Sport and Nationalism in China

This book examines the relationships between sport, nationalism and nation building in China. By exploring the last 150 years of Chinese history, it off ers unparalleled depth and breadth of coverage and provides a clear grasp of Chinese sports nationalism from both macro and micro perspectives. Beginning with a discussion on the role of sport in the Qing Dynasty’s Self-Strengthening Movement (1861–1895), the book examines how sport contributed to the shaping of the early forms of Chinese nationalism in the late 19th century. It identiﬁ es and deﬁ nes the core functions of sport in the Chinese Nationalist Revolution which successfully transformed China from a culturally bound empire to a modern nation state in 1911. The following section, on the Republic of China Era (1912–1949), explores the interactions between sport and the construction of Chinese nationalism and national consciousness, illustrating how sport played its part in the building of the newly established nation state. Moving on to the Communist China Era (1949–present), the book scans the whole spectrum of both modern and contemporary Chinese nationalism and interprets the most important issues on the course of China’s nation building, explaining why sport is so tightly bound up with nationalism and patriotism, and how sport became an essential part of nationalists’, politicians’ and educational- ists’ strategy to revive the Chinese nation.

Dr. Lu Zhouxiang is a lecturer in Chinese Studies in the School of Mod- ern Languages, Literatures and Cultures at National University of Ireland, Maynooth.

Dr. Fan Hong is Winthrop Professor and Head of the Chinese Studies at University of Western Australia. Routledge Research in Sport, Culture and Society

1 Sport, Masculinities and the 9 Critical Readings in Body Bodybuilding Ian Wellard Edited by Adam Locks and Niall Richardson 2 India and the Olympics Boria Majumdar and Nalin Mehta 10 The Cultural Politics of Post- 9/11 American Sport 3 Social Capital and Sport Power, Pedagogy and the Popular Governance in Europe Michael Silk Edited by Margaret Groeneveld, Barrie Houlihan and Fabien Ohl 11 Ultimate Fighting and Embodiment 4 Theology, Ethics and Violence, Gender and Mixed Transcendence in Sports Martial Arts Edited by Jim Parry, Mark Nesti Dale C. Spencer and Nick Watson 12 The Olympic Games and 5 Women and Exercise Cultural Policy The Body, Health and Beatriz Garcia Consumerism Edited by Eileen Kennedy and 13 The Urban Geography of Boxing Pirkko Markula Race, Class, and Gender in the Ring 6 Race, Ethnicity and Football Benita Heiskanen Persisting Debates and Emergent Issues 14 The Social Organization of Edited by Daniel Burdsey Sports Medicine Critical Socio-Cultural 7 The Organisation and Perspectives Governance of Top Football Edited by Dominic Malcolm and Across Europe Parissa Safai An Institutional Perspective Edited by Hallgeir Gammelsæter 15 Host Cities and the Olympics and Benoît Senaux An Interactionist Approach Harry Hiller 8 Sport and Social Mobility Crossing Boundaries Ramón Spaaij 16 Sports Governance, Phil McManus, Glenn Albrecht, Development and Corporate and Raewyn Graham Responsibility Edited by Barbara Segaert, Marc 25 Sport, Public Broadcasting, and Theeboom, Christiane Timmerman Cultural Citizenship and Bart Vanreusel Signal Lost? Edited by Jay Scherer and David 17 Sport and Its Female Fans Rowe Edited by Kim Toffoletti and Peter Mewett 26 Sport and Body Politics in Japan Wolfram Manzenreiter 18 Sport Policy in Britain Barrie Houlihan and Iain Lindsey 27 The Fantasy Sport Industry Games within Games 19 Sports and Christianity Andrew C. Billings and Brody J. Historical and Contemporary Ruihley Perspectives Edited by Nick J. Watson and 28 Sport in Prison Andrew Parker Exploring the Role of Physical Activity in Penal Practices 20 Sports Coaching Research Rosie Meek Context, Consequences, and Consciousness 29 Sport and Nationalism in China Anthony Bush, Michael Silk, Lu Zhouxiang and Fan Hong David Andrews and Hugh Lauder

