Undergraduate Review
Volume 8 Article 15
2012 A Call to Prayer: A Cross-Cultural Examination of Religious Faith, Modesty, and Body Image Heidi Woofenden
Follow this and additional works at: http://vc.bridgew.edu/undergrad_rev Part of the Other Psychology Commons, and the Women's Studies Commons
Recommended Citation Heidi Woofenden recently graduated with a Bachelor of Science in Psychology. This article is an abridged version of her honors thesis, completed under the mentorship of Dr. Teresa King.
This item is available as part of Virtual Commons, the open-access institutional repository of Bridgewater State University, Bridgewater, Massachusetts. Copyright © 2012 Heidi Woofenden A Call to Prayer: A Cross-Cultural Examination of Religious Faith, Modesty, and Body Image
Heidi Woofenden
Heidi Woofenden ody image, a multidimensional construct encompassing the perception recently graduated and evaluation of appearance, was examined in connection with religious faith and modesty of dress in a sample of 291 Jordanian and with a Bachelor of 189 American women university students. Participants completed the Science in Psychology. BMultidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire-Appearance Scales, the This article is an Santa Clara Strength of Religious Faith Questionnaire, and a modesty scale. As hypothesized, Jordanians reported more favorable body image evaluations, greater abridged version of her honors thesis, religious faith, and greater modesty than Americans. Also, religious faith was completed under the mentorship of positively correlated with better body image for both groups. Although religious Dr. Teresa King and funded by the faith and modesty were weak predictors of better body image, culture was found to be the overwhelming predictor. Results suggest that Jordanian culture, and to a Students and Mentors Abroad in lesser degree religious faith (particularly Islam), are potentially protective against Research Teams and several Adrian negative body image. Tinsley Program grants. An ongoing project since spring of 2009, this Introduction Although every human has an identity and a body to complement it, not research has been presented at every human experiences this body the same way, nor experiences the same numerous BSU symposia as well as influences on their body image. Culture has been shown to have great the 2011 National Conference on influence on body perceptions and body image (Akiba, 1998; Mahmud and Crittenden, 2007; Nasser, 1986), and specific aspects of culture, such as Undergraduate Research in Ithaca, religion, are thought to buffer against body dissatisfaction and more serious NY. Along with her mentor and disorders associated with it (Homan & Boyatzis, 2010; Joughin, Crisp, Halck, a fellow student researcher, Heidi & Humphrey, 1992; Kim, 2006; Mahoney, et al., 2005; Smith, Hardman, Richards, & Fischer, 2003). was invited to lead a workshop entitled “Middle East Meets West: Although it is at first glance a superficial construct, body image affects most A Cross-National Examination of (if not all) aspects of human experience, including emotions, thoughts, behaviors, and relationships (Pruzinsky & Cash, 2004). Those suffering from Body Image” at the 2010 Hidden body dissatisfaction or body disturbance may experience reduced functioning in Plain Sight: The Pleasures, Policy, in these areas or even total loss of control, as in the case of eating disorders. and Politics of Muslim Women and Scholars increasingly agree that body image embodies so much more than their Bodies Conference in New its most basic sense, a person’s perception and evaluation of their physical appearance (Cash & Pruzinsky, 2004). Defining it can be difficult because York, NY. After gaining additional of its multifaceted nature. According to Thompson (1996), so many terms research experience, Heidi plans to are used to define the different dimensions that they inevitably get used pursue graduate studies in clinical interchangeably when perhaps they should not. psychology.
