SIMPLIFICATION AND OCTAVATION IN DOUBLE BASS PERFORMANCE: AN OVERVIEW OF
HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY PRACTICES
Wen-Ling Shih
Dissertation Prepared for the Degree
DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS
UNIVERSITY OF NORTH TEXAS
May 2017
APPROVED:
Jeff Bradetich, Major Professor Paul Leenhouts, Minor Professor Daphne Gerling, Committee Member John Holt, Chair of the Division of Instrumental Studies Benjamin Brand, Director of Graduate Studies in the College of Music John W. Richmond, Dean of the College of Music Victor Prybutok, Vice Provost of the Toulouse Graduate School
Shih, Wen-Ling. Simplification and Octavation in Double Bass Performance: An Overview
of Historical and Contemporary Practices. Doctor of Musical Arts (Performance), May 2017, 47 pp., 45 figures, bibliography, 36 titles.
Two important performance practices in the modern orchestral performance are discussed in this document: simplification and octavation. Due to the differing opinions and common practices which bass players have around these two performance practices, simplification and octavation have become two of the most complex issues faced by orchestral sections. The first part of the document will provide a brief history of simplification and octavation. The second part of the document will offer recommendation for double bass orchestral practice in the 21st century and examine key works of the bass repertoire in which simplification and octavation occur. The research and practice of leading pedagogues and major orchestral players and the solutions they have developed to reduce the discrepancy inherent within section playing will be discussed. This document will propose several empirical solutions to major excerpts in the bass repertoire, demonstrating how it is to achieve the most uniformed playing, and offer applicable and suggestive guidelines for contemporary orchestral double bass performers.
Copyright 2017 by Wen-Ling Shih
ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the many people who helped me through this project. First, I must thank my mentors, Professor Bradetich and Professor O’Brien. Without their guidance, this project will never be written. I must also thank my committee members,
Professor Leenhouts and Dr. Gerling, for their countless hours of reading, advicing and editing.
Finally, I must also thank my parents and my husband, Jia-Cheng Lin, for their unending supports and encouragement. Without them, I would never be able to complete this project.
iii TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iii
LIST OF FIGURES ...... viii
CHAPTER 1. MODERN ORCHESTRAL PRACTICE FOR THE DOUBLE BASS ...... 1
1.1 Introduction ...... 1
1.2 Purpose ...... 1
1.3 Current State of Practice ...... 2
CHAPTER 2. THE INSTRUMENT, SIMPLIFICATION AND OCTAVATION ...... 3
2.1 History of the Instrument and Tuning ...... 3
2.1.1 Tuning System and Numbers of Strings ...... 3
2.1.2 The Five-String Bass and Mechanical Extension ...... 4
2.2 History of Simplification ...... 5
2.2.1 Simplification Due to the Concern for Clarity in the Bass Line ...... 6
2.2.2 Simplification Due to the Inadequate Ability of the Performer ...... 7
2.2.3 Simplification Due to the Limitation of Instrument Range ...... 7
2.2.4 Application ...... 7
2.3 History of Octavation ...... 8
2.3.1 Problem: Limitation of Instrument Range ...... 8
2.3.2 Modern Solutions for the Limitations of Instrument Range ...... 8
iv 2.4 The Common Problems inherent in the Application of Simplification and
Octavation in Modern Orchestral Performance ...... 9
CHAPTER 3. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DOUBLE BASS ORCHESTRAL PRACTICE IN THE 21ST
CENTURY ...... 10
3.1 Basic Rules for Section Constitution ...... 10
3.2 Guidelines for Simplification ...... 10
3.3 Guidelines for Octavation ...... 11
3.4 Guidelines for Retrieving the Distorted Bass Line, De-Octavation ...... 11
3.5 Developing Extension Technique ...... 12
CHAPTER 4. SELECTED ORCHESTRAL EXCERPTS FROM THE BAROQUE PERIOD APPLYING
SIMPLIFICATION AND OCTAVATION ...... 13
4.1 Background ...... 13
4.2 Problems ...... 14
4.3 Results ...... 14
4.4 Modern Playing ...... 15
4.5 Selected Orchestral Excerpts ...... 16
4.5.1 Vivaldi, The Four Seasons, Concerto No. 2 in G minor, Op. 8, RV
315,“Summer” (1723) ...... 16
4.5.2 J.S.Bach Orchestral Suite 2 in B minor, BWV 1067 (1738-1739) ...... 19
v CHAPTER 5. SELECTED ORCHESTRAL EXCERPTS FROM THE CLASSICAL PERIOD APPLYING
SIMPLIFICATION AND OCTAVATION ...... 21
5.1 Background ...... 21
5.2 Problems ...... 21
5.3 Results ...... 22
5.4 Modern Playing ...... 22
5.5 Selected Orchestral Excerpts ...... 23
5.5.1 Mozart Symphony No.35 in D major, K.385 ...... 23
5.5.2 Mozart Symphony No. 39 in E-flat Major, K.543 ...... 25
5.5.3 Beethoven Symphony No. 9 in D minor, Op.125, 1st movement ...... 28
CHAPTER 6. SELECTED ORCHESTRAL EXCERPTS FROM THE ROMANTIC PERIOD APPLYING
OCTAVATION ...... 31
6.1 Background ...... 31
6.2 Problems ...... 31
6.3 Results ...... 32
6.4 Modern Solutions ...... 33
6.5 Selected Orchestral Excerpts ...... 33
6.5.1 Brahms Symphony No. 2 in D Major, Op.73 ...... 33
6.5.2 Strauss Also Sprach Zarathustra, Op.30 ...... 36
6.5.3 Shostakovich Symphony No. 5 in D minor, Op. 47 ...... 40
6.6 Conclusion ...... 43
vi BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 44
vii LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Quantz’s illustration of his principles ...... 15
Figure 2. Vivaldi, The Four Seasons, “Summer,” Allegro non molto, measure 160-174 ...... 16
Figure 3. Vivaldi, The Four Seasons, “Summer,” Allegro non molto, measure 160-169,
rearranged version ...... 17
Figure 4. Vivaldi, The Four Seasons, “Summer,” Allegro non molto, measure 170-174,
rearranged version suggested by Bradetich ...... 17
Figure 5. Vivaldi, The Four Seasons, “Summer,” Presto, measure 55-59 ...... 18
Figure 6. Vivaldi, The Four Seasons, “Summer,” Presto, measure 55-59, suggested version ...... 18
Figure 7. Bach, Orchestral Suite No. 2, Badinerie measure 20-33 ...... 19
Figure 8. Octavation only on the D, Bach, Orchestral Suite No. 2, Badinerie, measure 29 ...... 20
Figure 9. Rearranged Version, Badinerie, measure 20-33, suggested by Bradetich and O’Brien 20
Figure 10. Mozart Symphony No. 35, movement IV, measure 9-40 ...... 23
Figure 11. Motive of this excerpt, Mozart Symphony No. 35, movement IV, measure 9-40 ...... 24
Figure 12. Mozart Symphony No. 35, movement IV, measure 9-40, with simplification marked 24
Figure 13. Mozart Symphony No. 35, movement IV, measure 26-27, rearranged version ...... 24
Figure 14. Symphony No. 39, movement I, introduction ...... 25
Figure 15. Mozart Symphony No.39, movement I, measure 1-2 ...... 26
Figure 16. Mozart Symphony No.39, movement I, measure 1-2, octavation applied ...... 26
Figure 17. Mozart Symphony No.39, movement II, measure105-108 ...... 26
Figure 18. Mozart Symphony No.39, movement II, measure 105-108, octavation applied ...... 27
Figure 19. Mozart Symphony No.39, movement IV, measure 247-264 ...... 27
viii Figure 20. Mozart Symphony No.39, movement IV, measure 241-250, suggested version ...... 27
Figure 21. Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, movement I, letter S ...... 29
Figure 22. Common octave-transposition practice for double bass ...... 30
Figure 23. Rearrangement suggested by Sankey ...... 30
Figure 24. Brahms Second Symphony, movement I, measure 54-58 ...... 35
Figure 25. Brahms Second Symphony, movement I, measure 244-250 ...... 35
Figure 26. Brahms Second Symphony, movement II, measure 82-86 ...... 35
Figure 27. Brahms Second Symphony, movement I, measure 309-314 ...... 35
Figure 28. Strauss Also Sprach Zarathustra, one measure before Number 10 to sixteen measures
after Number 10 ...... 37
Figure 29. Friedrich Warnecke, tripartite basses ...... 37
Figure 30. Strauss Also Sprach Zarathustra, beginning of bass quartet ...... 38
Figure 31. Strauss Also Sprach Zarathustra, four measures before Number 3 ...... 38
Figure 32. Strauss Also Sprach Zarathustra, four measures before Number 3, with musical
direction remark ...... 38
Figure 33. Strauss Also Sprach Zarathustra, four measures before Number 3, rumbling effect
suggested version ...... 39
Figure 34. Strauss Also Sprach Zarathustra, eleven measures before Number 4 ...... 39
Figure 35. Strauss Also Sprach Zarathustra, eleven measures before Number 4, rearranged
version ...... 39
Figure 36. Strauss Also Sprach Zarathustra, sixteen measures before Number 4 ...... 40
