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Home , Antonio Capuzzi, Arpeggione, Bariolage, Bass bar, Double bass, Franz Anton Hoffmeister

The Viennese : The Development, Blossoming, and Decline of a in 18th Century

A document submitted to

The Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS

in the Performance Studies Division of the College-Conservatory of

2016

by

William Christopher Leverenz

B.M., Southern Illinois University Carbondale, 2006 M.M., University of Cincinnati College-Conservatory of Music, 2008

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Abstract

This work is an examination of the Viennese violone school of double performance that developed during the latter half of the 18th century. The focus of this study is the tuning system that allowed the instrument to flourish during the Viennese Classic era and how these same idiomatic traits would render the instrument obsolete by the early 19th century.

The Viennese violone utilized a unique tuning system of thirds and fourths intervals. It was used as a solo, chamber, and orchestral instrument that coexisted with other European bass styles that utilized different tuning systems. The examination will track the development and demise of this unique school of bass playing.

Through analysis of representative solo works the development of the school’s technique is examined in correlation with the constantly evolving musical content. Analysis of selected symphonic works demonstrates the use of the bass violone in an orchestral setting. After establishing the unique characteristics that allowed the violone to flourish during the 18th century this document will prove how the violone was unable to meet the evolving musical demands of the 19th century.

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Table of Contents

The Viennese Violone…………………………………………………………………………....6

Vienna in the 18th Century……………………………………………………………………….9

Early Violone Development………………………………………………………………….....11

Construction of the Violone………………………………………………………………….....15

The Violone’s Tuning System………………………………………………………………...... 18

Literature and Champions of the Violone……………………………………………………....22

Decline of the Violone……………………………………………………………………….…33

Epilogue…………………………………………………………………………………….…..39

Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………....….41

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The Viennese Violone

In the Western tradition the bass provides the and rhythmic foundation for the . Rarely does this instrument step out of its supporting role, the bass performing as a featured soloist tends to be an exception. Works featuring the bass as a soloist are a rare find and inevitably written by the performer for his own use. These works and their /performers are considered a novelty rather than a desired medium for musical expression. There was a brief period of time when solo works for the bass were regularly composed for public performance. This was the era of the Viennese Violone and in the history of the bass it was a “Golden Era of Virtuosity”1.

Between 1760 and 1800 there was a proliferation of bass concerti in and around Vienna.

These works were composed with a specific instrument in mind that has been referred to by many names: the Viennese , the Viennese violone, the Viennese bass violone, and the

Viennese tuned bass. For this document, I will be referring to the instrument as the Viennese violone or simply violone.

In four decades, more than thirty concerti and a large number of chamber works were composed featuring the violone. The outpouring of compositions during this short time has led noted bass historian Paul Brun to refer to this time as “The Golden Age of Virtuosity” in his book A New History of the Double Bass.2 The popularity of this bass instrument is well documented in contemporary music reviews, letters, and literature. Furthermore, compositions by the leading composers in the Viennese classic, including Dittersdorf, Hoffmeister, Pichl,

1 Brun, Paul. A New History of the Double Bass (Villeneuve d’Ascq, France: Paul Brun Productions, 2000), 99.

2 Brun, 99. 6

Vanhal, Sperger, Haydn, and Mozart are a testament to the regional popularity of this instrument during the Classical era.

During this period, the bass instrument was not standardized throughout Europe in technique, construction, or tuning. The violone had a unique 3rd/4th tuning system tuned F-A-d- f#-a that differed from all the other tuning systems of coexisting bass instruments throughout

Europe during this era. The popularity of the violone did not continue into the Romantic era. The instrument’s structural characteristics and tuning system rendered it obsolete in the diverse musical landscape of the 19th century. When the violone fell out of favor, many of the works that were kept in court libraries and personal collections were lost due to poor preservation, fire, or time. This unique school of bass playing was forgotten. With the disappearance of the tuning system, many interpreted the works that did survive as extremely difficult. The works were heavily edited, and at times entire sections were removed to make a performance on a modern bass feasible.3

In 1955, a collection of bass works were found at the Landesbibliothek in Schwerin,

Germany. This collection had belonged to Sperger and was comprised of works by Borghi,

Dittersdorf, Zimmerman, Pichl, Stamitz, Vanhal, Capuzzi, Cimador, Hoffmeister, and Sperger’s own compositions. The discovery of this catalog rekindled interest in the Viennese violone.4

During the 1960’s, Klaus Trumpf and Adolf Meier published many of the works they had discovered. Meier’s book, Konzertant Musik fur Kontrabass in der Wiener Klassik, documented the use of the instrument during the classical era, cataloging the compositions discovered at the

3 Schultz, Michal. “The Tuning of the Viennese Double Bass: An Indication of its Effect on the Articulation of Form in a Dittersdorf .” International Society of Bassists Vol. XV, no. 3 (Spring 1989), 59.

4 Brun, 111. 7

Landesbibliothek.5 Meier and Trumpf have written many articles on the Viennese bass school and presented lectures and master classes on the instrument and its technique. Since the discovery and research by Meier and Trumpf, further study of the Viennese violone school has continued and the repertoire for the double bass has also grown with the addition of these lost works. Currently, Klaus, Trumpf, and others offer editions of concerti and chamber works with modern double bass tuning and Viennese offered for the performer. These publications have sparked a for this instrument and its music that continues to grow in popularity.6

This document will present the history of the instrument, including the noted and composers for the instrument, and posit why the Viennese Violone was unable to survive.

The historical portion will examine the development of the instrument and a look at how its technique evolved over the course of fifty years. A look at the noted musicians and composers who championed this instrument will illustrate its regional popularity during the mid-to-late 18th century. The final portion will discuss why the instrument became obsolete due to structural shortcomings and its tuning system. This document will chronicle the development, blossoming, and decay of the musical instrument that was the Viennese Violone of the 18th century.

