Journal of International Social Studies http://www.iajiss.org

A Current Analysis of the Treatment of Japanese Americans and Internment in United States History Textbooks

Jeffrey M. Hawkins Oklahoma State University

Michael Buckendorf Will Rogers High School, Tulsa, OK

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Many secondary social studies teachers whether or not the United States government persist in using United States history actions were democratic. textbooks as their primary, and in many In 2000, Harada looked at the treatment cases, only instructional tool (Stevens, 1988, of Asian Americans in United States history Paxton, 2002, & Hawkins, 2005). Because textbooks published between 1994 and of this it is vital that teachers have up-to- 1996. This study stated that “Asian” date, accurate, and true-to-life textbooks for Americans were depicted in textbooks as instruction. This article will address the passive rather than active agents, as a group topic of the treatment of Japanese successfully assimilated into the mainstream Americans and their internment in World culture, and as a model minority. War II (WWII), as it has been presented in In 2004, Ogawa indicated that textbooks recent United States history textbooks adopted for use in Idaho schools in 2002 had (2005-2008), and suggest how the content improved since the Romanowski and Harada should be updated and expanded. studies, but still lacked an explanation of State standards require the study of other possible motives for internment, such WWII--key events and their causes and as ethnocentrism, discrimination, and racism effects, and certain standards include (one of Romanowski’s proposed additions to internment policies and their effects as well. the textbooks). Most textbooks also This allows students to “confront today’s excluded information about the different problems and choices with a deeper historic and economic situations faced by awareness of their alternatives and the likely Japanese Americans living on the mainland consequences” (OK PASS, 2010). Although and in Hawaii. Ogawa stated that the “students still tend to be passive recipients textbooks also failed to address the fact that of the knowledge handed down by teachers, more acts of violence and terrorism were the curriculum, and textbooks, rather than committed against Japanese Americans at active seekers of problems to be solved,” the end of WWII than at the beginning. (Simanu-Klutz, 2006, p. 1) this remains a Could such acts have been the cause of worthy goal. “Asian” American assimilation and the evolution of Asians as a model minority (as Previous Textbook Analyses Harada proposed)? In 1995, Romanowski examined the Ogawa further stated that additional treatment of Japanese American internment information was necessary for students to during WW II, in United States history understand the reasons why discrimination textbooks published between 1988 and toward Japanese Americans did not end after 1992. This study found that most of the the war and why American citizens of textbooks failed to provide students with German and Italian ancestries were not put complete descriptions of the internment into internment camps. In addition, some camps, adequately address the loss of textbooks lacked personal accounts of the personal property, hypothesize a variety of internment to help students develop empathy possible motives for the internment, for those interned. Finally, and most problematize the government’s role in importantly, Ogawa argued that textbooks ordering and carrying out the internment, failed to develop students’ critical thinking present the topic of restitution made to skills and critical knowledge of United Japanese Americans, or raise the issue of States history, and that teachers needed to go