ix Figure 37. Strauss Also Sprach Zarathustra, sixteen measures before Number 4, suggested
version 1 ...... 40
Figure 38. Strauss Zarathustra sixteen measures before Number 4, suggested version 2 ...... 40
Figure 39. Shostakovich Symphony No. 5, two measures after Number 18 ...... 40
Figure 40. Shostakovich Symphony No. 5, two measures after Number 18, with a large jump in
the end ...... 41
Figure 41. Shostakovich Symphony No. 5, two measures after Number 18, octavating the last
three notes for a bass secion using only 4-string basses ...... 41
Figure 42. Shostakovich Symphony No. 5, six measures after Number 22 ...... 41
Figure 43. Shostakovich Symphony No. 5, six measures after Number 22, octavation only
applied on the notes below the E, resulting in big jumps ...... 41
Figure 44. Shostakovich Symphony No. 5, six measures after Number 22, suggested version by
O’Brien ...... 42
Figure 45. Shostakovich Symphony No. 5, six measures after Number 22, octavation applied for
the entire phrase ...... 42
x CHAPTER 1
MODERN ORCHESTRAL PRACTICE FOR THE DOUBLE BASS
1.1 Introduction
The standardization of the double bass in terms of its size, shape, and tuning has been in flux for centuries. The variety of sizes and tunings of the instrument have created several problems and attendant solutions to playing in large ensembles. This gradual process of standardization has had a huge impact on the instrument's orchestral repertoire and how it is interpreted and performed.
Specifically, as orchestral writing for the double bass evolved, two practices developed: that of simplifying complex parts to make them more playable, and that of changing octaves to accommodate basses tuned in ways that did not reach the lowest notes required by the composers. These are known respectively as simplification and octavation.
1.2 Purpose
In this dissertation, I will provide a brief history of the practices of simplification and octavation, and I will examine key works of the bass repertoire in which they occur. For each work, I will discuss the research, the practice of leading pedagogues and major orchestral players, and the solutions they have developed to reduce the discrepancy inherent within section playing. This is crucial because bass players have differing opinions and have created common practices around simplification and octavation, making them two of the most complex issues faced by orchestral sections.
1 1.3 Current State of Practice
Historically, very little written documentation exists to notate this body of knowledge of simplification and octavation, which is passed by players to their sections, and by teachers to their students. This thesis will offer several practical solutions to major excerpts in the bass repertoire, demonstrating how it is possible to achieve the most uniform playing possible, and offer applicable guidelines for contemporary orchestral double bass performers.
2 CHAPTER 2
THE INSTRUMENT, SIMPLIFICATION AND OCTAVATION
The second chapter will focus on the history of the double bass and trace the causes and general application of simplification and octavation. We will discuss the problems inherent in that application, and how these issues are applied to the modern double bass instrument with and without its companion C-extension and 5-string bass.
2.1 History of the Instrument and Tuning
2.1.1 Tuning System and Numbers of Strings
The double bass experienced a slower evolution compared to the standardization of other instruments in the violin family. Various tuning systems and different numbers of strings were in use simultaneously from the late 1650s to the mid-1800s, before the E-A-d-g became the standard tuning system for the instrument in the mid-19th century.1
The predecessor of the double bass, the baroque violone, has six strings tuned in a combination of 3rds and 4ths. The famous Viennese tuning, commonly used in the Classical period, has five strings tuned F-A-d-f#-a. The different national tunings that existed in the early
19th century indicate the various strings and tunings used from country to country.2 For example, the Italians preferred three-string basses, with the brighter A-d-g tuning, and the
Germans were in favor of the lower pitch E-A-d-g.
All these variations, in turn, affected the double bass register for which composers wrote in orchestral works. For the works written before the mid-19th century, the orchestral
1 Paul Brun, A New History of the Double Bass (Villeneuve: Paul Brun Productions, 2000), 256. 2 Ibid., 126.
3 bass part could be intended for the 3-string bass, the 4-string bass or the 5-string or 6-string violone, with their various tunings. For the works written after that period, due to the increasing demand for richer acoustics, composers often extended the bass register down to low C, an octave lower than the lowest note of the cello. In either case, modern bassists often need to play notes written lower than the standard E-A-d-g tuning allows.
The lack of uniformity in tuning and stringing systems created a delay in the technical advancement of the bass. It hindered a player’s execution of the bass. Wenzeslas Hause complained that "bassists in mid-19th century rarely went to the trouble of learning their instrument's technique thoroughly and simply relied on their musical judgment to guide their playing."3 He wrote an instruction book specifically for the 4-string bass tuned in 4ths, E-A-d-g, which at the time was the “German” system of tuning.4 Hause’s publication was instrumental in bringing the German tuning system to Prague, and then to the wider world, which eventually led it to become “standard” in European orchestral playing by the mid-19th century. During this period, the standard of playing was generally low. Due to a lack of training, players often needed to alter or simplify their parts according to their instruments and ability. The necessity of reassessing playing standards was inevitable as repertoires became ever more complex.
2.1.2 The Five-String Bass and Mechanical Extension
Considerable changes and improvements in instruments, such as the making of strings and bows, have occurred over the past 350 years. The advancement in string development played a crucial role in the invention of the 5-string bass and the 4-string bass with a
3 Ibid., 89. Hause was the first bass professor at the Prague Conservatory. His instruction book was published in three parts in 1809. 4 Ibid.,126-127.
4 mechanical extension. Only after low-pitched strings could be produced at the same length as higher strings did the 5-string bass become a reality. Only after the lowest strings could be lengthened with a desirable result was the 4-string bass with an extension invented.5 Both newly invented setups in the late 19th century enabled the register of the double bass to reach the low C.
Although these developments have greatly helped elevate the level of playing technique and execution of the notes, they cannot completely resolve the register and tuning problems.
Simplification and octavation are still prevalent and necessary. The question of how to properly apply them is still hotly debated.
2.2 History of Simplification
Reasons for simplification traditionally fall into three categories: simplification due to the concern for clarity in the bass line, simplification due to the inadequate ability of a performer, and simplification due to limitations of the instrument’s range.
The simplification of double bass parts is a double-edged dilemma. Scholars and composers from different time periods have exhibited differing opinions. Advocates for simplification claim its legitimacy based on Quantz's and Corrette's treatises.6 The detail of this argument will be discussed in Chapter IV.
Berlioz's criticism of simplification greatly influenced double bass part-writing. He expressed his objection clearly on this subject in his book Treatise on Instrumentation. 7 The
5 Ibid.,161. 6 Jerry Fuller, "Back to Basics- An Approach to Early Music," The Double Bass and Violone Internet Archive,
5 practice of simplification was to blame for being a chronic disease for the double bass,8 altering the composer's original ideas and undermining both the development of double bass technique and the complexity of orchestral writing for the instrument. Regarding this subject, Berlioz said,
"composers should therefore take care to ask double bass players no more than is practicable.