21 Sport Across Asia Politics, Cultures, and Identities Edited by Katrin Bromber, Birgit Krawietz, and Joseph Maguire

22 Athletes, Sexual Assault, and “Trials by Media” Narrative Immunity Deb Waterhouse-Watson

23 Youth Sport, Physical Activity and Play Policy, Interventions and Participation Andrew Parker and Don Vinson

24 The Global Horseracing Industry Social, Economic, Environmental and Ethical Perspectives This page intentionally left blank Sport and Nationalism in China

Lu Zhouxiang and Fan Hong

NEW YORK LONDON First published 2014 by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Simultaneously published in the UK by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2014 Taylor & Francis The right of Lu Zhouxiang and Fan Hong to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Lu, Zhouxiang. Sport and nationalism in China / Lu Zhouxiang and Fan Hong. pages cm. — (Routledge research in sport, culture and society ; 29) Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Nationalism and sports—China. 2. Sports and state—China. I. Title. GV706.34.L8 2014 306.4’830951—dc23 2013026993 ISBN13: 978-0-415-54001-8 (hbk) ISBN13: 978-1-315-85705-3 (ebk) Typeset in Sabon by IBT Global.

SFI-01234 SFI label applies to the text stock Contents

List of Figures ix List of Tables xi List of Abbreviations xiii

Introduction 1

1 From Celestial Empire to Nation State: Sport and the Origins of Chinese Nationalism (1840–1911) 3

2 Sport, Nationalism and the Building of the Modern Chinese Nation State (1912–1949) 25

3 The Spirit of the Nation: Wushu and Chinese Nationalism in the Republic of China Era (1912–1949) 62

4 Nationalism and Sport in the Mao Era (1949–1976) 78

5 The Dream to Be a Strong Country: Nationalism, the Olympic Strategy and China’s Gold Medal Fever (1980s–Present) 100

6 Sport, ‘Small Nationalism’ and ‘Big Nationalism’ 132

7 Sport and Anti-Japanese Sentiment in Contemporary China 147

Conclusion 157

Notes 167 Bibliography 199 Index 225 This page intentionally left blank Figures

1.1 Daming Jiubian Wanguo Tu. 5 1.2 En Chine—Le gâteau des Rois et . . . des Empereurs (China—the cake of kings . . . and emperors). 15 2.1 Regions occupied by the Japanese during the Second Sino–Japanese War. 34 3.1 Organizational structure of the CNSRA. 71 5.1 The number of gold medals won by China in the Summer Olympics (1984–2012). 109 6.1 National ﬂ ag of the Republic of China. 133 This page intentionally left blank Tables

3.1 List of CNSRA Branches Established between 1925 and 1933 73 5.1 Chinese Sports Budget 1994–2001 (Unit: 10,000 RMB) 109 6.1 The All-China Ethnic Minority Games (1953–2015) 145 8.1 Sport in Serving the Power Struggles 160 8.2 Forces that Created Sports Nationalism 161 8.3 The Transformation of Chinese Nationalism and the Role of Sport 162 8.4 The Role of Sport in Creating and Reﬂ ecting Nationalism 164 This page intentionally left blank Abbreviations

All-China Athletic Federation (ACAF) All-China Ethnic Minority Games (ACEMG) All-China Sports Federation (ACSF) Anqing Patriotic Association (APA) Cable News Network (CNN) Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Central National Skills Research Academy (CNSRA) Central Tibetan Administration (CTA) China Gymnastic School (CGS) China National Amateur Athletic Federation (CNAAF) Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) Chinese Communist Party (CCP) Chinese Nationalist Party (KMT) Chinese Olympic Committee (COC) The Chinese Revolutionary Alliance (CRA) Chongqing Sports School (CSS) The Commerce Gymnastics Society (COMGS) Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) Communist Youth League of China (CYLC) Datong Shifan School (DSS) The Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) East Turkistan Information Center (ETIC) East Turkistan Liberation Organization (ETLO) The Far Eastern Championship Games (FECG) The Great Leap Forward (GLF) Lishui Sports Society (LSS) National Defence Sports Society (NDSS) National Salvation Room (NSR) The Northern China Athletic Meeting (NCAM) People’s Liberation Army (PLA) The People’s Republic of China (PRC) Pure Martial Sports Society (PMSS) Ready for Labour and Defence Programme (GTO) xiv Abbreviations The Republic of China (ROC) Shaoxing Sports Society (SSS) State Ethnic Aff airs Commission (SEAC) State Physical Culture and Sport Commission (SPCSC) Taizhou Yaozi Sports School (TYSS) Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union (TASS) Tibetan Women’s Association (TWA) Tibetan Youth Congress (TYC) The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) The Vietnamese Workers’ Party (VWP) Western Shanghai Gymnastics Society (WSGS) World Uyghur Youth Congress (WUYC) Yan’an Sports Society (YSS) Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA) Introduction

