the world which most badly need the vaccine; namely, the developing world.”

zur Hausen believes that scientists will discover more links between viruses and cancer, and he is keen to promote greater interest in this line of research. “I hope, indeed, that this Nobel Prize will of course create more awareness of the role L ibrary cience P hoto , UCT/S S tannard D r L inda of infectious agents in human cancer”.

Having spent decades in pursuit of his goal, it is perhaps appropriate that he hadn’t rushed into making any plans for celebrating his Nobel Prize. Coloured transmission electron micrograph of “It was so surprising I really have to sleep about it human papilloma viruses (HPV). for one night or so before I make any decisions.”

This article is based on a telephone interview with Harald zur Hausen following the announcement of the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. To listen to the interview in full, visit http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2008/hausen-interview.html

16 physiology or medicine 2008 nobel Laureates In her own words: Françoise Barré-Sinoussi

isiting the Pasteur Institute in Cambodia, Françoise Barré-Sinoussi says she was Vunaware that she had been awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine until a French radio journalist called her for an interview. “I didn’t know about the news. It was a big surprise.”

Barré-Sinoussi feels that Cambodia is an appropriate place to receive the happy news.

“I’ve been working with developing countries since  UNESCO 2008/M ichel R avassard the mid-1980s and it’s really working with those countries that gives me another view, or another way, of orienting my research after the discovery of the HIV virus. It’s important to really know what’s going on in those countries strongly affected by these kinds of disease.”

“We said, okay, look, we have Francoise Barré-Sinoussi says the discovery of all the reagents, we have the HIV involved several waves of exciting findings. technique, and so let’s try” The educated guess paid off, and when asked Recalling the discovery of the virus that later came what message she hopes her Nobel Prize will to be known as human immunodeficiency virus, deliver, Barré-Sinoussi hopes that it highlights or HIV, Barré-Sinoussi remembers several waves of the fact that the success in discovering HIV is excitement as evidence slowly accumulated that she really the success of a global team of scientists, and her research colleagues had discovered a novel each bringing their different expertise to the task. virus. “First it was the isolation of the virus from a “It’s also important, especially when working on patient that was with symptoms associated with infectious disease, to have a world network of AIDS. The second excitement was when we realised clinicians, virologists and microbiologists, working that it’s not a known virus. Then we had electron in the hospitals and basic sciences. This was really microscopy pictures showing that the morphology essential for me in the discovery of the AIDS virus. was different, and so on.” So, it was, as Barré- And I think it’s essential also for tomorrow for Sinoussi describes, a “progressive excitement”. discovering new, emerging, or re-emerging agents responsible for infectious disease.” Looking for a retrovirus in the first place seems an inspired choice with the benefit of hindsight, though Barré-Sinoussi admits this was initially “I’ve been working with “because most of the other types of virus families were already being explored”. There were also developing countries since the “several lines of arguments” telling Barré-Sinoussi mid-1980s. It’s important to to look at retroviruses. “Since we were working on really know what’s going on in mammalian retroviruses at Pasteur at that time, we said, okay, look, we have all the reagents, those countries strongly affected we have the technique, and so let’s try.” by these kinds of disease”

This article is based on a telephone interview with Françoise Barré-Sinoussi following the announcement of the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. To listen to the interview in full, visit http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2008/barre- sinoussi-interview.html

physiology or medicine 17 2008 nobel Laureates

In his own words: Luc Montagnier

“Even after 20 years we are still fighting this virus very strongly, and the AIDS epidemic is still spreading in Africa”

is to make most of these people, infected people, L ibrary /S cience P hoto ulyk never sick, for life.”