Only in this way can they be sure of an accurate execution; and only this will do away with the old system of simplification by the double bass players."9 He believed that the double bass part needed to be written separately, not just doubling the cello, and therefore the composer should only write notes that could be technically played by the instrument and performers of his time. Berlioz's thoughts had a strong impact on his fellow composers.
2.2.1 Simplification Due to the Concern for Clarity in the Bass Line
Simplification was a common orchestral practice in the eighteenth century. In his
Versuch einer Anweisung die Flöte traversiere zu spielen, Quantz pointed out that clarity was more important than a large sound in double bass playing and encouraged the use of simplification to emphasize both harmony and rhythm.10 Similarly, the double bass treatise by
Michel Corrette advised bass players to outline the underlying harmony and rhythm for efficiency and effectiveness.11
8 Hugh McDonald, Berlioz's Orchestration Treatise: A Translation and Commentary (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 58-59. 9 Berlioz and Strauss, op. cit.,112. 10 Johann Joachim Quantz, Versuch einer Anweisung die Flöte traversiere zu spielen, (Berlin, 1752). Edward R. Reilly, trans. On playing the Flute. (New York: Schirmer Books, 1985), 246. In Versuch einer Anweisung die Flöte traversiere zu spielen, Quantz does not limit his essay only to the flute. This essay provides substantial commentary on music notation, ornamentation, and how the various instruments should be played in this era, including comments on orchestras of his time. 11 Michel Corrette, Méthode pour apprendre à jouer de la contre-basse à 3, à 4, et à 5 cordes, de la quinte ou alto et de la viole d’Orphée, (Paris, 1773). Heather Miller Lardin, "Michel Corrette's Méthodes pour apprendre à jouer de la Contrebasse à 3. à 4. et à 5. cordes, de la Quinte ou Alto et de la Viole d'Orphée: A Translation with Commentary," (DMA diss., Cornell University, 2006), 35-69.
6 2.2.2 Simplification Due to the Inadequate Ability of the Performer
By the 19th century, as symphony orchestras continued to expand in size and scope, composers and conductors started looking for a fuller and heavier orchestral sound. Projection and intelligibility of the bass line became crucial, and simplification from the old school was no longer tolerated. However, the development of the bass was far behind other orchestral instruments. The size and shape of the double bass were of themselves bulky and sometimes difficult for a seated musician to manage in performance. Moreover, the part for the bass line was shared by cello and bass. It was often too complicated for the instrument at the time to handle. It was assumed that players would be simplifying the part themselves. The common practice provided an excuse for players not to improve their skills and the competent player became hard to find.
2.2.3 Simplification Due to the Limitation of Instrument Range
Before Beethoven’s time, the bass line played by the cello was most often doubled by the bass one octave lower. The very lowest notes in the part were often out of the bass’s range, with the lowest string in use ranging from G to E. With an increasing demand of the lower and heavier sound in the orchestra, the low C range became common in the writing of the romantic period. However, before the 5-string instrument or the 4-string instrument with C-extension was invented, players had no choice but to simplify or octavate the part.
2.2.4 Application
The players apply simplification using their own judgment. There is no specific rule.
Therefore, the section playing has no uniformity. It is the biggest concern for bass players in modern orchestra performance.
7 2.3 History of Octavation
2.3.1 Problem: Limitation of Instrument Range
The alteration of the orchestral bass part has become necessary when encountering the notes written below the pitch of the lowest string. As the concert hall and orchestra size expanded significantly in the 19th century, richer and deeper sound was favored by most composers. Their compositions explored the lowest acoustic possible by adding notes below the bass’s standard range. Bassists usually take the notes that fall below their range up an octave, the so-called "octavation."
2.3.2 Modern Solutions for the Limitations of Instrument Range
In order to perform notes lower than the standard tuning allows (low E), bassists have made various attempts to solve this register issue in the performance of orchestral repertoire.
2.3.2.1 5-String Instrument
In Europe, many orchestras use 5-string basses, with the 5th string tuned to the low B.
This solves the register concerns, but the 5-string bass has a slower response than the 4-string bass because of the excess tension caused by the added pressure of a 5th string. Also, its fingerboard is wider and the curve between strings is much flatter than the 4-string bass, which makes the clarity of the string crossings more difficult.
2.3.2.2 The Instrument with C-Extension
The very first bass with C-Extension was invented in the late 19th century. Max Poike, principal bass with the Berlin State Opera and member of the Royal Chapel, introduced an
8 improved C-extension. 12 This device enabled the double bass to play down to a low C without adding the fifth string. In the United States, many bassists use the 4-string bass with a mechanical extension that is installed on an extended fingerboard for the E string to allow the performer to play the low C. The bass with an extension preserves the faster response quality of the 4-string bass, but the player faces the technical challenge of jumping between the normal fingerboard and the extension area. Both the 5-string instrument and the 4-string instrument with an extension have their own pros and cons. 13 There is still much debate between these two set-ups.14
2.3.2.3 Octavation for the 4-String Instrument
For those who play the standard 4-string instrument, octavation is the only option when encountering a note out of their instruments’ playing range.
2.4 The Common Problems inherent in the Application of Simplification and Octavation in
Modern Orchestral Performance
Forsyth pointed out in his book Orchestration that octavation "lacked the artistic nicety and exactitude which we now regard as essential to fine orchestral playing."15 By applying either octavation or simplification, players have an additional challenge to reproduce the logic of the musical line which follows the composers' original writing. In order to bring back composers’ original musical lines, players need to better understand simplification and octavation.
12Brun, op. cit., 161. 13 Jason Heath, "Reaching the Low Notes," Jason Heath's Double Bass Blog,
9 CHAPTER 3
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DOUBLE BASS ORCHESTRAL PRACTICE IN THE 21ST CENTURY
This chapter will offer recommendations for modern orchestral practice. The goal is to eliminate the discrepancy in orchestral playing and to achieve greater unified section playing.
These recommendations are not necessarily for audition purpose.
3.1 Basic Rules for Section Constitution
The bass sections in modern American orchestras usually consist of a mix of 4-string basses, 4-string basses with extensions, and occasionally 5-string basses. With the mixed section, the 5-string bass and the 4-string bass with an extension can fulfill the low notes while the 4-string bass can maintain the clarity by applying octavation. However, the need for the 4- string bass to octavate usually has a negative effect on uniformity. To achieve better uniformity in the section, mutual ideas for octavation become very important.
3.2 Guidelines for Simplification
For modern bass players, simplification should be properly applied only in early music for stylistic reasons, not for the music from the other periods. Composers in the Renaissance and the Baroque wrote the basso continuo part without specifying which instrument to use, so the range of the basso continuo part is not necessarily specified. Composers at that time expected musicians to simplify or improvise the part with the understanding of outlining the harmony and rhythm. The construction of the modern bass produces a different tone quality when compared to the period instrument. In performing early music, baroque bows are recommended. The special structure of the baroque bow naturally helps players to recreate the sound, articulation and style of the period. The rules of simplification for early music should
10 follow Quantz and Corrette’s suggestions for harmony and rhythm delineation. Chapter IV will discuss in detail how to appropriately apply simplification with a harmony and rhythm delineation, which Quantz and Corrette strongly advised.
3.3 Guidelines for Octavation
The two rules for octavation are to preserve the original shape of the musical line and to avoid awkward jumps which may cause performance difficulties. Octavation is necessary for the
4-string bass without an extension but it can distort the contour of the musical lines. In order to retain the original musical contour, the need to octavate certain notes which are not below the low E becomes unavoidable, and the placement of where to start and to end the octavation is crucial. Good placement of octavation can prevent awkward jumps which not only cause difficulties in performance, but also misrepresent the musical lines intended by composers in their works. Furthermore, the understanding of good placement for octavation will fundamentally improve the uniformity in section playing. Different examples will be examined in detail and suggested versions for octavation will be proposed in Chapter V and VI.
