A FACING HISTORY AND OURSELVES PUBLICATION CRIMES OF WAR A FACING HISTORY AND OURSELVES PUBLICATION Facing History and Ourselves is an international educational and professional development organization whose mission is to engage students of diverse backgrounds in an examination of racism, prejudice, and antisemitism in order to promote the development of a more humane and informed citizenry. By studying the historical development of the Holocaust and other examples of genocide, students make the essential connection between history and the moral choices they con- front in their own lives. For more information about Facing History and Ourselves, please visit our website at http:// www.facinghistory.org. Copyright © 2014 by Facing History and Ourselves National Foundation, Inc. All rights reserved. Facing History and Ourselves® is a trademark registered in the US Patent & Trademark Office. ISBN-13: 978-1-940457-05-5 ISBN-10: 1-940457-05-X ABOUT FACING HISTORY AND OURSELVES Facing History and Ourselves is a global nonprofit organization founded in 1976 by educators who wanted to develop a more effective and rewarding way to engage students. We’re guided by the belief that the lifeblood of democracy is the ability of every rising generation to be active, responsible decision makers who’ve learned to value compassion as much as reason. By integrating the study of history and literature with ethical decision mak- ing, innovative teaching strategies, and extraordinary resources, professional development opportunities, and coaching, our program enables second- ary school teachers to promote students’ historical understanding, critical thinking, and social and emotional learning, and to facilitate transformative dialogue in their classrooms. From the failure of democracy in Germany and the events leading to the Holocaust, to struggles for civil rights from the United States to South Africa, we trust students to wrestle with complex moments in human his- tory, and work to help them understand the range of human behavior. We encourage students to reflect on the choices they confront in their own lives, and to consider how they can make a difference today. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Primary Writer: Fran Sterling The publication of The Nanjing Atrocities: Crimes of War has been an extraordinarily collaborative effort within Facing History and Ourselves. We extend our deepest gratitude to all who contributed to the development of this resource. In particular we would like to thank Anla Cheng, Chair of the Facing History and Ourselves China Project, Cecilia Chan, Michelle Koo, Hui Li, Alice Mong, Tracy Palandjian, Florence Sloan, Michael Tse, Charlene Wang, Shirley Wang, members of the China Project, and China Overseas Holdings Limited for their vision, generous support and ongoing commitment to share the history of the Nanjing Atrocities in classrooms around the world. While writing this resource, Facing History and Ourselves greatly benefit- ed from the historical scholarship, guidance, and friendship of Joshua A. Fogel, Canada Research Chair and Professor of Chinese History. We would also like to thank Professor Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi of York University in Toronto, Professor Rana Mitter of Oxford University and Fan Ho of Nanjing University for their editorial support and scholarly contributions. We want to extend our gratitude to former Nuremberg prosecutor Ben Ferencz for his long time friendship and for his personal and insightful foreword to this resource. Thank you to author Gish Jen for her honest conversations on the role of culture and identity and to Chief Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court Luis Moreno Ocampo who greatly in- formed our understanding of the Tokyo Trials and their legacy today. Special thanks are extended to many scholars who generously contributed their expertise throughout the writing of this resource. These include Director Zhu Chengshan of the Nanjing Massacre Memorial Museum, Steven Ting and Professor Liu Haiping, Chair of the Dept. of Foreign Studies at Nanjing University, Professor Su, Shanghai Normal University, Professor Richard Wasserstrom, University of California, Davis, Professor Frank Dikköter, University of Hong Kong, Professor Zhang, Nanjing University, Professor Zhang Lianhong, Nanjing Normal University and Professor Margaret Wells, University of Toronto. This resource would not have been lifted off the ground without the many contributions of several research interns who provided invaluable support to the publication: Shira Bartov, who greatly enhanced the section on the Nanjing Safety Zone, and Jason Kingdon and Jackson Tse, who researched and located essential documents during the early stages of this project. Special thanks go to Judy Katz