5 Brun, 110.

6 Brun, 110-111. 8

Vienna in the 18th Century

The economic and political conditions of a nation cannot create artistic talent, however, it can provide opportunities to cultivate the arts. The patronage of the Habsurg family and their subordinate rulers in the Holy Roman Empire during the 18th century helped to create the conditions for a profusion of musical productivity, notably a substantial demand for artistic jobs.7

Economic historians state that in the 18th century many of the Habsburg territories were highly prosperous. This prosperity brought wealth to the nobility and the upper class. They spent this wealth liberally, running lavish courts and large estates that included the services of composers and musicians.8 The Habsburg rulers supported the arts and in doing so set a standard for patronage throughout the empire. The mid-to-late 1760’s were a time of economic recovery in the Habsburg Empire following the Seven Years War against Prussia. The state centralization reform instituted by Josephine and her son Joseph II created an environment in which cultural development could occur. The Habsburg monarchs pushed the nobleman out of politics and into the private sphere. This created an environment for culture and arts around Vienna to flourish.9

One example of increased patronage was Prince Paul Anton Esterhàzy. He founded an in 1761 upon his return to Esterhàza after his military and diplomatic missions in

Russia. The supportive climate led to an increase of music from the Esterhàzy estate by one of the most notable composers of the eighteenth century, Franz .10

7 Baumol, William and Hilda. “On the Economics of in Mozart’s Vienna.” Journal of Cultural Economics 18, (1994) 172.

8 Baumol, 173.

9 Focht, Josef. “Solo Music for the Viennese Double Bass and Mozart’s Compositions with Passages for Double Bass.” International Society of Bassists Vol. XVIII, No. 2 (Fall 1992): 45.

10 Focht, 45. 9

During this era, musical activities were sought out by the nobleman and the wealthy as a means of bestowing upon themselves honor and prestige.

Music, especially music, then, was a highly honorific indoor sport in Vienna: any Viennese understood that it was something the best people cultivated in a big way […] If music was eminently socially correct…it would not fail to be impressive to the bevies of newly rich and newly noble. They could think to better themselves cheaply through appearances, so they too assiduously cultivated their musical talents and interests.11

This type of cultural mindset led to a high demand for performers and composers. Old music was almost never performed. programs would consist many times entirely of new music, often by court composers.12 This created an abundance of employment for composers and musicians. It also created an opportunity for featuring instruments that may have been overlooked in the past.

A resurgence of patronage with proper financing and a public which wanted a wide range of cultural events and created an ideal environment for the development of the

Viennese classical style. It is during this time when the violone flourished.

11 Loesser, Arthur. Men, Women and . (Simon and Schuster: New York, 1994), 119.

12 Baumol, 181. 10

Early Violone Development

The height of the Viennese violone’s popularity was from 1760-1800, but the development of the instrument began in previous centuries. As the orchestra began to develop in the 18th century, there was a departure from the compositional use of thorough bass. The bass line would be played by the violoncello or , and doubled an lower by the double bass. The bass existed under a variety of regional names. The common defining factors include: a musical range of tuning from E1 to G2, performed while standing, tuned in fourths with the use of 3rd’s, sloping shoulders, a flat back, and the larger size of the instruments. Bass string instruments were referred to by several different names, including:

1529 Agricola ‘Gross-Geigen-Bassus’ 1592 Zacoconi ‘Basso di da gamba’ 1609 Banchieri ‘Violone da gamba/Violone in Contrabasso’ 1619 Praetorius ‘grosse Bassgeig/Violone’ 1687 Speer ‘Bass Violon’

The double basses of the era and they were distinct from the coexisting and gamba string families. By the 16th and 17th centuries, the terms violone and contrabasso were used equivalently to refer to the bass instrument.13

Prior to and throughout the 18th century the bass instrument was in a state of flux. The instruments varied regionally throughout Europe, each area using a unique tuning system and different forms of construction. Variations included the use of , the bow hold (either overhand “French bow hold” or underhand “German bow hold”), the physical construction of the

13 Planyavsky, Alfred. The Baroque double bass violone, trans. James Barket (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 1998)

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instrument, and the use of tuning systems in thirds, fourths, or fifths. The sizes, proportions, and number of strings on the instruments all varied.14

The earliest expansive references to the violone date from the 17th century by Michael

Praetorius.15 Praetorius (1571-1621) was a German , , and music theorist. He authored an incomplete but very extensive treatise, Syntagma Musicum, which gives us great insight into the instruments, theory, and performing practices of this era. In 1619, Praetorius mentioned the 3rd/4th tuning as a scordatura of the tuning E-A-d-g-. Praetorius also remarked on the poorly adapted of gut twisting and winding. The E string had poor response to the bow and lacked sufficient definition of pitch. On the higher side of the instrument the c string was very thin and would often snap under the tension. Praetorius quote, “On the very large string basses or the thin strings seldom can endure on account of the relatively great distance between the and the .”16 In an effort to resolve these problems the high c-string was lowered over time to the pitch of a, and the low E-string was raised to F. Over the course of eighty years, the instrument’s tuning system evolved.

In 1677, Johann Jakob Pinner mentioned a scordatura of F-A-d-f#-b, and in 1697, James

Talbot mentions an F-A-d-f#-a tuning system being used.17 The F-A-d-f#-a scordatura stabilized in the mid-18th century in Vienna and the surrounding region, which led to the tuning being considered an accordatura rather than a scordatura. In ’s 1769 edition of

14 Brun, 113.

15 Meier, Adolf. “The Vienna Double Bass and its Technique during the Era of the Vienna Classic.” International Society of Vol. XIII, no. 3 (Spring 1987), 10.

16 Praetorius, Michael. “Syntagma Musicum, De Organographia.” Wolfenbuttel, 1619, Trans. David Crookes, (Oxford University Press, 1991), 25.

17 Brun, 101. 12

Grundliche Violinschule, he testifies to the advent of a Viennese virtuoso school that had emerged since the 1756 edition of the same book.18

The Great-Bass (il Contra Basso), also commonly called the Violone is the eighth type of stringed instrument. The Violone is also made in various sizes, nevertheless, all have same pitch, the only difference being in the stringing. Because the Violone is much larger than the Violoncello, it is tuned a full octave lower. It is ordinarily fitted with four strings, [occasionally with only three-1769 addition], but the larger ones may have five. [1769 addition:] With these five- stringed Violones, frets of rather thick string are attached to the neck at all the intervals, in order to prevent the strings from rattling on the and so improved the tone. One can also perform difficult passages more easily on such a Bass, and I have heard , trios, solos and so forth played on one of these with great beauty. But I have observed that when accompanying with any strength for the purpose of expression, two strings are frequently to be heard simultaneously on account of the strings being thinner and placed nearer together that those of a Bass strung with but three or four strings.19

The standardization of a technique aided in the heightened virtuosity and proliferation of concerti that occurred during the second half of the eighteenth century. The earlier lack of standardization hindered the rise of a high level of performance. In 1752, the treatise On Playing the by suggests that a low level of playing was the standard of the time.20 One would expect this with no standardization of construction or tuning of the instrument. Included in these regional variations is the violone tuned in 3rd/4th’s that became the

Viennese standard. Over time regions began to develop schools of playing but even into the 19th century the tuning system through Europe remained varied. Examining various tuning systems throughout Europe from the late eighteenth century found the following variations by region:

18Brun, 99.