3.4 Guidelines for Retrieving the Distorted Bass Line, De-Octavation
Under the influence of Berlioz's anti-simplification doctrine, Brahms did not like bassists to alter his writing, and he wrote the bass part to fit within the natural register of the E-A-d-g tuning. However, many times, the musical line that Brahms had in mind is clearly interrupted due to the register limitation. Evidence for this can be found in the manuscript arrangement
Brahms made for four-hand piano of his symphonic works.16 In the manuscript, the bass line often descends to the low C. For either the 5-string bass or the 4-string bass with an extension,
16 Brun, op. cit., p.147.
11 this type of musical line could be retrieved. The recovery of the distorted musical line is called
“De-Octavation.” This is critical for modern bass players when performing Brahms. But there are also exceptions when the line does not reach down in Brahms' manuscripts. Different examples of musically adapting the bass line of selected works by Brahms will be reviewed in
Chapter VI.
3.5 Developing Extension Technique
Richard Strauss considered the notes below the E within standard range for the bass. In
Also Sprach Zarathustra, he even wrote the low B, a half-step below the low C, for basses.
These low Bs call for the 5-string bass, which is common in Europe. Comparing the 5-string bass and 4-string bass with extension, it is much easier to play those low notes below the E on the 5- string bass. To play the same low notes on the 4-string bass with extension, the execution involves unavoidable jumps to extension. Bassists require mature techniques for executing the extension. These take time and the proper training to be developed, but are worth the effort, as a well-rounded bass player will be able to tackle any repertoire. Selected works by Strauss will be discussed in Chapter VI.
12 CHAPTER 4
SELECTED ORCHESTRAL EXCERPTS FROM THE BAROQUE PERIOD APPLYING SIMPLIFICATION
AND OCTAVATION
The next three chapters will examine the selected orchestral excerpts which apply simplification and octavation. The suggested application of simplification and octavation will be offered according to advice from leading pedagogues and orchestral players. These examinations will be used to support the recommendations offered in Chapter III.
4.1 Background
Before the eighteenth century, it was a requirement for bass players to be schooled in composition in order to properly improvise the figuration part. These trained bass players were respected as artists for their highly skilled improvisations. However, as compositional training for bass players was gradually abandoned, untrained musicians began to treat the figured bass as a simplification of the written bass part, playing only the printed notes as written, but not filling in the implied harmony.
The basso continuo part is written for both chord-playing instruments such as harpsichord and theorbo, and for a group of bass instruments including viols, cellos, double basses and bassoons. The written range is unspecific. Like simplification, when encountering notes below an instrument’s playing range, players are expected to apply octavation or to arrange the notes as needed.
13 4.2 Problems
According to the treatises published by Quantz17and by Corrette18, the competence and expertise of bass players in the eighteenth century was regressing due to the constant application of simplification, which resulted from a lack of compositional understanding.
Corrette pointed out that “surely, it would be appropriate to have a little understanding of composition so as to be able to play the main notes only, for to try to play all of the notes is to be eager to cause confusion, especially when there are several double basses”19 Clearly, when bass players do not have a uniform idea about simplification or capability to operate their instruments, especially with multiple players, playing in rapid passages, it will only result in a chaotic harmony of sounds or rhythms. Furthermore, potentially awkward dissonances will confuse not only players’ ears but also the audience’s. Therefore, a minimal knowledge of simplification and thorough technical proficiency are two important elements for bass players.
4.3 Results
Regarding the principles of simplification, both Corrette and Quantz offered suggestions for passages that bass players were unable to execute distinctly due to their rapidity. Corrette advised bassists “to content themselves with playing the first of a group of even notes tied together and the first note on each beat when runs occurred.”20Quantz suggested that bassists
“play only the first, third, or last note of each figure, whether they be semi-quavers or demisemiquavers. In each case, he had to determine which notes were the principal notes in
17 Quantz, op. cit.,246. 18 Corrette, op. cit., 35-38. 19 Brun, op. cit., 73. 20 ibid., 73.
14 the bass line.”21 Quantz’s illustration of his principles are as follows22 (the upward stems are original and the downward stems are a suggested simplified version):
Figure 1. Quantz’s illustration of his principles
4.4 Modern Playing
In modern bass playing, after the late 19th century, advances were made in how the double bass was constructed, and playing standards in orchestral music rose significantly. The skills and techniques for bass players became much more accessible, and the notes in rapid passages became less difficult. The instrument construction evolved over the centuries, completely changing the quality and the volume of the bass sound. Steel strings and the new arch technique of the bow added solidity and weight to the modern bass sound, in contrast with the baroque violone’s transparent timbre, liveliness and quieter volume. In order to represent the sound of the baroque in modern bass playing, simplification again becomes necessary. Since the written range for basso continuo is undefined, the notes below the lowest
21 ibid.,74. 22 ibid.,74.
15 note of the 4-string bass are often found. Thus, octavation is required for the bassist with the standard 4-string instrument.
4.5 Selected Orchestral Excerpts
4.5.1 Vivaldi, The Four Seasons, Concerto No. 2 in G minor, Op. 8, RV 315,“Summer” (1723)
The continuo part for “Summer” from Vivaldi’s Four Seasons contains lots of rapid passages which Corrette and Quantz would categorize as requiring simplification. Although they are playable for modern bass players, to execute each note weighs down the continuo section and changes the stylistic character of the piece. Therefore, the application of appropriate simplification is necessary. The following example is from the first movement of “Summer”.
This passage can be divided into two parts by the patterns. The first part is from measure 160 to
169 and the second part is from measure 170 to the end. Each bar of the first part has only one pitch with different octave positions and each pitch leads the chord progression. Since each bar has only one pitch, the simplified version could be just one note per bar on the first beat. But in order to keep the rhythmic vitality and the flow of the chord progression, the rearranged version below would be more suitable in this passage.
160 œ œ œ œ œ ?bb œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ #œ œ ?bb œ œ œ œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
? b œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ U™ b œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
Figure 2. Vivaldi, The Four Seasons, “Summer,” Allegro non molto, measure 160-174
16 160 ? b œ ≈≈œ œ œ œ ≈≈œ œ œ œ ≈≈œ œ œ r ≈≈ r ≈≈ b R R R œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
? b œ ≈≈œ œ œ r ≈≈ r ≈≈ r ≈≈ œ ≈≈œ œ œ b R œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ œ R
Figure 3. Vivaldi, The Four Seasons, “Summer,” Allegro non molto, measure 160-169, rearranged version
The second part is a rumbling passage meant to imitate thunder, which consists of
“demisemiquavers”, or thirty-second notes. Quantz’s suggestion of only playing the first, third or last note of the figure can be applied here. The rearranged version suggested by Jeff
Bradetich23 uses the first and third notes of the second and third beat and keep only the first note for the first beat to avoid the possible 7th dissonance in a fast tempo.
170 ™ ™ ™ ™ ? b rK rK rK rK U™ b œ ≈ œ œ œ œ œ ≈ œ œ œ œ œ ≈ œ œ œ œ œ ≈ œ œ œ œ œ
Figure 4. Vivaldi, The Four Seasons, “Summer,” Allegro non molto, measure 170-174, rearranged version suggested by Bradetich
The following passage is from the last movement, Presto, of “Summer”. It is another rapid passage for which Quantz’s or Corrette’s suggestions for simplification are beneficial.
