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University Microfilms International
3(50 N. ZEEB ROAD, ANN ARBOR. Ml 48106 18 BEDFORD ROW, LONDON WC1R 4EJ, ENGLAND 8001763
K a r h o f f , N o r m a Ir e n e
CLOTHING-RELATED ATTITUDES AND THE BODY IMAGE AS PERCEIVED AND EXPRESSED BY BUSINESS AND PROFESSIONAL WOMEN
The Ohio State University Ph.D. 1979
University Microfilms International300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48106 18 Bedford Row, London WC1R 4EJ, England CLOTHING-RELATED ATTITUDES AND THE BODY IMAGE AS PERCEIVED
AND EXPRESSED BY BUSINESS AND PROFESSIONAL WOMEN
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate
School of The Ohio State University
By
Norma Irene Karhoff, Bo S., M.S
The Ohio State University
1979
Reading Committee: Approved By
Dr. Mary Lapitsky
Dr. Lois E. Dickey / a. t / /Adviser / Dr. Gisela J. Hinkle School of Home Economic ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
My eternal gratitude is hereby expressed to Professor Mary
Lapitsky for her unending encouragement, generous assistance, and
goodness of spirit during all phases of the research for and writing
of this dissertation. Special gratitude also goes to Dr. Lois E.
Dickey, Professor of Textiles and Clothing, and Dr. Gisela Hinkle,
Professor of Sociology, for their gracious assistance.
The 203 anonymous women who completed questionnaires needed
for the study richly deserve a special assertion of appreciation for
their cooperation. VITA
1957 ...... B.S., Pittsburg State University, Pittsburg, Kansas
1959 ...... M.S., Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas
1959-1968 ...... Instructor, Assistant Professor, and Associate Professor, Department of Home Economics, Emporia State University, Emporia, Kansas
1969-1974 ...... Assistant Professor and Chairman, Textiles and Clothing Division, School of Home Economics, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio
FIELDS OF STUDY
Major Field: Textiles and Clothing
Minor Fields: Sociology
Higher Education TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...... ii
VITA ...... iii
LIST OF TABLES ...... viii
LIST OF FIGURES ...... xi
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION...... 1
Purpose in the S t u d y ...... 5 Definition of T e r m s ...... 11
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE...... 13
Theoretical Framework...... 13 Selected Aspects of the Body Image .... 16 Clothing and the Body Image...... 19 Clothing-Related Attitudes ...... 25 Conformity and Individuality in D r e s s ...... 29 Modesty and Exhibitionism in Dress . . 31 Femininity and Masculinity in D r e s s ...... 32 Aestheticism and Functionalism in D r e s s ...... 33 Constancy and Change in D re s s ...... 35 S u m m a r y ...... 37
III. METHODOLOGY ...... 38
Selection of S a m p l e ...... 38 Women Belonging to Business Organizations ...... 40 Female Faculty Members ...... i 41 Development of Instruments ...... 41 Clothing-Related Attitudes Measure . . 42 Body Image Measure ...... 49 Impressions of Body Characteristics Measure ...... 50 The Final Questionnaire Form, ...... 53 Collection of D a t a ...... 53 Analysis of D a t a ...... 55
IV. PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA ...... 57
The Respondents: Descriptive Variables and Clothing-Related Attitudes...... 57 Occupational Group and Clothing- Related Attitudes ...... 38 Educational Level and Clothing- Related Attitudes ...... 58 Age and Clothing-Related A t t i t u d e s ...... 61 Summary of Descriptive Variables and Clothing-Related Attitudes ...... 64 Relationships Between Clothing- Related Attitudes ...... 67 Clothing-Related Attitudes and Satisfactions with the Body I m a g e ...... 70 Clothing-Related Attitudes and Characteristics of the Body I m a g e ...... 76 Characteristics of the Body Image as Expressed by the Business and Professional W o m e n ...... 76 Relationships Between the Clothing- Related Attitudes and Selected Visible Characteristics of the Body Image ...... 81 Summary of Relationships Between Clothing- Related Attitudes and Characteristics of the Body I m a g e ...... 104 Clothing-Related Attitudes and the Relative Importance of Personal Attractiveness .... 106
V. SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER S T U D Y ...... 110
Summary of Study ...... 110 Findings in the I n v e s t i g a t i o n ...... 112 Conclusions in the S t u d y ...... 117 Recommendations for Further Study ...... 127
APPENDIXES
A. LETTER SENT TO PRESIDENTS OF BUSINESS WOMEN'S ORGANIZATIONS ...... 129
v EXPLANATORY LETTERS SENT TO MEMBERS OF BUSINESS WOMEN'S ORGANIZATIONS AND ACADEMIC FACULTY WOMEN ...... 131
QUESTIONNAIRE INCLUDING CLOTHING ATTITUDE SCALE, BODY IMAGE SCALE, AND SOME VITAL STATISTICS ...... 134
STATEMENTS IN CLOTHING ATTITUDE SCALE WHICH MEASURE SPECIFIC ATTITUDES AND RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF PERSONAL ATTRACTIVENESS ...... 145
WEIGHT-HEIGHT RATIOS FOR WOMEN ...... 146
CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR RELATION SHIPS BETWEEN CLOTHING-RELATED a t t i t u d e s 147
CORRELATIONS BETWEEN SATISFACTIONS WITH IMAGES OF BODY (TRUNK), LOWER EXTREMI TIES, UPPER EXTREMITIES, FACE AND HEAD, AND TOTAL BODY ••#••••••••• 149
DISTRIBUTION OF HEIGHTS OF THE BUSINESS WOMEN, ACADEMIC FACULTY WOMEN, AND FOR THE TOTAL SAMPLE „ ...... 150
CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS BETWEEN ASPECTS OF THE BODY I M A G E ...... 151
DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHTS OF THE BUSINESS WOMEN, ACADEMIC FACULTY WOMEN, AND FOR THE TOTAL SAMPLE ...... 152
DISTRIBUTION OF THE WEIGHT-HEIGHT RATIOS OF THE BUSINESS WOMEN, ACADEMIC FACULTY WOMEN, AND FOR THE TOTAL SAMPLE ...... 153
DISTRIBUTION OF THE THINNESS-TO- HEAVINESS OF BUSINESS WOMEN, ACADEMIC FACULTY WOMEN, AND FOR THE TOTAL SAMPLE ...... 154
DISTRIBUTION OF THE BONE STRUCTURE OF THE BUSINESS WOMEN, ACADEMIC FACULTY WOMEN, AND FOR THE TOTAL S A M P L E ...... 155
vi N. DISTRIBUTION OF THE FIRMNESS-FLABBINESS OF FLESH OF THE BUSINESS WOMEN, ACADEMIC FACULTY WOMEN, AND FOR THE TOTAL SAMPLE 156
0. DISTRIBUTION OF THE SKIN COLORING OF THE BUSINESS WOMEN, ACADEMIC FACULTY WOMEN AND FOR THE TOTAL SAMPLE ...... 157
P. DISTRIBUTION OF THE HAIR COLORING OF THE BUSINESS WOMEN, ACADEMIC FACULTY WOMEN AND FOR THE TOTAL SAMPLE ...... 158
Q. DISTRIBUTION OF THE BODY TYPES OF BUSINESS WOMEN, ACADEMIC FACULTY WOMEN, AND FOR THE TOTAL SAMPLE 159
R. RANKINGS OF CERTAIN ATTITUDE SCORES ACCORDING TO BODY TYPE TO SHOW TENDENCY FOR ENDOMORPH AND ALL MESOMORPH TYPES TO HAVE ATTITUDES IN MODESTY, EXHIBITIONISM, FEMININITY, MASCULINITY, AESTHETICISM, AND CHANGE WHICH CONTRAST WITH ATTITUDES OF AVERAGE-ENDOMORPH, ENDOMORPH-AVERAGE, AND ALL ECTOMORPH T Y P E S ...... ' 160
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... " ...... 161
vii LIST OF TABLES
TABLE Page
1. RANGES, MEAN VALUES, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND RELATIVE RANKS OF SCORES FOR CLOTHING- RELATED ATTITUDES AS EXPRESSED BY WORKING WOMEN ...... 59
2. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CLOTHING-RELATED ATTITUDE SCORES OF BUSINESS WOMEN AND ACADEMIC FACULTY W O M E N ...... 60
3. EDUCATIONAL LEVELS OF THE BUSINESS WOMEN, ACADEMIC FACULTY WOMEN, AND OF THE TOTAL G R O U P ...... 62
4. CLOTHING-RELATED ATTITUDES AND EDUCA TIONAL LEVEL: COEFFICIENTS OF CORRE LATION AND COEFFICIENTS OF DETERMINATION PERCENTAGES ...»...... 63
5. DISTRIBUTION OF AGES OF THE BUSINESS WOMEN, ACADEMIC FACULTY WOMEN, AND OF THE TOTAL GROUP ...... 65
6. CLOTHING-RELATED ATTITUDES AND AGE: COEFFICIENTS OF CORRELATION AND CO EFFICIENTS OF DETERMINATION PERCENTAGES...... 66
7. CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR SIGNIFICANT RELATIONS BETWEEN CLOTHING-RELATED ATTITUDES AND SATISFACTIONS WITH BODY IMAGE ...... 72
8.’ CLOTHING-RELATED ATTITUDES AND VISIBLE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BODY: COEFFICIENTS OF D E T E R M I N A T I O N ...... < 8 2
9. CLOTHING-RELATED ATTITUDES AND VISIBLE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BODY: SIGNIFICANT COEFFICIENTS OF CORRELATION...... 83
viii 10. MEAN SCORES FOR MODESTY ACCORDING TO BODY T Y P E ...... 86
11. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR MODESTY AND BODY TYPE ...... 86
12. COMPARISONS OF MODESTY SCORES ACCORDING TO BODY T Y P E ...... 87
13. MEAN SCORES FOR EXHIBITIONISM ACCORDING TO BODY T Y P E ...... 89
14. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR EXHIBITIONISM AND BODY TYPE ...... 89
15. COMPARISONS OF EXHIBITIONISM SCORES ACCORDING TO BODY T Y P E ...... 90
16. MEAN SCORES FOR FEMININITY ACCORDING TO BODY T Y P E ...... 92
17. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR FEMININITY AND BODY T Y P E ...... 92
18. COMPARISONS OF FEMININITY SCORES ACCORDING TO BODY T Y P E ...... 93
19. MEAN SCORES FOR MASCULINITY ACCORDING TO BODY T Y P E ...... 95
20. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR MASCULINITY AND BODY T Y P E ...... 95
21. COMPARISONS OF MASCULINITY SCORES ACCORDING TO BODY T Y P E ...... 96
22. MEAN SCORES FOR AESTHETICISM ACCORDING TO BODY TYPE ...... -98
23. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR AESTHETICISM AND BODY TYPE ...... 98
24 COMPARISONS OF AESTHETICISM SCORES ACCORDING TO BODY T Y P E ...... 99
3 25. MEAN SCORES FOR CHANGE ACCORDING TO BODY T Y P E ...... 101
ix 26. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR CHANGE AND BODY T Y P E ...... 101
27. COMPARISONS OR CHANGE SCORES ACCORDING TO BODY T Y P E ...... 102
28. CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS SHOWING SIGNIFICANT RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CLOTHING-RELATED ATTITUDES AND EXPRESSED RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF PERSONAL ATTRACTIVENESS ...... 108
x LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE Page
1. CLUSTERS OF SIGNIFICANTLY RELATED CLOTHING-RELATED ATTITUDES ...... 119
2. RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN SATISFACTIONS WITH TOTAL BODY IMAGE AND CLUSTERS OF SIGNIFICANTLY RELATED CLOTHING ' ATTITUDES ...... 121
3. RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VISIBLE CHARAC TERISTICS OF THE BODY AND CLUSTERS OF SIGNIFICANTLY RELATED C.'OTHING ATTITUDES ...... 122
4. RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN YANG-YIN BODY TYPE AND CLUSTERS OF SIGNIFICANTLY RELATED CLOTHING ATTITUDES ...... 124
5. RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN EXPRESSED IMPORTANCE OF PERSONAL ATTRACTIVENESS AND CLUSTERS OF SIGNIFICANTLY RELATED CLOTHING ATTITUDES ...... 125
xi CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Man and woman, in antiquity, decorated their bodies with ornaments which they found in the natural environment. With emerging abilities to remember past experiences and to anticipate future events, man and woman created body coverings and adornments for a myriad of practical and symbolic functions. The functions of clothing, thus, became as much a matter of mind as of body (Kerwin,
1972). In 1831, Carlyle (1930: 33) wrote about the, relationship between clothing and man as beginning with the foolish love of ornament, evolving to increased security and pleasurable feelings, then to modesty, on to a "mystic shrine" for the holy in man, and finally, to function for social distinctions and for individuality.
Carlyle noted that in the creation of clothing, man and woman do not proceed by accident; the hand is guided by the mysterious operations of the mind. More recently Roach and Eicher (1965) proposed that the functions of clothing may be (1) expressive which involves the emotional and communicative aspects of dress and (2) instrumental which involves the rational use of dress in goal-directed behavior. i Regardless of whatever functions may be assigned to clothing, the defining characteristic is that clothing is used to modify and partially cover the body in addition to decorating it. People are basically alike in physical appearance because they are of the same species and--in contrast with many other species--have changed little in appearance over the centuries. However, throughout the ages man and woman for many and often dichotomous reasons have sought ap pearances differing from the natural state. The continual changing of appearance may be considered as dissatisfactions with the body; the dissatisfactions are manifested in ceaseless change in adornments and revised interpretations of functional dress (Rudofsky, 1971).
A person generally comes to perceive, evaluate, modify, and clothe the body according to standards considered to be ideas within the time and place of living (Boucher, n.d.; d'Assailly, 1968;
Laver, 1968; Rudofsky, 1971). Physical appearance and the feelings about it may be determinants of successes and failures in a person’s life, affecting aspirations and achievements as well as the manner of personal expression. In fact, three pervasive discriminatory biases among people seem to be related to physical characteristics: race, sex, and age (Simpson and Yinger, 1972; Greer, 1971; Schneir, 1972;
Sontag, 1972).
Women especially have been aware of the value of physical appearance. According to Morrison and Holden (1970), women in con temporary society are commonly denied status and do not have oppor tunities to obtain equal rewards with men. In a society in which status mobility is valued and the key rewards are most easily attained through marriage, women turn to the behaviors for gaining the rewards by a special kind of appeal to the opposite sex. Societies ascribe a different set of obligations and expectations to males and females, and the ascriptions are usually rationalized on the basis of physio
logical characteristics; however, the actual restrictions are
determined by the culture (Linton, 1936).
More and more, social restrictions are being questioned and
challenged by groups including members of and advocates for the
Women's Movement. Schneir (1972) wrote that society suppresses
woman's individuality, prevents the growth of her intelligence and
talents, and forces her to assume standards of appearance and
personality that represent the masculine ideal of feminine behavior
and appearance. Greer (1971:48) described how "men of our civili
zation have stripped themselves of the fineries of the earth" and
developed new raw materials, new processes, and new machines so that
women could be the chief symbols of spending ability and monetary
success; as women were becoming showcases of class and caste which
would emerge as stereotypes of femininity, "men were slipping into
relative anonymity and 'handsome is as handsome does."' Sontag (1972)
discussed the double standard of appearance in aging for men and women. Society has more severe penalties for women in the natural
process of growing older than it has for men. Women, however, share
in the double standard because of their accedence to the standard
of feminine attractiveness as being one primarily of youthfulness.
Women who accept adult status, Sontag stated, could actively protest
3 and disobey the conventions that stem from the double standard in personal appearance.
When awarenesses and satisfactions about the physical appearance change, the coverings and adornments for the body also are changed to express attitudes about the body image. According to Polhemus
(1974), the body has an icongraphy of signs and symbols. The clothing that one dons and how he or she wears it, the ornaments that are hung on one's body, the facial expressions, the gestures--all of these are signals to the rest of one's society. They project one's image.
What is the relationship between the body image and the functions of dress and adornment? Home economists are concerned with the design, construction, and fit of clothing for the individual.
Traditionally, but becoming less so, the costume arts have been related to girls and women. The writings by home economists and style consultants about the selection and design of dress and costume for the individual have tended to be prescriptive in nature for at tainment of qualities such as personal style, elegance, and ex pression of individuality (Morton, 1964; Dariaux, 1964). However, a change or increase in diversity may have occurred in the aware nesses and satisfactions with both the body image and its coverings and adornments as perceived and expressed by women. A study of the relationship between the body image and clothing-related attitudes of women that may be indicative of certain functions seems appropri ate at a time when person-environment relations are being explored.
Clothing comprises the most proximate environment, linking the indi-
3 vidual to the larger physical and social environment (Compton and
Hall, 1972). 5
Purpose in the Study
The purpose in the study was to investigate relationships between selected clothing-related attitudes and certain aspects of the body image as perceived and expressed by business and profes sional women. The clothing-related attitudes selected were considered to be visibly related to the body and, therefore, may be associated with presentations and projections of the body image. The following hypotheses and rationale for the hypotheses were formulated for the study.
Hypothesis I. Relationships will exist between selected clothing-related attitudes of business and professional women and expressed satisfactions with the body image.
Hypothesis II. Relationships will exist between selected clothing-related attitudes of business and professional women and the following characteristics of the body image:
A. Height B. Weight C. Weight-height ratio D. Impression of thinness-to-heaviness E. Impression of bone structure F. Impression of firmness of flesh G. Impression of skin coloring H. Impression of hair coloring I. Impression of body type
Hypothesis III. Relationships will exist between selected
9 clothing-related attitudes of business and professional women and expressed relative importance of personal attractiveness. Rationale for Hypotheses. Clothing is part of the visible person and may reflect attitudes about the body and other facets of the personality. Fisher (1972) noted that as a person decorates and clothes the body, he or she is doing a self-portrait with layers of camouflage that fill out an image in the mind. The image the individual has about the body may influence the self-presentation, thus affecting the perceptions by other persons in social interaction.
In initial-, first-, or limited-contact situations, clothing can be used to provide cues about the personal qualities and socio-economic status of the person. The influence of clothing in the perception of the person by others varies according to the perceiver (Hoult, 1954
Rosencranz, 1962; Douty, 1963; Dickey, 1967; Jones, 1968).
Attitudes about clothing have been investigated in several studies. An attitude is a "relatively stable and enduring predis position to behave or react in a certain way toward persons, objects, institutions, or issues" (Chaplin, 1975:44). Kerlinger (1973:495-496) defined an attitude as "an organized predisposition to think, feel, perceive, and behave" toward a cognitive objective. An individual with an enduring structure of beliefs is predisposed to behave selectively toward objective referents as physical objects, events, and behaviors. The referents are the things about which an individ ual may have attitudes. A pioneer study in clothing-related atti-
i tudes was done by Creekmore (1963) who theorized that certain clothing-related behaviors are emphasized when the individual is striving to meet various needs (based on Maslow's hierarchy of human needs in which self-esteem is high and self-actualization is at the apex). Such emphasis was considered coping behavior. When a
need was satisfied, the clothing-related behavior was considered to
be expressive. Other studies have been based on relevant socio-
psychological theories. Clothing-related attitudes have been found
to be associated with certain aspects of the self (Ditty, 1962;
Pasnak, 1968). The mentioned studies were focused on the clothing-
related attitudes of college women.
The body itself as indicative of characteristics of the in
dividual has long been an area of fascination, speculation and
research endeavors. The body cathexis or degree of feelings of
satisfaction was investigated by Secord and Jcurard (1953) and found
to correlate positively with the self cathexis. Secord and Jourard
(1954) also found that the actual measured size of a body feature was a correlate of the degree of satisfaction that women expressed
for a particular part of the body. Satisfaction ratings for the body may vary for several reasons including (1) some physical parts may be modified by conscious effort, (2) specific anatomical parts may be emphasized in ideals of beauty, (3) the features emphasized may shift from time to time, and (4) some physical features as knees may be covered with clothing.
Related to feelings of satisfaction with the body are the body structure and visible physical characteristics. Sheldon (Sheldon,
Stevens, and Tucker, 1940) developed the procedure of somatotyping
the body; that is, by measurements and experienced observation, classifying a person's physique into one of seventy-six different
types. The basis for the somatotyping consisted of three components: (1) endomorphy, the relative predominance of soft roundness through
out the various regions of the body; (2) mesomorphy, the relative
predominance of muscle, bone, and connective tissue; and (3)
ectomorphy, the relative predominance of linearity and fragility. In
a suggestive vein, Sheldon (1940) wrote that the person with a highly
developed torso has an urge to exhibit his or her body. Magnificient
mesomorphic bodies may be things of beauty and they deserve, perhaps,
to be exhibited. The endomorphic seems to carry the same pre
dilection for nakedness and bodily display. A high ectomorphic
component appears to predetermine a strong need for clothing.
Douty (1968) stated that the body structure and the body image have implications for behavior although the specific effects and mechanisms are not yet understood. Douty used a form of silhouette
photography for identifying characteristics and typing body builds
and postures of young women. The silhouette photography can be used
as an objective image of the body, allowing for a more realistic perspective than the subjective body image which is often distorted.
With a more objective realization about the appearance of the body,
Douty stated, a person may use aesthetic principles in creating
illusions with clothing for the ultimate goal of greater self- confidence and social assurance.
Another aspect of the body image, the body boundary, has been related to clothing (Fisher and Cleveland, 1958; Fisher, 1970;
Fisher, 1973). According to Compton (1964), the body image reflects
the self and the boundaries of the body play an important role in maintaining homeostasis in the individual's interactions with other persons. The boundary of the body may be perceived as encompassing
clothing. Clothing may be considered as an extension of the self and
can serve as a means of reinforcing body walls or of changing the
body image entirely.
The personal coloring of the individual is a consideration in
the preferences for and selection of clothing (Borror and Creekmore,
1965). Personal coloring has been found to correlate with certain
aspects of the self conception (Cavior and Dokecki, 1971); therefore,
that variable was included in the investigation.
Age has an obvious effect on evaluations of the physical person with youthfulness or well-preserved middle age being the social
ideal (Rosencranz, 1972). Reich (1971) reported that in comparison with the older generation the younger generation is more accepting
of diversity in physical appearances and perhaps appreciates the more distinctive characteristics--not necessarily the cultural ideal
of beautiful. Malcolm (1971) suggested that many women have approved
and followed the leadership of expressive sons and daughters in
matters of dress.