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beyond their reliance on textbooks for both who longed for acceptance in a society that instructional methods and content material. regarded them as second-class citizens. The report claimed that there was little to fear Current Study from Asian citizens if a conflict would break This study updated and expanded upon out between the United States and the the conclusions reached by Romanowski Empire of Japan (Brokaw, 1998, Evans, (1995), Harada (2000), and Ogawa (2004) 1998, Riley, 2002, Bennett, 2007, & regarding the treatment of Japanese Smithsonian National Museum of History, Americans and internment in United States 2007). history textbooks. The researchers used the None of this information was taken into same criteria for content analysis and the consideration following the attack on Pearl same ten history textbooks studied Harbor. Emotions and national indignation previously. However, they used the more ran too high. While America’s entry into the recent editions of those texts, published war served as a rallying point to assimilate between 2005 and 2008. Researchers read, and cement several disparate ethnic groups coded, and analyzed sections of the firmly into American society, it had the textbooks that pertained to Japanese opposite effect on the Nisei and their non- Americans and internment during the WWII citizen parents, the Issei. era. In addition, they addressed the extent to In February of 1942, a scant two months which the textbooks followed the after the attack of Pearl Harbor, President recommendations, considerations, and Franklin Roosevelt signed Executive Order conclusions of prior studies. The content 9066, calling for all Japanese American analysis took place during the summer of citizens and non-citizens along the West 2009. coast to be evacuated from their homes and businesses. The rationale for this was that Brief Historical Commentary the public outcry and negative sentiment WWII is generally considered to be a against Asians within the borders of the time of galvanizing national identity and United States could erupt into violence and voluntary unity, in contrast with the rioting. There were already signs of this coercion and intimidation that mobilized the negativity as banks refused to cash checks troops during WWI. Yet, this was not the written by Nisei citizens and insurance case with the Japanese Americans who lived companies canceled their policies. Many in the United States during this decade milkmen and grocers refused to deliver their (Census, 1940, & Smithsonian National goods or sell to them. Buddhist temples Museum of History, 2007). were vandalized and ransacked. The writing What caused the stark backlash against of racism and prejudice was on the wall, and the Japanese American population was, of the argument was made that something course, the attack on Pearl Harbor. In needed to be done to maintain order (Ibid.). November of 1941, the Munson Report was This history is not necessarily included in submitted before Congress. It was a fact- current United States history textbooks, nor finding report intent upon gauging the was it mentioned in prior content analysis character of America’s citizens of Japanese research by Romanowski (1995), Harada descent. The report found that the Nisei (2000), or Ogawa (2004). population, second generation Japanese born in the United States, were loyal Americans

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Discussion of Findings American internment, and it was not The purpose of this study was to update connected with other historical events. The and further develop our knowledge of what researchers did not see such passages in has been included, overlooked, or added to other textbooks, and supposed it might be an the most recent United States history attempt to portray diversity, however out of textbooks (2005-2008) regarding the context. Here, General DeWitt’s racist treatment of Japanese Americans and the comments, “A Jap is a Jap. It makes not experience of internment. difference whether he is an American citizen American Anthem, published in 2007 by or not . . . I don’t want any of them here” (p. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, offered two 805) were stated, but without any fairly comprehensive, though condensed identification of their author. Also, vague chapters dealing with WWI. Of the 76 pages references to Korematsu v. United States dedicated to the war, 2 dealt with the were noted. And the entire coverage of Japanese American internment. Content internment was discussed in less than a full included generalized and standard page. recitations of camp locations, privations, and The American Journey, published in the loss of property, as well as the case of 2007 by Prentice Hall, took a slightly Korematsu v. United States. This finding different, yet interesting introductory parallels previous studies. The text was also approach to the topic. As a precursor to helpful in identifying the often overlooked discussing the internment, a section on the fact that thousands of Italian and German clashing of cultures featured the ethnic and immigrants were forced to carry racial tensions that exuded across America identification cards, a clear differentiation in toward all minorities. Race riots in Harlem treatment from that of the Japanese and Detroit between blacks and whites, plus Americans. The text mentioned General the infamous “Zoot Suit Riots” between John L. DeWitt, Commander of West coast white servicemen and Chicano “zoot Defenses, who was the primary agitator of suiters” in Los Angeles were specifically anti-Japanese sentiment on the West coast, noted. These textbook authors seemingly although it did not bring up his racist and followed the suggestions of Romanowski inflammatory rhetoric. Loyalty and Ogawa in including this content. questionnaires were mentioned, as was the In the handling of the internment itself, combat record of the 442nd Regimental the textbook provided the different Combat Team (RCT). Interestingly, there perspectives of the Issei and Nisei, was also a photo of Fred Korematsu speculated as to why the army waited receiving the Presidential Medal of Freedom months after Pearl Harbor to begin from President Clinton in 1998. evacuation, and made observations about The Enduring Vision, A History of the racial stereotyping. There was also a two- American People, published in 2005 by page, first person narrative from former Houghton Mifflin, was less impressive. The Camp Harmony internee, Monica Itoi Stone, entire period from 1933 to 1945 was which expressed a sense of immediacy and presented in only 31 pages. Curiously, there provided an opportunity for empathy on the was a paragraph pertaining to the cultural part of the reader. However, coverage of treatment of homosexuals in the United other aspects of internment lacked States during WWII placed immediately inclusiveness. Comparisons between before the section covering the Japanese Japanese American, German American, and