23 Jeff Bradetich (born 1957) is a leading performer and pedagogue of double bass with an international reputation. He is an active lecturer and clinician and he has transcribed more than a hundred works for double bass. In 2009, he published Double Bass – the Ultimate Challenge on pedagogy and performance on the bass. He was the Executive Director of the International Society of Bassists from 1982-1990 and served as editor of the magazine for 6 years. He was on the faculties of the Interlochen Arts Academy (1980-1983), University of Michigan (1980-1983), and Northwestern University (1983-1994) prior to his 1994 appointment as director of the largest double bass program in the world at the University of North Texas. He has also been visiting professor at the Cleveland Institute of Music and at Northwestern University. He founded the Bradetich Foundation and hosted the 2010 International Solo Competition with the largest prizes in double bass history,
17
Figure 5. Vivaldi, The Four Seasons, “Summer,” Presto, measure 55-59
The pattern of this passage is a tonic note with a scale running down. If Corrette’s suggestion is followed, playing only the first note of each set of sixteenth notes would be appropriate. But considering the direction of the run and the playability of the modern player, the suggested version below will offer a better result.
55 N Tutti ™ œ ™ ™ ™ ™ ? b œ ‰ œ œnœ œ ‰ r‰ œ j ‰ r‰ œ œnœ œ j ‰ r‰ j‰ r‰ œbœ œ j ‰ b R J œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ f
Figure 6. Vivaldi, The Four Seasons, “Summer,” Presto, measure 55-59, suggested version
18 4.5.2 J.S.Bach Orchestral Suite 2 in B minor, BWV 1067 (1738-1739)
Figure 7. Bach, Orchestral Suite No. 2, Badinerie measure 20-33
This excerpt is often requested in orchestra auditions. There are only two low D’s which are below the lowest note of the 4-string bass. Because of the different context, the two low
D’s have a different interpretation when played on the 4-string bass. The first low D appears in the middle of a downward melodic line. It is more like an echo of its previous note, the 8-foot
D. With the octavation, this off-beat low D will be at the same pitch as the down beat D.
Therefore, the importance of bringing out the downward melodic line which is circled in blue becomes critical to identifying the difference of the two D’s. The offbeat D needs to be lightened.
The second low D occurs after 2 sixteenth notes as part of an arpeggio pattern. If only to octavate the low D, players with the 4-string basses would need to cross the A string to reach the D string. This would make the string crossing rather difficult in a fast tempo and it would also destroy the 3-note figure of downward arpeggio patterns in the phrase. (Figure 8)
Therefore, Jeff Bradetich and Orin O’Brien24 both suggest to octavate the 3-note figure of the low D. (Figure 9)
24 Orin O’Brien (born 1935), active associate principal of New York Philharmonic, has been a member of the orchestra since 1966. She served as co-chair of the Juilliard double bass department from 1992-2002 and is also on the faculty of the Manhattan School of Music and the Mannes College of Music,
19 28 œ œ ?# œ œ # œ œ AED
Figure 8. Octavation only on the D, Bach, Orchestral Suite No. 2, Badinerie, measure 29
Figure 9. Rearranged Version, Badinerie, measure 20-33, suggested by Bradetich and O’Brien
20 CHAPTER 5
SELECTED ORCHESTRAL EXCERPTS FROM THE CLASSICAL PERIOD APPLYING SIMPLIFICATION
AND OCTAVATION
5.1 Background
At the turn of the 19th century, the role of the double bass in the orchestra changed significantly. A new approach to the performance practice of the bass line emerged when the idea of a broad sound was rising and the figured bass system fell into disuse. Bassists were expected to play from the score. However, the composers at that time did not make the effort to write a specific part for bassists. Instead, bassists had no choice but to play the cello part.
The standard opinion at that time was expressed by L.J.Francoeur in 1772: “Composers did not have to write a double bass part on the understanding that simplification was second nature to players.”25
5.2 Problems
Allowing performers to decide what notes to play was dangerous. Considering the playability and the range of the double bass, sharing the part with the cello meant that bassists were expected to simplify and to octavate as needed. As the orchestra was growing in size, one bass player per orchestra could no longer satisfy the demand for a larger orchestral sound to fill new larger theaters and concert spaces. At the time, the double bass was still considered very awkward and difficult to play. As Koch described in 1802:
Nowadays, this instrument requires a very capable player…. In fast movements and in other such passages, these arpeggios tend to make a rather noisy sound, but they must be rendered with clarity. The intervals are far apart on account of the string length; the
25 Brun, op. cit., 75.
21 strings are far between on the bridge, which increases the movements of the bowing arm in the up and down bows; the set-up requires a strong pressure of the fingers and of the bow. All this makes the handling of the instruments rather difficult….one may conclude that a good player on that instrument is not common.26
5.3 Results
Certainly, the cello part was too complicated and too difficult for this laborious 16-foot instrument27. Thus, bassists came under pressure to decide whether to play from the music, risking a lower overall level of accuracy and volume, or to apply simplification by only playing the main notes. This choice carried its own issues, due to the different possible perceptions from players in the ensemble. To avoid these problems caused by simplification, similar principals offered by Quantz and Corrette were also suggested by Cipriani Potter in his instrumentation treatise in 1837: “In very rapid passages, or arpeggios, the double-basses are made to execute the first of every four or two notes, the first note in triplets; or, speaking in general terms, to execute the essential notes.”28 From him we learn that simplification was a concern in England as well as in continental Europe.
5.4 Modern Playing
As the advancement of the double bass and its playing technique matured, it became significantly less of an issue for modern bassists to play precisely from the music, provided the part is written within the bass’s natural range. Simplification is usually applied only in rapid or soft passages where basses tend to sound muffled. Octavation, however, remains crucial for
26 ibid., 75 27 “16-foot” is borrowed from organ terminology. The pitch of organ is decided by the length of organ pipes. The length of organ pipes is controlled by organ stop. An 8-foot stop speaks at unison pitch. An 16-foot stop speaks exactly one octave below an 8-foot stop. (https://www.agohq.org/young-persons-guide/, accessed 13 March, 2017) 28 Cipriani Potter, "Companion to the Orchestra; or Hints on Instrumentation," The Musical World, 5/61 (12 May1837): 132.
22 the 4-string basses without extensions. When octavation comes with awkward jumps, it requires sufficient understanding and knowledge of the compositions for players to properly modify the parts to maintain the musical line and playability.
5.5 Selected Orchestral Excerpts
5.5.1 Mozart Symphony No.35 in D major, K.385
The tempo of the last movement of Mozart Symphony No. 35 is Presto. Depending on the conductors’ tempo choices, many passages in this movement could become very challenging in fast tempo. The excerpt below involves many perfect fourth intervals. For modern basses which are tuned in 4ths, the bar fingering (e.g., using the same finger to press down two strings at the same time) could be beneficial in fast tempo. But bar fingering poses challenges due to the strength required for pressing double strings and the intense resistance from those strings against a single finger.
9 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ?## œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œŒ Ó 4 4 - 1 - 4 4 4 - 1 - 4 f G D G D 14 ˙ œ œ œ ˙ ˙ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ ˙ ˙ œ œ œ ?## ˙ œ œ ŒÓ œ œŒÓ ˙ œ œ ŒÓ œ 4 4 - 1 - 4 G D 21 œ œ œ œ ˙ ˙ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ œ ?## œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ Œ Œ #˙ œ œ œ 4 4 - 1 - 4 4 2 4 - 1 - 4 1 - 2 4 4 4 - 1 - 4 - G D G D G D A 27 œ œ œ ˙ #œ œ ˙ #˙ œ #œ œ œ œ œ #œ nœ æ ?## œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ œ Œ œ 424 - 1 - 4 1 - 2 4 4 D A D 33 nœ œ œ ˙ A æ œ œ œæ˙ œ œ œæ˙ œ œ œæ˙ ˙ œ œ .... ?##nœ œ œ œ Ó Œ Œ #w œ œ œ œ sf sf sf p fp
Figure 10. Mozart Symphony No. 35, movement IV, measure 9-40
23
Figure 11. Motive of this excerpt, Mozart Symphony No. 35, movement IV, measure 9-40
This motive has not only the perfect fourth interval but also follows with a shift down to a minor third and a shift back to the same pitch (A). The bar fingering alone is not easy. In addition, the pivot fingering for the minor thirds (A-F#-A) makes this excerpt difficult to play even in a moderate tempo. In a fast tempo, when the tempo goes beyond what the players can possibly manage, the proper simplification will benefit the clarity and save the harmony for the ensemble. The yellow circles indicate the notes which could be omitted when players choose to simplify.