Nationalism is a concept dominated by politics. Its development is rein- forced by economic, cultural, linguistic and/or other kinds of national aspirations; hence these less-dominant elements are assigned an auxiliary function in the consolidation of national consciousness.1 Sport is one of these national aspirations. Nationalism and sport are closely linked by their political natures. Over the past century, the Olympics and other international and regional sports events have fostered an active interweaving of sport, politics and nationalism. The Bodyline series between Australia and England in the 1930s, the 1956 Olympic boycott over the ‘Two Chinas Issue’, the 1972 Munich massacre, the Olympic boycotts during the Cold War, the Free Tibet Campaign before the 2008 Beijing Olympics, the ter- ritory dispute between South Korea and Japan that led to political disso- nance at the 2012 London Olympic Games, and a host of other examples indicate that sport has never escaped its political function, which is fi rmly entwined with nationalism. Sport itself can help consolidate national identity and promote nationalism. Cronin has stated, ‘Sport is, and always has been, inextricably linked to the forces of nationalism and identity . . . It is a form of national popular culture, a forum for the creation, expression or maintenance of senses and ideals of identity, a form of business, and a central point of focus for groups within and outside any given society or nation’.2 Sport provides ‘one of the few occasions when large, complex, impersonal and functionally bonded units can unite as a whole’.3 By cheer- ing for their national squad, playing or talking about their traditional sport or national sport, people who belong to diff erent ethnic or religious groups, or who come from diff erent social classes and regions within the nation state, become bound together and endowed with a collective identity. This results in the promotion of national consciousness and patriotism. In addition, as a part of the traditional or popular culture, both traditional sports and modern sports can be regarded as symbols of a nation. Bale stated that ‘whether at local, regional or national level, sport is, after war, probably the principal means of collective identifi cation in modern life’.4 People from diff erent social classes can fi nd common ground in playing, watching or talking about their traditional sport or national sport. Sport functions as a powerful cultural force that serves the construction of national identity and national unity. 2 Sport and Nationalism in China Scholars use the term ‘sporting/sportive nationalism’ to sum up the relationship between nationalism and sport.5 In the last twenty years, a considerable amount of research has been conducted by historians, social scientists and political scientists to examine this relationship between sport and nationalism. These studies have proven that sports nationalism is an important element of nationalism. It accompanies other possible forms of nationalism, such as linguistic nationalism, civic nationalism, ethnic nationalism, cultural nationalism, religious nationalism and ideo- logical nationalism, and can be understood as a subsystem of nationalism. Sports nationalism often functions as a galvanizing or motivating force in nationalist movements. It serves a wide range of political objec- tives, such as ‘enhancing prestige, securing legitimacy, compensating for other aspects of life within their boundaries and pursuing international rivals by peaceful means’.6 Sports nationalism is a multifaceted concept. Current literatures and research have off ered some perspectives on the relationship between sport and nationalism. However, the complexity and nature of sports nationalism need to be explored further. This book maps the relationships between sport, nationalism and nation building in China. By exploring the last 150 years of Chinese history, it intends to provide a clear understanding of Chinese sports nationalism from both macro- and microperspectives. Beginning with a discussion of the role of sport in the Qing Dynasty’s Self- Strengthening Movement (1861–1895), the book examines how sport contributed to the shaping of the early forms of Chinese nationalism in the late 19th century. It identifi es and defi nes the core functions of sport in the Chi- nese Nationalist Revolution, which successfully transformed China from a culture-bound empire into a modern nation state in 1911. It explores the interactions between sport and the construction of Chinese nationalism and national consciousness, illustrating the part played by sport in the building of the newly established nation state in the Republic of China era (1912–1949). Moving on to Communist China (1949–present), the book surveys the whole spectrum of both modern and contemporary Chinese nationalism and examines the most important issues that have arisen in the course of China’s nation-building enterprise, explaining why sport is so tightly bound up with nationalism and patriotism, and how sport became an essential part of the strategies of nationalists, politicians and education- alists to revive the Chinese nation. Bibliography

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