The relative importance in everyday living of the person's
attractiveness may differ among individuals, thus affecting clothing
attitudes. Body images and the evaluations of them are not rigid
entities. The individual constructs and reconstructs the body image
3 as well as the body images of other persons. In a perpetual process,
parts of the body image are interchanged with the images of others
in a continual socialization of body images. The evaluation of the body image may be in degrees of beauty. Schilder (1968:112) wrote 10
that "we should not underrate the importance of actual beauty and
ugliness in human life." Beauty can contribute much satisfaction in
the life of an individual. The body image of beauty and ugliness
figures in the images one receives about his or her self. It
figures in the images others develop about a person which are then
taken back by the individual in assessing the beauty and ugliness of his or her body image. Rosencranz (1972) stated that general ap pearance and body build are used as important gauges in assessing
other human beings. Whether illogically or judiciously, most
persons are aware of physical appearances of the self and of other persons. Conigliaro (1975:133), in a popular women's magazine, wrote about "the tyranny of looks, that mindless age-less tyranny
that obsesses men, and women even more so."
National Goals and Guidelines for Research in Home Economics
(Schlater, 1970:43,30) included areas of possible research in
clothing such as "the function of clothing as a form of symbolism
in helping individuals to play roles, develop a self-image, or
project a desired image" and "style as a means of self-expression."
A study to determine the relationships between body image and
clothing-related attitudes may have relevance to various groups,
especially to educators in the textiles and clothing areas who are
concerned with the role of clothing in the fulfillment of human needs. 11
Definition of Terms
Clothing-related attitudes refer to manners of acting, feeling, or thinking ■which are reflective of an individual's opinions about the dispositions toward clothing. Selected for the study were the following clothing-related attitudes, some as dichotomous pairings which are indicative of opposing opinions and dispositions.
Conformity is the attitude which involves a person appearing similar to others in her social and working world.
Individuality is the attitude which involves a person appearing to have distinguishing features or qualities that set her apart from others in special or specific ways.
Modesty is the attitude which involves using clothing to cover the body in order to lessen attention to one's self for reasons of felt shame in relation to religious tradition or because of the person's standards of decency and propriety.
Exhibitionism is the attitude which involves using clothing to attract attention to the self, especially to characteristics of the body which may imply certain qualities.
Femininity is the attitude which involves using clothing which is characterized by curved lines, detail in design, and a fragile appearance.
i Masculinity is the attitude which involves a person's clothing being characterized by straight lines, a tailored effect, and a 12 sturdy appearance.
Aesthcticism is the attitude which involves clothing that is beautiful or pleasing to the senses, especially visually.
Functionalism is the attitude which involves clothing that reflects practical utility, protection, durability, and ease of care.
Constancy is the attitude which involves clothing that reflects a high degree of consistency for the person from time to time; constancy may be considered as a "conformity with the self."
Change is the attitude which involves clothing that reflects a high degree of variability for the person from time to time; change may be considered as a desire for excitement, variation, or experimentation. The fashion process is change in clothing.
Freedom is the attitude which involves a person preferring clothing that does not confine, restrict, or control a person's body.
Restraint is the attitude which involves a person preferring clothing that confines, restricts, or controls the person's body.
Body characteristics refers to body attributes which seem to be visible to the self and to other persons.
9 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
A review of literature pursuant to the investigation of clothing as a viable component of personal appearance was made to provide background knowledge. The material relevant to clothing attitudes and the body image is reviewed in this chapter. The delineations are as follows: (1) Theoretical Framework, (2) Selected
Aspects of the Body Image, (3) Clothing and the Body Image, and (4)
Clothing-Related Attitudes.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework for the study is based on the as sumptions that the body image is an aspect of the self concept and that attitudes about clothing may be related to the body image.
Clothing is essentially visible in nature, especially in social context. As such, clothing may be symbolic to the wearer and to other persons in expressing and perceiving how the individual may feel, think, or act regarding the self.
According to Fisher (1970), the body image is a perception of one's body with the whole context of self feeling and developmental experiences which also shape the self concept. The body image and the self concept may have broadly different referents and can lead
13 14
to different perspectives toward many phenomena.
The importance of body image is obvious in terms of the wide
spread expenditure of time and effort that is given to changing the
body's appearance. Individuals are constantly seeking by means of
clothing to change their appearances. Evidence exists that the
body scheme may function as a basic standard or frame of reference
which influences one's ability to select and appear in clothing
(Fisher and Cleveland, 1968).
According to Boucher (n.d.), clothing is characterized by
utilitarian function while constume may invest other attributes to
the wearer with fashion or mode being narrow variations mostly in
the fantasies and caprices of creators and wearers. Within the
definitions, Boucher believed that the human wearer of costume
makes successive modifications in his or her clothing to adapt it
to the progress that has taken place in the world. Western world
costume was divided into three broad phases by Boucher. The first
phase was from antiquity to the fourteenth century with religious
and mystical influences and with clothing being fairly uniform within
upper and lower social classes. The second phase encompassed the
fourteenth century to the great industrial expansion of the nine
teenth century with clothing acquiring personal and national
characteristics and with the emergence of fashion. The third phase
3 was from the middle of the nineteenth century and continuing to the
present with costume becoming less personal and more international
under the influence of industrial mass-production and with class
privilege based on uniform wealth. Boucher noted that the images 15 of the costumed body are important in the minds of individuals.
Lotze (1887), a German philosophical essayist, postulated
three feelings from dress. These were (1) a feeling of expansion of the body by such as head-gear, heels, and sticks; (2) a feeling of floating or a waving motion of the body by various hangings, draperies, and appendages; and (3) a feeling of greater or less tension in the body due to the firmness of cloth, or the cut and
tightness of the clothes.
Flugel (1930) wrote that as civilization advances clothing evolves in nature. Within a contemporary society, dress allows for personal development. Everyone is alike and different from his fellow beings. Fashion or changes in dress operate in psychological, social, and economic spheres. Successive fashion expresses in some way the spirit of an age. In addition, fashion is social competi tion. Flugel emphasized the physical aspects of dress with his concepts of the functions of dress as being decoration, modesty, and protection. Body and clothes form a complex relationship.
Schilder (1950:201-206) affirmed Flugel's psychology of clothes.
He also noted that the image of the body means the picture of one's own body which he or she may form in the mind. Clothes are part of the body. An article of clothing that one puts on becomes part of the body image; therefore, with a change of clothing there is a change of attitude’. A difference exists between clothing which is closely connected to the body and that which is loose. Schilder emphasized the postural model of the body, how clothes change one's postural image, and maybe how clothes change one's body image 16 completely. Also, with every action one changes the image of the body; clothing may affect one's actions and, thus, his or her body image. The muscular tone of the body is also involved with clothes.
The body image is one of the basic experiences of everyday life.
Horn (1975) wrote that throughout life clothing serves as an extension of the bodily self. Whenever an object is brought into contact with the body, the conscious existence of the self is extended into the extremities of the object. Clothes, then, become a part of the body image, and the same concerns that are attached to the body are often attached to clothing in like manner. Horn con cluded that clothing, as part of the body image, acts as a second skin in establishing the physical boundaries of the self.
Selected Aspects of the Body Image
Many studies have been conducted to investigate various aspects of the image of the human body. The most frequent emphasis has been on the perception of the body size or parts thereof. Other foci have been the orientation of the human body in relation to his or her environment, relationship of body image and self concept, and anxiety feelings.
Nash (1951) was one of the first to undertake a study of the individual's perception of his or her own body size. He found that the perceptions of the person's concept of his or her proportions were similar to those of an infant's proportions with the head being over-estimated in size. Jourard and Secord (1953) found that body cathexis or the degree of feeling of satisfaction or dissatis faction with the various parts of processes of the body was related 17
to self cathexis or feelings about the self.
Secord and Jourard (1954) reported that a correlation existed between positive feelings among women and smallness of body parts with the exception of the bust for which large size was related to
feelings of satisfaction. In contrast, Magnussen (1958) found
that among men body satisfaction was related to weight or largeness of body parts. The study by Secord and Jourard (1954) was substan
tiated by Calden, Lundy, and Schlafter (1959) and by Singer and
Lamb (1966).
Rosen and Ross (1968) stated that the higher relative importance of body parts might correlate more positively with feelings of satisfaction toward body parts and with feelings toward the self than when body parts are 'rated equal in importance. The hypothesis was confirmed in their study. Mahoney (1974) was critical of the
Rosen and Ross evaluation. He administered the standard body cathexis and body importance questionnaires to 129 females and 98 males. Two sets of correlations were made between self-esteem scores and weighted and unweighted (by importance) body cathexis. According
to Mahoney, a lack of significant correlations between the two sets of correlations confirmed that the importance attached to specific body aspects does not affect satisfactions with the body.
Lerner, Karabenick, and Stuart (1973) studied 118 male and 190
female college students in relation to (1) satisfaction with each specific characteristic, (2) the importance of each to his or her physical attractiveness, and (3) the importance of each in deter mining opposite-sex physical attractiveness. The students also 18 responded co a short self concept scale comprised of 16 bipolar dimensions. The researchers indicated that among both males and females different body parts were differentially and significantly related to the self concept. Weighting scores by corresponding importance did not increase the satisfaction of the self concept relation. Males rated the importance of characteristics of the opposite sex higher than did the females, which is in accordance with social stereotypes of feminine appearance being more important than is the masculine appearance. Body characteristics for females which were highly correlated with self concept feelings were body build, general appearance, hips, profile, thighs, distribution of weight, ankles, face, chest, eyes, waist, hair color, chin, facial complexion, and height.
Zion (1965) studied the relationship between self concept and attitudes toward one's body. The body-attitude measure had five dimensions: physical attractiveness, feelings about body movements, grooming, body expressiveness, and masculinity-feminity. In a population of 200 college women, significant correlations were found between the way a female appraised herself as a person and the way she evaluated her body.
Another aspect of the body image is that of body boundary. The concept of the body boundary derives from the idea that individuals
J differ in the way they experience the demarcation between their bodies and the outer world. The boundary model has been used to explain early formation of identity, variation in perception of body size, disturbance in delinquents, disorganization in schizophrenics, 19
physical illness, and clothing fabric choices (Fisher, 1970 and
Compton, 1964, 1967).
Jones (1972) designed a study to determine relations between
body image, anxiety, and achievement of female high school students.
From 136 subjects, she found that greater satisfaction with the body
was negatively correlated with anxiety proneness. The students had
greater satisfaction of figures and faces as they were more like the
ideals set by contemporary society. Satisfaction with one part of
the body was often correlated with satisfaction of another part of
the body.
Clothing and the Body Image
Flugel (1929) made a series of "The Psychology of Clothes" broadcasts from the British Broadcasting Company during which time he sent 5000 questionnaires to listeners who requested them.
Replies came from 132 persons, mostly doctors, artists, teachers,
students, psychologists, nurses, and business men and women.
Flugel categorized the responses from which he classified people who were satisfied with clothes as prudish, protected, supported,
sublimated, or self-satisfied and those who were disatisfied with
clothes as rebels, discontented, or uninterested.
Compton (1964) wrote that the body boundaries play an important role in maintaining homeostasis in the individual's transaction with
the world. People show wide differences in the degree to which they experience their body boundaries. The boundaries may vary from definite and firm to indefinite and weak. Individuals vary as to 20 where they set their body boundaries. The body wall may be the boundary for some individuals, while for others the boundary en-
\ compasses clothes and aspects of the environment which may be far distant from the individual. Women with concepts of their body boundaries as weak or indefinite, rather than firm and definite, may attempt to define these boundaries through clothing choices emphasizing such aspects as large fabric designs, strong figure- ground contrast, bright colors, rough textures, and maximum coverage.
Compton (1964) designed a study with 30 hospitalized psychotic women to determine if significant relationships existed between barrier and penetration of boundary scores and clothing fabric choices. She used the Fisher and Cleveland (1958) concept of
Rorschach scoring categories. Barrier was defined as an index of the degree to which the individual regards his or her body exterior as a defense and penetration, channels between exterior and interior, as permeable or fragile qualities of body surfaces. Compton found that weight-height ratios were significantly related to barrier scores and preferences for saturated colors; strong figure-ground contrasts were negatively related to barrier scores. Preferences for warm colors and large patterns were positively related to penetration scores. As a result of the study, Compton suggested that clothing fabrics may function to strengthen weak body image boundaries for women patients of mental hospitals.
In another study, Compton (1967) investigated clothing fabric and dress style preferences in relation to body build and personality 21
characteristics of delinquent as compared to non-delinquent girls.
The delinquent subjects were from a state industrial institution
and control subjects were from a city high school. The groups were matched for age, IQ, and economic and ethnic backgrounds. No significant differences were found between fabric preferences and body measurements of delinquent and non-delinquent girls. Girls
in the study with large weight-height ratios preferred warm colors and weak contrasts in color value of design and background of
fabrics more often than did smaller girls. Choices of small designs and warm colors were positively related to bust size.
Borror and Creekmore (1965) studied the relationship between personal coloring and selected personality attributes. The subjects were groups of warm blondes, cool blondes, warm brunettes, and cool brunettes. Indications were found that cool brunettes who were calm, emotionally stable, secure, and mature preferred warm tones.
Blondes who were shy and timid preferred less warm colors than did the warm blondes who were more adventurous, "thick-skinned," active, and responsive.
Torreta (1968) explored the relationship between clothing fabric texture perception, body image, and psychological security.
Measures administered to 27 college women included a tactile- kinesthetic texture test, pressure thresholds, Holtzman Inkblot
3 Technique, Body Cathexis Scale, a Security-Insecurity Inventory, and the Compton Fabric Preference Test. Positive relationships existed between body cathexis and psychological security and between body 22
cathexis and a preference for a variety of fabrics.
Matthews (1969) studied the relationships between fabric
preferences, perceptual-personality characteristics, and weight of 18
obese and 27 normal-weight college women. She used seven measures
including a fabric preference test, a modified body cathexis test,
a body awareness test, and a security-insecurity test as well as
personal assessment data. Matthews reported that (1) obese women were less satisfied with their bodies than normal-weight women and
(2) no differences between fabric preferences were found except for
strong and weak figure-ground contrasts and large and small designs.
The obese women preferred fewer strong figure-ground contrasts in
clothing and small designs in fabrics than the other subjects.
Among both obese and non-obese women, the more aware they were of
their bodies, the more satisfied they were with their bodies.
Richards and Hawthorne (1971) investigated the relationships between basic values, body cathexis, and clothing-related attitudes of male students at a soughwestern university. The students were of
four groups: freshman, senior, agriculture major and business major. The measures used included the Allport-Vernon-Lindzey Study of Values (1960), the body cathexis scale developed by Jourard and
Secord (1954), and a clothing opinionnaire for men. The categories
in the opinionnaire were comfort, conformity, economy, fashion
3 interest,.self-expression, status, and no concern. Among the findings were that agriculture students had a greater satisfaction with their bodies than did business students, and body cathexis did not relate 23
significantly to any of the variables in the study. Richards and
Hawthorne hypothesized that male students view their bodies as
being isolated from their clothing which supported Fisher's (1964)
finding that men were more concerned with body functions than with
body surfaces.
Kernalegeun (1973) studied the relationship between field
dependence, body boundaries, and orientation to clothing. She
administered a rod-and-frame test to determine field dependence,
the Holtzman Inkblot Technique to obtain barrier and penetration to
barrier scores, the masculinity-femininity scale of the California
Psychological Inventory, Maslow's Security-Insecurity, and the
Orientation to Clothing Index. The Index was developed on two
assumptions, namely, (1) dressing to seek rewards, praise, and
recognition and dressing to avoid punishment, ridicule, and sarcasm
are opposite ends of a continuum and (2) dressing to be different
from others to dressing to be like others are also opposite ends of
a continuum. The subjects were 56 college men and women with extreme
scores in field dependency as determined by the Draw-a-Person Test.
Kernaleguen found women had a greater tendency to seek rewards in
dress while men dressed to avoid punishment. She concluded that both
sexes may be following respective role expectations in the society.
A reward-seeking orientation did not correlate with field dependence; however, seeking rewards covaried with barrier for both men and women. 24
Creekmore (1974) completed a major clothing study related to self concept, concern for the physical body, the social environment, and clothing uses among 270 girls and 251 boys in the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades. The concern for the physical body included (1) body dissatisfactions, and (2) intensity of feelings which referred to the strength of feelings of both satisfactions and dissatisfactions with parts of the body. Clothing uses included in the study were as follows:
(1) Aesthetic - Use of clothing to achieve a pleasing or harmonious appearance. Neatness in dress was included as part of appearance.
(2) Approval - Use of clothing to attain a feeling of belong ingness or acceptance by others in a particular role and was indicative of a willingness to conform.
(3) Attention - Use of clothing to gain status or prestige. The attention sought may be either socially approved or disapproved, depending on the reference group.
(4) Comfort - Use of clothing to achieve comfort relative to temperature, certain textures and tightness or looseness of garments.
(5) Dependence - Sensitivity to the influences of clothing on moods, emotions, and feelings.
(6) Interest - Willingness to investigate, manipulate, or experiment with putting together the parts of a costume.
(7) Management - Thoughtful and careful use of resources, including the use of time, money, and energy in planning, buying and using clothing.
(8) Modesty - Use of inconspicuous clothing or conservative in design, color, fit, and body exposure (Creekmore, 1974;3).
For the girls in the study, attention, interest, and management were positively related to body satisfactions. The three relation ships were significant at the .05 level. None of the clothing-related 25
uses was correlated to body dissatisfaction or intensity of feeling.
Creekmore summarized her study no noting that for girls the inter
relationships of body satisfaction, perceived peer self, self
esteem and interest, management, and attention-related uses of
clothing appeared expressive of self worth and satisfaction with
the physical body. "The uninhibited use of clothing in these ways
reflects the accepted and social role of teenage girls in our
culture," according to Creekmore (1974:11-12).
Freeman (1977) studied the relationships between perceived body
weight, body cathexis, and clothing interest-importance of overweight
and normal weight women. Her subjects were 47 normal weight and 18
overweight women. Overweight women were found to be less satisfied
with their physical bodies than were the normal-weight women. The
perceptions of body weight were not significantly related to
attitudes toward clothing.
Clothing-Related Attitudes
Myriad observations have been written about clothing-related
attitudes, that is, how women think about, perceive, or use clothing.
However, only a limited number of articles have been based on actual research. The research articles have been done by persons of varied disciplines. A notation is that more writing is done about clothing
in times of social upheaval, which generally corresponds with times
of quite noticeable fashion evolvement, than in time of social
tranquility. 26
The first published women’s clothing study was done by Hall
(Flaccus, 1906) in 1904. He sent out a questionnaire; answers from
181 young women were received. Analysis centered around three categories: (1) minor and incidental matters and psychological tidbits, (2) changes of self-feeling, fluctations and changes in personality, differences in feeling tone, and diffusive and expansive effects, and (3) effects on the self as a social reflex phenomenon.
Hurlock (1929) investigated the motives that lead women to follow fashion. She queried women about their clothing-related attitudes and summarized the reasons for fashion as follows: gain approval, self-exhibitionism, show class distinctions, show wealth, conformity and imitation, fear of social disapproval, both desire and fear of the new and an expression of self.
Creekmore (1963) conducted a study with 300 female college students from a state university to seek potential relationships between general values (based on Allport's categories), basic needs
(based on Maslow's theory), and clothing-related behaviors. She found relationships between values, needs (both striving for and satisfactions achieved), and clothing-related behaviors. The management of clothing was related to the striving for psychological, self-actualizing, and self esteem needs for the economic type. For the sensuous, type tactual emphasis was related to satisfaction of i self esteem need and to striving for self actualizing and cognitive needs. For the exploratory type experimentation was related to the striving for self esteem need. Status use of clothing was related to 27 the political type when there was a striving for physiological need and when action need was satisfied, and to self esteem need for the social, exploratory, and theoretic types. For the aesthetic type emphasis on appearance was related to striving for physiological need and to satisfaction of belongingness need, and for the religious type when the aesthetic need was satisfied. For the social and religious types theoretic interest was related to the striving for cognitive need. Tool use of clothing was related to the economic type when there was a striving for belongingness need and for the aesthetic and exploratory types to self esteem strivings. For the social type conformity was related to the satisfaction of belong ingness and safety needs. For the exploratory and the theoretic types fashion interest was related to the striving for self esteem need.
Creekmore also found that for the religious type modesty was related to a satisfaction of physiological need and a striving for cognitive and action needs, and also for the religious type no concern for clothing was related to a striving for satisfaction of self esteem need.
Aiken (1963) administered a Clothing Opinionnaire, Allport-
Vernon-Lindzey Study of Values, the California Psychological In ventory, and the Sixteen Personality Questionnaire to 160 women students at a southeastern college. He formulated five dress clusters from correlations between the test results. The clusters were decoration, comfort, interest, conformity, and economy.
According to his findings, a high scorer on decoration tended to be 28 conscientious, conventional stereotyped, non-intellectual, sympa thetic, sociable, and submissive. A high scorer on comfort was self-controlled, socially cooperative, sociable, thorough, and deferent to authority; a high scorer on interest was conventional, conscientious, compliant before authority, and stereotyped in think ing. A high scorer on conformity tended to be socially conforming, restrained, conscientious, sociable, traditional, and submissive; and a high scorer on economy was responsible, conscientious, alert, efficient, precise, and controlled.
Dickey (1967) studied certain aspects of the self, personality syndromes of self-esteem and security-insecurity, and selected clothing-related behaviors. The sample was 276 junior and senior university and nursing school women. Dickey found that the aesthetic attitude was least related to high self-esteem-insecure and the low self-esteem-insecure while being most important to the low self- esteem-secure subjects. The modesty subscale was least important to the high self-esteem-secure subjects while being of most importance to the low self-esteem-secure and low self-esteem-insecure subjects.
The management subscale was of least importance to the high self- esteem- insecure but was of most importance to the low self-esteem- secure, high self-esteem-secure, and low self-esteem-insecure subjects. The social approval subscale was of least importance to
i high self-esteem-secure subjects while being important to the three other syndrome groups. The comfort subscale was of importance to all syndrome groups. 29
Conformity and Individuality in Dress
Conformity is a kind of cooperation and a way to save energy by following or emulating others, according to Cooley (1964).
Conformity as a clothing-related behavior has been confirmed in a number of studies with adolescent girls (Takahashi and Newton, 1968;
Kelley and Eicher, 1970; Smucker and Creekmore, 1972; Washington
Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 750, 1972; Gurel, Wilbur,
and Gurel, 1972; and Eicher and Kelley, 1974). Taylor and Compton
(1968) investigated relationships between conformity in dress; preferences for color, design, and texture in fabrics; self-,
interaction-, and task-orientation; clothing dimensions; and personal values of college women. ' The following scales were administered to 35 college freshmen: the Aiken Clothing Opinionnaire, the Compton
Fabric Preference Test, the Bass Orientation Inventory, and the
Allport-Vernon-Lindzey Study of Values. The researchers reported that conformity was related to interaction-orientation at the .05 level of confidence and that conformity in dress correlated negatively to the aesthetic value at the .01 level. The interaction-orientation related negatively to the aesthetic value at the 1 percent level; hence, it was concluded that conforming dress indicated a desire to have harmonious relations with others. Barr (1934) investigated i the practical problems of choice in women's clothes and concluded that conformity was a primary motive in the women's selections.