Figure 12. Mozart Symphony No. 35, movement IV, measure 9-40 with simplification marked
Figure 13. Mozart Symphony No. 35, movement IV, measure 26-27, rearranged version
24 5.5.2 Mozart Symphony No. 39 in E-flat Major, K.543
The key of a composition can be a problematic element in octavation. Mozart’s
Symphony No. 39 is in the key of E flat major. Although the tonic is only a half-step below the lowest note of the bass, all the tonic E-flats must be octavated when using a regular 4-string bass. It obviously distorts the direction in the scale pattern.
Adagio ? b c ˙ ˙ r Ó ˙ ™™ r Ó Œ œ Œ j‰ œ ‰ j‰ j‰ b b ™™ r Ó ™™ œ œ ˙ œ œ J œ nœ f œ œ ˙ f œ œ ˙ f p 9 ? bbb œ ≈ œœ ≈ œ œ ≈œ œ ≈ œ œ ≈ œ œ ≈ œ œ ≈ œ œ ≈ œ œ ≈ œ œ ≈œ œ ≈ œ œ ≈ œ œ ≈ œ œ ≈ œ œ ≈ œ œ ≈ œ
13 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œnœ œ ? b œœœbœœ œ œœ œ ˙ œœœœœ b b œ ≈œœ ≈œœ ≈œœ ≈œ ˙ ‰nœœœœ ≈ ≈ ≈ ≈ ‰ œœœ f p 17 œ œnœ bœ œ œ œ œ nœ œ œ nœ œ ?bb ≈ ≈ ≈ ≈ ˙ ‰ œ œbœbœ œ ≈ ≈ œ œ ≈bœ œ ≈ œ b bœbœ œbœ œ f 20 ™ ™ 1 ˙ b˙ ? b r r b˙ œ j b b œ ‰ œ œ ‰ œ œ ŒÓ ∑ n˙ J‰Œ œ ‰Œ p
Figure 14. Symphony No. 39, movement I, introduction
In measure 18, the ascending scale pattern was the last and the heaviest one of the three scales. But the pattern must be broken with the 4-string bass due to the instrument’s natural range. It is not suggested to octavate the whole pattern to keep the musical direction since it is the lowest one of the three scales and it leads to the conclusion of the introduction. If octavation is applied, it would place the entire scale up high on the G string, the highest string on the bass. The register is too high for the solid and tranquillo quality the introduction is seeking. Although octavating the first two notes would sacrifice the musical direction, it is the
25 better solution for the 4-string bass. The best solution would be to use the 5-string instrument or the 4-string bass with an extension, both of which can play all of the notes as written.
In Symphony No.39, Mozart uses a descending octave as the opening motive of his work. Throughout the symphony, octaves feature prominently, creating an “octave effect.” To offer variation of the pitches, he drops the notes down an octave for emphasis. He applies this in the very beginning of this movement.
Adagio ? bbbc ˙ ™™ r Ó f œ œ ˙
Figure 15. Mozart Symphony No.39, movement I, measure 1-2
Adagio ™™ ? b c ˙ œ---œ ˙ b b R Ó f
Figure 16. Mozart Symphony No.39, movement I, measure 1-2, octavation applied
If octavation is applied in the following example from the second movement of
Symphony 39, the emphasis on the “octave effect” disappears. In this case, a tenuto or accent, depending on the musical context, is needed to reinforce the heaviness of the tonic. This solution could be used in many places throughout the entire symphony.
105 ? b b nœ œ œ bœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ j ‰Œ b b nœ bœ œ œ œ œ œ
Figure 17. Mozart Symphony No.39, movement II, measure105-108
26 105 > > > > ? b b nœ œ œ bœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ j ‰Œ b b nœ bœ œ
Figure 18. Mozart Symphony No.39, movement II, measure 105-108, octavation applied
Mozart uses many “octave effects” in the ending of the final movement. In Figure 19, color-coding indicates the same pattern in different octaves. Not all of them need octavation, but when octavation is required, it is important to make good use of dynamics and articulation to distinguish the differences between different octave positions. The green pattern of Figure
19 is a good example of Mozart’s “octave effect”. When the passage is played by a 4-string bass, octavation is needed for the lower statement. The high and low statement will result in the same octave. In order to distinguish the two statements, the fingering is suggested in Figure
20. D and A strings offer different sound quality. On playing the second statement, heavier bow weight is required to exaggerate the difference between the two statements.
Figure 19. Mozart Symphony No.39, movement IV, measure 247-264
241 - 1010 12 2 1 ? bbb œœœœœœœœ œœœœœœœœ œ œ œ œ æ˙ æ˙ æ˙ œœœœœœœœ œœœœœœœœ æ˙ æ˙ D D A A
Figure 20. Mozart Symphony No.39, movement IV, measure 241-250, suggested version
27 5.5.3 Beethoven Symphony No. 9 in D minor, Op.125, 1st movement
As a pioneer of romantic orchestration, Beethoven devoted himself to exploring new expressive qualities of the bass. He is considered to be the first composer to fully separate the double bass from the cello in orchestral instrumentation.29 Beethoven not only freed the double bass from the strict, confined octave duplication of cello lines, but also used its independent musical line as a vehicle for musical expression. At that time, double bass players had a notorious reputation due to the widespread practice of simplification, but Beethoven's writing for the instrument demanded advanced techniques and virtuosity, for example in the well-known Recitative that opens the 4th movement of the 9th symphony.30
Beethoven's acquaintance with the virtuoso bassist Domenico Dragonetti may have contributed to his more challenging bass writing. Rodney Slatford wrote, "Dragonetti met
Beethoven in 1799 and played one of his sonatas for him..., the composer jumped up and embraced both Dragonetti and his double bass."31 Further evidence can be found at the Royal
Philharmonic Society of London, which preserves letters documenting that Dragonetti had seen the score of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony before he accepted an invitation to perform in the work’s London premiere.32 Even though Dragonetti used a 3-string bass tuned A-d-g and
Germany was in favor of the 4-string bass tuned as our modern instrument E-A-d-g, Beethoven, nevertheless, wrote in his scores for the bass to play down to the low C.
29 Fink, op. cit., 201. 30 Forsyth, op. cit., 454. 31 Rodney Slatford, "Dragonetti and Beethoven's Ninth," Journal of The International Society of Bassists 14, no.1 (Fall 1987): 51. 32 Ibid., 50.
28 The two significant challenges for bass players in executing Beethoven's bass parts are rapid notes and low notes which can descend as far as low C. Both types of notes were most likely simplified by the old-school players. These performers had no choice but to jump an octave higher when they could not play the notes written below the E string. This not only distorted the musical line that the composer intended, but also created new technical difficulties particularly in creating large leaps in the lowest positions and by creating awkward string crossings. Clearly, in performing this type of line the proper arrangement of octavation was needed.
The following excerpt is from the first movement of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony. In the score, the bass doubles the cello, playing a simplified version to outline the harmonic contour. The chromatic progression over a recurring D pedal is crucial.33 However, the lowest note of the double bass in Beethoven's time is the E string which is a 2nd above the recurring pedal D.
æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ ° nœ œ œ œ nœ œ #œ œ Vc. ?b œ œ nœ #œ ff œ œ œ œ nœ œ œ œ nœ œ #œ œ Cb. ? ...... ¢ b œ. œ. nœ #œ. ff œ œ . œ œ . . . . Figure 21. Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, movement I, letter S
33 Stuart Sankey, "On the question of minor alterations in the double bass parts of Beethoven," Annual Journal, The International Society of Bassists, vol. 1, no.4 (Spring 1975): 95-99.
29 In order to play the D pitch, players who used the regular 4-string bass had no choice but to apply octavation on the unplayable note. But in this case, if the low D is taken an octave higher, the contour of the line that establishes the recurring pedal D will be ruined.