19 Mozart, Leopold. The Art of the Violin, Ed. Matthias Michael Beckmann. (Kulturverlag Polzer, 2010).

20Quantz, Johann Joachim. On Playing the Flute: The Classic of Baroque Classic Instruction, trans. Edward Reilly (London: Northeastern University Press), 246-250.

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Germany E-A-d-g France G-d-g , Italy, and A-d-g Vienna F-A-d-f#-a 21

This variation in tuning would continue into the 19th century even after the disappearance of the violone, but eventually the became E-A-d-g.

In the years leading up to the popularity of the violone many different tuning systems were explored. The general consensus of F-A-d-f#-a provided an advantage for the violone’s use as a solo instrument. Throughout Europe, many other bass instruments were evolving simultaneously but none of them acquired the number of compositions or public notoriety as did the Viennese violone.

21 Brun, 127. 14

Construction of the Violone

The tuning system of the violone differed from other tuning systems of the day. The constructional characteristics of the instrument were also unique. The body of the violone had a shape that was referred to as Wappenform (pear-shaped). Like most contemporary bass instruments, it had sloping shoulders. The sloping was much more pronounced, resulting in an upper part of the body that was much smaller than the lower, giving it a pear-shaped appearance.

The instrument had a flat back, similar to the early families of the and gamba. The instrument was topped with a large and elegant peg box, which would come to be known as a Viennese style peg box which contained wooden knob tuning pegs. The lower half of the fingerboard was equipped with frets made from gut and placed at every half step. The size of the instrument was also smaller than most of bass instruments of its day in Europe.22

In the 1960’s, Adolf Meier had the opportunity of examining nineteen instruments dating from 1729 to 1836, all but two were five-stringed. The instruments are listed below by craftsman, number of instruments, and year constructed.

Anton Posch Four basses 1729, 1733, 1738, and Unknown Johann Christoph Leidolf One bass 1740 Martin Fichtl II One bass Unknown date Johann Georg Thir One bass 1780’s Mathias Thir Two basses 1790’s and 1806 Sebastian Dalinger Two basses Unkown dates Joseph Stadlmann Two basses Second half of 18th Century Michael Ignaz Stadlmann One bass 1798 Martin Stoss Three basses Early 19th Century, 1822, and 1836 Jakob Stoer One bass 1822 Johann Hinle One bass 1819

22 Focht, 51. 15

Meier’s findings give insight into the standard construction of the violone. The back, ribs, and neck were cut from one type of wood, usually . The top of the instrument had more variation in the type of wood used, to include , fruitwood, or beech. This top would be arched without edges and was nailed to the inside blocks using wooden pegs built on the ribs.

The ribs would fit into grooves which had been cut into the neck and back with the ends attached without the use of corner blocks. The was carved from the belly slab, sometimes in the middle of the top. Cross bars were pressed onto the back of the instrument by blocks which were glued vertically on the ribs. Parchment strips were glued above and below the F holes to prevent cracks. The would be scalloped and rounded on the lower end. Meier took measurements of all the instruments and the averages come to:

Overall length: 196 cm Body length: 112 cm Width of upper bout: 48 cm Width of lower bout: 63.5 cm Rib sides: 22.5 cm Vibrating length of string: 108 cm

One of the most important results from Meier’s findings is that the characteristics and especially the measurement of all these instruments differ only slightly. This establishes a regional tradition of bass building that was unique to Vienna.23 All of the instruments but two were originally five stringed (most have since been converted to four). The 1836 instrument by

Martin Stoss is the first instrument to be built as a four stringed instrument. From this point on

Viennese markers started building four stringed basses regularly, but maintaining the regional characteristics and dimensions. This is confirmed by the examining of instruments built in

Vienna after 1836 by the makers Wilhem Rupprecht, Franz Feilenreiter, Gabriel Lemboeck,

23 Meier, 10. 16

Joseph Hamberger, and David Bittner. It can be concluded that almost all basses built between

1729 until 1830 in Vienna were built as five string instruments.24

The structural properties of the violone gave many advantages to its use as a solo instrument. The smaller construction meant that a shorter distance needed to be covered to execute passages that had large leaps or spanned multiple . The size also meant a shorter string length which, combined with a thinner strings, allowed for a quick response from the bow.

The heavily sloped upper shoulders of the instrument made it easier for the performer to access the upper range of the instrument, making solo passages in the upper easier to execute.

The quicker response made getting a clear articulation easier for the performer and gave the instrument a clarity not found in other bass instruments of the era, especially in faster passages.

The violone also had frets that provided clarity and pitch accuracy but also allow a performer to play multiple notes by depressing one finger across the fingerboard at the . Without the frets this “bar chord” method of performing double or triple stops would produce a muffled and unclear articulation. These structural differences gave the violone a technical advantage as a solo instrument and as an independent participant in chamber and ensemble works.

24 Meier, 10. 17

The Violone’s Tuning System

The feature that truly allowed violone to flourish as a solo instrument in concerti and chamber works was its 3rd/4th tuning system.25 The F-A-d-f#-a tuning allowed for efficient execution of typical musical figures of the era. An instrument utilizing 3rd/4th tuning could play more scales in one position or with minimal shifting, allow for execution of with open strings or minimal fingerings, and gave the instrument a sustained sound quality due to the convenience of open strings and .26 The tuning also allowed easy execution of passage work across all the strings with minimal shifting and passages that could be played in one position. In particular this tuning allowed for and promoted efficiency and harmonically oriented playing, especially in the keys of D, A, G, and b. The idiomatic writing for the violone generally lies better on a bass with this tuning system and the distinctive features of the Viennese style were based on the exploitation of chord-oriented figuration and patterns idiomatic to the instrument. Many times there is only one way to finger the passages written for the violone’s tuning system.27

A technical analysis of the fingering system can make the 3rd/4th tuning system clearer. A number of fingerings on manuscripts have survived from the collection of Viennese bassist and composer Johannes Sperger (1750-1812) which can give us a glimpse into the performance practice of the era. The fingering of whole steps in half through third position would use a 1-4 fingering with 1-2 and 2-4 being used for half steps. In fourth position Sperger’s playing of a major third of eb-f-g on the A-string (top string) would use a 1-2-4 fingering. The sixth position