T 30
According to Simmel (1904), man and woman have dualistic natures, opposing tendencies toward conformity and toward differentiation.
Each individual expresses a degree of both opposing tendencies in
fashionable dress. He also noted that fashion was characteristic of higher civilizations; primitive people fear the new and different.
Langner (1959) elaborated on the importance of wearing clothes with the idea that people dress to show superiority, first to other animals, then to other people. He postulated his ideas as an interpretation of Adlerian psychology. Laver (1968) proposed three principles— utility, hierarchy, and seduction— to explain fashion in dress. His principle of hierarchy was developed to describe fashion as a result of dressing to show one's position in the social system.
Lowe and Anspach (1973) questioned whether the opposite of conformity— what they termed freedom— really exists in dress.
They postulated that (1) the feeling of dressing freely is a sub jective one which cannot be objectively identified by others; (2) dressing freely has three phases: purposeful planning, execution of the plan into effective action, and enjoyment of the results of the activity; and (3) the feeling of dressing freely will result from being rewarded with praise.
In a study by Morrow (1968), relations were explored between expressive and coping clothing-related behaviors and levels of
S rigidity and non-rididity. The sample consisted of 167 college women who were administered an instrument to determine the use of conformity or individuality in dress, the importance of achieving 31 conformity or individuality in appearance, levels of rigidity- nonrigidity, and individuality as an intellectual goal. Morrow found that the women low in rigidity were more spontaneous and expressive in their clothing-related attitudes than were the rigid women. The rigid women used clothing more as coping behavior than did the nonrigid women.
Modesty and Exhibitionism in Dress
The Mosaic law has been used for centuries to enforce certain forms of modesty in dress. Flugel (1930) considered modesty and its opposite tendency of exhibitionism to be transient norms, a mere moving about of fabric to cover different parts of the body.
Laver (1968) believed that fashionable dress was used for seductive purposes. In his study, Cobliner (1950) used 18 college women's essays on dress. He concluded that clothing covers the body while fashion covers the mind, and that young women use fashionable dress to compete for members of the opposite sex.
Christiansen (1971) and Williams (1974) investigated modesty in relation to clothing among single undergraduate women. The
Christiansen's subjects were 196 Mormon women. She found that degree of orthodoxy was correlated with conservatism-modesty in dress.
Further the subjects who had traveled extensively while pursuing church activities were more orthodox in religious beliefs than women who traveled less in church activities. Williams concluded from her study that modesty in dress was related to church participation. 32
McCullough, Miller, and Ford (1977) compared the sexual
attractiveness of certain clothing and corresponding wear practices
of two groups of women. A Sensuous Clothing Measure and a Sensuous
Clothing Usage Measure were completed by 68 black and 163 white
unmarried females at two southern state universities. Ratings of
seven of the twenty sexually attractive items differed significantly
between black and white women. Black subjects indicated they would wear the sexually attractive clothing items more frequently than would the white subjects. The black women would also wear the
sexually unattractive clothing more frequently than would the white women. The researchers concluded that sexual attractiveness is
not the primary motive that influences a female's clothing usage.
Femininity and Masculinity in Dress
Femininity and masculinity suggest certain characteristics of dress (Ryan, 1966). Barr (1934) included in her study attitudes
toward sex and femininity as well as motives of conformity, economy,
comfort, the tendency to be modest, and the desire for self-expression.
Barr concluded from her study that women want to dress for conformity,
to have a fashionable figure, to bring out one's best in physical
appearance, and to have enough individuality to express one's personality.
Ditty (1962) designed a study to determine relationships ! between femininity-masculinity in clothing preferences and femininity- masculinity in personality, sociability-individuality, and social 33 aspiration. The subjects were students at an eastern women's college.
Ditty reported that a significant relationship existed between femininity in personality and preference for the feminine in slips and sleepwear. The relationship was not significant for outerwear.
Ditty also found that social maturity was positively related to self- expression in clothing and the socially-immature woman had a greater variety of clothing, probably to fit into social roles rather than to express a more unique personality.
Aestheticism and Functionalism in Dress
The beautiful and the practical may be inseparable in clothing; both have been recognized in clothing selection and design (Morton,
1964). Hoffman (1957) investigated aesthetic sensitivities as related to socioeconomic and psychological backgrounds. She examined the wardrobes of 80 wives of professional men. The Meier
Art Judgment Test was administered and clothing ensemble and wardrobe assessments were made. The interview was used to elicit the extent of aesthetic and clothing interest, knowledge of clothing, and attitudes toward clothing. Generally, good art judgments were not related to aesthetically pleasing clothing ensembles owned by the subjects. Fashion status, social participation, ensemble value of clothing, and aesthetic interest were significantly interrelated.
Jacobson (1933) conducted a study aimed to discover the basis of beauty in costume design. Twenty costumes, each with four variations, adapted from historic styles, were selected for use in 34
the study. Factors associated with costume beauty were isolated
by quantitative analysis of reactions of subjects reviewing the
sets. Subjects were 33 experts and 162 non-experts. Generally,
proportion, balance, rhythm, and emphasis were important for judging
beauty in costume. Both artist and non-artist expressed the
aesthetic impulse. When a costume design concept was not too
complex, expert and non-expert tended to be stimulated in a consistent manner.
Hawthorne (1967) investigated relationships of design prefer
ences in clothing to aesthetic preferences, to knowledge of clothing,
and to a desire for self approval and social approval. Among college
students, she found that knowledge about clothing was related to design preference. The motives for self approval and social approval were not consistently related to aesthetic preferences or to design preference in clothing.
Lapitsky (1961) developed a test of clothing values. The values
included in the test were aesthetic, economic, political, and social I and social II. The aesthetic value included the desire for,
appreciation of, or concern with beauty in clothing. The economic value encompassed the desire for comfort in clothing and for the conservation of time, energy, and money in relation to clothing usage or selection. The political value was concerned with the
3 desire for obtaining prestige, distinctions, leadership or influence
through clothing. The social values were (1) social I--the ex pression of regard for fellow beings through clothing-related 35
behavior, and (2) social II— the desire for obtaining social approval
through clothing usage with conformity playing a prominent role.
She administered the developed test and a general values test to 80
undergraduate and 80 graduate women. Lapitsky found that the aes
thetic and economic values were most important to adult women and
that general values and clothing values tended to be parallel.
Constancy and Change in Dress
A continuous process of change in the styles of dress is ac
cepted by or followed by substantial groups of people at any given
time (Rosencranz, 1972). Fashion is the term given to the contin
uous process. Schrank (1970) studied the adoption and diffusion of
fashion by focusing on fashion innovativeness and fashion opinion
leadership as related to insecurity, attitudes toward conformity
in dress, clothing interest, and socioeconomic level. She adminis
tered to 145 college women a Fashion Opinion Leadership Inventory, a
questionnaire to measure fashion opinion leadership, attitudes
toward conformity, and clothing interest, and the Lapitsky Social
Inventory (which is a measure of social security-insecurity). Schrank
found positive relationships existed between fashion innovativeness
and clothing interest, between fashion opinion leadership and clothing
interest. She reported an inverse relationship between fashion
innovativeness and social insecurity, and no relationship between
fashion innovativeness and socio-economic level.
Brett and Kernaleguen (1973) studied opinion leadership by administering to 102 college-age women measures of opinion leadership 36 in fashion, field dependence, locus of control, and anxiety. Among the results were a positive relationship between fashion opinion leadership and debilitating anxiety and a negative relationship between opinion leadership in fashion and facilitating anxiety.
Pasnak and Ayres (1969) used a psychological systems approach to determine if fashion innovators and noninnovators were signifi cantly different in clothing attitudes, level of self actualization, and tolerance of ambiguity. Two groups of 25 subjects each were administered the Revised Barron-Welsh Art Scale, the Clothing
Attitude Measure, and the Personal Orientation Measure. The level of fashion innovation was positively correlated with five of the eight clothing attitudes: dressing for self, experimentation, closure, intensity, and involution. Fashion innovation was not correlated with dressing for others, tactual pleasure, and relief of boredom.
Closure (clarity of decision) was related to reacting more to self than to others. No significant differences existed between scores of self actualization for fashion innovators and noninnovators which prompted the researchers to conclude that persons interested in fashionable clothing were not mere "clothes horses," immature in personality.
Ollinger (1974) used a case study method to explore clothing use by middle age women as related to self process. Self process a was defined in the perspective of the symbolic interaction approach in social psychology. Ollinger interviewed 18 subjects ranging in age from 40 to 60 who had returned to a university setting as undergraduates. From qualitative analysis, she reported that clothing was used to express change in the self concept or continuity in a person when other aspects of life were changing.
Summary
Attitudes about clothing may be related to the body image.
Modifications in clothing reflect personal development or progress that has taken place in the world. The body image is perceived with varying degrees of satisfaction. The body boundary, personal coloring, body awareness, body satisfaction, body build, and body weight-height ratios have been found to be related to clothing- related attitudes. In addition, clothing-related attitudes have been significantly related to various personality characteristics, including field dependence, social security-insecurity, self-esteem, anxiety, personal values, and religious activity. CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
The study was focused on possible relationships between (1) expressed satisfactions with the body image, (2) certain aspects of body proportions, (3) impressions of visible aspects of body build and personal coloring, (4) age, (5) expressed relative importance of personal attractiveness, and (6) selected clothing-related attitudes which may have implications to the ways women feel, think, and act concerning their body images. The methodology used in the study is presented under the following headings: (1) Selection of the
Sample, (2) Development of Instruments, (3) Collection of Data, and (4) Analysis of Data. \ Selection of Sample
The study was planned to elicit information from women about their clothing-related attitudes and body images. Business and professional women in specific groups were selected to comprise the sample because (1) the women would be in task-oriented, day-to-day interactions with others outside their family units; (2) the women,
s by the nature of the groups selected, would probably be involved in social-oriented activities beyond the working day; and (3) the
38 39 women, recipients of payment for their work, could make discretionary choices about their clothing.
A sample of about 200 women was considered necessary for the study if each decade of ages (20's through 60's) was to be suf ficiently represented. Since the force of working women is diverse, the decision was made to limit the sample to women working in white- collar positions in business and to professional groups.
Initially considered for the sample were four groups of fifty women: (1) women belonging to business organizations, (2) female faculty members at a large land-grant university, (3) women in early childhood education, and (4) women in religious and benevolent services. A leader in each group was contacted to ascertain if women in her group might be willing to participate. The early childhood education group was eliminated after it was found that the group included substantial numbers of various assistants and aides, several of whom had less than a high school education. The lower educational level of the subjects in the group probably would have contributed more diversity to the total sample than was considered appropriate; also, a question was raised about the probable income level necessary for discretionary clothing choices. Another group, women in religious and benevolent services, was not included in the study because some statements contained in the instruments might have been considered i too mundane, generally speaking, for women in the group. Two types of groups, then were selected and included in the study: (1) women 40 belonging to business organizations and (2) female faculty members
at a large land-grant university.
Women Belonging to Business Organizations
A listing of city women's organization in a metropolitan area estimated to have a population over 890,000 was obtained. It was compiled by a Regional Information Service of the Chamber of Commerce for the area in which the subjects lived. Organizations with member ship of business women working in various positions and with dif
ferent establishments were selected because probably such a selection would represent a diversity of attitudes toward clothing; also,
the probability of obtaining sufficient return of questionnaires was a concern in the selection of organizations.
The presidents of seven business women's organizations were contacted by telephone. The researcher briefly explained the study and asked if the president believed the members of her organization might be willing to participate. Five presidents responded af firmatively and were sent an explanatory letter (see Appendix A) which could be read to members at a meeting of the organization, along with a sheet for members to sign their names and addresses.
The sheet for the name signatures was headed, "Yes, I'll be willing to complete a questionnaire (all checks and circles) about clothing i and the body image in which all responses will be anonymous." The presidents then mailed the sheets of signatures to the researcher.
One hundred and thirty-nine women agreed to complete questionnaires 41 so they were sent forms with an explanatory letter (see Appendix B).
Female Faculty Members
Telephone calls to several university offices were made inquiring about a possible listing of women faculty members. A person in an office concerned with women's studies said that no listing seemed available and that campus addresses listed in the university telephone directory were used by her particular office staff in mailings. The listing of faculty women was then obtained from the university campus telephone directory. Only persons with apparent female names were selected from the departments where women were employed. A list of about 180 faculty women was compiled; self-answer questionnaires were mailed to the potential subjects.
The use of consent forms did not seem necessary for the academic women because the explanatory letter mailed with the questionnaire included the phrase "if you are willing to participate" (see Appen dix B ) . Therefore, the assumption was made that completing the questionnaire would indicate consent or willingness to participate on the part of the university faculty women.
Development of Instruments
The following measures were needed to test the hypotheses
3 formulated for the study:
1. Clothing-Related Attitudes Measure
2. Body Image Measure 42
3. Impressions of Body Characteristics Measure
The measures were incorporated into a three-part questionnaire with the sections titled Clothing Attitude Scale, Body Image Scale, and Some Vital Statistics. Questions about age and attained educational level were included in the Some Vital Statistics section.
Statements to assess the relative importance of personal attractive ness were incorporated into the Clothing Attitude Scale section.
The procedures in developing each of the measures are discussed under the titled headings.
Clothing-Related Attitudes Measure
The clothing-related attitudes measure was designed to determine attitudes which had reference to the body image. The basic rationale for the development of the attitudes measure was that clothing covers and modifies the visible body. The individual in the social world is initially a visible phenomenon; therefore, attitudes reflecting other facets of the self-image were not to be included in the measure.
The initial step in the procedure was to peruse the classic and current writings on dress and costume (from Lotze, 1887 to Laury and Aiken, 1973) for all references to the various uses or functions of clothing. A preliminary listing was made of 31 functions for clothing which had significance to body images and feelings; the 31 functions were categorized into 11 groups of related functions. The premise on which categorizations were made was that the selection of clothing is a compromise for the woman to attain feelings of 43 satisfaction, well-being, or comfort with her clothing. The compromise, for example, may express to what extent a person wishes to accommodate to the current standards in dress, or in contrast, the extent to which she wishes to react against the standards; the actual compromise, of course, would be contingent upon many variables relating to the self and the environment.
The tentative plan of the researcher was to devise a clothing- related attitudes measure incorporating the following 11 categories of 31 related functions: (1) conformity, differentiation, and con spicuousness; (2) constancy, excitement, and change; (3) maturity and youthfulness; (4) exhibitionism, modesty (social), and modesty
(body shame); (5) freedom, control, and sensuousness; (6) femininity and masculinity; (7) celebration and necessity; (8) protection and combativeness; (9) inferiority and superiority; (10) decoration, aestheticism, and usefulness; and (11) camouflage, completion, compensation, extension, expansion, and contraction. Also to be incorporated in the measure were three general situations in which clothing may have varying functions for the individual. The situa tions were (1) alone, (2) task-oriented, and (3) social-oriented.
When the literature describing measures of clothing-related attitudes was reviewed, the use of statements with varying degrees of agreement was found to be the most common way to determine attitudes. The decision was made to develop the measure as a summated rating scale using statements with degrees of agreement-disagreement on a five-point, Likert-type continuum. After experimentation with the writing of items for the
measure, the incorporation of the many functions of clothing and the
situational variables appeared unwieldy because the functions of
clothing were too diverse and overlapping in nature. The decision
was made to reduce the number of clothing-related attitude categories
from eleven to six; the attitudes retained were the ones considered
most measurable. The reduced clothing-related attitude categories
included conformity-individuality, modesty-exhibitionism, femininity-
masculinity, aestheticism-functionalism, constancy-change, and freedom-
restraint. The paired categories may or may not be dichotomous in
nature to individuals; for example, a person, may wish a dress to be
both beautiful and functional. Therefore, each attitude was con
sidered separately than as part of a dichotomous pair.
Preliminaries of Test Making. Each of the clothing-related
attitudes was defined and about 40 statements for each group were
compiled for use as a five-point strongly disagree-strongly agree
type of measure statements. Some statements were adapted from the
classic writings of Lotze (1887), Langner (1959), Rudofsky (1971),
Laver (1968), and Flugel (1930). Statements were also taken from
three scales: Creekraore1s Scale of Eight Clothing Variables
(Gurel, 1974), Pasnak's Clothing Attitude Measure (Pasnak, 1968),
and Schrank's Clothing Conformity Scale (Schrank, 1969). The
Allport-Vernon-Lindzey Study of Values (Allport, et al., 1960) was
used as a source for statements relating to aestheticism. The
results of Ditty's study (1962) relating to femininity-masculinity formed the basis for statements in the two groups.
The statements, 290 in number, were typed individually on note
cards. A panel of three graduate students and one faculty member in
the area of textiles and clothing individually selected the clothing- related attitude group in which they believed each statement belonged on the basis of definitions developed by the researcher for each
identified attitude. Statements which were unclear or ambiguous
in meaning were labeled with question marks by the reviewers. One hundred and forty-six items were placed by the four reviewers in the attitude groups for which the statements were written, or were placed in the correct group by three reviewers but the response was questioned by the fourth reviewer. Minor changes were made in
the phraseology of the questionable-by-one-reviewer statements. One observation about the rejected statements was that reference to any part of the body— other than bust--was interpreted differently by
the reviewers. An example is a statement including mention of hips
for which conformity, modesty, and restraint were considered appropriate attitude groups.
A second panel of judges was used to further refine the statements. The 146 remaining statements were again typed on note cards. Eight graduate students and two faculty members in the area of textiles and clothing selected the five statements which seemed most valid for each clothing-related attitude as interpreted from
the written definitions. The selected statements were than used in the pre-test of the measure. The result was eight statements 46
for each clothing-related attitudes which were incorporated into the
pre-test.
Also included in the pre-test were 12 statements relating to
(1) clothing as contributing to awarenesses of various aspects of
the body image and (2) clothing as contributing to positive effects
on various aspects of the body image. The aspects of the body image
were surface appearance and tactile response, muscular involvement,
posture, and shape of the body. The statements about aspects of the
body image were adapted by the researcher from Schilder (1950).
The Pre-Test. The clothing-related attitudes measure was
distributed to 16 secretaries, ranging in age from the twenties to
the sixties, in The School of Home Economics. The directions with
the pre-test included, "If the directions, words, or statements seem
strange or unclear, please mark them with question marks in the margins." The questionnaires were returned within three days.
The questionnaires were scanned for comments about clarity or meaning of the statements. The only criticism was related to a confusion of meaning between "physical attractiveness" and "personal appearance." Several respondents questioned the correctness of their interpretations of the two concepts.
Responses to statements were also evaluated for degree of discrimination. Statements which obviously were not discriminatory
3 were eliminated; these included two statements adapted from the
Creekmore Scale for which a factor analysis had shown high loadings.
However, the scores which were included in the factor analysis were those of college students. Apparently, mature women will not wear
clothing styles popular in their groups if they do nothing for
appearance. Some statements related to exhibitionism were not
discriminatory, probably because the costumes or situations described were rather extreme in nature.
Responses to the remaining clothing-related attitude statements were evaluated for consistency within each attitude group. State ments which related to non-visual aspects of clothing tended to be given non-consistent responses; for example, the response to "enjoy
the feeling of soft, silky material more than the feeling of wool gabardine" as indicative of femininity differed from responses to other femininity-attitude statements. Statements with the lowest summated deviation from the average scores were included in the
final measure.
The Final Measure. Four statements referring to each of the
twelve clothing-related attitudes were incorporated into the measure.
Reference was made to only one specific part of the body: the bust.
Two additional statements were retained in the measure because the women in the larger sample completing the questionnaire might differ significantly in attitudes from the women completing the pre-test.
Of the two statements one was in reference to tactile response.
According to Weatherson (1968:7), "Men and women dress differently because of differing sensual demands from the surface of their bodies.
Dichter (1959) reported that different fibers were symbolic of masculinity or femininity. In the pre-test, the scores for both 48 femininity and masculinity were more internally consistent than for other attitudes, except for responses to statements about texture.
In the pre-testing procedure the influence of texture seemed im portant only to non-Americans and to persons working solely in the textile field. The second of the two statements evoked the strongest response in the pre-test; the content referred to a television entertainer, with a highly rated program, whose most apparent at tribute was her exotic and exhibitionistic raiment. Respondents in the pre-test sample scored rather high in modesty. The statement might evoke responses expressing less modesty among respondents in the larger sample.
The final measure was comprised of 58 statements. (See Appendix
C.) Forty-eight of the statements were to test the formulated hypo theses concerning the following 12 attitudes: conformity and indi viduality, modesty and exhibitionism, femininity and masculinity, aestheticism and functionalism, constancy and change, and freedom and restraint. (See Appendix D.) Ten additional statements were included in the scale. Five of the statements were related to the use of clothing for a positive effect in appearance, (Appendix C:
Statements 36, 42, 46, 51, and 52) and three statements were con cerned with the use of clothing for a positive effect in actions.
(Appendix C: Statements 23, 56, and 62.) 49
Body Image Measure
The body-cathexis scale developed by Secord and Jourard (1953)
was used as the basis for the body image measure in the study. The
scale contains a list of body parts and processes about which subjects
are asked to indicate a degree of feeling of satisfaction or dissatis
faction. The scale is a direct approach for appraising degrees of
satisfaction about the body; therefore, the effect of social de
sirability may have an influence on the feelings of satisfaction
expressed by the subjects.
The Secord and Jourard scale has been used by several researchers,
including Rosen and Ross (1968), Douty (1968), Robinson (1967), Olstrom
(1972), and Freeman (1977), who investigated clothing attitudes or
attitudes about the body. The present researcher has used a version
of the scale in a five-year time span with more than a thousand
college students. The scale was not used for research purposes, but
for students to compare their scores with the class and with ac
cumulated ranges and averages of scores from previous classes.
The scale seemed to be non-threatening to the students and it was simple to complete. The scale was revised yearly with the addition of bodily parts or characteristics which the young women students deemed important to their satisfactions with physical appearance.
The scale was further revised for use in this study. Only body parts and characteristics which form the visible image were included
in the measure. The words used, such as bust and derriere, tended 50
to refer specifically to the female form; the Secord and Jourard list was appropriate for both sexes. Forty-seven bodily characteristics were listed in random order in the present study. The scale was completed by 15 women in the pre-test phase. If similar body parts or characteristics were given identical ratings by each subject in
the pre-test procedure, the use of only one word was retained to shorten the final list. An example was "size of nose" and "shape of nose."