. . etc. œ . œ . ?b œ. œ œ. œ. œ œ.
Figure 22. Common octave-transposition practice for double bass
In order to avoid changing Beethoven's original harmonic outline, the famous double bass pedagogue, Stuart Sankey,34 suggests to rearrange the passage as shown below to preserve the recurring D pedal, an important musical device of this passage which retains the musical line Beethoven intended in his original writing.35
...... etc. œ œ . œ œ œ . œ nœ œ . œ #œ œ . œ ?b œ œ œ œ
Figure 23. Rearrangement suggested by Sankey
With the 5-string instrument or the 4-string bass with an extension, this passage could be played as originally written.
34 Stuart Sankey (1927-2000) was an outstanding pedagogue and performer with an international reputation. His students included Gary Karr, the first bassist to make a career as a soloist in the twentieth century, and Edgar Meyer. He taught at the Juilliard School, the University of Texas, Indiana University and the University of Michigan. He was on the faculty for nearly 50 years at the Aspen Music School. Beside teaching, he also maintained active orchestral performances as principal bass with the American Symphony Orchestra (1962-69) and many other leading orchestras in the U.S. including the Metropolitan Orchestra, the NBC Opera, the New York City Ballet, the New York City Opera, etc. "The University Record," University of Michigan,
30 CHAPTER 6
SELECTED ORCHESTRAL EXCERPTS FROM THE ROMANTIC PERIOD APPLYING OCTAVATION
6.1 Background
The German composer Richard Wagner (1813-1883) was also instrumental in transforming what was required of bass players in 19th century repertoire. Works like Die
Walkÿre and Die Meistersinger included the lowest possible notes in the orchestra. Soon the use of this lowest register became mainstream among composers in orchestral bass writing.
Achieving feasible ways to produce the notes called on by composers became one of the most important quests in the Romantic era. In addition, advances in the construction and playing of the lowest brass and woodwind instruments led to those orchestral sections gradually replacing the function of the 3-string bass in the orchestra. Soon after, both composers and conductors changed their expectation for bass sections to produce a smoother, fuller and heavier sound.
6.2 Problems
Although composers in the 19th century trumpeted their needs for the absent 16-foot register, the fundamental difficulty for the double bass to bring back this lower range fell on string manufacturers. It wasn’t until 1870 that the breakthrough metal-wrapped string was finally invented, which allowed an increase of the specific density of the strings without excessively enlarging their diameter.36 These thinner, denser strings were easier to play. The first double bass with the 16-foot C string was exhibited in London in the International
36 Brun, op. cit., 149.
31 Exhibition of 1872 according to the famous German acoustician Hermann von Helmoltz in his book On the Sensation of Tone.37
6.3 Results
This breakthrough in double bass strings made it possible to integrate low-pitched tones into orchestral works. Composers were officially able to explore the low range in double bass and the parts were more likely to achieve the composers’ expectation. To achieve these low notes, bass players came up with several solutions for tuning and instrument set-up. These included: re-introduction of the fifths system of tuning, scordatura of the bottom string to lower pitches, tuning of the double bass a fourth lower, introduction of the five-string orchestral double bass, and contra-C extension approaches.38 However, it was hardly possible for the entire bass section to equip themselves with even just one of the setups mentioned above. The different setups required different methods of playing. As a result, the divergence of playing in the section was difficult to avoid.
The advent of metal-wrapped strings also allowed composers to make their intentions clear in the parts. They began to prevent unwanted transposition and possible ambiguity by placing written instructions in parts like ‘not to be transposed up an octave’ or ‘five-string bass only’ or by providing a part with divisi for regular basses and those basses capable of the low pitches.
37 Hermann von Helmotz, On the Sensation of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music. (London: Longmans, Green, and Co, 1875), 705.
38 Brun, op. cit., 150.
32 6.4 Modern Solutions
Unlike the orchestral works of the baroque and classical era, modern bass players are expected to play each note as written. Simplification is no longer a resolution for difficult passages. It is the players’ job to perform the music as written.
In the modern bass world, there is a sense of “survival of the fittest” to most adequately obtain the lower pitches demanded by composers. This has led to the prevalence of the 4-string bass with a contra C extension and the five-string orchestral double bass. As discussed in previous chapters, both methods have their advantages and drawbacks. But the most common scenario which both methods face, as happened in the Romantic era, are the mixed sections containing the regular 4-string bass and the basses which are equipped to reach the low pitches. The regular 4-string basses are responsible for providing clarity with appropriate octavation for the section. The basses with the equipment to reach the low pitches have the responsibility not only to access all the low notes as written but also to de-octavate those hidden low notes that composers originally intended.
6.5 Selected Orchestral Excerpts
6.5.1 Brahms Symphony No. 2 in D Major, Op.73
Owing to the diligent and meticulous nature of his compositional process, Johannes
Brahms (1833-1897) wrote with great awareness of the exact range for each instrument. His was not a style that allowed for any improvisation. The spontaneous octavation which bass players were accustomed to was off-limits. Brahms followed in Berlioz’s steps, writing out each note of every part. He specified all the needed octavation in the double bass parts, assuming that all basses used in his orchestral works were traditional 4-string instruments. It was not
33 difficult to observe Brahms’ frustration. As Brun described, “the erratic pattern of that line compared with that of the cello speaks volumes about his frustrations with premature interruptions that produce precisely the opposite of the intended effect.”39
To compensate for the limited range of the 4-string bass, Brahms made octavation adjustments in his bass parts. When compared with cello parts, the musical lines of the double bass are broken and the direction of the lines are changed. These passages are often marked with f or crescendo. The downward direction, accompanied with the increasing force in volume all suggest the arrival at a low destination. But due to the instrument’s limitations in his time,
Brahms chose to take full control of his composition and made his own decision on how to rearrange the notes out of the normal range.
The following excerpts are from Brahms’ Second Symphony. Figure 24 and 25 are both f or ff and Figure 26 is in a crescendo passage to f. In Figure 24, Brahms octavated the arrival note in the bass line. In Figure 25, there are three notes below the E with a sf. Brahms octavated all three notes. In Figure 26, although there are only 3 notes below the E, Brahms broke the phrase and octavated half of the phrase which is one measure and one beat. Figure 2 is in a mp passage. The D# is in the middle of a 3-note pattern which, in this case, Brahms omitted, instead of octavating the one note to avoid the erratic jump in the middle of a soft phrase.
39 ibid., 146.
34
Figure 24. Brahms Second Symphony, movement I, measure 54-58
Figure 25. Brahms Second Symphony, movement I, measure 244-250
Figure 26. Brahms Second Symphony, movement II, measure 82-86
Figure 27. Brahms Second Symphony, movement I, measure 309-314
35 Although Brahms chose to break the musical line in order to take control of each note in his composition, his manuscript arrangement for four-hand piano of his symphonic works at the
Library of Congress40 provides strong evidence that Brahms would have preferred the bass line completing the phrase and descending to low C. Theron McClure compared these manuscripts with the modern score in his article “Bottom Brahms”, published in the ISB Annual Journal.41
McClure found that not all the bass lines below the E were taken down an octave beneath the cellos in the manuscripts. While the cello part would have a full musical line,
Brahms chose to omit notes from the bass part in two instances: first, during quiet moments and during diminuendos when the addition of bottom weight would interfere with the effect of diminuendo, and secondly, during woodwind passages where the deep contra tones would not balance well with the woodwinds.42
In studying his manuscript, Brahms provided the modern players playing the 4-string bass important guidelines on how and where to octavate the notes out of their playing ranges.