K M ehau Looking back on the moment that he and his colleagues first saw evidence of active HIV in cells taken from a patient’s lymph nodes, and that the virus from these cells could infect and kill white blood cells, Montagnier says he initially had little Luc Montagnier and Françoise Barré-Sinoussi idea of the scale of the epidemic that he would discovered HIV over 25 years ago. be confronted with decades later. “But, when I realised that the virus could be the cause of AIDS n the day he heard that he had received and was present not only in gay men in France and the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physiology or the United States, and haemophiliacs, but also in OMedicine, Luc Montagnier was attending African nations, I realised it could be big.” an AIDS conference chaired by the President of the In fact, Montagnier reveals that at the time of Republic of Ivory Coast, an indication that the battle his discovery of HIV he was actually working on against the disease is far from resolved. “Even after a possible viral cause of breast cancer, which he 20 years we are still fighting this virus very strongly, says makes sharing the Nobel Prize with Harald zur and the AIDS epidemic is still spreading in Africa,” Hausen for his says Montagnier, “so the fight is not finished.” discovery of Montagnier thinks that tackling HIV, the virus that the viruses he and Françoise Barré-Sinoussi discovered in the that cause early 1980s, requires urgent research into novel cervical forms of treatment. “I know that in Africa it’s not cancer possible to give a treatment for life. So the idea a happy is to buy a treatment which, like for tuberculosis, coincidence. could be given for a short period of time – 6 to 9 “I’m still months – and then stopped.” interested in cancer viruses so I Such drug regimens could be supplanted appreciate that the Nobel with vaccines to eradicate the virus infection. Committee also has awarded Montagnier is developing one such treatment, the Prize to Harald zur not a preventive vaccine but a therapeutic vaccine, Hausen who has worked for a aimed at complementing the antiretroviral therapy long time on this.” given to many patients, so that their immune systems can defend themselves. “Nature has shown Luc Montagnier says the us a few percent of people which are in this stage. battle against AIDS in They are infected, they are not sick. So the idea Africa is far from resolved.

This article is based on a telephone interview with Luc Montagnier following the announcement of the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. To listen to the interview in full, visit http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2008/montagnier-interview.html

18 physiology or medicine 2008 nobel Laureates R. G oldstine , P ublisher avid o r , D The Nobel Prize in Literature 2008 P ress , C urbstone S tar Wandering , U niversity of N ebraska P ress Onitsha T he Pr o s p ect “author of new departures, poetic adventure and sensual ecstasy, explorer of a humanity beyond and below the reigning civilization” assier J. S

Jean-Marie Gustave Le Clézio

Born: 1940 Birthplace: France Nationality: French and Mauritian citizen

literature 19 2008 nobel Laureates

Speed read: Language as belonging

Le Clézio, who shows us that we are all emigrants, that we all face futures that are both liberating and terrifying.

Le Clézio’s talent was recognised from the beginning; his first published novel (Le procès-verbal) written when he was 23, received the Renaudot prize. The early novels are highly experimental in style and ean-Marie Gustave Le Clézio has said that the intellectually challenging. They present a bleak French language is the only place where he picture of modern western urban existence, as one of Jfeels a sense of belonging. He is someone who alienation, aggression and enslavement to materiality has always lived on the edge, and in-between, and (Les géants). Then, in the late 1970s, Le Clézio’s style is hard to identify with a single locality. Itinerant and thinking underwent a radical change, partly as from childhood, he has continued to travel, and now a result of his experience of living with the Emberas divides his time between New Mexico, on the frontier Indians in the Panamanian forest between 1970 and between North and South America, Nice, on the very 1974. Le Clézio is an expert on early Amerindian edge of France, and Mauritius, a small island where mythology and culture and produced the first ever the confrontation of land and sea is inescapable. translation of Indian mythology into a western Coming from a line of emigrants and immigrants, his language in Les prophéties du Chilam Balam. His family is dispersed all over the world. experience in Panama developed his thinking about the limits of western rationalism and its dangerous Perhaps unsurprisingly, given his background, he has devaluation of emotions and spirituality, and also of always been interested in thresholds. For instance, his the natural world. His novels became more focused novels explore the transformation from childhood into on story and character as the means to analyse the adulthood (Cœur brûlé et autres romances), voyages limits of western culture. More recently, as part of his that result in the confrontation of cultures (Désert), exploration of the interaction between past, present and the points where past, present and future collide and future, he has turned to his own family history (Ourania). “Writing for me is like travelling”, says and made it the subject of his novels.

Jean-Marie Writes the meditative Produces the ﬁrst ever Writes Publishes Ballaciner, Gustave Le Family essay collections translation of Indian mythology doctoral thesis a personal essay about Clézio is born returns L’extase matérielle, into a western language in Les on Mexico’s the history of ﬁlm and in Nice, France to Nice Mydriase and Haï prophéties du Chilam Balam early history its importance in his life

1940 1948 1950 1963 1967–1971 1970–1974 1976 1980 1983 1991–2004 2007

Family moves to Nigeria; Publishes his Spends time in Mexico Publishes his breakthrough Publishes several novels exploring Le Clézio writes Un long ﬁrst novel, and Central America, a novel Désert, which childhood and his own family voyage and Oradi noir on Le procès-verbal period which greatly received the Grand Prix history: Onitsha, La quarantaine, the month-long voyage inﬂuenced his later writing Paul Morand Révolutions and L’Africain

Timeline: Milestones for the 2008 Nobel Laureate in Literature, Jean-Marie Gustave Le Clézio.