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Italian American detainment were present, at Japanese Americans from excessive fears but little else. While Monica’s personal of espionage, subversion, and sabotage recollections took up two pages, the against American industry. coverage of pertinent facts concerning the The passages detailing the internment internment took up only one page. directly were very informative, offering A People and A Nation, published in excerpts from the memoranda issued by 2005 by Houghton Mifflin, was among the General DeWitt to the Secretary of War, worst of the textbooks. Coverage of the plus first person memoirs from internee internment was relegated to little more than Kazue Yamane and the diaries of Charles one-half of a page. One paragraph dealt with Kikuchi. DeWitt’s paranoia, decrying the Alien Registration Act of 1940, and it Japanese Americans as “subversives” was served as an example of the prevalent and made manifest in this memorandum, despite increased sense of paranoia towards the evidence to the contrary supplied by the immigrant populations. Descriptions were Munson Report. perfunctory. All that stood out was a brief Yamane’s memoirs, looking back forty mention of the 6,000 internees who years, denote the bitterness many Nisei still renounced their citizenship and were felt over the degradation of the internment. repatriated to Japan, followed by a The fascinating example of the Kikuchi contrasting paragraph covering the 442nd diary (showcased in the Harada study) as RCT combat record. excerpted in this textbook in particular, United States History, Modern America, passionately demonstrated the desire for published in 2008 by Prentice Hall, fared acceptance by mainstream America on the little better in its analysis. Coverage of the part of Japanese Americans, and their internment amounted to less than one-half of overall rejection and ignorance of the a page. However, this textbook chose to Imperial Japanese militaristic tradition. focus more on the challenges to civil Out of Many, A History of the American liberties during wartime, which supported a People, published in 2007 by Prentice Hall, comparison between WWII and today’s War provided mediocre coverage of the treatment on Terror. Photographs of Nisei families of Japanese Americans and the internment. wearing identification tags and waiting at While the text itself provided a relatively evacuation centers and the Manzanar camp wide range of coverage of racial issues from would prove useful to students, though a the treatment of segregated black troops to glaring error stood out. A photograph the Latino “zoot suit” riots of 1943 in Los featuring the arrest of Japanese Ambassador Angeles, it relegated the plight of the Nisei Morito Moishima was incorrectly labeled as to a single page. One photo of a family the arrest of a Japanese American citizen. wearing tags and holding their suitcases was The American Promise, A History of the present. The best and only coverage of note United States, published in 2007 by St. lay in examples of racial stereotyping Martin’s Press, proved to be a fairly exemplified in such songs as, “You’re a Sap, effective text on many levels. The Mister Jap,” and “Make a Yankee Cranky.” introduction to the internment came in the Also observable, and previously noted by context of heightened anxieties and panic Romanowski and Ogawa, were the after German U-Boats attacked shipping off paradoxes of military logic, as in the the East coast. This section moved directly following example, “The very fact that no into the topic of racial xenophobia directed sabotage has taken place to date is a

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disturbing and confirming indication that 21st Century, provided the most action will be taken” (p. 900). comprehensive coverage of the internment As far as general overall coverage of camp experience. Of the four pages WWII, the researchers found America, addressing this, two of them were devoted Pathways to the Present, published in 2007 solely to Korematsu v. United States. This by Pearson Prentice Hall, to be the most textbook appeared to be quite an extensive comprehensive. However, one glaring error text, featuring mini-biographies of several was noted. A photograph of a U. S. Army key but typically overlooked figures of the uniform worn during the Cold War era was war years, such as journalist Martha presented in the discussion of a different Gelhorn. It also quite effectively covered the time period. Over 77 pages were devoted to contributions of not just Japanese covering WWII from all perspectives, albeit Americans, but all minorities. in a condensed format. Overviews of events leading to the outbreak of global conflict Conclusions and Recommendations from the Spanish Civil War to the rise of This study confirmed earlier research Japanese militarism and atrocities in China findings by Romanowski (1995), Harada and Korea were all present within this text. (2000), and Ogawa (2004). It also found that Likewise, the details of maps covered key the most recent United States history locations, such as Pearl Harbor, and even the textbooks continued to improve their percentage of ships damaged during the depiction of the treatment of Japanese sneak attack. At the end of each chapter was Americans and their internment. Most of the a section dedicated to standardized test textbooks in the 1995 study failed to provide preparation. adequate narratives concerning the loss of While only a page and a half was given individual’s personal property and the to the internment, the global coverage of government’s motives for the internment. concurrent events was sufficient to enable The government’s role in the internment, its students to think critically about why the restitution to Japanese Americans, and its internment happened in the first place. application of democratic ideals were issues Included were recollections of the questioned in the Romanowski study. The inflammatory and inaccurate newspaper current study found considerable reports of Japanese sabotage plans and thefts improvement in these areas. of the property and livelihoods of the In addition, the current study found, as Japanese Americans. The internment camps did the 2000 study, that Asians were were undeniably harsh and citizens forced to presented as passive, successfully live there endured any number of privations. assimilated, and ultimately a model Their barracks accommodations could be minority. However, these views were now compared to military camps. And the wide contextualized through a more diverse lense. range of perspectives offered in this text Some textbooks promoted critical inquiry enabled the expansion of students’ critical via the study of civil rights or histories of thinking skills (e.g., cause and effect, scope discrimination that applied to not only of the conflict, and intended and unintended Japanese Americans, but to other minorities consequences of these events upon various as well. As mentioned previously, these populations, etc.). aspects of the issues were either not Of the ten textbooks, McDougal Littel’s addressed or presented as tokenism in earlier 2007, The Americans, Reconstruction to the textbooks. The newer editions of the