McClure suggested in the end of his article that “bassists may in good conscience drop below written E when musical considerations suggest such digression from the printed score.”43
6.5.2 Strauss Also Sprach Zarathustra, Op.30
In Also Sprach Zarathustra, Richard Strauss took the bass all the way down past the low
C to a low B. To comply with this request, Friedrich Warnecke took the idea of a large bass tuned B E A d from Wenzeslas Hause and “advised composers to write for a tripartite double
40 in the Gertrude Clark Whitall Foundation Manuscript Collection 41 Theron McClure, "Battom Brahms," Journal of The International Society of Bassist, vol.3, no.4 (Spring 1977): 318-320 42 ibid., 81. 43 ibid., 81
36 bass section including a high, baritone solo bass tuned a fourth higher and a low-pitched instrument tuned a fourth lower than the current orchestra bass.”44
Figure 28. Strauss Also Sprach Zarathustra, one measure before Number 10 to sixteen measures after Number 10
w ‹? w w w w w w w w w w Baritone bass tuning Middle bass tuningw Low bass tuning
Figure 29. Friedrich Warnecke, tripartite basses
With this tripartite bass section, the basses are free of extension mechanisms or practice of scordatura. Instead, the freedom of open strings offers a full and pleasing sound.
But this solution is not practical. The low range of the low bass and the high range of the baritone bass are, after all, rare. It is a waste to use those two uncommon basses for only one section of the piece, leaving a reduced section of double basses with a normal set-up to play the rest of the concert program.
A mixed section with the 4-string bass, the 4-string bass with an extension and the 5- string bass is the better solution for Zarathustra. It is necessary for this piece to have at least
44 Brun, op. cit., 155.
37 one bass that can reach the low B. Octavation is never suitable for the beginning solo of the quartet.
sehr langsam. ° 3. Pult. ? ∑∑ ∑ ∑
4. Pult. 3 3 3 ? ¢ ˙ œ bœ œ b˙ œ œ #œ ˙ bœ œ nœ #œ b˙ -˙ - pp
Figure 30. Strauss Also Sprach Zarathustra, beginning of bass quartet
The other crucial perception of performing R. Strauss for a bassist is to understand that the countless notes in the part are more for an effect, not necessarily for the individual pitch to be heard. Instead of taking great effort to play each note, aiming to create the musical effect was the composer’s primary concern.
3 ™ #œ > œ #œ nœ #œ #œ nœ ? #œ #œ #œ #œ #œ ‹œ B R ≈ Œ ? 3 3 f
Figure 31. Strauss Also Sprach Zarathustra, four measures before Number 3
Figure 32. Strauss Also Sprach Zarathustra, four measures before Number 3, with musical direction remark
The above motive is the prototype of the rhythmic pattern throughout Zarathustra. The first triplet has seven small notes to fit in. The tempo of the eighth note equals approximately
112. It is almost impossible to play at this speed and enunciate each single pitch. Instead, the
38 rumbling effect is possibly the tone painting which Strauss had in mind. Therefore, it is more important to keep the rhythmic pulse within the phrase, to follow the musical direction, to outline the notes which give the phrase shape and to play gesturally.
3 ™ > œ #œ nœ #œ #œ nœ #œ ? #œ ‹œ B R ≈ Œ ? 3 3 f
Figure 33. Strauss Also Sprach Zarathustra, four measures before Number 3, rumbling effect suggested version
The following example has three notes which are below the lowest note of the 4-string bass. The gesture of this pattern is a swift motion going up and followed by a group of rapid separate notes. The gesture changes right after the G which is at the end of the slur. This passage is often octavated from the first low C to the G to keep the swift motion in a slur and to not lose the musical direction by the change of the gesture
3 æ æ3 æ ? b Œ œ b b œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 3
Figure 34. Strauss Also Sprach Zarathustra, eleven measures before Number 4
3 ? œ œ #œ œ œ œ bbb Œ œ œ œ æ æœ æœ 3 3
Figure 35. Strauss Also Sprach Zarathustra, eleven measures before Number 4, rearranged version
The following excerpt has only the last three notes fall below the low E. It is often only the last three notes that are octavated as in the first example below:
39 Bewegt 3 ? b 4 ™ b b4 w ˙ œ œ œ œ œ ™ 3 œ œ œ f 3 3 œ ˙
Figure 36. Strauss Also Sprach Zarathustra, sixteen measures before Number 4
Bewegt 3 ? b 4 ™ œ œ ™ b b4 w ˙ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ f 3 3 œ 3
Figure 37. Strauss Also Sprach Zarathustra, sixteen measures before Number 4 suggested version 1
It is clear in Figure 35, that the musical gesture is going in a downward direction. The only way to keep the downward motion to the C in the 4-string bass is to octavate the nine notes of the triplet, immediately following a long note and providing ample time for a big shift.
Bewegt œ œ œ 3 ? 4 ™ œ œ œ œ ™ bbb4 w ˙ œ œ ˙ f 3 3 3
Figure 38. Strauss Zarathustra sixteen measures before Number 4 suggested version 2
6.5.3 Shostakovich Symphony No. 5 in D minor, Op. 47
pizz. poco animando ? nœ #œ œ #œ #œ #œ œ bœ œ nœ bœ œ nœ nœ œ Figure 39. Shostakovich Symphony No. 5, two measures after Number 18
The above passage has only one D beneath the lowest note of the 4-string bass. The entire phrase contains a rhythmic pattern with two eighth notes and one quarter note. Within them, each of the segments consists of an upward interval of a second or third and then a
40 downward interval of a second or third. If one were to octavate only the low D, the downward interval would suddenly be replaced by a major sixth interval up which seems out of place.
pizz. poco animando ? œ #œ nœ œ #œ #œ œ bœ œ nœ bœ œ nœ #œ nœ Figure 40. Shostakovich Symphony No. 5, two measures after Number 18 with a large jump in the end
For a mixed bass section, the best solution is to leave the low D for players who have an extension or a 5-string bass. But for a section lacking these instruments, it is best to octavate the last 3-note pattern to preserve the integrity of the motive.
pizz. poco animando ? nœ nœ œ #œ nœ œ #œ #œ œ bœ œ nœ bœ œ #œ Figure 41. Shostakovich Symphony No. 5, two measures after Number 18 octavating the last three notes for a bass secion using only 4-string basses
Figure 42. Shostakovich Symphony No. 5, six measures after Number 22
This excerpt is often asked for at orchestra auditions. The notes below the low E are circled in red. If one chose to octavate only those notes, the line would become very jumpy and would be impossible to play smoothly with slurs.
? ‰ bœ bœ œ nœ œ n>œ bœ bœ œ œ œbœ œ > nœ bœbœ bœ J > > > Figure 43. Shostakovich Symphony No. 5, six measures after Number 22, octavation only applied on the notes below the E, resulting in big jumps
41 Therefore, Orin O’Brien suggests octavating from the beginning of this phrase and ending the octavation after the low D. This way, half of the line is preserved, but still broken by the sudden jump down to the low E.
> ? bœ bœ œ >œ œ bœ >œ bœ > ‰ bœ œ nœ bœbœ bœ œ nœ > nœ J Figure 44. Shostakovich Symphony No. 5, six measures after Number 22 suggested version by O’Brien
> b>œ > > bœ bœ œnœ ? ‰ bœ œ œ œ bœ œ bœ bœ >œ nœ nœ bœ J
Figure 45. Shostakovich Symphony No. 5, six measures after Number 22 octavation applied for the entire phrase
In order to preserve the entire musical line, octavating from the beginning to the end is necessary. But in this way, the low register and deepest timbre of the double bass will be missing. It would be best to have a mixed section and allow the extension or the 5-string bass to take care of the low notes; the 4-string bass musician can apply O’Brien’s octavation suggestion.
42 6.6 Conclusion
I hope this study has succeeded in giving an overview of the widespread inconsistencies present in orchestral bass playing throughout the common practice period. The fact remains that even in today’s best orchestras, octavation and simplification are not always applied uniformly, and standards vary widely. I hope this study will provide contemporary orchestral double bass performers with a better understanding of simplification and octavation and offer them applicable guidelines for repertoire across several styles and periods. Finally, I hope this study will achieve its goal of raising awareness for the need of uniform section playing, promoting solutions that will raise the playing standard of any orchestral bass section.
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