20 literature 2008 nobel Laureates In his own words: Jean-Marie Gustave Le Clézio

“Writing for me is like travelling. It’s getting out of myself and living another life, maybe a better life.” Travelling and writing are intertwined in the life of Jean-Marie Gustave Le Clézio, or J.M.G. Le Clézio as he calls himself in his books. “I enjoy very much being in a foreign country, in a new country, new place. And I enjoy also beginning a new book. It’s like being someone else.”

Having grown up in many countries, and with his time now spent in New Mexico, Nice and Mauritius, Le Clézio identifies with different cultures. Yet he still maintains a special bond with his country of birth, France; though he is bilingual, Le Clézio still writes in his first language. “When I was a child I grew up speaking French. My first contact with literature was in French, and that’s the reason why I write in French.” J.M.G. Le Clézio’s writings reflect his passion for different countries and cultures. “Writing for me is like travelling. It’s getting out of myself here for the Europeans to encounter this culture which is so different from the European culture.” and living another life, maybe a better life” Le Clézio describes his role as writer as follows: “A writer is not a prophet, not a philosopher; he’s just someone who is witness to what is around Le Clézio’s healthy appetite for writing stems from him. And so writing is the best way to testify, to be the sheer enjoyment of putting pen to paper. a witness.” “One of my greatest pleasures in life is to sit at For those unfamiliar with his works, Le Clézio has a table, wherever it is. I don’t have any office, no specific recommendations, suggesting instead I can write everywhere. So, I put a piece of paper that interested readers should be guided by their on the table and then I travel.” own feelings. “Reading is a free practice. I think the His desire to travel and to write has allowed readers are free to begin by the books where they Le Clézio to document many places, cultures and want to. They don’t have to be led in their reading.” possibilities. For example, he has spent time among In other words, readers embarking on a journey the Amerindians, whose culture he finds particularly through the countries and cultures described in his appealing and one that he believes Europeans can works are required to do some travelling of their own. learn a lot from. “It’s a culture so different from the European culture, and on the other hand it “A writer is not a prophet, didn’t have the chance of expressing itself. It’s a not a philosopher; he’s just culture which has been in some ways broken by the modern world, and especially by the conquests someone who is witness to from Europe. So, I feel there is a strong message what is around him”

This article is based on a telephone interview with Jean-Marie Gustave Le Clézio following the announcement of the 2008 Nobel Prize in Literature. To listen to the interview in full, visit http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/2008/clezio-interview.html

literature 21 2008 nobel Laureates

The Nobel Peace Prize 2008

“for his important efforts, on several continents and over more than three decades, to resolve international conflicts” B. S ettnik , EPA/SCANPIX B.

Martti Ahtisaari

Born: 1937 Birthplace: Finland Nationality: Finnish citizen Current position: Chairman of the Board, Crisis Management Initiative

22 peace 2008 nobel Laureates

Speed read: Crisis management

Ahtisaari’s mediation has helped diffuse seemingly intractable conflicts across the globe. He was instrumental in helping to bring about Namibia’s eventual independence from South Africa after long years of war. His brokering of a peace agreement between the Indonesian government and the separatist Free Aceh Movement led to the 2005 Aceh artti Ahtisaari, former diplomat and Peace Accord, after almost 30 years of conflict. In the politician, is an international trouble- former Yugoslavia, Ahtisaari first helped to mediate Mshooter. Over the past two decades he an end to the war in Kosovo in the late 1990s, and has worked under a variety of mandates to attempt more recently, as United Nations Special Envoy, he to bring a peaceful end to conflicts in Africa, Asia, sought to find a solution to the problem caused Europe and the Middle East. Few people have by the majority Albanian population’s desire for gained such a broad understanding of the intricacies independence from Serbia. In this case, however, the of managing conflict resolution. internationally monitored independence he proposed for Kosovo was not adopted, and the prolonged Ahtisaari insists that all conflicts are essentially international deadlock led to Kosovo’s unilateral solvable, and believes that it is the duty of the declaration of independence in early 2008. international community to intervene to prevent injustice. His approach is founded on the idea that In 2000, upon retiring from the Finnish Presidency, one should never avoid the hard questions for the Ahtisaari founded the Crisis Management Initiative sake of reaching a swift but shallow agreement. His (CMI), an independent, Helsinki-based, non-profit experiences have led him to formulate a number of organisation. CMI aims to work alongside the principles underlying successful crisis resolution, international community to promote innovative including the need for rapid reaction, the importance approaches to conflict resolution, through a of consistency of approach in different locations, combination of “analysis, action and advocacy”. It the value of reconciliation and the necessity of an has already assisted in the Aceh negotiations, and is all-inclusive approach to negotiations that brings all involved in ongoing efforts to bring about sustainable concerned parties into discussions from the outset. peace in Iraq.

