The World War II Era and Human Rights Education Stewart Waters and William B

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nternational revulsion at the violation of human rights during World War II As Chang mentions, there is no clear helped spark a global movement to define and protect individual human rights. date for the beginning of World War IStarting with the creation of war crimes tribunals after the war, this newfound II because many countries look at awareness stimulated a concerted international effort to establish human rights the beginning of the war from an for all, both in periods of war and peace. These endeavors resulted in a historic ethnocentric perspective. In an effort milestone when the United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human to address this topic from an approach Rights (UDHR) in 1948. In the time that has elapsed since then, human rights have that takes all sides into account, we become an important part of political debate in many countries, and a significant will use the term “World War II era” in number of non-governmental organizations have been established to promote and reference to all the events leading up protect them. The international community has taken some unprecedented steps to and surrounding the human rights to deter violations of human rights, and punish perpetrators, notably through the violations between 1931 and 1945. establishment of the International Criminal Court in 2002 and its subsequent The monumental violations of human proceedings against persons accused of war crimes. rights that took place during this era brought forth a widespread movement The effects of World War II on point. These perspectives are discussed calling for the protection of human international understanding and by historian Iris Chang in The Rape of rights all over the globe, as they offered protection of human rights have been Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of extreme examples of how legitimate far-reaching, yet this dimension of World War II. In this important work, governments can foster, tolerate, and World War II is often neglected or the author states: legitimize human rights violations in marginalized in the classroom. The the name of national security. As Rhona atrocities of the period are sometimes Americans think of World War Smith and Carolyn McIntosh write, taught only as events that happened II as beginning on December “The Holocaust, in conjunction with during the war, without an evaluation 7, 1941, when Japanese carrier- the atrocities committed in Europe of their long-term effects on the world’s based airplanes attacked Pearl and Asia during the Second World conception of human rights. The Harbor. Europeans date it from War, demonstrated the clear need for a purpose of this article is to provide September 1, 1939, and the blitz- global standard of human rights.”2 This teachers with an approach to integrating krieg assault on Poland by Hitler’s global standard of human rights came in the teaching of human rights and Luftwaffe and Panzer divisions. 1948, just three years after the end of the their violation into the world history Africans see an even earlier begin- war, when the General Assembly of the curriculum through a historical analysis ning, the invasion of Abyssinia United Nations adopted the Universal of events during the World War II era. by Mussolini in 1935. Yet Asians Declaration of Human Rights (see www. World War II was a truly global event. must trace the war’s beginning all un.org/Overview/rights.html). Even attempts to define its beginning the way back to Japan’s first steps can result in many teachable moments, toward the military domination Introducing the Universal because of the different historical of East Asia—the occupation of Declaration of Human Rights perspectives that exist about its starting Manchuria in 1931.1 Introducing students to the Universal

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People who lived through the Nanjing (Nanking) Massacre in 1937 mourn during a ceremony marking its anniversary at the Nanjing Massacre Museum, Jiangsu province, on December 13, 2008.

Declaration of Human Rights is human rights and to analyze with the Declaration of Independence, U.S. something that every social studies them the actual instances in which Constitution, British Magna Carta, or teacher addressing human rights genocide—the ultimate violation the French Declaration of the Rights violations will need to do in their of human rights—has been com- of Man and the Citizen. While all of classrooms. A study conducted by Peter mitted. We study the atrocities of the aforementioned documents are D. Hart Research Associates, Inc., for the past not only to preserve their important in the advancement of human Human Rights USA in 1997 revealed significance as historical events rights, and indeed their influence is “that only 8 percent of adults and 4 but also to help identify ways to easily recognized in the Universal percent of young people are aware of prevent the atrocities from ever Declaration of Human Rights, the and can name the Universal Declaration happening again.4 concerted effort of representatives from of Human Rights.”3 This pivotal study multiple nations that produced the showed that most Americans were Exploring the Universal Declaration UDHR makes it an important document receiving no exposure to a document of Human Rights in social studies for citizens of all countries. that laid the foundation for developing classrooms increases students’ global The Universal Declaration of a set of culturally universal human rights. awareness because it was a document Human Rights marks the first time in The state of California addressed the created as a group effort between human history that nations all over importance of human rights education multiple countries participating in the world came together to define in 1987 with the rationale being: the United Nations. This makes the inalienable rights and freedoms for There is no more urgent task for Universal Declaration of Human all people. Dr. H.E. Evatt of Australia, educators in the field of history Rights distinct from other documents president of the UN General Assembly and social science than to teach addressing human rights with which in 1948, observed that this was “the students about the importance of students may be more familiar, such as first occasion on which the organized