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textbooks added primary sources (i.e., were not mentioned in any textbook in the personal accounts from Japanese Americans current study. Also, current textbooks still and others) that allowed for a more effective ignored the question raised by Ogawa in exploration of the issues by students. 2004, “Why were there no internment camps Ogawa (2004) found that textbooks in Hawaii?” lacked content about other possible motives In conclusion, the researchers invite you for internment (beyond the idea of avoiding to review an excerpt from The American conflict related to a possible war with Pageant (2006) and answer, “Is this an Japan). Additional concerns about content to adequate or inadequate history? What do be included in the textbook revolved around you think?” These events changed the lives the different situations faced by Japanese of some 110,000 Japanese Americans Americans living on the mainland and in concentrated on the Pacific Coast, and they Hawaii, the reasons why German and Italian claim a prominent place in our country’s Americans were not interned, the personal history. accounts of internment, and the goals for developing students’ critical knowledge of “The Washington top command, fearing the historical events and the application of that they might act as saboteurs critical thinking skills to the study of these for Japan in case of invasion, forcibly events. The current study found considerable herded them together in concentrations improvement in these areas in all ten United camps, though about two-thirds of them States history textbooks. were American-born U.S. citizens. The researchers join earlier authors in This brutal precaution was both recommending that United States history unnecessary and unfair, as the loyalty and textbooks include a complete and clear combat record of Japanese Americans description of and delineation between proved to be admirable. But a wave of internment, relocation, and concentration post-Pearl Harbor hysteria backed by the camps. All ten current textbooks describe long historical swell of internment in some way. However anti-Japanese prejudice on the West considering the atrocities committed by the coast, temporarily robbed many American government toward Japanese Americansof their good sense—and their Americans, we believe that a complete sense of justice. The internment camps narrative should be included in future deprivedthese uprooted Americans of textbooks that clearly differentiates these dignity and basic rights; the internees concepts. Finally, some current textbooks also lost hundreds of millions of dollars did address different historical and in property and forgone earnings. The economic situations faced by Japanese wartime Supreme Court in 1944 upheld Americans living on the mainland as the constitutionality of the Japanese recommended by Ogawa (2004). However, relocation in Korematsu v. United States in the current study, we found nothing But more than four decades later, in mentioned about those living in Hawaii. In 1988, the U.S. government officially addition as in earlier research, acts of apologized for its actions and approved violence and terrorism committed against the payment of reparations of $20,000 to Japanese Americans at the end of WWI each camp survivor” (p. 823).

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National Council for the Social Studies. (1994). Expectations of excellence: Curriculum standards for social studies. Priority Academic Student Skills.

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Dr. Jeffrey M. Hawkins is an associate professor and is the director of the secondary social studies program at Oklahoma State University in Stillwater, OK.

Mike Buckendorf is a social studies educator of United States Government and Oklahoma History at Will Rogers High School in Tulsa, OK

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