BridgEwater State UNIVERSITY 2012 • The undergraduate Review • 81 Over the years, a great deal of body image research has been actions (Ahmad, Waller, & Verduyn, 1994). Yet it also teaches conducted in the West, and generally body satisfaction has that Allah commands his followers to take care of the body gone down over time, plummeting for women (Cash, 2004). that he has given them (Mahmud & Crittenden, 2007; So common is body dissatisfaction in modern women of Odoms-Young, 2008). Research generally shows the impact of Western cultures, researchers have termed it “normative religion—and especially Islam—on body image to be positive discontent” (Rodin, Silberstein, & Striegel-Moore, 1985). This (Dunkel, Davidson, & Qurashi, 2010; Kim, 2006; Levin, growing increase in body dissatisfaction is often attributed to 1987, 1994; Mahoney et al., 2005; Mussap, 2009a, 2009b; the “thin ideal,” or the tall, extremely slender but large-breasted Strawbridge, Cohen, Shema, & Kaplan, 1997). Religious woman of Western media (Pokrywka, 2006; Ruggiero et al., people tend to judge themselves and others based on spiritual 2000; Williams, et al., 2006). Research has shown that Western characteristics rather than physical ones (Graybill & Arthur, acculturation and exposure to Western media negatively 1999; Nelson, 2009; Odoms-Young, 2008). They also may feel influence body image (Apter & Shah, 1994; Mussap, 2009a) less pressure to meet societal appearance and weight ideals if and encourage disordered eating (Berry, 1997; Dolan, 1991; they feel that they are living a rewarding life, which includes Lake, Staiger, & Glowinski, 2000; Nasser, 1986). For example, adequately participating in religious activities. a meta-analysis conducted by Groesz, Levine, and Murnen (2002) found that women’s body satisfaction decreased Islam also holds modesty for women highly important. significantly after viewing thin models as opposed to average or Traditional Islam mandates that only the face and hands overweight models or control images. should be visible when in public (Winter & Williams, 2002). Such modesty often takes the form of long, loose-fitting Body image concerns have been linked to poor self-esteem, clothing (e.g. jilbab dress or salwar-kameez pant suit) and a anxiety, depression, sexual dissatisfaction, dysfunctional eating hijab head covering to conceal the hair and ears. Research and exercise behaviors, and generally unhealthy behavior confirms that many Muslim women believe their religion and patterns that can develop into eating disorders and other modesty bolster their body image (Bigger, 2006; Droogsma, negative coping strategies (Gardner, 2004; Jefferson & Stake, 2007; Odoms-Young, 2008). According to those interviewed 2009; Rand, Resnick, & Seldman, 1997; Stice, 2004). Negative by Odoms-Young (2008), “by covering they were treated with body image is in fact a strong predictor of eating disorders more respect and viewed in a less sexual manner” (pg. 2581). (Garner, Olmstead, & Polivy, 1983; Stice, 2004; Stice, One woman went as far to say “you protect yourself by cover” Schupak-Neuberg, Shaw, & Stein, 1994; Striegel-Moore (p. 2579). & Franko, 2004), and body dissatisfaction is considered the “most immediate or proximal antecedent to the development of It is a common Western conception that modest dress on anorexia nervosa” (Gardner, 2004, pg. 295). Thus, body image the part of Muslim women is simply a mechanism of sexist is an important research area in the West, and increasingly so oppression (Cloud, 2004; Droogsma, 2007; Dunkel, et al., in other parts of the world as Western media and influence 2010; El Guindi, 1999). Although this may be the case for become more prevalent. some, most others seem to appreciate the relative safety and anonymity such coverage affords them, and would even go as Although research on non-Western body image could greatly far as to argue that the Western female custom of dressing (to benefit from expansion, it generally shows that individuals from Easterners) provocatively and constantly comparing oneself to non-Western cultures have better body image than those from others when in public is much more oppressive than covering Western cultures (Akiba, 1998; Barak, Sirota, Tessler, Achiron, up to control who sees “your beauty” (Bigger, 2006). “A woman and Lampl, 1994; Mahmud and Crittenden, 2007; Nasser, who wears a hijab can be active and engaged, educated and 1986). In an extensive survey of 800 Jordanian women of all professional” (Bigger, 2006, p. 219). In other words, a hijab ages (18-73 years), Madanat and colleagues (2011) discovered does not signify weakness or repression. that, in contrast to Western women who strive