Social Education 302 world community had recognized mass killings in gas chambers. All the appeasement policies of the League of the existence of human rights and resources of the German government Nations toward Italian expansionism fundamental freedoms transcending the were devoted to identifying Jewish and German violations of the Treaty of laws of sovereign states.”5 people, rounding them up, shipping Versailles, Japan launched a new war them through organized and carefully against China and captured Nanking The Holocaust scheduled mass transportation to the (also referred to as Nanjing), the Chi- The German Nazi government’s treat- camps. Those who were not immedi- nese capital city of that time. Beginning ment of Jewish people is the most ately executed were forced into harsh in December of 1937 and continuing to documented and analyzed example labor, seven days a week, with meager February of 1938, the Japanese army of humans rights violations during the food and shelter accommodations. In proceeded to loot, rape, and kill civil- World War II era. Through the Holo- addition to Jews, many other groups ians in Nanking. In the span of two short caust, the Nazis attempted to system- including Poles, Gypsies, Russian pris- months, 300,000 Chinese civilians atically annihilate all Jewish people oners of war, Jehovah’s Witnesses, ho- were killed and somewhere between in Europe. The rise to power of Hit- mosexuals, Afro-Germans, Ukrainians, 20,000 and 80,000 women were raped ler and the Nazi party was fueled by Belorussians, political dissidents, and by the Japanese army.7 Today, the Nan- extreme nationalism and racist hatred. handicapped people experienced mass jing Holocaust Memorial stands as a At a time when Germany was in a state killings and numerous human rights memory to the thousands of victims of of turmoil and economic depression, violations under the Nazi regime. the massacre. For more detailed infor- Hitler used his extraordinary public mation on this museum and the Nanjing speaking skills and anti-Semitic pro- The Nanking Massacre Massacre, readers should visit the web- paganda to convince Germans that Japan’s quick rise as a world power in site http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/ Jews were the cause of Germany’s re- the Far East during the Imperial era of NanjingMassacre/NM.html. cent decline. the late 1800s and early 1900s is fairly After his appointment as chancellor well documented in textbooks. During U.S. Disregard for Human Rights in 1933, Hitler implemented anti- this time, Japan industrialized and during the WWII Era Semitic legislation over the next several became an expansionist power in Asia Although the Holocaust and the years as the start of policies that would whose relationships with rival nations Nanking massacres were extraordinary eventually lead to the systematic killing began to deteriorate drastically. The atrocities committed by states that were of over six million Jewish people. The Nanking Massacre is one of the most enemies of the United States in World Nuremberg Laws of 1935 deprived infamous events in Japanese history. War II, it would be wrong to teach German Jews of citizenship, and later However, this particular event is rarely, about the war as if the only violations of measures in the 1930s required Jews if ever, mentioned in social studies human rights were committed by foreign to carry special IDs, forbade them to textbooks. Yali Zhao examined eight powers. A human rights unit focusing own retail stores, and banned them American and world history textbooks on World War II should also include from German public schools and commonly used in middle and high the internment of Japanese Americans universities. On November 9-10, 1938, school social studies classrooms and during the war, which has traditionally the violence of Kristallnacht resulted in found that “there was no mention of any received little coverage in the social the destruction of synagogues, looting of the major war crimes committed by studies curriculum and textbooks. of Jewish shops, and the killing of about Japanese troops.”6 Since many people Following the Japanese attack on Pearl 1,000 Jews. may not be fully aware of the Nanking Harbor in December of 1941, the After the start of World War II, the atrocities, it is important for teachers to United States took the unprecedented persecution of Jews expanded into a include them in their classes on World action of forcibly relocating any person policy of extermination both of Jews in War II and human rights education. of “Japanese ethnicity, regardless Germany and of Jewish communities in Following the First World War, Ja- of citizenship or age, from a vast the large areas of Europe that fell under pan’s industry and trade began to grow military district encompassing most Nazi German control. Nazi concentra- tremendously. Being a relatively small of California, Oregon, Washington, tion camps, which had begun as forced country with limited natural resources, and part of Arizona.”8 The question labor camps for “undesirables,” became Japan started to explore the possibility for most students and researchers to centers of mass extermination. Concen- of expanding into China, specifically address with this topic is: how could a tration camps, like the infamous Aus- the Northern region of Manchuria, in democratic government allow this to chwitz (the largest of the death camps), order to exploit the vast resources. In happen? were the scene of horrifying tragedies 1931–32, Japan invaded and occupied Japanese immigrants and citizens in including human experimentation and Manchuria. In 1937, encouraged by the the United States had been facing racism