Forty-three items appeared in the final body image measure.
They were arranged in positional order: (1) facial and head characteristics, (2) parts of body or trunk which may be covered or modified with dress, and (3) body extremities. Eleven general characteristics were included in the measure; they were height, weight, age, female sex, posture, profile of body, body frame, proportions of body, muscle tone, body gracefulness, and energy level.
The ratings of satisfactions about body parts and characteristics were on a five-point, quite unfortunate-quite fortunate scale.
Impressions of Body Characteristics Measure
The physical characteristics most mentioned in clothing choices by individuals are the dimensions of body build (Sheldon, et al.,
1940; Morton, 1964; McJimsey, 1963; duPont, n.d.). Four aspects of the body build were considered relevant to clothing. The aspects were thinness-heaviness, small bone-large bone structure, firmness- flabbiness of body flesh, and body type. 51
The earliest classification of human morphology was recorded
by Hippocrates: the long, thin body and the short, thick body
(Sheldon, et al., 1940). Since most classifications of body build
have been developed from the two extreme variations, the concept
of "thin" to "fat" was included in the measure. Because of the
cultural objections to obesity, the word "heavy" was used in the
ques tionnaire.
Bone structure is a variable of body appearance and is often
noted by individuals in assessing ideal body proportions as with
Hippee's rule of the wrist. The rule of the wrist is a scale for
various ideal proportions of the body; each ideal measurement is a
product of a certain number times the wrist measurement (Morton, 1964).
Bone structure is a criteria in body and personality typings, an
example being the Yang-Yin continuum developed by Northrup (McJimsey,
1963).
Firmness of flesh is related to the appearance of the body.
Foundation garments traditionally have been used to control the
appearance of certain portions of the body. Fashion rather than a need to control flabbiness, however, may be the influential variable
in the selection of controlling garments. A leading research-
oriented manufacturer of textile materials developed a procedure for measuring degrees of body firmness (duPont, n.d.); hence, the variable was included as a characteristic of body appearance.
In the present study, one-to-nine point continua were used to determine thinness-’neaviness, small bone-large structure, and 52
firmness-flabbiness of body flesh. Quantitative words such as
"very" or "quite" were avoided because, as an example, a person might be less likely to consider herself "very heavy" than "heavy." The subjects were asked to indicate how they believed they might be classified by other individuals on the three dimensions.
The fourth aspect of body characteristics was the classic somatotypes (endomorph, mesomorph, and ectomorph) identified by
Sheldon (1940). Actually, a person is a combination of components of all three body types. He defined different somatotypes. The somatotype labeled as "117" by Sheldon is primarily ectomorphic with a relative predominance of linearity and fragility with some mesomorphic and endomorphic qualities. The somatotype "171" is primarily mesomorphic with a relative predominance of muscle, bone, and connective tissue while somatotype "711" is primarily endo morphic, with a relative predominance of soft roundness throughout the various regions of the body. A somatotype of "444" would have all the components dominant and an average build. Somatotyping according to three basic types is a simplistic procedure because of the many possible combinations of components even among various regions of a person's body. The terms are rather commonly used in newspaper and magazine articles conveying information for the improvement of appearance (Lord, 1975) which was the basic reason the somatotypes were included in aspects of body build in the study. The types were presented on the questionnaire form as front-view 53
silhouettes. Respondents could check any two types if the body
image did not correspond with "average" or one of the three basic somatotypes.
The aspects of personal coloring are an integral part of clothing choices and may have significance to clothing attitudes.
The colorings of skin and hair were included in the measure.
Because skin and hair colorings may be identified and categorized according to several variables such as hue, value, intensity, and undertones, it was decided that a light to dark classification on a one-to-nine continuum might be the best method for indicating
"how others might classify" a person.
The Final Questionnaire Form
The final questionnaire form included three sections. One was the Clothing Attitude Scale in which 58 statements were relevant to 14 clothing-related attitudes and uses and four statements were included to assess the relative importance of personal at tractiveness. The second was the Body Image Scale in which were 43 items. Some Vital Statistics, the third section, included educational level attained, age, height, weight, and aspects of body build and personal coloring. (See Appendix C.)
Collection of Data
Data were collected in a midwestern metropolitan area in which is located a large land-grant university. The subjects were women 54 who belonged to business organizations and women faculty members at the land-grant university. The questionnaires were mailed to 139 business women and sent to 178 faculty women by campus mail.
Enclosed with each questionnaire were an explanatory letter (Ap pendix B) and a stamped, addressed return envelope. Since the subjects had been assured of complete anonymity with their responses, no identifying numbers were placed on the questionnaires or envelopes.
The faculty questionnaires were returned to the Textiles and
Clothing office; the business women's, to the researcher's home address.
A total of 201 questionnaires was returned before the data were tabulated for computer analysis. Seven forms were received by the researcher after the tabulation had been completed--five weeks after the letters were mailed to subjects— and were not included in the analysis. One hundred and two of the 139 distributed question naires were obtained from business women. The return rate for the five organizations ranged from almost 61 percent to over 85 percent; the total average return was 73 percent. From the business women, one questionnaire was incomplete, six were from women over 70 years of age, and three were received too late for analysis. One hundred and six questionnaires were returned from the faculty women of the 178 mailings for a return rate of 59 percent; four questionnaires were not complete and four were received too late for analysis.
Of the 101 questionnaires returned five weeks or less after mailings, 55 five were incomplete and six were from women with ages not included in the study. A total of 190 questionnaires, 92 from business women and 98 from faculty women, were completed and used in the analysis of data.
Analysis of Data
The questionnaires were developed for direct transferral of responses to standard data cards with the exception of the weight- height ratios and the body types. As other variables relating to physical characteristics in the study had continuum values from one- to-nine, it seemed realistic to develop a weight-height ratio table so that a one-to-nine number could be given an individual for the weight-height characteristic. A survey of weight-height charts was made in several health-oriented books. Data for the ideal and average weights for heights were usually excerpted from the Build and Blood Pressure Study by the Society of Actuaries (Metropolitan
Life Insurance Company, 1959). Therefore, a table was devised, using the data, for the assignation of weight-height ratios. Average weights are those given in the Build and Blood Pressure Study for the 25 to 29 age group. (See Appendix E„) The weight and height categories checked by a respondent in the questionnaire were given a corresponding or extrapolated weight-height ratio number. The average weight-height was assigned a "5" while the more ideal weight-height ratio, according to current cultural standards, would be a "3." 56
In the analysis of data, means, standard deviations, t-tests,
and coefficients of correlations were calculated to describe the
sample of working women. Data obtained for the hypotheses testing were used to determine (1) coefficients of correlation for relation
ships between body satisfactions and clothing-related attitudes, (2)
coefficients of determination by multiple regression analysis with
stepwise regression method for relationships between body character
istics and clothing-related attitudes, and (3) analysis of variance
for differences in clothing-related attitudes of various body
types. The LSD Test was used to compare pairs of group means if
F values were significant. An alpha level of .05 was used to
determine significance.
9 CHAPTER IV
PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
The data for the study were obtained from questionnaires completed by employed women in a midwestern metropolitan area. The analyses and interpretation of the data are presented under the following headings: (1) The Respondents: Descriptive Variables and Clothing-Related Attitudes, (2) Clothing-Related Attitudes and
Satisfactions with the Body Image, (3) Clothing-Related Attitudes and Characteristics of the Body Image, and (4) Clothing-Related
Attitudes and the Relative Importance of Personal Attractiveness.
The Respondents: Descriptive Variables and
Clothing-Related Attitudes
The sample for the study was comprised of 190 women who belonged to business women's organizations or were faculty members of a large midwestern lang-grant university. Three variables were selected to describe the sample beyond the definition of working women. The variables were occupational group, educational level, and age.
Conformity-individuality, modesty-exhibitionism, femininity-mascu- linity, aestheticism-functionalism, constancy-change, and freedoip- restraint were the clothing-related attitudes considered as dependent variables in the analyses. The attitude scores were based on
57 58
responses to four five-point, strongly disagree-strongly agree state
ments for each category. (See Appendix D.) In Table 1 are listed
the ranges, mean values, standard deviations, and relative ranks
of scores of the total sample of 190 women for each clothing-
related attitude.
Occupational Group and Clothing-Related Attitudes
The sample was made of 92 business women and 98 academic
faculty women. A t test was used to determine if significant
differences existed between scores for the clothing-related attitudes
of the business and the faculty women. As can be seen in Table 2,
the business women had scores for attitudes toward clothing which were significantly higher than the scores of the academic faculty women in femininity (t = 4.64, p = .001), conformity (t = 3.13,
p = .01), modesty (t = 2.81, p = .01), change (t = 3.15, p = .01),
and restraint (t = 3.39, p = .01). The attitude score concerning
constancy was significantly higher (t = -2.12, p = .05) for the
faculty women (X = 12.23) than for the business women (X = 11.16).
Educational Level and Clothing-Related Attitudes
The educational level of the respondents was originally planned
as a descriptive variable and for possible differentiation between
the two groups of working women. Forty-one (45 percent) of the business women were college graduates; 13 of this number had a 59
TABLE 1
RANGES, MEAN VALUES, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND RELATIVE RANKS OF SCORES FOR CLOTHING- RELATED ATTITUDES AS EXPRESSED BY WORKING WOMEN
Attitude Range Mean S.D. Rank
Conformity 4-19 12.01 3.25 8 Individuality 4-20 13.25 3.57 5
Modesty 5-20 13.19 3.69 6 Exhibitionism - 4-20 10.66 3.65 12
Femininity 4-20 12.50 4.05 7 Masculinity 4-18 11.09 2.68 11
Aestheticism 4-20 14.89 3.14 3 Functionalism 8-20 15.37 2.45 2
Cons tancy 4-20 11.72 3.52 9 Change 4-20 14.18 3.56 4
Freedom 5-20 16.17 2.89 1 Restraint 4-20 11.56 3.64 10 60
TABLE 2
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN.CLOTHING-RELATED ATTITUDE SCORES OF BUSINESS WOMEN AND ACADEMIC FACULTY WOMEN
Business Faculty Women Women (N = 92) (N = 98) t P
Mean Score Mean Score
Conformity - 12.75 11.31 3.13 .01 Individuality 13.21 13.29 -0.15 n.s.
Modes ty 13.96 12.48 2.81 .01 Exhibitionism 10.82 10.51 0.57 n.s.
Feminini ty 13.84 11.24 4.64 .001 Masculinity 11.05 11.12 -0.17 n.s.
Aestheticism 15.32 14.49 1.82 n.s. Functionalism 15.65 15.10 1.56 n.s.
Constancy 11.16 12.23 -2.12 .05 Change 15.00 13.43 3.15 .01
Freedom 16.20 16.14 0.13 n.s. Restraing 12.46 10.71 3.39 .01
i master'd degree and two, a doctoral degree (Table 3). All of the
faculty women were college graduates; 52 had a master's degree and 44 had a doctoral degree.
The relationship between educational level and clothing-related attitudes was determined by computing correlation coefficients. The educational levels completed by the respondents related significantly
to their clothing-related attitudes. (See Table 4.) The higher the educational level completed, the lower were the scores for femininity modesty, change, conformity and restraint (all at the .01 level of significance). The lower the educational level, the lower were the scores in aestheticism also at the .05 level constancy related to a higher educational level (p = .05). Also included in Table 4 are the coefficients of determination, the results of multiple regression analysis. Multiple regression analysis was done to determine the percentage of variance that the independent variable of educational level contributed to each of the 12 clothing-related attitudes. The level of education contributed 9.6 percent of the variance in femininity, 5.0 percent to change, 4.1 percent each to conformity and modesty, 2.6 percent to constancy, 2.1 percent to aestheticism, 1 percent to functionalism, and 1.2 percent to exhibitionism.
Age and Clothing-Related Attitudes
Age was considered as a descriptive variable in the study. ’As the productive years of working women are generally between the ages of 18 and 65 or 70, five decades of ages, 20's through 60's, were 62
TABLE 3
EDUCATIONAL LEVELS OF THE BUSINESS WOMEN, ACADEMIC FACULTY WOMEN, AND OF THE TOTAL GROUP
Business Women Faculty Women Total (N = 92) (N = 98) (N = 190) Educational Level Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent
High School Graduate 22 23.91 0 0.00 22 11.57
Post High School 29 31.53 0 0.00 29 15.26
College Graduate 26 28.26 2 2.04 28 14.74
Mas ter1s Degree 13 14.13 52 53.07 65 34.22
Doctorate Degree 2 2.17 44 44.89 46 24.21
Total 92 100.00 98 100.00 190 100.00 63
TABLE 4
CLOTHING-RELATED ATTITUDES AND EDUCATIONAL LEVEL: COEFFICIENTS OF CORRELATION AND COEFFICIENTS OF DETERMINATION PERCENTAGES
Educational Level Attitude Coefficients Coefficient of of Correlation Determination Percent
Conformity -.201 .01 4.05 Individuality .002 n.s. 0.00
Modesty -.228 .01 4.13 Exhibitionism -.069 n.s. 1.31
Femininity -.310 .01 9.62 Masculinity .085 n.s. 0.07
Aestheticism -.162 .05 2.13 Functionalism -.118 n.s. 1.70
Constancy .161 .05 2.60 Change -.224 .01 5.03
Freedom -.003 n.s. 0.00 Restraint -.198 .01 3.92 64
used for the descriptive variable of age. The range of age was
greater for the business women as can be seen in Table 5. The number
of business women in the 60's was more than twice the number of
faculty women for the same age group. The average age of both
groups and for the total group was in the 40's.
The results of the analyses of the data regarding age appear
in Table 6. The correlations between age and (1) the attitude
of modesty (r = .363) and (2) the attitude of exhibitionism (r = -.296)
were significant (,„001 level of probability). The older the women,
the more modest and the less exhibitionistic were the attitudes
expressed about clothing. Also, the older the woman, the higher
the score in aestheticism (p = .05). Age accounted for 13.17
percent of the variance in the modesty attitude and 8.75 percent
in the exhibitionism attitude. Age was a determinant for 2.03 per
cent of the femininity variable. A significant, but low, positive
correlation was found between aestheticism and age (r = .141, p = .05); however, age contributed only 1.03 percent to the variance in the
attitude. Age was also a determinant of 1.22 percent in the freedom
attitude.
Summary of Descriptive Variables and Clothing-Related Attitudes
Educational level, occupational group, and age were significantly i related in decreasing degrees to the clothing-related attitudes.
Significant negative correlations appeared between several clothing-
related attitudes and educational level; that is, the higher the 65
TABLE 5
DISTRIBUTION OF AGES OF THE BUSINESS WOMEN, ACADEMIC FACULTY WOMEN AND OF THE TOTAL GROUP
Business Women Faculty Women Total (N = 92) (N = 98) (N = 190) Age Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent
20's 17 18.47 11 11.23 28 . 14.75
30's 18 19.57 29 29.59 47 24.75 o CO 16 17.39 25 25.51 41 21.59
50's 23 25.00 26 26.53 49 25.79
60's 18 19.57 7 7.14 25 13.12
Total 92 100.00 98 100.00 190 100.00
3 66
TABLE 6
CLOTHING-RELATED ATTITUDES AND AGE: COEFFICIENTS OF CORRELATION AND COEFFICIENTS OF DETERMINATION PERCENTAGES
Age
Coefficient of Coefficients of Determination Attitudes Correlation p Percent
Conformity .122 n.s. 0.88 Individuality .035 n.s. 0.10
Modes ty .363 .001 13.17 Exhibitionism -.296 .001 8.75
Femininity -.012 n.s. 2.03 Masculinity .050 n.s. 0.95
Aestheticism .141 .05 1.03 Functionalism .060 n.s. 0.26
Constancy -.059 n.s. 0.09 Change -.003 n.s. 0.00
Freedom .117 n.s. 1.22 Restraint .101 n.s. 0.08 67 educational level, the lower were the scores in conformity, modesty, femininity, aestheticism, change, and restraint. The educational level correlated positively with the constancy attitude. Differences existed between clothing-related attitudes of business women and faculty women. The business women had significantly higher scores in conformity, modesty, femininity, change, and restraint with a significantly lower score in the constancy attitude. Age tended not to be a significant variable for describing women's attitudes toward clothing except for modesty, exhibitionism, and aestheticism.
Relationships Between Clothing-Related Attidudes
Correlation coefficients were computed to determine the re lationships between clothing-related attitudes. (See Appendix F.)
Computations were made with scores of the total sample. Seventeen of the positive correlations were significant at the .001 level of probability and were between the following attitudes. (However, attention is called to the magnitude of some of the correlation coefficients.)
Attitudes _r
Aestheticism-Change .516
Exhibitionism-Change .467
Femininity-Change .460
Exhibitionism-Feminity .431
Feminini ty-Res traint .410
Masculinity-Cons tancy .369 68
Attitudes £
Exhibitionism-Restraint .355
Modesty-Conformity .346
Change-Restraint .321
Femininity-Aestheticism .315
Functionalism-Freedom .311
Modesty-Masculinity .299
Individuality-Freedom .276
Aestheticism-Restraint .272
Modesty-Functionalism .265
Constancy-Freedom .255
Conformity-Change .251
At the .01 level of probability, the following seven positive correlations were significant:
Attitudes r
Exhibitionism-Aestheticism .241
Conformity-Restraint .215
Constancy-Functionalism .205
Conformity-Femininity .204
Masculinity-Functionalism .195
Individuality-Constancy .190
Conformity-Masculinity .186
Aestheticism and freedom were the only attitudes with a signifi cant positive correlation at the .05 level (r = .174). 69
Four negative correlations were significant at the .001 level of probability and included the following relationships:
Attitudes r
Modesty-Exhibitionism -.480
Conformity-Individuality -.448
Constancy-Change -.360
Femininity-Constancy -.291
Three of the negative correlations were significant at the .01 level and included the following:
Attitudes _r
Individuality-Change -.206
Femininity-Masculinity -.195
Exhibitionism-Masculinity -.195
Significant negative correlations at the .05 level included the following:
Attitudes r
Exhibitionism-Constancy -.176
Modesty-Change -.150
From a possible 67 relationships-, 36 relationships were signifi cant. Many of the relationships were quite low even if they reached significance. 70
Among the clothing-related attitudes, modesty-exhibitionism, conformity-individuality, femininity-masculinity and constancy- change appeared to form dichotomous pairs. Aestheticism and functionalism did not form patterns of relationships with other attitudes; so appeared to be distinct in nature. Freedom and re straint tended to form relationships. The relationships appeared to be in opposing directions; that is, one positive and the other negative.
Clothing-Related Attitudes and Satisfactions
with the Body Image
A purpose in the study was to investigate relationships between selected clothing-related attitudes and satisfactions with the body image. The first hypothesis formulated was that relationships will exist between selected clothing-related attitudes of business and professional women and expressed satisfactions with the body image.
Correlation coefficients were used to determine the relationships between the clothing-related attitudes of conformity, individuality, modesty, exhibitionism, femininity, masculinity, aestheticism, functionalism, constancy, change, freedom, and restraint and satisfactions with images of the total body, three specific aspects, and four general areas. The specific aspects were (1) height, (2) a weight, and (3) age. The general areas were (1) the body or trunk which is generally covered with clothing, (2) lower extremities,
(3) upper extremities, and (4) head and facial characteristics. 71
Among the specific body satisfactions, the feelings about female sex were not analyzed because 187 of the 190 women considered themselves "quite fortunate" to be a woman; this item among the 43 body parts and characteristics was given the highest rating. The general area of body (trunk) included shoulders, back, size of bust, shape of bust, waist, abdomen, side hips, derriere, posture, profile of body, body frame, and proportions of body. The area of lower extremities was comprised of thighs, legs, knees, calves, ankles, and feet. Arms, wrists, hands, and fingers made up the area of upper extremities. The head and facial area was composed of eyes, forehead, nose, facial shape, facial complexion, lips, teeth, chin, color of skin, ears, neck, profile of head, hair color, and hair texture.
The women in the study were generally s itisfied with their body images as indicated on a five-point, quite unfortunate-quite fortunate Body Image Scale. Of a possible range of scores from 43 to 215 on the scale, the lowest score was a 98 and the highest score was a 212. The mean total score for the respondents was 157.30 with a standard deviation of 26.12. The mean composite score for a respondent was 3.65 or a somewhat fortunate feeling about the body image. Correlation coefficients between aspects of the satisfactions with the body image were computed. The correlations between satis factions with images of the total body appear in Appendix G.
Satisfactions with the body image were most highly related to the attitude of change with regard to clothing. (See Table 7.) The TABLE 7
CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR SIGNIFICANT RELATIONS BETWEEN CLOTHING- RELATED ATTITUDES AND SATISFACTIONS WITH BODY IMAGE
Satisfactions Lower Upper Face Body Extrem- Extrem and Attitude Height Weight Age (trunk) ities ities Head Total
1 Conformity .186 Individuality . 155C - .146° -- --
Modesty - -.162c -.154c - -- Exhibitionism .201 - • 315a ,368a .221° .168° . 185c . 323a
Femininity . 147° • 199 • 294a .199b .168c . 273a ,303a •217b Masculinity - -.160c -.186 -.207 -.147c - -.175° -. 222
Aestheticism . 146° • .152c .216b • mm .159c ,202b Functionalism ------
Constancy -.149c -.206b -,196b ,141c -.189b Change . 201b .148c .194b • 380a .282a .211b ,I76C ,330a
Freedom • 160c — .165° .155c .170°
Restraint .183c .158° .193b — — — .143°
Probability = .001 Probability „= .01 Probability = .05
t o significant relationships (moderate to low) between the clothing-
related attitude of change and various aspects of the body image were
as follows: trunk, .380 (p = .001); total image, .330 (p = .001);
lower extremities, .282 (p = .001); upper extremities, .211 (p = .01) height, .201 (p = .01); age, .194 (p = .01); face and head, .176
(p = .05); and weight, .148 (p = .05). The second attitude most
significantly related to number of positive satisfactions with the body image was femininity, followed by the attitudes of exhibitionism
aestheticism, freedom, and restraint. Negatively related to satis
factions with certain aspects of the body image were the attitudes
of masculinity and constancy; that is, the less satisfied a woman was with various aspects of her body image, the higher were her
scores in masculinity and constancy. Related to satisfactions with
only one or two aspects of the body image were modesty, individuality
and conformity. The' clothing-related attitude of functionalism
formed no significant relationship with any satisfaction with the body image.