25 Baines, Francis. “The Five String Fretted Double Bass.” The Gaplin Society Journal Vol. 14, (Oct. 1988), 109.

26 Schultz, 60.

27 Brun, 103. 18

on the A-string would articulate the notes g-a-bb with a fingering of 1-3-4.28 When applying this applicatura (a systematic fingering) to scales and arpeggios the advantages of the 3rd/4th tuning becomes clearer. The execution of B, F, and C major scales can be performed in half position without shifting. G major can be performed with a half shift from first to half position when crossing from the D to f# string. The A major scale can be performed all in first position. To the technically proficient bassist, the fingering and ability to execute these scales might not seem impressive, but the advantages of this tuning system can be seen when applied to early classical figurations. There are the arpeggiated chords with an open string being used as the bass of the . For example, in A major a tonic can be articulated through both open A- strings, a subdominant arpeggio by using the D-string, and first inversion of the subdominant with the F#-string. The same can be transposed to the keys of D major and b minor.29

Due to the capabilities of the instrument in specific keys, the violone became a with its own scordatura to expand its versatility into more keys. The strings of the violone would be tuned up a half step to Gb-Bb-eb-g-bb. This scordatura would transfer all its advantages in previous keys of D, A, G, and b minor to the new keys of Eb, Bb,

Ab, and c minor.30

The tuning system allowed for many virtuosic displays of artistry but only in the previously stated centers. Therefore, the compositions written for the violone tended to be written in just a few prominent keys and did not stray very far from the tonic. An analysis of eighty-seven movements of Viennese concertante written for violone and orchestra from this era,

28 Focht, 43.

29 Meier, 11.

30 Meier, 11. 19

one finds only nine different key centers.31 Below is a list to illustrate the findings of this analysis.

D Major 26 movements Eb Major 29 movements Bb Major 14 movements A Major 8 movements d minor 3 movements G Major 2 movements Ab Major 2 movements c minor 2 movements C Major 1 movement

Notable in this analysis is the frequency of D Major and Eb Major. These would both be read by the performer in the key of D Major. To achieve the Eb Major tonality the performer would use a scordatura by tuning each of the violone’s strings up a half step, therefore reading in D but sounding in Eb. Furthermore, the keys of D and Eb occur most often in faster movements due to their figurative potential that would create a virtuosic aesthetic required of a soloist. From this analysis we see that the instrument’s virtuosic potential was limited to very few keys.

These advantages can best be illustrated by the Dittersdorf Konzert E-dur, Krebs 172.

The music is read by the performer in the key of D Major with the instrument tuned up one whole step so that it in E Major. The opening statement of the soloist is a six bar phrase that can be performed in two positions with all open strings and one finger for the harmonics at the octave. In modern tuning, the most common execution of the passage includes third positions and many more fingerings. In measure 38, a performance on the violone can execute this measure with no shifts, whereas in modern tuning four shifts are required in this single measure.

In measure 53, the violone requires one shift and one finger. When performed on a modern bass

31 Meier, 11. 20

the passage requires 10 shifts and many more fingerings.32 These three examples come from the first page of the solo part and can be found throughout the piece. These passages, when performed on modern instruments, require more shifts, fingerings, and practice to execute. When performed with period tuning, they can be executed with minimal or no shifting and sometimes performed all with one finger. With this type of ease in executing technical passages the violone’s literature grew and it became a successful solo instrument in the public sphere in

Vienna.

32 Dittersdorf, Karl Ditters von. Kontrabass Konzert E-Dur. Arranged and edited by Tobias Gloeckler. Munich: G. Henle Verlag, 2002. 21

Literature and Champions of the Violone

The first idiomatic composition that has been found for the violone is a Partita for violin and bass written by Georg M. Mann (1717-1750) in Vienna.33 This date is early in the violone’s development but proof of the presence of the tuning system within Viennese musical culture.

The violone’s prominence grew over the course of the 18th century, reaching its peak between

1760 and 1800. In addition to the over thirty concerti for violone, there were many compositions written with the violone in solo and obbligato roles.34 Prominent composers of the late eighteenth century, including Karl Ditters von Dittersdorf, Wenzel Pichl, Anton

Zimmermann, , Johann Baptist Vanhal, Johann Matthias Sperger,

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and Joseph Haydn wrote concerti, chamber music, and prominent passages for the violone, establishing the tuning system as a regional standard.

During this forty year period, the history of the violone can be broken into two generations by composers, performers, and the technical demands of the compositions.35 The first generation is represented by Karl Ditters von Ditterdorf, Wenzel Pichl, Joseph Haydn,

Joseph Kampfer, and Friedrich Pischelberger, encompassing the years between 1760 and 1780.

This era includes most of the technical developments of the violone and its rise in popularity.

The technical requirements to perform these works were only a little more demanding than those required in orchestral violone playing.

33 Brun, 102.

34 Jacobson, Harry. “The Edition of an Unpublished Solo-.” International Society of Bassists Vol. XV, no. 1 (Fall 1988), 58.

35 Focht, 51. 22

The second generation is represented by Franz Anton Hoffmeister, Anton ,

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Johann Baptist Vanhal, and Johann Matthias Sperger, dating from

1780 and 1800. The era includes the repertoire and performers that represent the zenith of

Viennese violone performing.

The next passage will introduce some of the musicians for whom the violone music was composed. Among the first generation of performers was Joseph Kampfer (1735-1796), hired by the court of Prince Esterhàzy in 1760.36 While in the orchestra of Prince Esterhàzy, Kampfer worked under the direction of Joseph Haydn (1732-1809). It is believed that most of the obbligato chamber music parts and bass solos in 6, 7, 8, 31, and 72 were intended for Kampfer.37 In 1763 Haydn composed Concerto per il Violone (Hob VII, 1) presumably for

Kampfer to perform. Unfortunately, this work was lost over time, presumably in a fire of the castle library.38 These pieces, written between 1761 and 1765, illustrate a progression of technical ability. The solos in each become progressively more difficult, requiring more skill to perform. These works highlight the development of technique during the early

1760’s.39 When examining these works they generally lie better on a bass with Viennese tuning.