November/December 2012 303 and discrimination for many years prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor and TEACHING ACTIVITY World War II. The first documented This activity is specifically designed to analyze the violation of human rights by the evidence of prejudice against Japanese German, United States, and Japanese national governments during the World War II era. Americans can be traced back to 1893 Students will have the opportunity to explore world history content while examining in San Francisco where the Board of how issues such as racism, prejudice, discrimination, and abuse of power led to an Education forced Japanese students unprecedented explosion of human rights violations. The following activity is a sample to attend the segregated Chinese lesson that teachers could use to discuss human rights violations during the World War schools. Though later rescinded, this II era. While there are certainly many ways to teach these important topics, this activity early attempt to discriminate against allows students an opportunity to engage with the material. Japanese Americans clearly indicates 1. Distribute copies of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (available online at www.udhr.org/index.htm) for the students to peruse throughout the course the racial intolerance of American of this lesson. Have students share and discuss their thoughts. Which articles society during the late nineteenth are the most important? Are there any unnecessary articles? What kind of century. The twentieth century did not foreshadowing do these articles provide into the events being explored during bring much improvement in attitudes the World War II era? towards Japanese Americans. In 1907, the Gentlemen’s Agreement between 2. After a lively discussion about the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, assign the United States and Japan was signed each group in the class one of the following topics: the Holocaust, the Nanking by President Theodore Roosevelt in the Massacre, or the internment of Japanese Americans. Inform each group that hope of limiting Japanese immigration they will be an international investigative committee responsible for gathering into the United States. This immigration sound evidence of human rights violations and war crimes. The committee would eventually be completely will be responsible for building a case to prosecute those responsible, and will eliminated by the National Origins Act recommend punishment and reparations for the groups involved. Remind students that legal cases require detailed information indicating exactly what of 1924.9 In addition, the Alien Land happened, when it occurred, as well as identifying the perpetrators and victims. Law of 1920 legally prevented Japanese The following is a list of brief questions that could be used to guide students immigrants from purchasing land in during their research and case development. the states of Washington, Oregon, and California. Japan’s entry into World • What atrocities or human rights violations occurred during this event? War II only increased discrimination • What group or groups of people were targets? faced by Japanese Americans and Japanese nationals living in the United • What role did the national government play in allowing the violations to States during the early 1940s. In July of occur? 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt • Identify the issues that contributed to the human rights violations. (racism, placed a freeze on all Japanese assets prejudice, abuse of power, etc...) Give evidence to support each. in the United States. Also, in August • How did citizens of each society react to these violations? 1941, Congressman John Dingell from • Which articles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (which was Michigan wrote a letter to the president developed after these events took place) were violated by each event? recommending that he imprison 10,000 • Who should be held accountable for these violations, and to what extent? Japanese and Japanese Americans who were living in Hawaii to encourage • What should be done, if anything, to compensate the victims and their good behavior on the part of Japan. families? It is easy to downplay the importance of Japanese internment when the Nazis 3. After developing their cases, each group will present their findings to a panel were attempting to annihilate an entire (the other students in the class) in order to convince the United Nations to population in Europe. While there bring the perpetrators to justice. Remind students that this reflection is more is little comparison in the severity than a regurgitation of facts heard during the presentation. Encourage students to think critically about how their perceptions or feelings on human rights has of crimes endured by victims of the developed throughout the course of this project and what role that is playing in Holocaust and Japanese internment, their vote. The final piece of their reflection needs to discuss how the students it is feasible to analyze similarities will conceptualize human rights in the context of their present day lives: How in human rights violations allowed important are human rights issues in your lives today? What can you do to help by each government and society. promote the cause of human rights and social justice as the twentyfirst century Specifically, examining how and why unfolds? the Japanese internment occurred