Martti Ahtisaari Joins United Nations (UN) as Appointed Secretary Founds the Crisis Serves as Special Envoy of graduates from Commissioner for Namibia; appointed of State in the Management Initiative, the Secretary General of the University of Special Representative of the Ministry for Foreign where he is Chairman the UN for the future Oulu, Finland Secretary General for Namibia in 1978 Affairs of Finland of the Board status process for Kosovo

1959 1965–1973 1977–1981 1989–1990 1991 1994–2000 2000 2005 2005–2008

Joins the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Leads the UN Elected President Facilitates the peace process between Finland, where he holds various posts operation in of the Republic of the Government of Indonesia and the including Deputy Director of the Department Namibia Finland Free Aceh Movement for International Development Cooperation

Timeline: Milestones for the 2008 Nobel Peace Prize Laureate, Martti Ahtisaari.

peace 23 2008 nobel Laureates

In his own words: Martti Ahtisaari

or Martti Ahtisaari, receiving the 2008 Nobel “It’s a disgrace for the Peace Prize provided an opportunity to hear international community that Fonce again from familiar faces. “All my friends have been calling me, which is of course extremely we have allowed so many nice.” says Ahtisaari, “My assistants do nothing conflicts to become frozen” nowadays except to try to answer the phones.” As a former diplomat, politician and President of the Republic of Finland, who has helped bring a peaceful adopt a more flexible approach than governments. end to conflicts in several continents, Ahtisaari must “And of course, the mere fact that I’m Former have a long line of friendly well-wishers. Head of State and Former Under-Secretary in the UN system, it means that I can get in touch with His success over the past two decades stems anybody in the world, in theory.” from his conviction that no situation is beyond resolution. “Every conflict can be solved. I think One thing Ahtisaari emphasises with respect to it’s a disgrace for the international community CMI is rapid reaction, in other words the ability that we have allowed so many conflicts to become to respond effectively and without delay to any frozen, and we are not making a serious effort to requests from parties at critical moments in solve them.” conflicts and crisis situations. Adopting the rapid reaction approach, though, requires sizeable According to Ahtisaari the key to solving conflicts finances. “You need to carry out very careful pre- lies in getting all parties around the table; not only feasibility and feasibility studies before you enter those directly involved but also all other countries any crisis situation.” Ahtisaari hopes his Peace Prize that can have an influence on a possible solution. will help the CMI to secure funding more easily. The Kosovo conflict perfectly illustrates this, says “Far too much of my time goes for knocking on the Ahtisaari. “We had a contact group that included doors of the donors. We can do much more than we Russian Federation, United States, United Kingdom have done so far.” and Northern Ireland, France, Germany and Italy. It was absolutely vital in keeping the process together.”

For a negotiator like Ahtisaari, one principle is extremely important. “I insist that I will have a free hand to pick my colleagues. Because, very often, the organisations tend to send people that are not perhaps the most suited in that.” In Kosovo, G rant /M ilton UN P hoto Namibia, and Aceh, Ahtisaari chose his own people for the task. “They have to be able to work together. They have to be professionals. They have to master their speciality area, so that you can trust them.”

Hence the need for organisations like the Crisis Management Initiative (CMI), which Ahtisaari founded after retiring from the Finnish Presidency. CMI works alongside the international community to promote innovative approaches to conflict resolution. Because it is a non-profit organisation Martti Ahtisaari has helped bring a peaceful end Ahtisaari says it has the advantage of being able to to conflicts affecting countries in several continents.

This article is based on a telephone interview with Martti Ahtisaari following the announcement of the 2008 Nobel Peace Prize. To listen to the interview in full, visit http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2008/ahtisaari-interview.html

24 peace 2008 nobel Laureates

The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel 2008

“for his analysis of trade patterns and location of economic activity”