In Haydn’s compositions the “Violone” is indicated on his scores through 1772. Haydn’s first use of the term “Contrabassi” was in his Symphony No. 56 (1774), but “Violone” continued to appear in chamber works.40 Kampfer would go on to become the first bass soloist to earn international notoriety, spending much of his career touring as a soloist. He was incredibly

36 Brun, 260.

37 Brun, 260.

38 Brun, 103.

39 Meier, 13.

40 Webster, James. “Violoncello and Double Bass in the Chamber Music of Haydn and his Viennese Contemporaries, 1750-1780.” Journal of the American Musicological Society, Fall 1976, 418. 23

successful in promoting the bass as a solo instrument, informing many international audiences of the true character and range of the instrument.41

The noted violonist Johann Georg Schwenda has been found on Esterhàzy documents indicating that he was hired on April 1761 as a bassoon player and violonist for a period of three years.42 Surviving documents from Esterhàzy inform us that the violone was in use and how it was strung. Bills for string instruments from 1763 to 1780 itemize the strings required for the orchestra; included in these are requests for violone strings.43 The evidence of these quality musicians, requests for violone strings, and number of compositions are proof that Haydn was primarily writing for the Viennese violone at Esterhàza.

By the mid 1760’s, the use of the Viennese tuning system and the instrument’s capabilities were well known. It was at this point that concerti and chamber works were composed more regularly. The first extant concerto was composed by Karl Ditters von

Dittersdorf ( 1739-1799) in 1767. It has become one of the best known and most performed works for the bass.44 In the same year a concerto by Wenzel Pichl (1741-1805) was composed.

Both of these concerti were premiered by Friedrich Pischelberger.

Friedrich Pischelberger (1741-1813) was born in Vienna. Pischelberger knew Dittersdorf and Pichl; the three of them played together in the Episcopal orchestra at Growardein from 1765 to 1769. Pischelberger’s abilities as a soloist and orchestral player are well documented in accounts by Dittersdorf.45 He taught one of the greatest of the next generation of Viennese

41 Brun, 263.

42 Webster, 418.

43 Webster, 420.

44Trumpf, Dittersdorf Preface.

24

violonists, Johann Matthias Sperger. Pischelberger was the bassist for whom Mozart’s Per

Questa Bella Mano, KV 612, was composed and premiered. It is known that Mozart composed this work for his professional friends in the ’s Freihaus Theatre Orchestra, of which Pischelberger was a member.46

Between 1765 and 1768, Dittersdorf and Pichl would both write two concerti for the violone. The concerti by Dittersdorf and Pichl are the earliest extant bass concerti and representative of the technical abilities for the violonists of the early generation of the Viennese golden age. The Viennese historian Alfred Planyavsky described the violones development well when he said:

The increasing demands on the violone in the orchestra , and trio sonatas led to a blossoming of chamber music in the first half of the eighteenth century, and concert music during the latter half. In quick succession, the violone was integrated into the divertimento literature and into new chamber music that did not include the thoroughbass. The violone, as a partner in duos (J. Mann, L. Borghi, Dittersdorf), trios (I. Hollzbauer, A. Lotti, J. Haydn), (Holzbauer, Telemann, Joseph and , Mozart), as well as (A. Filtz, Dittersdorf, Albrechsberger), took part in the development of the divertimento and the .47

The violone was a part of the fabric of Viennese musical culture, insofar that it was involved in the development of the divertimento and string quartet. Dittersdorf wrote a concertante for bass, viola, and orchestra, as well as several duets for viola and violone.48 Johann Georg

Albrechtsberger (1736-1809), during this early era of the violone, wrote many types of chamber works that included the instrument. He composed a trio of two and violone, a string quartet, a flute quartet, a viola trio, and a trio for flute, viola d’amore, and violone. The Viennese

45 Brun, 267.

46 Brun, 267.

47 Planyavsky, Alfred. Geschichte des Kontrabasses. (Verlegt Bei Hans Schneider, Tutzing. 1984), 125.

48 Meier, 11. 25

composer Georg Christoph Wagenseil (1715-1777) also contributed to the violone’s chamber repertoire composing a set of six Suite[s] des pieces for three celli and violone.49 In 1776, while living in Salzburg, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart composed Serenata Notturna (KV239) scored for two , viola, violone with tutti of strings and kettledrum.50

In 1777, the professional debut of Johann Matthias Sperger as a member of Archbishop

Joseph P. Batthyany’s orchestra occurred in Pressburg (now Bratislava). Sperger went on to write eighteen violone concerti and become the preeminent performer of the violone.51

It is with the Sperger’s debut that we see a shift from the first generation to the second generation of the Viennese violone era. The first generation required a technique similar to orchestral violone playing. The second generation would liberate the violone from its original bass role by being more melodic and technically demanding of the performer.52 The first concerto of this second generation was composed by Anton Zimmermann (1741-1781): it was written for and performed by Sperger.

Johann Matthias Sperger (1750-182) was born on March 23 in Feldsberg,

Niederoesterreich (now Valtice, Czech Republic). At seventeen, Sperger went to Vienna where he studied with Johann Georg Albrechtsberger and violone with Friedrich

Pischelberger.53

49 Webster, 422-423.

50 Focht, 51.

51 Focht, 45.

52 Focht, 51.

53 Sperger, Johann Matthias. Konzert (Nr. 2) D-Dur fur Kontrass und orchester. Arranged, edited, and forward by Klaus Trumpf. : Friedrich Hofmeister Musikverlag, 1999. 26

Sperger’s first known post was at the court of Archbishop Joseph P. Batthyany’s orchestra in Pressburg in 1777. The musical director was Anton Zimmermann. This year,

Sperger debuted his first concerto for violone. It was composed in the style of the first generation of violinists, and very comparable to Pichl.54 In 1778, Anton Zimmermann published a concerto for violone. The style became the new standard in violone writing. The work required the performer to execute double and triple stops more quickly, perform in a higher tessitura, and incorporated more virtuosic writing.55 During the following six years of Sperger’s employment with the Archbishop Batthyany, Sperger would become an active composer as well as performer writing eighteen symphonies, seven violone concertos, and a for flute, viola, and violone.56 When the orchestra in Pressburg was laid off in 1783, Sperger would move on to other courts as a violonist, he would continue to compose, and remained an active performer taking many leaves of absence to travel as a soloist.57 Following seven successful in for

King Friedrich Wilhelm II, Sperger was offered a position in the court orchestra of the Duke of

Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Friedrich Franz I.58

By the end of Sperger’s life he had composed many chamber works, forty-five symphonies, and thirty concertos for various instruments, eighteen of which were for violone.59

The golden age of the violone in Vienna may have ended with the death of Sperger in 1812.60 He