The correlations between satisfactions with various aspects
(height, weight, age, trunk, lower extremities, and face and head)
of the body image and clothing-related attitudes varied; however,
the total body satisfactions seemed to be the most comprehensively
related to clothing attitudes. The correlations were as follows:
change, .330 (p = .001); exhibitionism, .323 (p = .001); femininity,
.303 (p = o001); masculinity, -.222 (p = .01); aestheticism, .202 74
(p = .01); constancy, -.189 (p = .01); freedom, .170 (p = .05); restraint, .143 (p = .05); modesty, -.125 (p = .10); individuality,
.088 (p = .20); conformity, .071 (p = .70); and functionalism, .042
(p = .60).
Among the general areas of the body image, satisfactions with
the body (trunk) and satisfactions with the total body image had almost identical relationships with the clothing-related attitudes.
Significant relationships existed between satisfactions with the body
(trunk) and the attitudes of change, (r = .380, p = .001), femininity,
(r = .294, p = .001), and exhibitionism, (r = .294, p = .001).
A high satisfaction with the body (trunk) image was also related to a high score in the attitude of aestheticism, (r = .216, p = .01).
Satisfactions with the body (trunk) image were related negatively
to masculinity (r = -.207, p = .01) and constancy (r = -.196, p = .01).
In addition to relationships between satisfactions with body
(trunk) and clothing-related attitudes and between the total body image and clothing-related attitudes are the following relationships between other satisfactions and the clothing-related attitudes.
Satisfaction and Attitude r £
Age-Exhibitionism .315 .001
Lower Extremities-Change .282 .001
Face and Head-Femininity -.273 .001
Height-Exhibitionism .201 .01
Height-Change .201 .01 75
Satisfaction and Attitude r £
Weight-Femininity .199 .01
Age-Femininity .217 .01
Age-Change .194 .01
Lower Extremities-Conformity .186 .01
Lower Extremities-Exhibitionism .221 .01
Lower Extremities-Femininity .199 .01
Upper Extremities-Change .211 .01
Age-Masculinity -.186 .01
Age-Constancy -.206 .01
Twenty-two relationships between satisfactions and attitudes were significant at the .05 level of probability. Even if many correlation coefficients were significant, they must be considered as forming low relationships.
The hypothesis (Number I) could not be accepted in its entirety since significant relationships did not exist between all of the clothing-related attitudes of business and professional women and expressed satisfactions of the body image. The hypothesis was accepted for the attitudes of change and femininity. The hypothesis was only partially supported for the attitudes of exhibitionism, masculinity, constancy, and aestheticism, and, to a lesser extent, for the attitudes of freedom and restraint. The hypothesis was substantially rejected for the attitudes of conformity, individuality, and modesty. The hypothesis was wholly rejected for the clothing- related attitude of functionalism. 76
The finding of Creekmore (1974) that the attention use of clothing correlated with body satisfaction was confirmed in the study. The clothing-related attitude of exhibitionism was positively related to expressed satisfactions with the body image as expressed by business and professional women.
Clothing-Related Attitudes and Characteristics
of the Body Image
The second part of the study was to investigate relationships between clothing-related attitudes of working women and selected visible characteristics of the body image. The hypothesis (Number II) formulated was that relationships will exist between selected clothing- related attitudes of working women and the following characteristics of the body image: height, weight, weight-height ratio, impression of thinness-to-heaviness, impression of bone structure, impression of firmness of flesh, impression of skin coloring, impression of hair coloring, and impression of body type. The discussion pertinent to
the hypothesis is presented under (1) characteristics of the body image as expressed by the business and professional women and (2) relationships between the clothing-related attitudes and selected characteristics of the body image.
Characteristics of the Body Image as Expressed by the ,
Business and Professional Women.
Frequencies, percentages for each interval unit, and cumulative percentages were tabulated from data relative to the variables of 77
height, weight, weight-height ratio, impression of thinness-to-
heaviness, impression of bone structure, impression of firmness of
flesh, impression of skin coloring, and impression of hair coloring.
Only frequencies and percentages were listed for the variable of body type because the data were in discrete rather than continuous
units. The data were tabulated for both business women and faculty women.
Height of Business and Professional Women. The mean height of
the business woman was 5'4 V (see Appendix H ) , whereas the mean height of the faculty woman was 5'5 1/3". The total sample had an
average height of 5'5" with a standard deviation of 2.6". According
to correlation analysis, a greater height was related with a higher
educational level (r = .193, p = .01). Positive significant
correlations also existed between height and bone structure
(r = .445, p = .001) and between height and weight (r = .387, p = .001).
See Appendix I.
Weight of Business and Professional Women. The range of weights
of the business and professional women ranged from less than 92
pounds to over 183 pounds (Appendix J). The mean weight for business women, for faculty women, and for the total sample was in the
category of 135 to 139 pounds. The standard deviation for the total
group of working women was 22 pounds. Weight was positively
correlated with several other aspects of the body image: weight- height ratio (r = .872, p = .001), thinness-to-heaviness (r = .743,
p = .001), bone structure (r = .602, p = .001), height (r = .387,
p = .001), firmness of flesh (r = .173, p = .05), and color of 78
hair (r = .167, p = „05).
Weight-Height Ratio of Business and Professional Women. The
weight-height ratio variables was determined from a scale (Appendix E)
developed by the researcher. The variable was given a value ranging
from "1" to "9” (heavy) with a "5" considered as normal weight for
an individual's height. A large number of respondents were placed
in the "8" and "9" categories; several women so placed were short
of stature and weighed over 150 pounds.
The mean score for weight-height ratio of business women was 5.52;
for the faculty women, 5.32; and for the total sample, 5.42.
(Appendix K ) . The standard deviation for the total sample was 2.13.
The significant correlation between weight-height ratio and other
aspects of the visible image included weight, (r = .872, p = .001),
thinness-to-heaviness, (r = .839, p = .001), bone structure,
(r = .518, p = .001), firmness of flesh, (r = .261, p = .001), and
dark color of hair, (r = .168, p = .05).
Thinness-to-heaviness of Business and Professional Women. The
variable of thinness-to-heaviness was indicated by the women on a
continuum ranging from "1" symbolizing thin, to "9," representing heavy. The average was "5." The mean score for the total sample was 5.07 with a standard deviation of 1.84. (Appendix L ) . The
business women believed themselves to be slightly heavier (X = 5.10)
than did the faculty women who had a 4.99 mean score. Thinness-to- heaviness was significantly correlated with weight-height ratio 79
(r = .839, p = .001), weight (r = .743, p = .001), bone structure
(r = .515, p = .001), firmness of flesh (r = .323, p = .001), and skin coloring (r = .203, p = .01).
Bone Structure of Business and Professional Women. The bone structure was another independent variable which was placed on a continuum from "1" or small-bone structure to "9" or large-bone structure. The total group mean score for bone structure was 4.75 with a standard deviation of 1.79 (Appendix M). The mean score for the business woman was 4.56 while the faculty women perceived themselves to have slightly larger bone structure with an average score of 4.89. From the correlation matrix of various aspects of the visible characteristics (Appendix I), the associations with larger bone structure were height (r = .445, p = .001), weight
(r = .602, p = .001), weight-height ratio (r = .518, p = .001), thinness-to-heaviness (r = .515, p = .001), and skin coloring
(r = .183, p = .01).
Firmness cf Flesh of Business and Professional Women. The firmness-of-flesh variable was used to elicit impressions of "solid" or a "1" to "flabby" or "9" on a continuum (Appendix N). No woman perceived herself as being an "8" or "9." The mean score for the business women was 4.38 whereas the average score for the faculty woman was 3.87. The mean value for the total sample was 4.23 with a standard deviation of 1.67. As can be seen in Appendix G, relation ships were found between firmness-flabbiness of flesh and the follow ing aspects: thinness-to-heaviness (r = .323, p = .001), weight- height ratio (r = .261, p = .001), and weight (r = .173, p = .05). 80
Skin Coloring of Business and Professional Women. Skin coloring was assessed on a tonal scale with a "1" on the continuum represent ing light coloring and a "9" designating dark skin. No reference to race or nationality was included on the questionnaire. The inclusion of race or nationality seemed inappropriate because the scale was designed to measure impressions of personal coloring. The mean score for business women was 4.10; for faculty women, 4.25; and for the total sample, 4.17, with a standard deviation of 1.76.
(See Appendix 0.) According to the correlation coefficients between visible aspects of the body, skin coloring had positive relationships with hair coloring (r = .314, p = .001), thinness-to-heaviness
(r = .203, p = .01), bone structure (r = .183, p = .01), weight
(r = .167, p = .05), and weight-height ratio (r = .168, p = .05).
The significant correlations between skin coloring and other impres sions of physical characteristics were generally quite low.
Hair Coloring of Business and Professional Women. The women in\ the sample were asked about impressions of the present coloring of their hair. No reference was made to any modification of natural hair tones. To determine the hair coloring, the continuum from "1" to "9" representing light to dark was used. The average hair coloring score of the business women was 4.70, and for the faculty women it was 5.04 (Appendix P). The mean value for the total sample was 4.85 with a standard deviation of 2.17. Significant correlations between coloring of hair and other visible aspects of the body occurred between skin coloring (r = .314, p = .001), and height (r = .133, p = .05). 81
Body Types of Business and Professional Women. A respondent in the study was instructed to indicate a single body type as most like her body or she could indicate two choices with the primary choice noted as "1" and the secondary selection as "2." Ten possible body types or combination of body types were analyzed in the study. Over one half of the 190 women believed themselves to be average in body build. Endomorph, mesomorph, and ectomorph were each selected by 19 ttfomen. Each of the six "combination" categories was selected by five or six women. The number and percentages for each body type of the business women, faculty women, and the total number are listed in Appendix Q.
Relationships Between the Clothing-Related
Attitudes and Selected Visible
Characteristics of the Body Image
The data concerning possible relationships between the clothing- related attitudes and the selected characteristics of the body images of working women were analyzed for (1) coefficients of determination
(Table 8), (2) coefficients of correlation (Table 9), and (3) variance
(Tables 10 through 27). The clothing-related attitudes were conformity, individuality, modesty, exhibitionism, femininity, masculinity, aestheticism, functionalism, constancy, change,
5 freedom, and restraint. The selected characteristics of the body image were height, weight, weight-height ratio, impression of thinness-to-heaviness, impression of bone structure, impression of 82
TABLE 8
CLOTHING-RELATED ATTITUDES AND VISIBLE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BODY: COEFFICIENTS OF DETERMINATION
( 0 4 ) 1— 4 -O to 1 - 1 0 1 tn o 0 ) a ) > 1 - 4 s S 4-J i - 4 o . 1 2 > 1 p - 4 Ctf > p q 0 6 Si 3 C = S O j < U St U Attitude a > < U i— l to •i-4 4-J S3 60 P t4 i— l 60 60 to Si l H 1 X 4 3 3 > 1 60 O r t >4-4 i - 4 • r 4 - 3 • r 4 u O o U 1-4 S 4 <0 1 1 <0 4-J O O S3 CO O K to r— 4 1— 4 >4-4 I c n 4-J 3 to T 3 O o o 4 J 4-J 4-J a) 1 4-J a) • r 4 a o Si si si a r - 4 O g 1— 4 r - 4 60 60 60 a i - l 3 a O c i-4 3 •H • r 4 •H • r 4 tO U u 06 • r 4 i - 4 4 J < D < u (0 Si S 4-J • r 4 to O SS & H 06 06 p t 4 06 S3 H
Conformity .07 .10 .07 .72 .08 1.33 .22 .01 2.61 Individuality .37 1.38 .70 .00 .62 .66 .01 1.05 4.79
Modes ty .15 .07 .20 .00 .22 1.41 1.58 .87 4.51 Exhibitionism 1.06 .44 .19 .87 .76 3.10 1.05 2.50 9.96
Femininity .90 2.03 .00 .28 .02 .04 2.47 .05 5.80 Masculinity .13 .00 .00 .53 .00 .13 .23 2.01 3.03
Aestheticism .19 1.92 .23 .05 3.67 .38 .95 .03 7.43 Functionalism .76 .27 .05 .44 1.91, .19 1.54 .07 5.24
Constancy .00 .00 .33 .50 .12 .00 .48 .63 2.06 Change .75 .18 .20 2.68 .10 .80 1.03 .01 5.75
Freedom .01 .36 .04 .45 .03 .09 2.45 .14 3.57 Restraint .01 .15 1.53 3.01 .01 .96 2.08 .26 8.02
9 83
TABLE 9
CLOTHING-RELATED ATTITUDES AND VISIBLE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BODY: SIGNIFICANT COEFFICIENTS OF CORRELATION
m CO o 0) PQ CO Attitude X ca a) >> Conformity .148 Individuality Modesty - - . 201c Exhibitionism -.174 - -,217£ Femininity -. 170 -.157 Masculinity ,142 Aestheticism -.138 - -.192c Functionalism . 138 Constancy Change .134 ■.166b-.152b Freedom - -1.76b - -.157 Restraint fProbability = .01. Probability = .05. 84 firmness of flesh, impression of skin coloring, impression of hair coloring, and impression of body type. Conformity and the Body Image. According to multiple regression analysis, the physical variables contributed a total of 2.61 percent to the clothing-related attitude of conformity. Firmness of flesh was the only variable having a contributory effect of over one percent. According to the correlations, firmness of flesh was significantly related to conformity with a coefficient of .148 (p = .05). Body type was not a differentiating variable in con formity. The women who believed themselves to be flabby in flesh had a tendency to be conformists in dress (r = .148, p = .05); otherwise no relationship was found between conformity and physical characteristics. Individuality and the Body Image. Individuality in working women's attitudes toward clothes was not related to the visible characteristics included in the study. The physical variables contributed a total of 4.79 percent to individuality with age and hair coloring each accounting for slightly more than one percent. Between the attitudes and body images, no significant correlations occurred. No significant differences in the attitudes existed between body types as determined by analysis of variance. Physical characteristics were found to have no significant relationships with individuality. Modesty and the Body Image. Skin coloring contributed 1.58 percent to the modesty attitude, according to multiple regression 85 analysis. Firmness of flesh accounted for 1.41 percent. The total physical variables of the body image accounted for 4.51 percent of the modesty attitude. A significant correlation existed between modesty and the variable of firmness of flesh (r = .201, p = .01). The mean scores for modesty according to body type appear in Table 10. In the analysis of variance (Table 11), the F score for body type was 2.13 .^(p = .05). The statistic LSD was used to determine which mean scores were actually different for the clothing-related at titudes according to body type. The mesomorph types had the highest scores; that is they had the most modest attitudes toward clothing. Significant differences at the .05 level in modesty mean scores existed between endomorph-average and average-mesomorph, endomorph- average and mesomorph-average, endomorph-average and mesomorph, average-ectomorph and average-mesomorph, average-ectomorph and mesomorph-average, and average-endomorph and average-mesomorph (Table 12). Older age, less firm flesh, and a mesomorphic type build were characteristic of women who expressed higher clothing-related attitudes about modesty. Exhibitionism and the Body Image. The total of the physical variables included in the study accounted for 9.96 percent of the exhibitionism attitude. The percentages which the physical variables contributed to the attitude of exhibitionism were 3.10 for firmness 3 of flesh, 2.50 for hair coloring, 1.06 for height, and 1.05 for skin coloring. Two significant but somewhat low negative relationships 86 TABLE 10 MEAN SCORES FOR MODESTY ACCORDING TO BODY TYPE Body Type Mean Score S.D. Average-Mesomorph 16.80 1.77 Mesomorph-Average 15.83 2.43 Mesomorph 14.42 1.98 Endomorph 13.47 3.36 Average 13.04 3.36 Ec tomorph-Average 12.88 2.31 Ectomorph 12.79 4.38 Average-Endomorph 11.80 3.68 Average-Ectomorph 11.33 4.68 Endomorph-Average 9.67 2.05 TABLE 11 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR MODESTY AND BODY TYPE Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Variation Freedom Squares Square FP Between Groups 9 248.21 27.58 2.13 .05 Within Groups 180 2334.32 17.97 Total 189 2582.53 TABLE 12 DIFFERENCES IN MODESTY SCORES ACCORDING TO BODY TYPE < u o o 0 0 ) o > 4-1 'O > > CO < o c < < a ) i w w 1 ■ £ o 1 1 o o o o o i ■ o < D 0 ) 4-1 4-1 > o o > c ( U < u > Mean w < < w w < M £ £ < Score Mean Score 9.67 11.33 11.80 12.79 12.88 13.04 13.47 14.42 15.83 16.80 LSD Endo-Ave 9.67 14.75 6.16* 7.13V 4.08 .05 Ave-Ecto 11.33 Ave-Endo 11.80 Ecto 12.79 Ecto-Ave 12.88 Ave 13.04 Endo 13.47 Meso 14.42 Meso-Ave 15.83 Ave-Meso 16.80 Designates a difference of 4.08 or greater. oo 88 occurred; firmness of flesh (r = -.217, p = .01) and thinness-to- heaviness (r = .174, p = .05). The mean scores for exhibitionism contrasted, as could be exprected with the modesty scores. The endo morph-average was the most exhibitionistic type (X = 15.17) followed by average-ectomorph (X = 13.83), ectomorph-average (X = 12.38), and ectomorph (X = 11.37), as can be seen in Table 13. The lowest average scores were registered for mesomorph-average (X = 7.67) and mesomorph (X = 9.42). The analysis of variance (Table 14) for body type resulted in an F score of 2.80 which was significant at the .01 level. Significant differences at the .01 level occurred between scores in exhibitionism for the body types of mesomorph-average and ectomorph-average, mesomorph-average and average-ectomorph, mesomorph-average and endomorph-average, mesomorph and endomorph- average, endomorph and endomorph-average, average-endomorph and endomorph-average, and average and endomorph-average. (See Table 15.) The working woman with a high exhibitionistic score seemed to be young, firm of flesh, slender, and ectomorph or endomorph-average in body type. Femininity and the Body Image. The total score for physical variables represented 5.80 percent in the attitude of femininity. Skin coloring contributed 2.47 percent and weight accounted for 2.03 percent. Significant but low negative correlations included 3 femininity and skin coloring (r = -.170, p = .05) and femininity and height (r = -.157, p = .05). The women with higher scores in femininity were endomorph-average (X = 17.33), average-ectomorph 89 TABLE 13 MEAN SCORES FOR EXHIBITIONISM ACCORDING TO BODY TYPE Body Type Mean Score S.D. Endomorph-Average 15.17 1.95 Average-Ectomorph 13.83 >3.34 Ec tomorph-Average 12.38 3.24 Ectomorph 11.37 4.20 Average-Mesomorph 10.80 3.87 Average 10.43 3.35 Average-Endomorph 10.40 2.04 Endomorph 10.16 1.96 Mesomorph 9.42 2.03 Mesomorph-Average 7.67 2.75 TABLE 14 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR EXHIBITIONISM AND BODY TYPE Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Variation Freedom Squares Square F P Between Groups 9 308.49 34.28 2.80 .01 Within Groups 180 2206.26 12.26 Total 189 2514.75 TABLE 15 DIFFERENCES IN EXHIBITIONISM SCORES ACCORDING TO BODY TYPE oj 0 o (1) o CD > T 3 CO > ■U > < C (1) < o < 1 W S I a i 0 o o i ■ o o i o CO CO 4-1 4 J > > o a > e Mean S S w c - < < K a C w Score Mean Score 7.67 9.42 10.16 10.40 10.43 10.80 11.37 12.38 13.83 15.17 LSD p Meso-Ave 7.67 1.75 3.13 k 3.70 k 4.71* L 6.16* 7.50-' 4.45 .01 Me so 9.42 1.01 2.96 - 4.41 5.75- Endo 10.16 Ave-Endo 10.40 Ave 10.43 4.74-- Ave-Meso 10.80 Ecto 11.37 Ecto-Ave 12.38 2.79 Ave-Ecto 13.83 1.34 Endo-Ave 15.17 ^Designates a difference of 4.45 or greater. (X = 15.17) and average-endomorph (X = 14.80). The mesomorph types (average-mesomorph, X = 10.20; mesomorph, X = 11.32; and mesomorph- average, X = 12.00) and the endomorph (X = 11.32) were the lowest scorers in femininity (Table 16). According to the analysis of variance, significant differences existed for femininity and body type (F = 2.03, p = .05), as can be seen in Table 17. Significant differences at the .01 level existed between femininity scores for the body types of average-mesomorph and average-endomorph, average- mesomorph and average-ectomorph, average-mesomorph and endomorph- average, mesomorph and average-ectomorph, mesomorph and endomorph- average, endomorph and endomorph-average, mesomorph-average and endomorph-average, average and endomorph-average, ectomorph-average and endomorph-average, and ectomorph and endomorph-average (Table 18). The woman with the highest score in the clothing-related attitude of femininity seemed to have lighter hair, to be shorter in height, and to be endomorph-average, average-ectomorph, or average-endomorph in body type. Masculinity and the Body Image. The physical variables contrib uted 3.03 percent to the clothing-related attitude of masculinity, with hair coloring accounting for 2.01 percent. Among the cor relations, hair coloring had a significant relationship (r = .142, p = .05) with masculinity. The mesomorphic types (mesomorph- average, X = 12.40; average-mesomorph, X = 12.00; and mesomorph,5 X - 11.84) and the endomorph (X = 12.05) had the highest scores whereas the average-endomorph (X = 9.33) and the ectomorph-average 92 TABLE 16 MEAN' SCORES FOR FEMININITY ACCORDING TO BODY TYPE Body Type Mean Score S.D. Endomorph-Average 17.33 3.35 Average-Ec tomorph 15.17 3.44 Average-Endomorph 14.80 2.37 Ectomorph 12.84 2.52 Ec tomorph-Average 12.75 3.77 Average 12.34 3.68 Mesomorph-Average 12.00 4.73 Endomorph 11.53 2.74 Mesomorph 11.32 2.37 Average-Mesomorph 10.20 3.24 TABLE 17 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR FEMININITY AND BODY TYPE Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean Variation Freedom Squares Square F P Between Groups 9 286.90 31.88 2.03 .05 Within Groups 180 2824.39 15.69 Total 189 3111.29 TABLE 18 DIFFERENCES IN FEMININITY SCORES ACCORDING TO BODY TYPE o o 0) o 0 > •o u > O < < c CJ g i 1 w w : I o o o o o 1 1 o 0) 03 To 03 o a o > o o > > c Mean < 12 w IS < w w < < Score Mean Score 10.20 11.32 11.53 12.00 12.34 12.75 12.84 14.80 15.17 10.20 4.60* ‘ 4.97* 3.80 .05Ave-Meso 11.32 1.52Meso Endo 11.53 Meso-Ave 12.00 12.34 2.83 Ecto-Ave 12.75 2.05 '..2.42 12.84 1.96 1 4.80Ave Endo 14.80Ave Ave-Ecto 15.17 17.33Endo-Ave ^Designates a difference of 3.80 or greater. CO 94 (X = 8.50) were the lowest scoring (Table 19). The analysis of variance (Table 20) resulted in a F value of 1.98 (p = .05) for differences among the body types with respect to masculinity scores. Significant differences at the .05 level existed between scores in masculinity for the body types of ectomorph-average and average, ectomorph-average and mesomorph, ectomorph-average and average- mesomorph, ectomorph-average and endomorph, ectomorph-average and mesomorph-average, average-endomorph and average-mesomorph, average-endomorph and endomorph, and average-endomorph and mesomorph- average. (See Table 21.) A working woman, in the study, with a higher score in the clothing-related attitude of masculinity had darker hair and a larger body type than did the woman with a low masculinity score. Aestheticism and the Body Image. According to multiple regres sion analysis, the total of physical variables of the body image accounted for 7.43 percent of the clothing-related attitude of aestheticism. Bone structure contributed 3.67 percent to the attitude of aestheticism. Weight was the only other variable contributing more than one percent. The significant (but low) negative correla tions between attitudes and images were aestheticism and bone structure (r = -.192, p = .01) and aestheticism and height (r = -.135, p = .05). The endomorph-average (X = 18.83), average-ectomorph (X = 17.33), and average-endomorph (X = 17.20) had the highest scores in aestheticism (Table 22). The mesomorph body type had the lowest score in aestheticism (X = 13.53). According to the analysis 95 TABLE 19 MEAN SCORES FOR MASCULINITY ACCORDING TO BODY TYPE Body Type Mean Score S.D. Mesomorph-Average 12.40 2.50 Endomorph 12.05 2.28 Average-Mesomorph 12.00 1.73 Mesomorph 11.84 1.34 Average 11.10 2.50 Ectomorph 10.89 3.29 Average-Ectomorph 10.33 2.98 Endomorph-Average 10.17 1.67 Average-Endomorph 9.33 3.45 Ectomorph-Average 8.50 3.04 TABLE 20 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR MASCULINITY AND BODY TYPE Source of Degree of Sum of Mean Variation Freedom Squares Square F P Between Groups 9 122.54 13.62 1.98 .05 Within Groups 180 1238.92 6.88 Total 189 1361.46 TABLE 21 DIFFERENCES IN MASCULINITY SCORES ACCORDING TO BODY TYPE 'C > 02 > < a < 0 Cl) < i w t K S 1 o o 1 O o 1 O O -U a O <12 > c Si Mean w < w w S < w A Score Mean Score 8.50 9.33 10.17 10.33 10.89 11.10 11.84 12.00 12.05 12.40 LSD p 1 Ecto-Ave 8.50 .83 1.67 ! 