to be thin, Jordanian women simply want a “normal” body size. Although Current Study a large percentage (66.1) desired to lose weight, the majority of The purpose of the current study was to compare university these participants fell within the overweight or obese ranges. women from Jordan and the United States on strength of Furthermore, 12.7% of the overweight and obese participants religious faith, modesty, and body image. This age group is actually wanted to gain weight. especially relevant for body image research because it is at high risk for eating disorders (Rand, Resnick, & Seldman, 1997). Islam stresses acceptance of one’s body and de-emphasizes It was hypothesized that greater religious faith and modesty appearance, attributing the most importance to outward would be associated with and predict better body image,
82 • The undergraduate Review • 2012 BridgEwater State UNIVERSITY especially for Jordanians. Because Middle Eastern cultures tend American university students were recruited through postings to be more conservative and religiously oriented than Western in Bridgewater State University’s psychology department. Data cultures, it was predicted that Jordanians would have greater were collected starting in the spring semester of 2009, and religious faith and modesty than Americans, leading to greater ending in the fall semester of 2010 in the psychology research body image satisfaction for Jordanians. lab. Participants received either course credit for Introductory Psychology or extra credit for other courses. Method Approval to conduct this study was granted by Bridgewater Participants State University’s Institutional Review Board (IRB). Yarmouk The Jordanians (N = 291) ranged in age from 18 to 43 years University did not have an IRB, but its president granted (m = 21.45). Body mass indexes (BMIs) ranged from 13.71 to permission to collect data there. All participants signed an 58.92, averaging 21.67. The vast majority (91.4%) reported informed consent form and were treated with full respect, their nationality as Jordanian, with the small minority (8.6%) confidentiality, and in accordance with the guidelines reporting being Palestinian, Omani, Israeli, Qatari, Kuwaiti, established by the American Psychological Association. Bahraini, Egyptian, or Yemeni. Of those that reported their religion, the overwhelming majority (97%) were Muslim, Measures while a very small minority (1.7%) reported being Christian or Hindu (0.2%). Demographics. Participants from both countries were asked to self-report their gender, weight, height, ethnicity, and parents’ The Americans (N = 189) ranged in age from 18 to 63 years education. (m = 19.95), and BMIs ranged from 16.3 to 50.02, averaging 23.63. The vast majority (78%) reported being Caucasian, Body Image. The Multidimensional Body-Self Relations followed by 5.4% African American, 5% Latin American, Questionnaire-Appearance Scales (MBSRQ-AS; Cash, 2000) 4.6% Cape Verdean, 4.6% Other (including bi-racial), 1.5% is an abbreviated version of the MBSRQ, arguably the most Asian American, and 0.8 % Native American. Christianity was widely used and validated self-report measure of body image the dominant religion (74.8%) followed by “spiritual but no (Cash, 1994; Thompson, 1996; Thompson & Gardner, 2004). religious affiliation” (10%), agnostic (5.2%), atheist (4.8%), It has 34 items within a total of five subscales. These consist “other” (3.5%; several wrote in Unitarian Universalist), and of the Appearance Evaluation Subscale (AE), with a reported Jewish (0.9%). Cronbach’s alpha score of r = .88 (Cash, 2000) and items such as, “I like my looks just the way they are”; the Appearance Based on the reported education level of participants’ parents, Orientation Subscale (AO), with a reported Cronbach’s alpha overall both cultural samples appeared to be from middle to score of r = .88 (Cash, 2000), and items including “before upper socioeconomic status. going out in public, I always notice how I look”; the Body Areas Satisfaction Scale (BASS), with a reported Cronbach’s Procedure alpha score of r = .77 (Cash, 2000), and consisting of rating Data were collected at Yarmouk University located in Irbid, 8 specific body parts; the Overweight Preoccupation Subscale; Jordan during July 2009 and at Bridgewater State University and the Self-Classified Weight Subscale. For the current study, from September 2009 to November 2010. only the first three were analyzed, yet they provide a broad assessment of body image (Thompson, 1996). Subscales were Questionnaire packets were distributed within various scored by computing a mean of the scale items after reverse- classrooms at Yarmouk University. Several