54 Meier, 14.

55 Brun, 268.

56 Brun, 268.

57 Trumpf, Sperger Preface.

58 Trumpf, Sperger Preface.

59 Brun, 269.

60 Meier, 15. 27

composed more works for the violone than had any other composer. Sperger spent much of his life collecting musical scores of violone concertos and at the time of his death in Meklenburg-

Schwerin his collection was donated to the Landesbibliothek in Schwerin, Germany. The collection included works by Luighi Borghi, Karl Ditters von Dittersdorf, Anton Zimmermann,

Wenzl Pichl, Karl Stamitz, Johann Baptist Vanhal, , Giambatista Cimador,

Franz Anton Hoffmeister, and himself. This collection of music makes up the majority of the surviving compositions for the violone from this era.61

Franz Anton Hoffmeister (1754-1812) was a German composer and in

Vienna during the peak of the Viennese violone’s popularity.62 Historically, Hoffmeister is best remembered as a music publisher, but he was also a composer and conductor. By the 1780’s, he had become one of Vienna’s most popular composers with an extensive catalogue of works.

Hoffmeister composed eight , forty-four symphonies, many concertos, large amounts of string chamber music, music and several collections of .63 In 1785, he had the second largest music publishing business in Vienna. In that same year, Hoffmeister composed his first concerto for the violone.64 He founded a second publishing company, Bureau de Musique, now known as C. F. Peters, in Leipzig.65 By 1806, Hoffmeister had sold his interests in both publishing companies in an effort to have more time for composing. As a composer, Hoffmeister contributed three concertos and four solo-quartets to the violone’s repitoire. The concertos are

61 Brun, 110.

62 Clive, Peter. Mozart and his Circle: A Biographical Dictionary (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), 160.

63 Lawford-Hinrichsen, Irene. Music Publishing and Patronage: C. F. Peters: 1800 to the Holocaust. (Kenyon: Edition Press, 2000), 3-7.

64 Hoffmeister, Franz Anton. Konzert Nr.1. Arranged, edited, and forward by Tobias Gloeckler. Munich: G. Henle Verlang, 2002.

65 Jacobson, 59. 28

challenging with writing in the higher tessitura and many double and triple stop passages. It is believed that these works were composed for Sperger around 1790.66 solo-quartets are unique; they are string quartets with the violone performing the lead violin part. These are written in the early classical solo concerto style when it comes to the structural interplay of the soloist and the ensemble.67

Johann Baptist Vanhal (1739-1813) was well known among his contemporaries as a composer, violinist, and teacher. Vanhal was a prolific composer, with one hundred quartets, seventy symphonies, ninety-five sacred works, and a large number of instrumental and vocal works being attributed to him.68 He lived and worked in Vienna for most of his life, knew Haydn and W. A. Mozart, and achieved international popularity as a composer of string quartets, piano music, and symphonies.69 Vanhal grew up in Bohemia, but moved to Vienna in 1761. It is here that he studied with Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf. By the year 1780, Vanhal was in touch with all the leading musicians of his time, performing publically with Kozeluch and playing string quartets with Haydn, Mozart, and Dittersdorf. Both Haydn and Mozart led his symphonies, which were published and disseminated throughout Europe.70 Unfortunately, surviving autograph manuscripts by Vanhal are rare due to the fact that he did not hold a court or church appointment and his works were not stored by a single institution.71 Vanhal wrote three chamber

66 Meier, 12.

67 Jacobson, 58.

68 Bryan, Paul Robery. Johann Wanhal, Viennese Symphonist: His Life and His Musical Environment. (Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press, 1997), 18.

69 James, David Wyn. “Vanhal, Dittersdorf, and the Violone.” , Vol. 10, No. 1, The Recorder: Past and Present (Jan. 1982), 64.

70Vanhal, Jan Krtitel. Konzert D-Dur fur Kontrabass und Orchestra. Arranged and edited by Klaus Trumpf. Leipzig: Freidrich Hofmeister Musikverlag, 1995. Preface by Kalus Trumpf.

29

works for the violone; Cassatio in D, Divertimento in G, and Trio in D. However, Vanhal’s main contribution to the bass literature is his concerto written for the violone between the years of

1785 and 1789. It is believed to have been written for Johann Matthias Sperger. The only surviving copy of this work is a manuscript found in Sperger’s estate. The cadenzas are in

Sperger’s handwriting; further evidence that the concerto was written for him.72 This concerto has become one of the most played and recorded in the classical bass repertoire.

A true testament to the popularity of the Viennese violone is having non-bassist composers of the era writing for the instrument. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s (1759-1791) (KV 612) is an written for bass voice, obbligato violone, and orchestra

The original manuscript is dated March 8, 1791: one of Mozart’s final compositions.73 It is assumed that it was conceived as an interlude to an bouffe by a different composer.74 The aria is dedicated to the singer Franz Xaver Gerl and the violonist Friedrich Pischelberger, both of whom were colleagues with Mozart at the Schikaneder Freihaus Theatre in Vienna. Gerl sang the part of Sarastro in the premiere of and was also known as an actor and composer in Vienna.75 The aria is very challenging for double bassists because the work is very much tailored to the 3rd/4th tuning system. The modern bass tuned in fourths requires a greater technical proficiency than Mozart originally intended.76 The work, when performed in 3rd/4th tuning, is of a technical standard associated with the first generation of performance. In this work, the eighth

71 Jones, 64.

72 Trumpf, Vanhal Preface.

73 Focht, 51.

74 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus. Per Questa Bella Mano. edited by Tobias Gloeckler. Leipzig: Friedrich Hofmeister Musikverlag, 1996. Preface by Tobias Gloeckler.

75 Gloeckler, Mozart Preface.

76 Gloeckler, Mozart Preface. 30

position is the distinct upper limit. The writing is more chordal and rhythmically driven. The lack of use of the upper tessitura and lack of linear melodic material are key identifiers of the earlier generation. This offers a glimpse into Pichelberger’s technical abilities as a performer. 77

A comparison of this work (1791) written for Pichelberger and the Vanhal concerto

(c.1788) written for Sperger yields a clear distinction between the two generations of the

Viennese violone classical era, and offers a look at the performing standard of the top two virtuosi from their respective generations. A clear distinction is melodic style is present from the start. The Mozart bass part is triadic in nature with the opening statement being completely based on arpeggios. This is very consistent with the early generation of violone performing and similar to the opening of the Dittersdorf concerto, which was also written for Pichelberger. In contrast, the Vanhal solo part is melodic in nature and possesses a much more lyrical aesthetic. The first arpeggio section does not occur in the Vanhal until the sixteenth measure of the solo part (m.