1.83 2.39 I 2.60* 3.34* 1 3.50* I 3.55* _ 3.90* 2.52 .05 Ave-Endo 9.33 2.67*"-.. 2. 72--'\ 3.07-' Endo-Ave 10.17 1.88 2.23 Ave-Ecto 10.33 2.07 Ecto 10.89 Ave 11.10 1.30 Meso 11.84 Ave-Meso 12.00 Endo 12.05 Meso-Ave 12.40 ^Designates a difference of 2.52 or greater. VO CT\ 97 of variance (Table 23), the F score for differences in the attitude of aestheticism in relationship to body type was 3.27 (p = .01). Significant differences at .01 level occurred between the scores in aestheticism for the body types of mesomorph and average-ectomorph, mesomorph and endomorph-average, mesomorph-average and endomorph- average, average and endomorph-average, and endomorph and endomorph- average (Table 24). Functionalism and the Body Image. According to multiple regression analysis, physical variables accounted for 5.24 percent in the scores of the clothing-related attitude of functionalism. Bone structure contributed 1.91 percent and skin coloring represented 1.54 percent. A low correlation (r = .138, p = .05) existed between functionalism and bone structure. No significant differences were found between body types for functionalism when an analysis was made. The clothing-related attitude of functionalism was significantly associated with larger bone structure; however, functionalism was not related to any other aspect of the body image. Constancy and the Body Image. Physical variables contributed only 2.06 percent to the clothing-related attitude of constancy. No components of the body image accounted for more than one percent of the attitude. No significant relationships existed between the clothing-related attitudes and aspects of the body image. According to the analysis of variance, no significant differences occurred between body type and the constancy attitude. The clothing-related attitude of constancy had no significant relationships with the 98 TABLE 22 MEAN SCORES FOR AESTHETICISM ACCORDING TO BODY TYPE Body Type Mean Score S.D. Endomorph-Average 18.83 1.34 Average-Ectomorph 17.33 1.80 Average-Endomorph 17.20 1.63 Average-Mesomorph 16.00 2.74 Ectomorph 15.89 3.29 Ec tomorph-Average 15.88 3.37 Endomorph 14.84 1.09 Average 14.32 2.87 Mesomorph-Average 14.00 1.91 Mesomorph 13.53 1.86 TABLE 23 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR AESTHETICISM AND BODY TYPE Source of Degree of Sum of Mean Variation Freedom Squares Square F P Between Groups 9 260.45 28.94 3.27 .01 Within Groups 180 1591.96 8.84 Total 189 1852.41 TABLE 24 DIFFERENCES IN AESTHETICISM SCORES ACCORDING TO BODY TYPE a > < t o o a o Meso Endo Meso-Ave Ave-Meso Ave-Endo Mean C w w Ave-Ecto Endo-Ave Score Mean Score 13.53 14.00 14.32 14.84 15.88 15.89 16.00 17.20 17.33 18.83 LSD P i t 1 j Meso 13.53 .47 ^1.31 . 2.35 ! .2.36 ‘•'. 1^3^67 3.80* 1^5.30 3.78 .01 L * 79 / /•: x . ' Meso-Ave 14.00 .32" x . 84 - ,.1.88 1.89 ',.2.00 ..3.20"'\^ 3 . 33 ',.4.83*' Ave 14.32 . 52 1.56"' -^1.57 \ 1 . 68" \ 2 . 9 8 " ,3.01 "\4. 51* Endo 14.84 . 1.04 1.05 " \ 1 . 1 6 2.36 - ,.2.49 3.99* Ecto-Ave 15.88 .01 .12 " x 1.32 ,1.45 ".2.95 —, Ecto 15.89 • 11 ,1.^3l"\,,1.44 -.,2.94 Ave-Meso 16.00 1.20 ,1.33s"\2.83 Ave-Endo 17.20 , .13"\ . 1 ? 6 3 ^ Ave-Ecto 17.33 -,.1.50" Endo-Ave 18.83 ' ^Designates a difference of 3.78 or greater. 100 selected visible characteristics of the body image. Change and the Body Image. The selected physical variables accounted for 5.75 percent of the clothing-related attitude of change. Thinness-to-heaviness represented 2.68 percent and skin coloring, 1.03 percent. Three significant but low negative cor relations were found between change and (1) weight (r = -.134, p = .05), (2) thinness-to-heaviness (r = -.166, p = .05), and (3) bone structure (r = -.152, p = .05). Women with the higher scores in the attitude of change perceived themselves to have body types of endomorph-average (X - 18.00), average-ectomorph (X = 17.50), ectomorph-average (X = 15.75), and ectomorph (X = 15.37). (See Table 25.) The women with lower scores were mesomorph-average (X - 12.00), average-mesomorph (X = 12.20), endomorph (X = 12.68), and mesomorph (X = 12.95). The F score was 3.16 (p = .01) indicating significant differences between the body types for the scores of the clothing-related attitude of change. (See Table 26.) Significant differences at the .05 level existed between clothing-related attitudes for the body types of mesomorph-average and average- ectomorph, mesomorph-average and endomorph-average, average-mesomorph and average-ectomorph, endomorph and endomorph-average, mesomorph and average-ectomorph, and mesomorph and endomorph-average. (See Table 27.) The women in the study with higher scores in the clothing- related attitude of change tended to be shorter, thinner, and have a smaller bone structure than the average woman in the study. The 101 TABLE 25 MEAN'SCORES FOR CHANGE ACCORDING TO BODY TYPE Body Type Mean Score S.D. Endomorph-Average 18.00 0.82 Average-Ectomorph 17.50 1.38 Ectomorph-Average 15.75 2.73 Ectomorph 15.37 3.25 Average-Endomorph 14.60 1.47 Average 14.03 3.35 Mesomorph 12.95 3.18 Endomorph 12.68 1.79 Average-Mesomorph 12.20 2.03 Mesomorph-Average 12.00 2.41 TABLE 26 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR CHANGE AND BODY TYPE Source of Degree of Sum of Mean F P Variation Freedom Squares Square Between Groups 9 322.32 35.81 3.16 .01 Within Groups 180 2041.36 11.34 i Total 189 2363.68 TABLE 27 DIFFERENCES IN CHANGE SCORES ACCORDING TO BODY TYPE CO "O > > < 0) C < 0 < i £ w I w I o 1 O 1 O o 1 o CO a) CO 0) > > o o > c Mean £ < £ <5 < w < w Score Mean Score 12.00 12.20 12.68 12.95 14,03 14.60 15.37 15.75 17.50 18.00 LSD Meso-Ave 12.00 .20 .68 1 5.50 6.00* 4.28 ,01 Ave-Meso 12.20 .48 2.40''-. 3.17 5.30 5.80* Endo 12.68 2.69. 3.07 5.32* Meso 12.95 4.55* 5.05* Ave 14.03 3.97 Ave-Endo 14.60 Ecto 15.37 2.13 2.63 Ecto-Ave 15.75 Ave-Ecto 17.50 Endo-Ave 18.00 ^Designates a difference of 4.28 or greater. 102 r 103 attitude of change may reflect a desire for new styles in the fashion sense. The body types with higher scores in change were the ectomorph combinations and the endomorph-average. Freedom and the Body Image. According to multiple regression analysis, the physical variables of the body image contributed 3.57 percent of the variation to the attitude of freedom in dress. Skin coloring was accountable for 2.45 percent of the variation. Two significant correlations were present: between freedom and thinness- to-heaviness (r = -.176, p = .05) and between freedom and skin coloring (r = -.157, p = .05). No significant differences were found between the images of body type when an analysis of variance was performed. The clothing-related attitude of freedom was not as sociated with any visible physical characteristic selected for the study. Restraint and the Body Image. The total contribution to restraint by the physical variables was 8.02 percent, according to multiple regression analysis. Thinness-to-heaviness accounted for 3.01 percent; skin coloring, 2.08 percent; and weight-height ratio, 1.53. However, restraint was not significantly correlated with any physical variable. According to the analysis of variance, no significant differences existed in restraint scores between the perceived images of body type. The clothing-related attitude was i not significantly associated with any of the physical variables included in the study. 104 Summary of Relationships between Clothing-Related Attitudes and Characteristics of the Body Image A total of 96 relationships were possible between 12 clothing- related attitudes and eight specific characteristics of the body image, but only 15 correlations were found to be significantJ Many of the significant correlation coefficients were low (p = .05). A more complete perspective about clothing-related attitudes and characteristics of the body image was represented by the data about the body types than by the data about the specific characteris tics. Among the body types, the mesomorph and the endomorph tended to contrast with the ectomorph types, average-endomorph, and endomorph-average. The mesomorph types and the endomorph had high scores in the clothing-related attitudes of modesty and masculinity with low scores in exhibitionism, femininity, aestheticism, and change while the ectomorph types, average-endomorph, and endomorph- average had high scores in femininity, exhibitionism, aestheticism, and change with low scores for modesty and masculinity. The clothing- related attitudes for which body type was not a significant variable were conformity, individuality, functionalism, constancy, freedom, and restraint. The mean score rankings for the body types which were related to attitudes were placed on continua and appear in Appendix R. The hypothesis (Number II) that relationships will exist between selected clothing-related attitudes of working women and certain characteristics of the body image could not be accepted in its entirety; of 108 relationships only 21 coefficients were signif icant and they were in the low range. The significant relationships between attitudes and characteristics were as follows: Attitude and Physical Characteristics r £ Conformity-Firmness of Flesh .148 .05 Modesty-Firmness of Flesh .201 .01 Exhibitionism-Thinness-to-Heaviness -.174 .05 Exhibitionism-Firmness of Flesh -.217 .01 Feminini ty-Heigh t -.170 .05 Femininity-Skin Coloring -.157 .05 Masculinity-Hair Coloring .142 .05 Aestheticism-Height .138 .05 Aestheticism-Bone Structure -.192 .01 Functionalism-Bone Structure .138 .05 Change-Weight -.134 .05 Change-Thinness-to-Heaviness -.166 .05 Change-Bone Structure -.152 .05 Freedom-Thinness-to-Heaviness -.176 .05 Freedom-Skin Coloring -.157 .05 An analysis of variance was done to determine if differences existed between clothing-related attitude. Six significant 106 differences resulted between clothing-related attitudes and body- type. Following are the relationships between clothing-related attitude and body type: Attitude and Body Type F £ Modesty-Body Type 2.13 .05 Exhibitionism-Body Type 2.80 .01 Femininity-Body Type 2.03 .05 Masculinity-Body Type 1.98 .05 Aestheticism-Body Type 3.27 .01 Change-Body Type 3.16 .01 Ihe hypothesis (Number II) was rejected for the remaining clothing-related attitudes and physical characteristics of the body image. Clothing-Related Attitudes and the Relative Importance of Personal Attractiveness The third part of the study was to determine if clothing- related attitudes of business and professional women were associated with attitudes toward the importance of personal appearance. The third hypothesis formulated was that relationships will exist between the clothing-related attitudes of working women and expressed relative importance of personal attractiveness. i Data about the attitudes toward the expressed relative importance of personal attractiveness were obtained from four five-point, disagree-agree type statements in the Clothing Attitude Scale. The 107 mean total score for the respondents to the four statements was 17.95 with scores ranging from 10 to 20. The mean score for the respond ents was 4.49 from a possible range of one to five. The women believed that personal attractiveness was important. Correlation coefficients were used to interpret the data with the results appearing in Table 28. The expressed relative importance of personal attractiveness was positively correlated with change (r = .398, p = .001) and aestheticism (r = .254, p = .001), Other positive correlations were with femininity (r = .229, p = .01), exhibitionism (r = .190, p = .01), conformity (r = .163, p = .05), and restraint (r = .147, p = .05). The negative correlations with expressed importance of personal attractiveness were constancy (r = -.283, p = .001), individuality (r = -.183, p = .05), and masculinity (r = -.159, p = .05). The hypothesis (Number III) that relationships will exist between clothing-related attitudes of business and professional women and expressed relative importance of personal attractiveness was confirmed for the attitudes of conformity, individuality, exhibitionism, femininity, masculinity, aestheticism, constancy, change, and restraint. The hypothesis was not accepted for the attitudes of modesty, functionalism, and freedom. 108 TABLE 28 CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS SHOWING SIGNIFICANT RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CLOTHING-RELATED ATTITUDES AND EXPRESSED RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF PERSONAL ATTRACTIVENESS Correlation Attitude Coefficients P Conformity .163 .05 Individuality -.183 .05 Modesty .052 n.s. Exhibitionism .190 .01 Feminini ty .229 .01 Masculinity -.159 .05 Aestheticism .254 .001 Functionalism -.108 n.s. Constancy -.283 .001 Change .398 .001 Freedom -.037 n.s. Restraint .147 .05 Reliability of the Clothing-Related Attitude Scale The Kuder-Richardson Formula 8 was used to determine the reliability coefficients of the twelve clothing-related attitude groups. Item-analysis coefficients for conformity ranged from .60 to .88 with an overall coefficient of .78. For the 4 individuality items, the reliability coefficients were from .68 to .78; the overall coefficient was .81. The modesty clothing-related attitude category had item-test coefficients from .54 to .77 with .78 as the coef ficient for all 4 items. For the exhibitionism category the values from .68 to .82; overall the value was .84. Item analysis of the femininity group resulted in values of .77 to .82; the coefficient for the 4 items was .85. The 4 masculinity items had values ranging from .50 to .69 with .53 for the overall value. For aestheticism coefficients ranged from .63 to .74 with .78 for the group. The functionalism group had item-analysis coefficients ranging from .37 to .70; for the 4 items the coefficient was .65. A range from .34 to .83 resulted for the constancy items; the overall coefficient was .80. For the attitude of change the range was from .45 to .83 with a .68 for the overall value. The range for the freedom category was from .47 to .89 with .71 for the overall figure. The restraint attitude had reliability coefficients ranging from .69 to .81; the overall coefficient was .83. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY Summary of Study The purpose of the study was to explore the relationships between the body image and attitudes toward dress and adornment. Clothing modifies, partially covers, and decorates the body, but the functions of clothing may be as much a matter of mind as of body. As a person clothes and decorates the body, he or she may be creating a self-portrait that complements an image in the mind. Thus, hypotheses were formulated in the study to investigate the relation ships between certain aspects of the body image and attitudes toward clothing which have implications for the way a person may feel, think, and act concerning the body. Body images and clothing-related attitudes were defined for the study. Aspects of the body image included expressed satis factions with the body image, impressions of certain visible characteristics of the body, and the expressed relative importance of personal attractiveness. Twelve clothing-related attitudes were selected from 31 identified functions of clothing which had signif icance to the body image. Possible dichotomous pairs were formed 110 Ill with the 12 attitudes and included conformity and individuality, modesty and exhibitionism, femininity and masculinity, aestheticism and functionalism, constancy and change, and freedom and restraint. The sample for the study included working women who belonged to business organizations and academic faculty women at a large mid-western university. All women lived in the same large metro politan area. The study was planned so that all decades of age from the 20's through the 60's would be represented. A three-part questionnaire was designed for the study: (1) Clothing Attitude Scale, (2) Body Image Scale, and (3) Impressions of Body Characteristics. The attitude scale consisted of 58 state ments relevant to the clothing-related attitudes and four statements to assess the relative importance of personal attractiveness. The procedure for developing the attitude measure included two reviews by graduate students and faculty members in the textiles and clothing area and a pretesting of the questionnaire with university secretaries. The attitude measure was a summated rating scale with each statement having degrees of agreement-disagreement on a five-point, Likert- type continuum. The Body Image Scale was adapted from the Secord and Jourard body-cathexis scale (1953). The revised scale was adapted specifically for the female body. Forty-three items appeared on the final measure and were arranged in positional order: (1) 9 facial and head characteristics, (2) parts of the body (trunk) which may be covered or modified by dress, (3) body extremities and (4) general characteristics. The ratings of satisfactions with the body 112 parts and characteristics were recorded on a five-point quite un- fortunate-quite fortunate scale. The Impressions of Body Character istics measure included l-to-9 point continua for thinness-to- heaviness, small-bone-large-bone structure, firmness-flabbiness of body flesh, light-dark skin coloring, and light-dark hair coloring. The measure was also planned to elicit information about impressions of body type, height, weight, and age as well as educational level. The questionnaires were distributed by mail to respondents who then mailed the completed forms to the researcher. Before mailings to the business women, a consent to participate form was signed by women at meetings of five organizations. Participants were assured anonymity with their responses. The return rate was about 67 percent of forms (n = 190) initially mailed. Hypotheses were tested with correlations, multiple regression analysis, and analysis of variance. Findings in the Investigation Data for the study were obtained from 190 working women. Ninety-eight were academic faculty women and 92 were women who belonged to business organizations. The respondents in the study were categorized beyond the definition of working women by three variables: occupational group, educational level, and age. The business women had significantly higher scores for the clothing- i related attitudes of femininity, conformity, modesty, change, and restraint; the faculty women scored higher in constancy. The higher the educational level attained, the lower were the scores of the 113 women for the clothing-related attitudes of femininity, modesty, change, conformity, restraint, and aestheticism. Age was signifi cantly correlated with modesty and exhibitionism; that is, the older women had higher modesty and lower exhibitionism attitudes than did the younger women. Three hypotheses were formulated and analyzed during the study. Hypothesis I. Relationships will exist between selected clothing-related attitudes of business and professional women and expressed satisfactions with the body image. The relationships analyzed were between the 12 clothing- related attitudes and the satisfactions with height, weight, age, body (trunk), upper extremities, lower extremities, facial and head characteristics, and the total body. The hypothesis was not accepted in its entirety since significant relationships did not exist between all of the clothing-related attitudes of working women and expressed satisfactions with the body image. The hypothesis was accepted for the attitudes of change and femininity; both correlated positively with all body image satisfactions. The hypothesis was only partially accepted for the attitudes of exhibitionism, masculinity, constancy, and aestheticism. Exhibi tionism and aestheticism correlated positively with some body image satisfaction levels; masculinity and constancy formed negative correlations with some satisfactions of the body image. The attitudes of exhibitionism, aestheticism, masculinity, and constancy formed significant relationships with the total body image. The attitudes 114 of freedom and restraint correlated positively with a few body satisfactions, including the total body image; however, the cor relations were quite low. The hypothesis was substantially rejected for the attitudes of conformity, individuality, and modesty; each correlated signifi cantly, but to a low degree, with one or two body satisfactions. None of the three attitudes correlated with satisfactions of the total body image. The hypothesis was wholly rejected for the clothing- related attitude of functionalism; no correlations were formed, between this attitude and any satisfactions with the body image. Hypothesis II. Relationships will exist between selected clothing-related attitudes of business and professional women and the following character istics of the body image: height, weight, weight- height ratio, impression of thinness-to-heaviness, impression of bone structure, impression of firmness of flesh, impression of skin coloring, impression of hair coloring, and impression of body type. Data concerning height, weight, weight-height ratio, and im pressions of thinness-to-heaviness, bone structure, firmness of flesh, skin.coloring, and hair coloring were analyzed for correla tions of determination and coefficients of correlation. According to multiple regression analysis, the physical characteristics accounted for little variance in the clothing- related attitudes. Each attitude was affected to an extent of less than ten percent by the total physical variables. The attitudes, and the contributory percentages of the effect of the total physical characteristics were as follows: conformity, 2.61; 115 individuality, 4.79; modesty, 4.51; exhibitionism, 9.96; femi ninity, 5.80; masculinity, 3.03; aestheticism, 7.43; functionalism, 5.24; constancy, 2.06; change, 5.75; freedom, 3.57; and restraint, 8. 