Social Education 304 will provide students with valuable of indifference towards human rights violations of human rights can take place. insights into the dangers of racism, during times of national duress. Mahatma Gandhi, a legendary figure prejudice, and abuse of power during in the human rights movement, once times when our national security is Conclusion said, “All humanity is one undivided threatened. Paul Kennedy discusses Human rights education in social and indivisible family, and each one of this analysis of history in The Rise studies classrooms should not be us is responsible for the misdeeds of all and Fall of the Great Powers, when he considered as an option but rather as the others. I cannot detach myself from states, “You only properly understand a responsibility embraced by teachers. the wickedest soul.” (UHRC Webpage, your own country when you remove Addressing important human rights www.unitedhumanrights.org). Gandhi’s the ethnocentric spectacles, examine violations in the classroom is a key inspiring words remind us all that being the history of other countries, and put component to helping students become a responsible person means looking out your own nation within the context of better citizens. By openly discussing and for the best interest of others and not just global developments.”10 This laesson exploring these issues in the historical ourselves. is particularly important following the context of world history, students can terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. more easily conceptualize and identify Notes While fear for the safety of our nation current human rights violations. While 1. Iris Chang, The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II (New York: Basic Books, is certainly justified after attacks like identifying social problems is important, 1997), 3. 9/11 and Pearl Harbor, it is important teachers need to remind students that 2. R. Smith and C. McIntosh, “Freedom of Religion: The Evolution of a Human Right,” Ko’aga Rone’eta Series for citizens in a democratic society merely recognizing injustice is not 1 (1998). Accessible at www.derechos.org/koaga/i/ not to use that fear as justification for enough. As the historical events of the smithr.html. violating the human rights of certain Holocaust, Nanking Massacre, and 3. Peter D. Hart Research Associates, Final Adult Survey Data, Nov. 8, 1997, www1.umn.edu/humanrts/ groups. As the events of the Japanese Japanese American internment indicate, edumat/adultsur.htm. internment show, even people living citizens must be willing to stand up for 4. State of California, Model Curriculum for Human in a democratic society can be guilty the human rights of others, or shameful Rights and Genocide (Sacramento, Calif.: California State Department of Education, 1987), 1. 5. W. Laqueur and B. Rubin, The Human Rights Reader (New York: Meridien, 1979), 176. 6. Y. Zhao and J. Hoge, “Countering Textbook Distortion: War Atrocities in Asia, 1937-1945,” Social Education 70, no. 7 (2006), 427. 7. Nanking War Crimes Tribunal (1947). Nanking Atrocities Homepage, www.geocities.com/nanking atrocities/Table/table.htm. OH FREEDOM! 8. K. Miksch and D. Ghere, “Teaching Japanese- Teaching African American Civil Rights through American Art at the Smithsonian American Incarceration,” The History Teacher 37, no. 2 (2004), 211-227 at 212. 9. Miksch and Ghere, op. cit. LIVE! Free Online Conference 10. P. Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 Wednesday, February 6, 2013 to 2000 (New York: Random House, 1988), 1. 11. United Human Rights Council, www.unitedhuman africanamericanart.si.edu/conference rights.org

Explore Civil Rights and Smithsonian collections with curators, experts, Stewart Waters is assistant professor of Social and educators in live presen ta tions, Science Education at the University of Tennessee, demon strations, and moderated Knoxville. He can be contacted at [email protected]. forums in a free online conference on February 6, 2013. Join any of the live William B. Russell III is associate professor of sessions and come back any time to Social Science Education at the University of Central view the archived conference. Florida in Orlando. He can be contacted at Russell@ ucf.edu.

Smithsonian National MuseumSmithsonian of African American National MuseumHistory and of CultureAfrican American Allan Rohan Crite, School’s Out (detail), Leonard Freed, Washington, D.C., USA History and Culture 1936. Smithsonian American Art (March on Washington, 8-28-1963), Museum, Transfer from the Museum 1963. © Leonard Freed/Magnum, Smithsonian American Art Museum of Modern Art Collection of National Museum of African American History and Culture, TheOh Freedom! Online Conference Gift of Brigitte Freed in memory of is supported by funds from the Leonard Freed Smithsonian Women’s Committee.

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