36). This distinction in compositional style is consistent throughout both of the works. When comparing the use of the instruments range another clear distinction can be drawn. In the Mozart, the bass part rarely ventures far behond the octave where begins. The parts that do exceed this threshold are arpeggios or scalar passages moving by steps, examples being m.

27, m. 38, and m. 60. In contrast, the Vanhal bass part spends entire passages above the octave and the musical material is lyrical, examples can be found in mm. 32-36 and mm. 43-47.78 The choice of melodic material and musical range is the distinction between the early generation and the late generation of Viennese Violone performance. The early generation expanded the upon

77 Meier, 14.

78 Trumpf, Vanhal Preface. 31

abilities required of an orchestral , whereas the later generation required abilities much higher than the orchestral standard of playing.

32

Decline of the Violone

The popularity of the violone did not survive the changing musical landscape at the turn of the 19th century. For forty years, the violone had many champions and an identifiable shift in the writing for the instrument as the artists became more proficient and the musical language of

Vienna began to change.

At the beginning of the Romantic era, music theorists established the concept of tonality to describe the harmonic vocabulary inherited from the Baroque and Classical periods. Romantic composers sought to fuse the large structural harmonic planning demonstrated by earlier masters such as Bach, Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven with further chromatic innovations in order to achieve greater fluidity and contrast and to meet the needs of longer works.79 Chromaticism grew more varied as did dissonances and their resolutions. Composers modulated to increasingly remote keys, and their music often prepared the listener less for these modulations than did the music of the classical era. Sometimes, instead of a pivot chord, a pivot note was used. The properties of the diminished seventh and related chords, which facilitate modulation to many keys, were also extensively exploited.80 Composers such as Beethoven, and later Richard

Wagner, expanded the harmonic language with previously unused chords and innovative chord progressions. Romantic composers were also influenced by technological advances, including an increase in the range, power, improved chromatic abilities, and greater projection of the instruments of the symphony orchestra.81

79 Stroll, Marie. “The Development of Western Music.” 3rd edition. Boston, M.A.:McGraw-Hill, 1998. 430.

80 Burnett, Henry and Nitzberg, Roy. “Compostion, Chromaticism and the Development Process: A New Theory of Tonality.” Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2007. 299-301.

81 Saint-Dizier, Patrick. “Musical Rhetoric: Foundations and Annotation Schemes.” London: ISTE Ltd, 2014. 2.2.4-2.2.5 33

The official end of the golden age of the Viennese violone corresponded with the death of

Sperger in 1812, but there was one further virtuoso violonist. Johann Hindl (1792-1862) performed recitals yearly from 1810 to 1830 but never received the notoriety of his predecessors due to the changing musical climate. At first, the public could be counted upon to listen patiently to his dazzling displays of virtuosity and stunts in the manner of Paganini. However, over time the public lost interest.82

The growing discontent of reviewers of the time illustrate the violone’s fall from the center stage and eventually from use all together. A number of these people pointed out that these performances belonged to an upside-down world and were a mere mockery of the instrument. In Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart, a German poet, organist, composer, and journalist, registered the complaint:

Recently, some virtuosos […] have even played solos on that gigantic instrument. It stands to reason that, in this case, the instrument should be fitted with four or five strings. However, they did not produce a great effect; one could not but admire the endeavor but did not feel anything. Intended as a pedestal, this instrument will never become the monument itself. Houses are built from the bottom up, not from the top down […] One should bear in mind that such an enormous bass instrument is not made for solos. It sounds like a mockery and, because of its rumbling sound, often becomes comically clumsy like a bear. 83

In 1802 Sperger performed at Merchants’ Market in Leipzig. The Allgemeine

Musicalische Zeitung of Leipzig reviewer considered this performance a tour de force on what he considered an orchestral rather than a solo instrument:

Hr. Sperger, chamber musician to the Duke of Meklenberg Schwerin, performed two bass concertos. He accomplished the most, and more, of what can be expected of an instrument which is not made for solo performances.84

82 Hanslick, Eduard. Geschichte des Concertwesens in Wien, Vienna: Braumüller, 1869. 246.

83 Schubart, Christian Friedrich Daniel. Ideen zu einer Aesthetik der Tonkunst, Vienna 1806.

84 Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung, 50 Jahrgänge. Leipzig: Breitkopf und Härtel. 16 Jan. 1802, Col. 251. 34

A number of theoreticians did not accept the instrument playing the upper voice in a solo or a concerto and emphasized the orchestral unbalance resulting from its use in such a way:

A contraviolone is indispensable to play the bass in the of bass solos, violoncello solos or concertos, or even bassoon solos or concertos. The opposite of what I have just stated is not valid. I mean, do not believe that violone solos and concertos are appropriate, as they should be played without accompaniment and, besides, they are mere shows where on plays on the first, g string, what would probably sound better on the violoncello on account of its tuning in fifths. My opinion is that the contraviolone should only be used for the fundamental voice. Besides, it should stop playing in repeated phrases played piano where the violoncellos and the violas only should be left to play the bass part. Only in the following cases may the violone be used for the : -When, in a Cantus Firmus, the melody is given to the bass part. -In the case of . -When the bass part plays the theme, or imitates it, as well as in a fugue or such similar movement where the voices follow each other. It is foolish and unnatural to set forth playing the melody on a 16-foot bass throughout a concerto. To let 4-foot and 8-foot voices perform the accompaniment pertains to an upside-down world. I consider a pedal solo in the course of an organ concert as more valid, considering that the 16-foot voice is not played alone, but with the addition of mixed 8’,4’, or 2’ register voices, which enhances the pedal melody. one should be quite satisfied with a violonist who does not play solos but who can satisfactorily accompany solos of bassoon or violoncello on his low-pitched instrument.85

In 1816, Dr. C. Nicolai observed that violone concertos were not as interesting as, for example, violin, flute, or concertos. “In order to ensure a good performance”, he wrote, “a good player with a good instrument were necessary […] as well as an interested audience.” 86 He deplored that good compositions for violone were exceedingly rare, as they consisted most of the time in -like passage-work played in thumb position which was more fitting to the cello in its nature and character.87

85Petri, Johann Samuel. Anleitung zur praktischen Musik, Leipzig: Breitkopf, 1782.

86Nicholai, Dr. C. Das Spiel auf dem Contrabass. Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung of Leipzig. 16/17 April 1816, Col. 258.