classes were visited scoring certain items. Scores range from one to five, with per day over a one-week span, and most (if not all) students higher scores indicating better appearance evaluation and body from each class consented (i.e. signed the informed consent areas satisfaction, and greater appearance orientation. form) and completed the questionnaire. To ensure accuracy, all Jordanian questionnaires were translated into Arabic and cross- Religious Faith. The Santa Clara Strength of Religious Faith checked by a second native Jordanian translator before copying Questionnaire (SCSORF) (Plante & Boccaccini, 1997a) was and distribution. Any items (such as certain demographics) used to assess religiosity. This 10-item measure is formatted requiring back-translation into English were transcribed by a as a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from “strongly disagree” third native Jordanian in the United States. to “strongly agree.” Questions include “my religious faith is extremely important to me” and “my faith impacts many of my decisions.” The SCSORF has been found to be valid and
BridgEwater State UNIVERSITY 2012 • The undergraduate Review • 83 Table 2. Summary of Intercorrelations as a Function of Culture
Measure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. AE -- -.28* .74** -.03 -.29** -.32** 2. AO .28 -- -.29** .10 -.02 -.02 3. BASS .64** .12 -- .17* -.29** -.27** 4. REL .10 .06 .16** -- -.04 .14 5. MOD .03 -.03 .03 .26** -- .14 6. Scarf -.03 -.05 .03 .20** .47** -- 7. BMI -.26** -.15* -.24** .03 .08 .11 --
Note. Intercorrelations for American women (N = 189) are presented above the diagonal, and intercorrelations for Jordanian women (N = 291) are presented below the diagonal. For all scales, higher scores are indicative of more extreme responding in the direction of the construct assessed. AE = Appearance Evaluation; AO = Appearance Orientation; BASS = Body Areas Satisfaction; REL = strength of religious faith; MOD = modesty; Scarf = observed head coverage; BMI = body mass index. * p < .05 ** p < .01 reliable with internal consistency scores ranging from r = .94 A Multivariate Analysis of Covariance (MANCOVA) revealed a to r = .97 (Plante & Boccaccini, 1997a, 1997b). Responses significant omnibus effect of culture on all dependent variables, were summed to produce a final strength of religious faith score F(5, 419) = 319.34, p < .001, λ = .79, multivariate η2 = .79. ranging from 10 (no faith) to 40 (high faith). Jordanian women scored significantly higher than American women on each measure: AE, F(1, 419) = 138.29, p < .001; Modesty. A modified version of the measure employed by AO, F(1, 419) = 160.04, p < .001; BASS, F(1, 419) = 85.53, Mussap (2009b) was used to assess modesty of dress. Participants p < .001; religious faith, F(1, 419) = 486.92, p < .001; and were asked to rate the extent to which they cover various parts modesty, F(1, 419) = 922.36, p < .001. Independent sample of their body when in public using a 5-point Likert-type scale t-tests revealed that Americans had significantly higher mean ranging from “never” to “always.” Specific body areas assessed BMI than Jordanians, t(353.14) = 4.65, p < .001, and BMI included hair, nose, mouth, neck, chest, shoulders, upper was a significant covariate between culture and the dependent arms, lower arms, hands, waist, legs, and feet. The original variables, F(5, 419) = 12.01, p < .001, λ = .13, multivariate η2 scale included “thighs” and “calves” but for the current study = .13. However, controlling for BMI through the MANCOVA these were combined as “legs” for cultural sensitivity purposes. Responses were averaged to produce a final modesty score Table 1 ranging from 12 (not at all modest) to 60 (very modest). Because many participants overlooked items, an allowance of Culture Jordanian American two missing values was made to still score. The original scale (N = 291) (N = 169) has a reported internal consistency of r = .88 (Mussap, 2009b), Variable M (SD) M (SD) and Cronbach’s alpha as calculated in the current sample was r = .92, indicating good internal consistency. In addition to the AE 4.09 (.61) 3.29 (.71) modesty scale, the extent of head/facial coverage exhibited by AO 4.22 (.42) 3.57 (.58) the Jordanian participants was directly observed and classified BASS 3.82 (.56) 3.23 (.67) into three categories: no head covering (1), hijab (2), and full REL 36.83 (4.72) 22.20 (9.24) veil (3). This is referred to in the results as “scarf score.” MOD 46.21 (7.34) 25.57 (6.36) Results Scarf 1.97 (.29) Means and standard deviations for all study variables and BMI BMI 21.67 (3.97) 23.62 (4.64) are presented in Table 1, and correlations are presented in Table 2.