Paul Krugman U niversity , P rinceton office of communications

Born: 1953 Birthplace: United States Nationality: US citizen Current position: Professor of Economics and International Affairs, Princeton University, New Jersey, USA

economics 25 2008 nobel Laureates

Speed read: Modelling trade in a world of plenty

had emphasised the importance of the differences between countries, with international trade being based on the production of different materials in each country to fulfil unmet needs in others. Krugman’s development of a rigorous framework for describing n a remarkably succinct, ten-page article the real world situation formed the basis for an published in 1979, Paul Krugman proposed a new explosion of subsequent analysis. Itrade model that changed the way economists view the international exchange of goods. At the The 1979 paper in the Journal of International heart of the model lay two concepts that reflected Economics also sowed the seeds of an analysis of the general twentieth century trend towards having the forces driving increased urbanization. In his more: the increased production of goods, leading core-periphery model, which he developed properly in to economies of scale, and increased diversity of a 1991 publication, Krugman describes the opposing products, leading to greater choice for consumers. pressures that act on populations: those that serve Krugman’s model better reflected the new pattern to pull them into the core (urban) centres and those of international trade that had developed in a world that work to push them out into the peripheral where less certainly wasn’t more. (agricultural) areas. For example, one such factor is the cost of transport, and the generally decreasing His model sought to explain the situation in which transport costs seen in the twentieth century have countries that are similar benefit by producing and served to pull production, and populations, into trading in similar goods. Thus, cars are manufactured urban centres. Once again, Krugman’s formulation in France, Germany and Italy, with each country of a robust model provided the apparatus that benefiting from the economies of scale delivered by allowed a thorough exploration of the factors driving mass production, and the citizens of each country the global distribution of production facilities, and benefiting from the increased choice that arises from of the urbanisation that is such a prevalent feature of having a global motor industry. Previous trade models the modern world.

Receives the John Bates Clark Medal from the Publishes a paper in the Works as a staff member American Economic Association Paul Krugman Journal of International of the Council of receives BA in Economics that proposes a Economic Advisers in Publishes his theory of economic geography in Economics from new model to explain patterns the Reagan White the Journal of Political Economy, which describes Yale University of trade between countries House Administration opposing pressures acting on populations

1974 1977 1979 1980 1982–1983 1990 1991 2000

Receives PhD from Becomes Associate Publishes The Age of Diminished Starts a Professorship at Massachusetts Institute Professor at MIT, Expectations, the ﬁrst of several Princeton University and begins of Technology (MIT) and where he is later books, magazine articles and writing a twice-weekly Op-Ed becomes Assistant promoted to Professor columns aimed at communicating column for The New York Times, Professor at Yale University with non-economists which he still writes today

Timeline: Milestones for the 2008 Economics Laureate, Paul Krugman.

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In his own words: Paul Krugman

aul Krugman had been anticipating an interesting day on the morning that he Preceived the phone call from the Economics Prize Committee. Krugman was in Washington DC for a meeting associated with the World Bank and International Monetary Fund; a meeting occurring hours after emergency packages had been announced in Europe aimed at preventing banks from collapsing in the economic downturn. “I thought that was going to be the exciting thing today, but it didn’t quite turn out quite as planned.”

As a journalist, columnist and blogger for The New York Times, Krugman has become one of the best known popularisers of economic ideas, but the 2008 Prize in Economics acknowledges his models on economic theory that, as he says, showed Paul Krugman’s models explain why jobs “why countries might trade even if they have and businesses are increasingly becoming the same climate, and the same resources, and the concentrated in urban areas. same technology.”

Krugman developed his models to explain why When asked how easy he found the move into jobs and businesses are becoming increasingly journalism, Krugman says he believes the task concentrated in certain places such as cities. of boiling down an intellectual problem to its “The reason why 80 million people live in a fairly essence through economic models and the task of narrow corridor along the East explaining a complex problem in Coast of the United States is “I’ve gone somewhat simple language are related. not that there’s something beyond my role as an “I always felt that what I do especially favourable about when I try to explain, say, the the geography, but it’s simply economist in the column financial crisis in 800 words, the agglomeration force. but, hey, economists and what I do when I try to Essentially each of those 80 are people too, and are model the financial crisis in a million people is there because half-dozen equations, are very the other 80 million people are citizens too, and have much the same kind of effort.” also there.” political opinions” To some extent the consequence According to Krugman the of trying to explain things clearly value of creating these mathematical models is has led Krugman to recently adopt a more political that “once you have the clear statement of how the stance on issues in his newspaper columns. He was pieces fit together you can apply it to numbers, an early critic of the Bush administration because his you can use it to try to assess the welfare impact economics background led him to conclude that they of different trade policies.” In other words, people were being dishonest about budget arithmetic. “I’ve could now think more clearly about international gone somewhat beyond my role as an economist in trade, says Krugman. “It required the math to get the column but, hey, economists are people too, and to the plain English.” are citizens too, and have political opinions.”

This article is based on a telephone interview with Paul Krugman following the announcement of the 2008 Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel. To listen to the interview in full, visit http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/ laureates/2008/krugman-interview.html

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