87Nicholai, 258. 35

The florid style of this school of playing which developed during the Viennese Classical period is what led to its downfall. The 3rd/4th tuning that facilitated virtuosic effects in a few given keys, rendered modulations in the course of a piece virtually impossible. These limitations were no drawback during a time when the tonal possibilities of the orchestra were limited due to the use of valveless instruments. The horns and of Haydn’s and Mozart’s era were also limited in their ability to modulate.88 As these instruments advanced and modulations to foreign keys became easier, the limitations of the violones tuning system became a hindrance.

The violone’s lack of versatility left the instrument incapable of meeting the changing requirements of the Romantic era during the early 19th century.89

The fact that the tuning system of the violone was unable to meet the harmonic requirements of the changing musical landscape was one of the contributing factors to the instrument’s demise, the other was the structural limitations of the instrument itself. When comparing a violone with a standard double bass it is striking how dissimilar the two are from one another. The violone was built with a lighter construction and frets, which favored clarity and responsiveness to the detriment of fullness and volume. The image of an orchestral bassist sawing away at his un-co-operative instrument fitted with very thick, tense, high-action strings contrasted sharply with the Viennese soloist taking center stage to perform virtuosically on his more nimble violone.90 The orchestral double bass was built for tonal power rather than agility and intended for maximum effect, the role was to play heavy, fundamental notes capable of holding the ensemble together rhythmically and harmonically.

88 Meier, 15.

89 Brun, 105.

90 Brun, 105. 36

As the orchestra grew larger and new wind instruments were introduced, the last remaining members of the viol family, unable to provide a solid foundation to the growing symphony orchestra, fell from favor and use in the ensemble and were replaced by modern instruments.91 The violone’s trouble projecting over the ensemble’s texture and its lack of rhythmic impact led a musical reviewer to suggest in 1800 that it was a mistake to use only five- stringed instruments in orchestral situations, as was the case at the Italian Opera Orchestra housed in Vienna’s Kaerntnertortheater:

As for the violones, one could wish that all five of them would not be five- stringers and that the gentlemen would be a little quieter. During loud fortes, the rasp and rumble rather than produce a clear and percussive sound, which would promote the ensemble.92

Further evidence of the change from the violone to the modern bass can be seen in the re- edition of Albrechtsberger’s work Grandliche Anweisung zur Compostition which stated in 1790 that unfretted three or four string basses tuned E A d g or F A d g were rarely seen any longer in

Viennese . In the 1837 re-edition Ignaz von Seyfried altered the sentence to say: “E A d g or F A d g: This tuning is generally to be found, along with three stringers, in all well organized orchestras.”93 This gradual demise of the violone is confirmed by two accounts from the turn of the nineteenth century by Nicolai in 1816 and George Kastner in 1837. Both stated that the violone is the most rarely used of any type of bass and that the modern tuning in fourths of E A d g is the most common.94

91 Brun, 106.

92 Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung, 50 Jahrgänge. Leipzig: Breitkopf und Härtel. 15 Oct. 1800, ‘Italienische Oper’, Col. 42.

93 Albrechtsberger, Johann Georg. Grandliche Anweisung zur Compostition. Edited by Ignaz von Seyfried, Leipzig: Breitkopf. 1837.

94 Brun, 107. 37

As a result of the public’s dissatisfaction with the violone, gradually stopped producing the instrument and began adapting new building techniques for producing modern four string basses. The new instruments kept the traditional shape and general dimensions, it no longer used frets and was strung with heavier strings. The original violone’s bass bar was too weak to withstand the increase in pressure, leading to a stronger bar and thicker soundpost being used in the construction. An illustration of this can be seen in the basses made by Martin Stoss dating from the turn of the nineteenth century to 1836. Stoss’s first instruments all were made to be five-string violones but after 1836, on the instruments were built as four string modern basses.95 The fact that luthiers stopped making the violone is a sign that the instrument was obsolete. The public had lost interest in the violone as a solo instrument and as an orchestral instrument it was unable to easily execute modulations or provide a strong foundation for the ensemble. Luthiers adapted their building techniques and the violone became an instrument of the past.

95 Brun, 107. 38

Epilogue

The violone became an instrument of the past, a stop along the way of double bass history. Much like the , gamba, or , it was successful during its time and enjoyed a host of performers and compositions. As the musical culture changed, it no longer had a place. The attributes that had made the instrument so successful were those that would lead to its demise. The unique tuning system that allowed it to perform incredible feats of virtuosity left it unable to perform efficiently in more than a few given keys. The thinner strings, which allowed for fast articulations with the bow, where unable to project a resonant enough sound for the larger orchestras of the nineteenth century. When equipped with thicker strings to increase projection the tension was too much for the thinner construction of the instruments body, bass bar, and to withstand. The violone was therefore unable to meet the demands of the romantic era harmonically and structurally. The ‘Golden Age of Virtuosity’ had come to an end and the violone became a thing of the past.

By the middle of the 19th century, the Viennese violone had been forgotten and the modern double bass that survives today became the standard. The modern bass had a stronger construction to withstand the higher tension of thicker strings. Structural changes made the instrument louder and the sound fuller which provided the support needed for the 19th century orchestra. It became a four string instrument tuned in fourths allowing for modulation to any key much easier. The violones that survived where adapted to meet these demands and were no longer violones but double basses. The few Viennese compositions that survived left the double bass community baffled as to how the works could be performed with the modern tuning system.

These works were heavily edited and often thought to be composed for a different instrument

39

altogether, mostly the cello.96 continued on and the Viennese violone was forgotten.

The discovery of Sperger’s library in Schwerin and the research of Klaus Trumpf and

Adolf Meier created a renewed interest in the literature and the instrument for which it was written. Research has continued and recent years many editions have been published as the popularity for this instrument, its history, and its literature have grown.97

This document has been a discussion of the development, blossoming, and decline of the

Viennese violone during the 18th century. It is the purpose of this document to further educate bassists on this repertoire. A detailed look at how the very attributes that enabled the instrument to succeed, ultimately led to its demise. This document should lead to an understanding of an instrument has left the bass community with a diverse catalogue of musical repertoire. The

Viennese violone, an incredible chapter in the history of the double bass that is known as ‘The

Golden Age of Vurtiosity’.

96 Webster, 425.

97 Gajdos, Miloslav. “Kromeriz Castle Archives, The Existence of Double Bass Compositions from the Second Half of the 18th Century.” International Society of Bassists Vol. XIV, no. 1 (Fall 1987), 18. 40

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43