and Grant Rhodes, John Zeljo from Teaching East Asia at the University of Colorado, and Karen Jungblut from the Shoah Visual History Foundation for their valuable insights, scholarship and con- tributions to the final resource book. Lastly, Facing History and Ourselves would like to acknowledge and express its gratitude to the tremendous effort of the staff who dedicat- ed their time and expertise in order to support the research, writing, and publication of this text. First, to Adam Strom, who read every word of the book many times and was a genuine partner from the very beginning of the book’s inception to its end. To the editorial team of Dimitry Anselme, Juan Castellanos, Karen Murphy, Marty Sleeper, Marc Skvirsky, and Margot Stern Strom: the book greatly benefited from your constructive criticism, contributions, and guidance along the way. A great deal of gratitude is ex- tended to Pam Haas, Erin Lee, Ellen Lempereur-Greaves, Kathleen Shugrue, and Brooke Harvey for their project leadership and organization of the overall project. Catherine O’Keefe, Samantha Landry, Ariel Perry, and our various editorial and design consultants graciously turned the page into a visually engaging resource for print and digital formats. Erin Kernen ensured that all licensing was intact. Tracy O’Brien provided ongoing research and publication support throughout the entire length of the project. Our com- munications team, led by Anne Burt, spread the word about the importance of this publication. We would also like to acknowledge the work of Wilkie Cook, Alexia Prichard, and Rob Tokanel as they developed the website and companion videos to accompany the book. FOREWORD BY BENJAMIN B. FERENCZ 1 INTRODUCTION 4 CHAPTER 1: IDENTITY, HISTORY, AND CULTURE 13 Introduction 14 Reading 1 Connecting to Our Past 16 Reading 2 To Carry History 18 Reading 3 Culture and Identity: East and West 20 Reading 4 Women, Tradition, and Social Custom 23 Reading 5 Honor 26 Reading 6 Learning About Difference 30 Reading 7 Coming of Age during War 34 CHAPTER 2: EMERGING NATIONS: 1868–1911 37 Introduction 38 Reading 1 Meiji Period in Japan 43 Reading 2 Shinto and Japanese Nationalism 49 Reading 3 Education and Nation Building in Japan 51 Reading 4 Seeds of Unrest: The Taiping Movement 55 Reading 5 Self-Strengthening Movement in China 59 Reading 6 Reforms 60 Reading 7 Rebels: The Boxer Rebellion 62 Reading 8 The Birth of the First Chinese Republic 65 Reading 9 An End of Two Millennia 67 Primary Sources: 72 (1) The Treaty of Nanking (summary); (2) The Boxer Protocol (summary); (3) Pamphlet, The Revolutionary Army (1903) (excerpt); (4) Newspaper Article Reporting on the Proclamation of the First Chinese Republic; (5) Edict of Abdication; (6) The Articles of Favorable Treatment [of the Great Qing Emperor After His Abdication] Map: Spheres of Influence (1850–1914) 81 CHAPTER 3: PRELUDE TO WAR: 1911–1931 83 Introduction 84 Reading 1 Expressions of Imperialism 90 Reading 2 Competition for the Region: The Russo-Japanese War 94 Reading 3 New Ways of Thinking: Racial Purity 96 Reading 4 Taisho Democracy in Japan: 1912–1926 98 Reading 5 Strengthening the Japanese Nation 102 Reading 6 First Decades of the Chinese Republic: 1911–1931 105 Reading 7 Internal Strife in China 108 Reading 8 Exclusion and Humiliation 111 Reading 9 Restoring the Status of Asia 115 Reading 10 Japan’s Expansion into Manchuria 118 Reading 11 Preparing for War: Alliances with Germany 122 Reading 12 Political Conflicts within China 126 Reading 13 The Road to War 127 Primary Sources: 132 (1) Treaty of Shimonoseki/Treaty of Maguan (excerpt); (2) National Anthem Kimagayo—Japan’s National Anthem; (3) Newspaper Article “Rich Land is Goal for Japanese Army”; (4) Excerpts of the Covenant of the League of Nations; (5) A Case for Japanese Expansion (close reading) Map Japanese Empire Building (1870–1942) 143 CHAPTER 4: THE NANJING ATROCITIES 145 Introduction 146 Reading 1 The Coming of War and Terror to Nanjing 152 Reading 2 December 13, 1937 154 Reading 3 A Failure of Leadership 158 Reading 4 Frontline Headlines 160 Reading 5 Wartime Stories 165 Reading 6 Voices of Soldiers 167 Reading 7 “I Will Never Forget”: Voices of Survivors 172 Reading 8 Hell on Earth: George Fitch 179 Reading 9 Politics and the Atrocities 183 Reading 10 Women in War 186 Reading 11 The Conduct of Soldiers 189 Reading 12 Prisoners of War in Nanjing 191 Reading 13 Living Under the Occupation 196 Reading 14 Chinese Resistance 200 Primary Sources: 204 (1) Song, “Eight Hundred Heroes”; (2) Secondary Source from Scholar—Dissenting Opinion of Radhabinod Pal (close reading); (3) Photograph, “100-Man Killing Contest”; (4) Eye- Witness Tells of Horror Seen in the Fall of Nanjing CHAPTER 5: RESCUE AND RESISTANCE IN NANJING 211 Introduction 213 Map Nanjing and its Safety Zone (1937–1939)