84 • The undergraduate Review • 2012 BridgEwater State UNIVERSITY revealed that it did not affect the significance of the difference An intriguing finding was the way in which modesty related between body image scores. to body image for women of the different cultures. It was not correlated with any body image measures for Jordanian Multiple regressions showed that religious faith weakly but women, but was negatively correlated with both measures of significantly predicted higher BASS scores for both groups: body satisfaction for American women. This suggests that the Americans, R2= .03, F(1, 185) = 5.56, p = .019; Jordanians, American women covered because they were dissatisfied with R2= .03, F(1, 274) = 7.41, p = .01. Culture accounted for the their bodies and wanted to hide them—or at least specific parts majority of the variance in religious faith (R2= .52, F(1, 470) = of them—while the Jordanian women covered for reasons 511.63, p < .001) and modesty (R2= .67, F(1, 473) = 999.15, p unrelated to body satisfaction. < .001), and a significant amount in AE R( 2= .26, F(1, 474) = 171.9, p < .001), AO (R2= .29, F(1, 468) = 194.23, p < .001) Although Jordanian women were substantially more appearance- and BASS (R2= .19, F(1, 467) = 105.66, p < .001). oriented, they were still much more satisfied with their bodies than American women. This could mean that because they Discussion are more invested in their appearance—which could lead to The purpose of the current study was to compare university spending more time making themselves look good—they women from Jordan and the United States on strength of perceive themselves as more attractive and therefore have better religious faith, modesty, and body image. It was hypothesized body image. It also means that something is protecting them that greater religious faith and modesty would be associated from negative body image, because they seemingly pay more with and predict better body image, especially for Jordanians. attention to appearance but are less influenced by it, and are Because Middle Eastern cultures tend to be more conservative most likely internalizing Western beauty ideals less. Although it and religiously oriented than Western cultures, it was predicted is impossible from the data collected in this study to determine that Jordanians would have greater religious faith and modesty exactly what this factor is, results point to culture and religion. than Americans, leading to greater body image satisfaction for Religious faith was significantly positively correlated with Jordanians. and predicted body areas satisfaction for both groups, yet when culture was added to the equation, it became the only As hypothesized, Jordanian women had significantly better significant predictor. In highly pious societies such as Jordan, overall body image than American women. One might argue religion and culture go hand-in-hand, a possible explanation that an obvious explanation appears to be their significantly for this effect. lower mean BMI (21.67 as opposed to 23.62 for Americans). BMI was in fact negatively correlated with both measures of There were some notable limitations in this study, first and body satisfaction for women of both cultures. Yet even after foremost that the SCSORF and modesty scales have not been controlling for BMI through the MANCOVA, women’s mean validated across culture, and the MBSRQ has not been validated body image scores remained significantly different. on a Jordanian sample. The results cannot be generalized to all Jordanians or all Americans because neither sample ranged A more plausible explanation for the differing body image much in age nor was especially ethnically diverse, and both scores lies in Jordanian cultural and religious customs. were collected at a single university in the respective country. According to Dunkel, et al., (2010), Muslim women may hold beliefs, religious or otherwise, related to their modesty More cross-cultural (and especially Middle Eastern) body that provide protection against body image concerns. Droeber image research is needed, as well as research on religious faith of (2003) also witnessed that Muslim women pray more often all denominations in connection with body image. A study of and regularly than do Christian women, who are more likely religious faith and body image in a culture with more religious to pray when they “feel the need to do so” (p. 418) instead variability and/or integrating multiple measures of religiosity of according to a pattern like that dictated by Islam. In fact would add greatly to existing literature. And most importantly, a call to prayer is broadcasted throughout Jordan and other with increased knowledge comes improved prevention and Muslim countries five times a day, compelling citizens to pause treatment efforts. Understanding factors positively influencing and remember Allah. Due to culturally encouraged increased body image could potentially assist therapists and laypeople religious adherence (Jordanians were reportedly almost twice as seeking to improve body image and treat related disorders. religious as Americans in the current study) and the guidelines of Islam, most Jordanian women are much more modest in Acknowledgements their dress than American women. Thank you to my mentor, Dr. Teresa King, the Adrian Tinsley Program, the Office of Undergraduate Research, Joanne
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