02. Ninety-six correlations were possible between the physical characteristics of the body image and the clothing-related attitudes; only 15 formed significant relationships and these were quite low. The significant positive correlations were between conformity and firmness of flesh, modesty and firmness of flesh, masculinity and hair coloring, and functionalism and bone structure. The signifi cant negative correlations were between exhibitionism and thinness- to-heaviness, exhibitionism and firmness of flesh, femininity and height, femininity and skin coloring, aestheticism and height, aestheticism and bone structure, change and weight, change and thinness-to-heaviness, change and bone structure, freedom and thinness-to-heaviness, and freedom and skin coloring. The hypothesis that relationships would exist between the clothing-related attitudes of business and professional women and the body characteristics of height, weight, weight-height ratio, and impressions of thinness-to-heaviness, bone structure, firmness of flesh, skin coloring, and hair coloring was substantially re jected. The bases for the rejection were low percentages of deter mination to the clothing-related attitudes by the physical character istics of the body image and the few low correlations between clothing-related attitudes and physical characteristics of the body image. 116 The data concerning body type were analyzed for variance between the clothing-related attitudes of women with endomorph, mesomorph, ectomorph, average, and six combination types (endo morph-average, average-ectomorph, mesomorph-average, average- mesomorph, ectomorph-average, and average-ectomorph) of body build. Significant differences existed between body types for the clothing- related attitudes of modesty, exhibitionism, femininity, masculinity, aestheticism, and change. Women with mesomorph, mesomorph-average, average-mesomorph, and endomorph body types had high scores in modesty and masculinity and low scores in the femininity, exhibition ism, aestheticism, and change clothing-related attitudes. Women with body types of ectomorph, ectomorph-average, average-ectomorph, average-endomorph, and endomorph-average had corresponding opposite scores, having higher scores in exhibitionism, femininity, aes theticism, and change and lower scores in the clothing-related attitudes of modesty and masculinity. Concerning body type, the hypothesis that relationships would exist between body build and clothing-related attitudes was supported for the attitudes of modesty, exhibitionism, masculinity, femininity, aestheticism, and change. The hypothesis was not supported for the clothing-related attitudes of conformity, individuality, functionalism, constancy, freedom and restraint. Hypothesis III. Relationships will exist between clothing-related attitudes of business and profes sional women and expressed relative importance of personal attractiveness. 117 The women in the study believed that personal attractiveness was of somewhat-to-much importance to them. Significant positive relationships existed between the expressed relative importance of personal attractiveness and the clothing-related attitudes of change, aestheticism, femininity, exhibitionism, conformity, and restraint. Significant negative correlations were found between the relative importance of personal attractiveness and constancy, individuality, and masculinity. The hypothesis that relationships would exist between the expressed relative importance of personal attractiveness and clothing-related attitudes of working women was accepted for the attitudes of conformity, individuality, exhibitionism, femininity, masculinity, aestheticism, constancy, change and restraint, but not for the attitudes of modesty, functionalism, and freedom. Conclusions in the Study An analysis of the correlations was made between the clothing- related attitudes of conformity, individuality, modesty, exhibition ism, femininity, masculinity, aestheticism, functionalism, constancy, change, freedom, and restraint for the working women in the study. The positive correlations (.001 and .01 levels of significance) between the attitudes were clustered into five groups in which each attitude had a significant relationship with all attitudes within a cluster--except for two nonsignificant positive relation ships. Since they approached significance (.06 and .08 levels of probability) they were included in the cluster formations. From 118 the clusters (see Figure 1) profiles of attitudes toward clothing were made. Components related to emphasis placed on fashion were evident in the resultant clusters when they were analyzed. As a result the profiles were labeled as 1) fashion leader, 2) fashion conformist, 3) independent-of-fashion,4) modest conformist, and 5) individualist. The fashion leader heading was assigned to the first group because the attitude of change, the essence of fashion, was an important component of the cluster. The fashion conformist label seemed suit able for the second profile since it primarily included the at titude of conformity with some importance assigned to the change component. Independent-of-fashion could be the title of the third profile— the cluster included constancy Vnich was considered in the study as the opposite of change. Modest conformist was believed to be descriptive of the fourth profile since both attributes were vital components in the cluster. The fifth profile could be entitled the individualist because the combination of clothing-related atti tudes suggest a woman with individuality and constancy who also placed some value on functionalism and freedom in dress. The feminine fashion leader desired others to notice her and her body. She was aware of clothing and her awareness included the dress of other persons. Modesty was not significant for this woman. She 3 preferred restraint in clothing to improve her figure or to make it more obvious. This cluster may represent Greer's (1971) "female eunuch." The fashion conformist followed the trends of the fashion B. FASHION CONFORMIST A(*0 Conformity-Femininity-Restraint-Change rNAl — -- * • C „ INDEFENDENT-OF-FASHION -195- Cons tancy-Functionalism-MascuIinity 3 6 9 - -.1^5- D. MODEST CONFORMIST -199. Conformity-Modes^ty-Masculinity-Functionalism A95*- .10.8 E. INDIVIDUALIST . 1 5 5 *.105 X Individuaiity-Constancy-Functionalism-Freedom -. 135-- .176' Figure 1. Clusters of significantly related clothing attitudes. Each attitude in a cluster had a significant relationship with all attitudes within the cluster, except for two relationships which approached significance with .06 and .08 levels of probability. 120 leader, but whe was not aware of the aesthetics of dress, nor was she an exhibitionist. The masculine independent-of-fashion woman desired functional apparel and constancy in style. The modest conformist preferred functionalism and a masculine appearance. The individualist was elusive and difficult to describe. However, she preferred constancy in style and freedom in dress. The correlation coefficients between total body satisfactions and clothing-related attitudes were used to further profile the clusters of positive correlations between clothing-related attitudes (see Figure 2). The fashion leader and the fashion conformist tended to have attitudes which related to a high satisfaction with body images. The independent-of-fashion woman and the modest conformist had attitudes which were related to low satisfactions with the body image. The individualist cluster included both negative and positive relationships between, attitudes and satisfactions. In Figure 3 appear the significant correlations between the specific physical characteristics of height, weight, weight-height ratio, thinness-to-heaviness, bone structure, firmness of flesh, skin coloring, and hair coloring and the clothing-related attitude clusters of feminine fashion leader, fashion conformist, independent- of-fashion, modest conformist and individualist. The correlations are few and of low significance (r - 1.38 to .217). The significant relationships between clothing-related attitudes and body types of endomorph, mesomorph, ectomorph, average and combination body types were used to further profile the clothing- related clusters of feminine fashion leader, fashion conformist, A. FASHION LEADER Change-Aestheticism-Exhibitionism-Femininity-Restraint . ~ *200 ’^3 Satisfactions with Body Image B. FASHION CONFORMIST Conformity-Femininity-Restraint-Change . 3i0 Satisfactions with Body Image C. INDEPENDENT-OF-FASHION Cons tancy-Func tionalism-Masculini ty Satisfactions with Body Image D. MODEST CONFORMIST Conformity-Modesty-Masculinity-Functionalism ^. Satisfactions with Body Image E. INDIVIDUALIST Individuality-Constancy-Functionalism-Freedom Satisfactions with Body Image Figure 2. Relationships between satisfactions with total body image and clusters of significantly related clothing attitudes. 122 A. FASHION LEADER Thinness-to-Heaviness Change^Aestheticism-Exhibitionism-Femininrty-Restraint -.134 -.153. -.170 We'ight Bone Structure Firmness \ B. FASHION CONFORMIST Skin Coloring Weight -.157 -JTjH Conformity-Femininity-Restraint-Change -,lN& _,;o - . i d ^,15 0 ^ Firmness ' | Thinness-to- Bone of Flesh Height Heaviness Structure C . INDEPENDENT-OF-FASHION Hair Coloring .HOT Constancy-Functionalism-Masculinity .138' Bone Structure D. MODEST CONFORMIST Hair Coloring Conformity-Modesty-Masculinity-Functionalism .aoi ^I3.a Firmness of Flesh Bone Structure E. INDIVIDUALIST Thinness-to-Heaviness A7 Figure 3. Relationships between visible characteristics of the body and clusters of significantly related clothing attitudes. Note: The correlations tended to be quite low. 123 independent-of-fashion, modest conformist, and individualist. (See Figure 4.) Northrup's concepts of Yang and Yin (McJimsey, 1963) were used to profile the relationships. Yang represents the larger body structure including mesomorphic types and endomorph. Yin represents the smaller body structure including the ectomorphic types, average-endomorph, and endomorph-average. The general characteristic of body type seemed to form more meaningful relation ships between clothing-related attitudes than did the specific physical characteristics. The correlations between clothing-related attitudes and expressed relative importance of personal appearance were included in the clusters symbolized as fashion leader, fashion conformist, independent-of-fashion, modest conformist, and individualist. The relationships between the importance of personal appearance and clothing-related attitudes are shown in Figure 5. The profiles, which were developed from significant relation ships between clothing-related attitudes and between attitudes and aspects of the body image, may be summarized as follows: (a) The feminine fashion leader desires others to notice her and her body. She is aware of clothing and her awareness includes the dress of other persons. Modesty is not significant for this woman. She prefers restraint in clothing to improve her figure or to make it more obvious. She believes >■ that personal attractiveness is important. Her body image satisfaction level is quite high. In appearance, this woman may represent Northrup’s Yin personality (McJimsey, 1963). This profile tends to resemble Greer's (1971) "female eunuch." A. FASHION LEADER Change-Aestheticism-Exhibitionism-Femimnity-Restraint Yin Yin Yin Yin B. FASHION CONFORMIST Conformity-Femininity-Restraint-Change Yin Yin C . INDEPENDENT-OF-FASHION Constancy-Functionalism-Masculinity Yang D. MODEST CONFORMIST Conformity-Modesty-Mascu! inity-Functionalism Yang Yang E. INDIVIDUALIST Individuality-Constancy-Functionalism-Freedom Figure 4. Relationships between Yang-Yin body type and clusters of significantly related clothing attitudes. 125 A. FASHION LEADER Change-Aestheticism-Exhibitionism-Femininity-Restraint Important Important Important Important Important B. FASHION CONFORMIST Conformity-Femininity-Restraint-Change Important Important Important Important C. INDEPENDENT-OF-FASHION Constancy-Functionalism-Masculinity Not Not Important n. s, Important D. MODEST CONFORMIST Conformity-Modesty-Masculinlty-Functionalism Not Important n.s. Important n.s. E. INDIVIDUALIST Individuals. ty-Cons tancy-Func tionalism-Freedom Not Not Important Important H « S a n.s* Figure 5. Relationships between expressed importance of personal attractiveness and clusters of significantly related clothing attitudes. 126 (b) The fashion conformist follows the trends of the fashion leader, but she is not aware of the aesthetics of dress nor is she an exhibitionist. This woman is somewhat satisfied with her body image; she believes that personal attractiveness matters in life. Her appearance tends to be Yin in nature. (c) The independent-of-fashion woman is not concerned with a feminine appearance, but desires functional apparel and con stancy in style. This woman tends to believe herself less fortunate in body image; however, she does not believe that physical appearances are important. She may have a Yang type body structure. (d) The modest conformist prefers function alism to a feminine appearance. She probably has a Yang body structure. Personal appearances are not important to this woman. (e) The individualist is elusive and dif ficult to describe. She prefers constancy in style and freedom in dress. Personal attractiveness is not of importance to this woman. A profile of the average woman was not made from relationships between clothing-related attitudes and selected aspects of the body image; however, a description may be made from the various scores obtained in the study. The description is as follows: (f) The average woman is somewhat satisfied with her body image and she believes that personal appearnaces are important. She wants clothing which does not en cumber her body movements. Functionalism is important to her, but, at the same * time, clothes should be aesthetically pleasing. She is more modest than exhibitionistic, more inclined toward individuality than conformity, and 127 prefers the feminine to the masculine in appearance. Variety in styles and fashion seem to be desired by this woman. Recommendations for Further Study The methodology of the study may be improved by refining the Clothing Attitude Scale. Many of the Scale items formed low correlations with other aspects of attitudes and images. Kerlinger (1973) noted that correlations below .10 may well be discarded, but correlations of .10 and above may be leads for theory and subsequent research if the measurements are improved. The Clothing Attitude Scale should be reduced in length so that more women would be will ing to complete the Scale if less time were involved. The list of body components could be shortened to involve less time for assess ment. The section of the questionnaire on physical characteristics may be revised by combining some aspects of the body image. A refined, more precise test should add to the reliability of the three components of the questionnaire. Personal coloring may be defined beyond the light-to-dark description. A suggestion for expanding the study is to replicate the procedure with other groups of working women and with women who are not employed outside the home because different groups may give a broader understanding of clothing-related attitudes and body images. Replication of the study with larger numbers of women would add to the reliability of the Scale. The questionnaire could be administered to women of different ethnic groups because obvious characteristic 128 physical attributes may have corresponding characteristic clothing- related attitudes. Personal interviews may be conducted with a selected number of women who complete questionnaires to gain ad ditional insight into the functions of clothing because respondents may provide relevant information not elicited in the questionnaire. With a larger number of women participating in the study and with more diverse groups involved, greater validity may be obtained which may or may not include factors similar to the twelve clothing- related attitudes used in this study. Further study with the relationships of body image and clothing- related attitudes may be to compare objectively measured body characteristics and impressions of body characteristics and study the relationships of both with clothing-related attitudes. The relationships between past-present body images and past-present attitudes toward clothing may be explored. An investigation could be made about the clothing design preferences of women with different body images. The expenditures allocated to clothing by women with varying clothing attitudes and body images could be compared. 129 APPENDIX A LETTER SENT TO PRESIDENTS OF BUSINESS WOMEN'S ORGANIZATIONS 130 31 - 1530 King Avenue Columbus, Ohio 43212 May 12, 1975 Dear Ms I am the graduate student at Ohio State University who called you last week about having members of your chapter of ______participate in my research in Textiles and Clothing. The participation involves completing a questionnaire about one's attitudes toward clothing and the body image. The study will include professors and other professional groups. The questionnaire will be simple to complete with only checks and circles. All responses will be completely anonymous. I am enclosing sheets for the members to give their names and addresses at your meeting if they are willing to cooperate. The questionnaires will be mailed to them. Your cooperation is certainly appreciated. I hope the women will find the "test" interesting to dol Thank you again. Cordially yours, Norma Karhoff (Phone: 481-8780) P.S. I would be happy to "share" the results of the study if the members would be interested] APPENDIX B EXPLANATORY LETTERS SENT TO MEMBERS OF BUSINESS WOMEN'S ORGANIZATION AND ACADEMIC FACULTY WOMEN 132 June 2, 1975 To ______: Thank you for being willing to participate in the research for my dissertation in- Textiles and Clothing at Ohio State University. The research includes an analysis of the body image, certain visible physical characteristics, and the attitudes toward clothing among different groups of working women— including business women and professors. ______, I am asking for your assistance in the research because I know the organization represents a good cross-section sampling of business women. Your participation would contribute to the value of the study. Your participation will be the completion of the enclosed "questionnaire." Remember that all responses will be anonymous! Your time and cooperation is truly appreciated. When you have completed the form, please return it in the enclosed stamped envelope. Norma Karhoff P.S. Many of you are very busy women, but I hope you will find the "test" interesting to do! Any cooperation within the next two or three weeks will be gratefully received. i 133 May 28, 1975 To As a graduate student at after several years of college teaching, I am doing the research for my dissertation in Textiles and Clothing. The research includes an analysis of the body image, certain visible physical characteristics, and the attitudes toward clothing of working women--business and professional. As one in a significant profession, your participation would contribute to the value of the s tudy. Your participation would be the completion of the enclosed "questionnaire." Ten minutes or less is needed. All responses will be anonymous. The only source of identity is the campus address on the return envelope indicating "academic faculty." If you are willing to participate, your time and cooperation will be appreciated very much. When you have completed the form, please return it in the enclosed stamped envelope. Norma Karhoff (Graduate student in Textiles and Clothing) P.S. This is a very busy time for many professors, so any cooperation within the next two or three weeks will be gratefully received! 3 APPENDIX C QUESTIONNAIRE INCLUDING CLOTHING ATTITUDE SCALE, BODY IMAGE SCALE, AND SOME VITAL STATISTICS 135 CLOTHING ATTITUDE SCALE The following statements are about the way one may feel, think, or act concerning clothing. We would like to know to what extent you may agree or disagree with each statement. There are no right or wrong responses. Only your opinion is the correct response. Indicate your opinion according to the following scale. 1 - strongly disagree 2 - somewhat disagree 3 - undecided 4 - somewhat agree 5 - strongly agree Circle one number at the right of each statement. Strongly Strongly Disagree Agree I try on the newest styles each season to see how I look in them ...... 12345 (2) When buying a coat for cold winter weather, my first concern is warmth ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (3) I am as well-covered when alone as when with others ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (4) I enjoy wearing garments made of sturdy, firmly woven materials ...... 12345 (5) I look at fashion magazines or pattern books to find out what is new in fashion ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (6) I love pretty flowery prints and flowery hats ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (7) When buying clothes, I think about safety features ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (8) I like my clothes to fit my body snugly ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (9) Other people seem comfortable in evening dress that would cause me to be embarrassed ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (10) Please respond to all statements and be sure to fill outjboth sides of each page. 136 Strongly Strongly Disagree Agree I enjoy coordinating various textures and colors into attractive costumes ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (11) What other people at work are wearing should not influence a person's choice of clothing ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (12) When buying clothes, quality of workmanship is important ...... 12345 (13) I prefer that the shape of my bust be controlled by something I we a r ...... 12345 (14) When looking at old paintings or portraits, I notice the beauty of the dress ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (15) Dressing similarly to my friends never enters my mind ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (16) When a new fashion idea comes in, my friends and I adopt it at about the same time ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (17) I like belts and waistbands to fit s n u g l y ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (18) I'd prefer clothes that emphasized the shoulders rather than the bust ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (19) I would not wear a girdle that made me consciously feel that I was wearing it ... 12 3 4 5 (20 I like wearing clinging, body- revealing clothes ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (21) I enjoy ceremonies--coronations, weddings of the famous, primitive or national dance rituals— when the people are dressed in beautiful 3 costumes ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (22) For my clothes, I prefer those that feel pleasurable against my skin ...... 12345 (23) 137 Strongly Strongly Disagree Agree I would like my favorite style of dress made into several fabrics and colors ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (24) I would feel self-conscious wearing something revealing ...... 12345 (25) I like night gowns trimmed with lace, ribbon, and embroidery ...... 12345 (26) An attractive appearance helps one succeed in her business or professional life .... 1 2 3 4 5 (27) I dislike changing my hair style ...... 12345 (28) I prefer lingerie with lace trim 12345 (29) I am embarrassed when I see someone in too tight clothes, especially pants 12345 (30) I buy garments with enough ease, flare, or pleats so that I can move easily and freely ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (31) The state of my physical attractiveness doesn't matter much to me ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (32) My clothes for work all tend to be the same style ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (33) My favorite clothes are the ones that let me forget that I'm wearing them 1 2 3 4 5 (34) I don't particularly care if my clothes are like those my friends are wearing .... 12345 (35) I look for clothes that "do something" for my s k i n ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (36) I enjoy the feel of wool tweed more than the feel of soft cashmere ...... 12345 (37) I do not like to wear clothes that are too different from what others are wearing ...... 1 2 3 4 6 (38) Strongly Strongly Disagree Agree When I buy a garment, I check the fit of the waistlines, armholes, necklines and such— so that I will be able to move easily in it ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (39) A physically attractive self is important in social interaction for most persons ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (40) A variety of clothing styles adds interest and excitement to one's life .... 12 3 4 5 (41) I like clothes to remind me to use correct posture: walk, stand, or sit properly ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (42) I like dresses with plunging necklines ... 12 3 4 5 (43) My favorite styles have straight, up-and-down lines ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (44) When buying clothing, I think about the time involved in upkeep ...... •...... 1 2 3 4 5 (45) When selecting my dress, a primary consideration is to make my figure look more like the ideal ...... 12345 (46) I like to dress so others will notice me.. 12 3 4 5 (47) When I see the dress of peasants, I admire the simple beauty of their garments ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (48) I love the outfits that Cher Bono wears on her TV s h o w ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (49) Personal attractiveness doesn't matter in everyday living 12345 (50) I look for clothes that improve the > shape of my body ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (51) I look for clothes that "do something" for my hair 12345 (52) 139 Strongly Strongly Disagree Agree I feel more comfortable in my clothes if they help control the firmness of my b o d y ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (53) Wearing the right clothes is important to acceptance in a group ...... 12345 (54) I prefer clothing that makes it obvious that I am "feminine." ...... 12345 (55) I like clothes that remind me about how I should act: like wearing a tailored pantsuit instead of more casual pants and sweater when I should act dignified ...... 12345 (56) I like clothes to have a firm fit, so I can feel them against my body ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (57) Dressing similarly to others in my group means little to me ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (58) I enjoy attempting something different in clothing ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (59) I would select clothing to attract the attention of the opposite s e x ...... 12345 (60) For work, one should dress in similar styles as worn by others in the same position ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (61) I prefer clothes that make me feel graceful ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (62) My clothes tend to be the same style year after year ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (63) 140 BODY IMAGE SCALE People differ in the feelings they have about their personal appearances and physical characteristics. Listed below are various parts of the body as well as some overall characteristics. Indicate your feelings about each characteristic according to the following scale. 1 - consider myself quite unfortunate 2 - am somewhat unfortunate 3 - no concern one way or another 4 - am somewhat fortunate 5 - consider myself quite fortunate Circle one number at the right for each characteristic. Unfortunate Fortunate Eyes...... 1 2 3 4 5 (1) Forehead...... 1 2 3 4 5 (2) Nose...... 1 2 3 4 5 (3) Facial Shape...... 1 2 3 4 5 (4) Facial complexion..... 1 2 3 4 5 (5) Lips...... 1 2 3 4 5 (6) Teeth...... 1 2 3 4 5 (7) Chin...... 1 2 3 4 5 (8) Color of skin...... 1 2 3 4 5 (9) Ears...... 1 2 3 4 5 (10) Neck...... 1 2 3 4 5 (11) Profile of head...... 1 2 3 4 5 (12) Hair color...... 1 2 3 4 5 (13) Hair texture...... 1 2 3 4 5 (14) Shoulders...... 1 2 3 4 5 (15) Back...... 1 2 3 4 5 (16) Size of bust...... 1 2 3 4 5 (17) Shape of bust...... 1 2 3 4 5 (18) Waist...... 1 2 3 4 5 (19) Abdomen...... 1 2 3 4 5 (20) Hips (side)...... 1 2 3 4 5 (21) Derriere (fannv)...... 1 2 3 4 5 (22) Thighs...... 1 2 3 4 5 (23) Legs...... 1 2 3 4 5 (24) 141 Unfortunate Fortunate Knees...... 1 2 3 4 5 (25) Calves...... 1 2 3 4 5 (26) Ankles...... 1 2 3 4 5 (27) Feet...... 1 2 3 4 5 (28) Arms...... 12345 (29) Wrists...... 1 2 3 4 5 (30) Hands...... 1 2 3 4 5 (31) Fingers...... 1 2 3 4 5 (32) Sex (being female) 1 2 3 4 5 (33) Height...... 1 2 3 4 5 (34) Weight ...... 1 2 3 4 5 (35) Age...... 1 2 3 4 5 (36) Posture...... 1 2 3 4 5 (37) Profile of body...... 1 2 3 4 5 (38) Body frame...... 1 2 3 4 5 (39) Proportions of body.... 12 3 4 5 (40) Muscle tone...... 1 2 3 4 5 (41) Body gracefulness 1 2 3 4 5 (42) Energy level.....'..... 1 2 3 4 5 (43) Please continue to next page I / 142 SOME VITAL STATISTICS I. What educational level have you completed? Check one. (____) Grade school or less (___ ) College graduate (____) Some high school (___ ) Advanced degree - (____) High school graduage specify ______(____) Post high school study (___ ) Other - specify as business, art, or nursing school, some college II. What is your nearest height? Check one. (___ ) 4'11” or under (___) 5'6" (___ ) 5' (___) 5 1 7" (___ ) 511" (___) 5'8" ( ) 5*2"______(___) 5’9" (___ ) 5'3" (___) 5 110" (___ ) 5,4" (___) 5*11" (___ ) 5'5" (___) 6' or over III. What is your age? Check one. (___ ) 19 years or under (____) 40-49 years (___ ) 20-24 years (____) 50-59 years (___ ) 25-29 years (____) 60-69 years (___ ) 30-34 years (____) 70 years or over (___ ) 35-39 years IV. More importantly! How old do you feel? Check one. (___ ) Older than my real age (___ ) Younger than my real age V. Please indicate how you think others might describe your personal coloring from light to dark. A. The coloring of your skin. Circle one degree on the continuum from (1) to (9). LIGHT AVERAGE DARK 1______2______3______4______5______6______7______8______9 B. The present coloring of your hair. Circle one degree on the continuum. LIGHT AVERAGE DARK 123456789 143 VI. What is your weight? Honest! will ever know! 92 pounds or less 138 to 142 pounds 93 to 97 pounds <___ ) 143 to 147 pounds 98 to 102 pounds 148 to 152 pounds 103 to 107 pounds 153 to 157 pounds 108 to 112 pounds 158 to 162 pounds 113 to 117 pounds 163 to 167 pounds 118 to 122 pounds 168 to 172 pounds 123 to 127 pounds 173 to 177 pounds 128 to 132 pounds 178 to 182 pounds 133 to 137 pounds 183 pounds or more VII. As weight is only one aspect of body build, please indicate how you think others might classify your body for the following four items. A. Thinness vs. Heaviness. Circle one degree on the continuum from (1) to (9). THIN AVERAGE HEAVY 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 B. Small-bone vs. Large-bone Structure. Circle one degree on the continuum. SMALL-BONED AVERAGE LARGE-BONED 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 C. Firmness of Flesh: Solid vs. Flabby. Circle one degree on the continuum. SOLID AVERAGE FLABBY 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 D. Body Type. Check one of the body types below that you most resemble. If you believe that you are a combination of two types, check two blanks and place a (1) in the blank of the type that is more like you. Soft roundness with a prominent abdomen known as "endomorph" Large boned and muscular - known as "mesomorph" Linear and -fragile - known as "ectomorph" More or less average - known as "average" 145 APPENDIX D STATEMENTS IN CLOTHING ATTITUDE SCALE WHICH MEASURE SPECIFIC ATTITUDES AND RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF PERSONAL ATTRACTIVENESS Clothing-Related Attitude Numbers of Statements in Scale 1. Conformity 17, 38, 54, and 61 2. Individuality 12, 16, 35, and 58 3. Modesty 4, 10, 25, and 30 4. Exhibitionism 21, 43, 47, and 60 5. Femininity 7, 26, 29, and 55 6. Masculinity 5, 19, 37, and 44 7. Aestheticism u , 15, 22, and 48 8. Functionalism 3, 8, 13, and 45 9. Constancy 24, 28, 33, and 63 10. Change 2, 6, 41, and 59 11. Freedom 20, 31, 34, and 39 12. Restraint 9, 18, 53, and 57 Relative Importance of Personal Attractiveness 27, 32, 40, and 50 146 APPENDIX E WEIGHT-HEIGHT RATIOS FOR WOMEN Weight in Pounds Height-Weight Ratio Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 4' 11" 88 94 100 105 110 117 125 134 144 5' 0" (1-) 90 96 103 108 113 120 128 137 148 (+1) 5' 1" (2-) 92 99 106 111 116 123 131 141 152 (+2) 5' 2" (2-) 95 102 109 114 119 126 134 144 155 (+2) 5' 3" (2-) 98 105 112 117 122 129 137 147 158 (+2) 5* 4" (2-) 101 108 115 120 125 132 140 150 161 (+2) 5' 5" (2-) 103 111 118 123 128 135 143 153 165 (+3) 5' 6" (3-) 107 114 122 127 132 139 147 158 170 (+4) 5* 7" (3-) 111 118 126 131 136 143 151 162 175 (+5) 5' 8" (3-) H 5 122 130 135 140 147 155 166 179 (+5) 5' 9" (3-) 119 126 134 139 144 151 159 170 183 (+5) 5' 10" (4-) 122 129 138 143 148 155 163 175 188 (+6) 5' 11" (5-) 126 134 143 148 153 160 168 180 194 (+7) 6' 0" (6-) 130 ' 138 148 153 158 165 173 186 200 (+8) (22-) (16-) (10-) (5-) (0) (+7) (+15) (+24) (+34) Note: -Numbers in parenthesis at the lower edge in the table indicate weight progression for each weight-height ratio. Numbers in parenthesis at the left and right in the table are additional weight progression in relation to increased height. APPENDIX F CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CLOTHING-RELATED ATTITUDES Attitude h S 0 ■u m a w •rl *H . W r-4 G i>» ' 4J *** *** ** *** *** ** Conformity -.448 .346 .028 .204 .186 .121 .128 .003 .251 .018 .215 A /V *** *** Individuality -.047 -.092 -.113 -.001 -.006 .135 .189 -.206 .276 -.093 *** *** *** j. Modes ty -.480 -.047 .299 .016 .265 .087 -.150 .073 .048 *** ** ** *** *** Exhibitionism .431 -.195 .241 -.062 -.176 .467 -.012 .355 ** *** *** *** *** Femininity -.195 .315 .056 -.291 .460 .000 .410 ■P- -4 APPENDIX F (continued) Attitude 6 a 4J CQ a CQ •H •rl >> CO •rl T-l a >> 4J •rl H Attitude CO o 4J •rl O CO !*> u 2 •rl •rl •rl C o 3 T) U C •rl 4J O 3 a •r-l •rl ij •H •rl H 0) •ri td CQ .n a d •M •u 60 ■o 3 •rl QJ •rl •rl o 4J o 10 3 (U ■U 'd T3 .fi £ CO CQ 3 3 td ** *** Masculinity -.032 .195 369 -.071 .132 .008 **** *** Aestheticism ,100 105 .516 .174 .272 ***** Func tionalism 205 -.031 .311 .021 A *** Constancy r .360 .255 -.103 *** Change .078 .321 Freedom -.002 »-■ ***correlation is significant at .001 level of probability. 4> **Correlation is significant at .01 level of probability. Co *Correlation is significant at .05 level of probability. 149 APPENDIX G CORRELATIONS BETWEEN SATISFACTIONS WITH IMAGES OF BODY (TRUNK), LOWER EXTREMITIES, UPPER EXTREMITIES, FACE AND HEAD, AND TOTAL BODY Body Area Body Area Lower Upper Total Extremities Extremities Face and Head Body Body (trunk) .639 .580 .573 .889 Lower extremities .638 .460 .773 Upper extremities .550 .752 Face and head .818 APPENDIX H DISTRIBUTION OF HEIGHTS' OF THE BUSINESS WOMEN, ACADEMIC FACULTY WOMEN, AND FOR THE TOTAL SAMPLE Business Women3 Faculty Women^ TotalC (N = 92) (N = 98) (N = 190) Cumu Cumu Cumu lative lative lative Height Number Percent Percent Number Percent Percent Number Percent Percent 4' 11" and under 2 2.17 2.17 0 .00 .00 2 1.05 1.05 5' 0" 6 6.52 8.69 3 3.06 3.06 9 4.74 5.79 5' 1" 3 3.26 11.95 2 2.04 5.10 5 2.63 8.42 5 ’2" 9 9.78 21.73 8 8.16 13.26 17 8.95 17.37 5'3" 9 9.78 31.51 12 12.24 25.50 21 11.05 28.42 5'4" 13 14.13 45.64 13 1 13.26 38.76 26 13.68 42.10 5'5" 15 16.30 61.94 14 14.28 53.04 29 15.26 57.36 5 ’6" 13 14.13 76.07 12 12.24 65.28 25 13.10 70.46 5*7" 13 14.13 90.20 15 15.30 80.58 28 14.74 85.20 5'8" 5 5.43 95.63 8 8.16 88.74 13 6.84 92.04 5'9" 2 2.17 97.80 3 3.06 91.80 5 2.63 94.67 5 *10" 0 .00 97.80 7 7.14 98.94 7 3.68 98.35 5' 11" 1 1.08 98.88 0 .00 98.94 1 .53 98.88 6 1 and over 1 1.08 100.00 1 1.02 100.00 2 1.05 100.00 ^Mean height of Business Women - 5'4.45". cMean height of Faculty Women - 5'5.37". Mean height of Total Sample - 5'4.99"; standard deviation - 2.6". 151 APPENDIX I CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS BETWEEN ASPECTS OF THE BODY IMAGE Aspect of Body Image IS CO (0 3 X <0 > co Pi cO Height .387 .018 - o007 .445 -.069 .113 .133 -.129 k k k k k k *** JU kkic Weight .872 .743 .602 .173 .167 .075 .203 *** *** * k k Weight/Height Ratio .839 .518 .261 .168 .029 .223 *** *** ** Thinness-to-Heaviness .515 .323 .203 .073 .147 ** Bone Structure .10<) .183 .050 .009 * Firmness of Flesh .063 -.021 .144 *** Skin Coloring .314 .039 •kick Hair Coloring -.302 ***Significant at .001 level of probability. **Significant at .01 level of probability. *Significant at .05 level of probability. APPENDIX J DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHTS OF THE BUSINESS WOMEN, ACADEMIC FACULTY WOMEN, AND FOR THE TOTAL SAMPLE Business Women3 Faculty Women Total0 (N = 92) (N = 98) (N = 190) Cumu Cumu Cumu lative lative lative Weight Number Percent Percent Number Percent Percent Number Percent Percent 92 or less 1 1.08 1.08 0 .00 .00 1 .53 .53 93-97 1 1.08 2.16 1 1 1.02 1.02 2 1.06 1.59 98-102 3 3.26 5.42 3 3.07 • 4.09 6 3.18 4.76 103-107 3 3.26 8.68 5 5.10 9.19 8 4.22 8.98 108-112 6 6.52 15.20 3 2.07 12.26 9 4.74 13.72 113-117 8 8.69 23.89 3 3.07 15.33 11 5.79 19.51 118-122 8 8.69 32.58 6 6.12 21.45 14 7.33 26.84 123-127 5 5.44 38.02 12 12.24 33.69 17 8.95 35.79 128-132 5 5.44 43.46 8 8.16 41.85 13 6.84 42.63 133-137 10 10.87 54.33 16 16.32 58.17 26 13.68 56.31 138-142 6 6.52 60.85 5 5.10 63.27 11 5.79 62.10 143-147 4 4.36 65.21 3 3.07 66.34 7 3.68 65.78 148-152 8 8.69 73.90 10 10.20 76.54 18 9.47 75.25 153-157 5 5.44 79.34 6 6.12 82.64 11 5.79 81.04 158-162 5 5.44 84.78 6 6.12 88.78 11 5.79 86.83 163-167 3 3.26 88.04 2 2.04 90.82 5 2.63 89.46 168-172 4 4.36 92.40 1 1.02 91.84 5 2.63 92.09 173-177 1 1.08 93.46 1 1.02 92.86 2 1.06 93.15 178-182 3 3.26 96.73 5 5.10 97.96 8 4.22 97.37 183 or more 3 3.26 100.00 2 2.04 100.00 5 2.63 100.00 — a—------. v -A— — ^Mean weight” of Business Women - 135-139 pounds* pMean weight of Faculty Women - 135-139 pounds. “Mean weight of Total Sample - 135-139 pounds; standard deviation - 22 pounds. APPENDIX K DISTRIBUTION OF THE WEIGHT-HEIGHT RATIOS OF THE BUSINESS WOMEN, ACADEMIC FACULTY WOMEN, AND FOR THE TOTAL SAMPLE Business Women3 Faculty Women*3 Total3 (N = 92) (N = 98) (N = 190) Weight- Cumu- Cumu- Cumu- Height lative lative lative Ratio Number Percent Percent Number Percent Percent Number Percent Percent Low 1 2 2.17 2.17 4 4.08 4.08 6 3.17 3.17 2 7 7.61 9.78 7 7.14 11.22 14 7.32 10.49 3 9 9.78 19.56 10 10.20 21.42 19 10.00 20.49 4 11 11.96 31.52 9 9.19 30.61 20 10.53 31.02 Av 5 18 19.57 51.09 27 27.55 58.16 45 23.69 54.71 erage 6 13 14.33 65.22 9 9.19 67.35 22 11.59 66.30 7 13 14.33 79.35 16 16.33 83.68 29 15.27 81.57 8 9 9.78 89.13 9 9.18 92.86 18 9.48 91.05 High 9 10 10.87 100.00 7 7.14 100.00 17 8.95 100.00 ^Mean for Business Women - 5.52. Mean for Faculty Women - 5.32. cMean for Total Sample - 5.42; standard deviation - 2.13. Ln APPENDIX L DISTRIBUTION OF THE THINNESS-TO-HEAVINESS OF BUSINESS WOMEN, ACADEMIC FACULTY WOMEN, AND FOR THE TOTAL SAMPLE Business Women3 Faculty Women3 Total0 (N = 92) (N = 98) (N = 190) Cumu- Cumu- Cumu- Thinness- lative 1 lative lative to-Heaviness Number Percent Percent Number Percent Percent Number Percent Percent Thin 1 2 2.17 2.17 2 2.04 2.04 4 2.11 2.11 2 9 9.78 11.95 8 8.16 10.20 17 8.95 11.06 3 5 5.44 17.39 12 12.25 22.45 17 8.95 20.01 4 14 15.22 32.61 10 10.20 32.65 24 12.63 32.64 Average 5 28 30.43 63.04 29 29.59 62.24 57 30.00 62.64 6 13 14.13 77.17 13 13.27 75.51 26 13.68 79.32 7 13 14.13 91.30 16 16.33 91.84 29 15.26 91.58 8 3 3.26 94.56 6 6.12 97.96 9 4.74 96.32 Heavy 9 5 5.43 100.00 2 2.04 100.00 7 3.68 100.00 ^Mean for Business Women - 5.10. Mean for Faculty Women - 4.99. °Mean for Total Sample - 5.07; standard deviation - 1.84. APPENDIX M DISTRIBUTION OF THE BONE STRUCTURE OF THE BUSINESS WOMEN, ACADEMIC FACULTY WOMEN, AND FOR THE TOTAL SAMPLE Business Womena Faculty Women^ Total0 (N = 92) (N = 98) (N = 190) Cumu Cumu Cumu Bone lative lative lative Structure Number Percent Percent Number Percent Percent Number Percent Percent Small Bone 1 4 4.35 4.35 4 4.08 4.08 8 4.21 4.21 2 8 8.69 13.04 6 6.12 10.20 14 7.37 11.58 3 11 11.96 25.00 14 14.30 24.50 25 13.16 24.74 4 13 14.13 39.13 9 9.18 33.68 22 11.57 36.31 Average 5 35 38.04 77.17 35 35.71 69.39 70 36.84 73.15 6 9 9.78 86.95 13 13.27 82.66 22 11.58 84.73 7 7 7.61 94.56 7 7.14 89.80 14 7.37 92.10 8 5 5.44 100.00 6 6.12 95.92 11 5.79 97.89 Large Bone 2 0 0.00 100.00 4 4.08 100.00 4 2.11 100.00 ^Mean for Business Women - 4.56. cMean for Faculty Women - 4.89. Mean for Total Sample - 4.75; standard deviation - 1.79. APPENDIX N DISTRIBUTION OF THE FIRMNESS-FLABBINESS OF FLESH OF THE BUSINESS WOMEN, ACADEMIC FACULTY WOMEN, AND FOR THE TOTAL SAMPLE Business Womena Faculty Women^ Totalc (N = 92) (N = 98) (N = 190) Firmness Cumu Cumu Cumu of lative lative lative Flesh Number Percent Percent Number Percent Percent Number Percent Percent Solid 1 6 6.52 6.52 6 6.,12 6.12 12 6.32 6.32 2 8 8.69 15.21 18 18.37 24.49 26 13.68 20.00 3 10 10.87 26.08 15 15.31 39.80 25 13.16 33.16 4 12 13.04 39.12 13 '13.27 53.07 25 13.16 46.32 Average 5 37 40.23 79.35 27 27.55 80.62 64 33.68 80.00 6 15 16.30 95.65 11 11.22 91.84 26 13.68 93.68 7 4 4.35 100.00 6 6.12 97.96 10 5.26 98.94 8 0 0.00 100.00 1 1.02 98.98 1 .53 99.47 Flabby 9 0 0.00 100.00 1 1.02 100.00 1 .53 100.00 ^Mean for Business Women - 4.38. cMean for Faculty Women - 3.87. Mean for Total Sample - 4.23; standard deviation - 1.67. t-* Oi 0N I APPENDIX 0 DISTRIBUTION OF THE SKIN COLORING OF THE BUSINESS WOMEN, ACADEMIC FACULTY WOMEN, AND FOR THE TOTAL SAMPLE Q Business Women Faculty Women*3 Total0 (N = 92) (N = 98) (N = 190) Cumu Cumu Cumu Skin lative lative lative Coloring Number Percent Percent Number Percent Percent Number Percent Percent Light 1 7 7.61 7.61 7 7.14 7.14 14 7.32 7.32 2 14 15.22 22.83 12 12.25 19.39 26 13.68 21.04 3 13 14.13 36.96 14 14.29 33.68 27 14.21 35.25 4 13 14.13 51.09 17 17.34 51.02 30 15.79 51.04 Average 5 27 29.35 80.44 27 27.55 78.57 54 28.42 79.46 6 12 13.04 93.48 8 8.16 86.73 20 10.53 89.99 7 5 5.44 98.92 12 12.25 98.98 17 8.95 98.94 8 0 0.00 98.92 1 1.02 100.00 1 .53 99.47 9 1 1.08 100.00 0 0.00 100.00 1 .53 100.00 j^Mean for Business Women - 4.10. Mean for Faculty Women - 4.25. Mean for Total Sample - 4.17; standard deviation - 1.76. Ln APPENDIX P DISTRIBUTION OF THE HAIR COLORING OF THE BUSINESS WOMEN, ACADEMIC FACULTY WOMEN, AND FOR THE TOTAL SAMPLE Business Women3 Faculty Women*3 Total0 (N = 92) (N = 98) (N = 190) Cumu Cumu Cumu Hair lative lative lative Coloring Number Percent Percent Number Percent Percent Number Percent Percent Light 1 8 8.69 8.69 8 8.. 16 8.16 16 8.42 8.42 2 6 6.52 15.21 7 7.14 15.30 13 6.84 15.26 3 13 14.13 29.34 12 12.25 27.55 25 13.16 28.42 4 13 14.13 43.47 13 13.27 40.82 26 13.68 42.10 Average 5 24 26.08 69.55 15 15.30 56.12 39 20.53 62.63 6 9 9.79 79.34 12 12.25 68.37 21 11.05 73.68 7 8 8.70 88.04 15 15.30 83.67 23 12.11 85.79 8 8 8.70 96.74 12 12.25 95.92 20 10.53 96.32 Dark 9 3 3.26 100.00 4 4.08 100.00 7 3.68 100.00 j^Mean for Business Women - 4.70. cMean for Faculty Women - 5.04. Mean for Total Sample - 4.85; standard deviation - 2.17 L n 00 159 APPENDIX Q DISTRIBUTION OF THE BODY TYPES OF BUSINESS WOMEN, ACADEMIC FACULTY WOMEN, AND FOR THE TOTAL SAMPLE Business Women Faculty Women Total (N = 92) (N = 98) (N = 190) Body Type Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Endomorph 7 7.61 12 12.24 19 10.00 Mesomorph 9 9.79 10 10.21 19 10.00 Ectomorph 9 9.79 10 10.21 19 10.00 Average 48 52.17 49 50.00 97 51.05 Endo & Ave 3 3.26 3 3.06 6 3.16 Meso & Ave 2 2.17 4 4.08 6 3.16 Ecto & Ave 5 5.43 3 3.06 8 - 4.21 Ave & Endo 4 4.35 1 1.02 5 2.63 Ave 6c Meso 2 2.17 3 3.06 5 2.63 Ave 6c Ecto 3 3.26 3 3.06 6 3.16 APPENDIX R RANKINGS OF CERTAIN ATTITUDE SCORES ACCORDING TO BODY TYPE TO SHOW TENDENCY FOR ENDOMORPH AND ALL MESOMORPH TYPES TO HAVE ATTITUDES IN MODESTY, EXHIBITIONISM, FEMININITY, MASCULINITY, AESTHETICISM, AND CHANGE WHICH CONTRAST WITH ATTITUDES OF AVERAGE-ENDOMORPH, ENDOMORPH-AVERAGE, AND ALL ECTOMORPH TYPES Attitude Ranking of Attitude !Scores Attitude 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Modesty (high) 9a 6a 2a la 4b 7C 3C 8C 10C 5C Modesty (low) o o Exhibitionism (low) 6a 2a la 8C 4b 9a 3C 7C 5° Exhibitionism (high) Femininity (low) 9a 2a la 6a 4b 7C 3° 3C 10° 5C Femininity (high) Masculinity (high) 6a la 9a 2a 4b 3C ioc 5C 8° 7C Masculinity (low) Aestheticism (low) 2a 6a 4b l3 7C 3C 9a 8° ioc 5C Aestheticism (high) Change (low) 6a 9a la 2a 4b 8C 3C 7C ioc 5C Change (high) Legend - 1 represents Endomorph 6 represents Mesomorph-Average 2 " Mesomorph 7 " Ectomorph-Average 3 11 Ectomorph 8 " Average-Endomorph 4 " Average 9 11 Average-Mesomorph 5 " Endomorph-Average 10 11 Average-Ectomorph Designates Endomorph and all Mesomorph types. 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