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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SANTA CRUZ THE POLITICS OF SOCIALIST ATHLETICS IN THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA, 1949-1966 A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in HISTORY by Amanda G. Shuman December 2014 The Dissertation of Amanda G. Shuman is approved: __________________________________ Professor Gail Hershatter, chair __________________________________ Professor Emily Honig __________________________________ Professor Alan Christy _____________________________ Tyrus Miller Vice Provost and Dean of Graduate Studies Copyright ! by Amanda G. Shuman 2014 TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………..iii List of Figures………………………………………………………………………....v Abstract……………………………………………………………………………...viii Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………...…xi Introduction……………………………………………………………………………1 Chapter 1: Legacies and Transitions: the Institutionalization of Tiyu, 1949-1952….27 Republican tiyu and “Red” tiyu…………………….……...…………………31 Tiyu in the Wartime Period…………………………………………………..39 Tiyu Experts and Trustworthy Cadres: Organizing and Learning From the Soviet Union…………………………………………………………......46 Foundations for the Future: Mass Tiyu at the Local Level…………………..63 “Everybody Does Broadcast Calisthenics”: Tiyu for Everyone.………..…...72 A Soviet-led Socialist World: the PRC and International Sport, 1950-1952..77 Conclusion…………………………………………………………...………89 Chapter 2: “Study the Advanced Experience of the Soviet Union”: Sports Exchanges and the “Ready for Labor and Defense” System in the Early PRC………...………..91 “Learning from the Soviet Union,” Socialist Internationalism, and the laoweizhi ………………………………………………………………...…..93 Scientific Socialism and the “Ready for Labor and Defense” System……..112 The “Ready for Labor and Defense” System in China……………………..119 Backlash and Criticism of the laoweizhi……………………………………134 Conclusion……………………………………………………………....….147 Chapter 3: “On the Foundation of Widespread Sport, Raise Athletic Skill Levels”: Building a Chinese Tiyu in the Late 1950s…………………………...…………….150 The Breakdown of Socialist Unity in International Sport…..……………...154 “Mobilize the Masses, Rely on the Masses”…………………………..…....158 Tiyu for Workers: Work Unit Associations…………………………161 Spare-time Sports Schools: The Foundation for Elite Athletic Training.………………………… …………………………………178 Village Sports…………………………………………………..…...186 National Defense Sports……………………………………………192 Conclusion…………...……………………………………………………..198 ! iii Chapter 4: “Strive for Greater Glory for the Motherland”: Tiyu during the Great Leap Forward……………………………………………………............………………..200 Sport and the Ten-Year Plan for National Glory……………………...……201 Staging Chinese Socialist Achievements: the 1959 National Games………215 Tiyu Popular Culture and Film, 1956-1959………..……………...…..……234 Conclusion………………...…………………...…………………...………269 Chapter 5: “Onward! No Retreat!”: Building International Community through Elite Sport and the Games of the New Emerging Forces………………………………...271 Recovery, Evaluation, and Refocusing: Tiyu 1961-62…………..…………273 Bandung, Chinese Socialism, and Elite Competitive Sport………..…….…283 “Ever Onward”: The Fourth Asian Games (1962)…………………………293 The GANEFO as Idea: Sport and Politics………………………………….299 The GANEFO as Event: Onward, No retreat!……………………………...309 The GANEFO as Success…………………………………………………..321 Legacy and Aftermath of the GANEFO……………………………………325 Conclusion………………………………………………………………….328 Chapter 6: “Bitter Training” with Politics in Command: Elite Sport 1964-1966…..330 The “Witches of the Orient” Visit China…………………………………...333 Studying Technical Skills and “Bitter Training” from the World Champions………………………………………………………….336 “Men and Women are Equal”: Finding Solidarity, Promoting Chinese Socialism……………………………………………………………347 “Three Requirements, One Heavy Load”: Elite Sport in 1965……………..359 “Friendly” Sport and Mao Zedong Thought: African Delegations Visit China ………………………………………………………………………………375 Conclusion………………………………………………………………….391 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….395 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………..401 ! iv LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Front page of People’s Daily, July 25, 1966…………………….…………2 Figure 2. “The Road to Rejuvenation” frieze at the National Museum of China…….8 Figure 3. Goose egg cartoon.…………………………………………………...……39 Figure 4. Baby calisthenics…………………………………………………………..78 Figure 5. “Hungarian mixed soccer team’s friendly competition in Shanghai.”…...101 Figure 6. Examples of obstacle running……………………………………………125 Figure 7. Laoweizhi badge……………………………………………………..…...128 Figure 8. “Honor”…………………………………………………………………..129 Figures 9-10. Qinghua university students receive laoweizhi badges……………...130 Figure 11. “The Railways Ministry’s workplace calisthenics.”……………………162 Figure 12. “Let our lives be active.”……………………………..…………………173 Figure 13. Sample diagram for building rural sports grounds……………………...190 Figure 14. “Make sport blossom everywhere!”…………………………………….211 Figure 15. Building the stadium for the 1959 National Games…………………….218 Figure 16. Athletes creating new world records……………………………………225 Figure 17. Leaders at the National Games………………………………………….226 Figure 18. Mass calisthenics at the First National Games………………………….228 Figure 19. Images from tiyu diaries………………………………………………...236 Figure 20. High school student and soccer player Wang Li reflects on his mistakes. ……………………………………………………………………………240 Figure 21. Final scene from Two Small Soccer Teams…………………………......240 ! v Figure 22. Basketball drills……………..……………..……………..………….… 243 Figure 23. Discussing strategy as team.……………..……………..…………….…243 Figure 24. Coach Tian tells the team about Old China……..……………..…….….246 Figure 25. Coach Tian and Lin Jie rekindle their love…………..……………..…..250 Figure 26. Zhao Hui tries to convince Boss Zhang to improve the work unit’s sports facilities.……………..……………..………..……………..………..……………...254 Figure 27. Boss Zhang leads Professor Lin Yunwen around the work unit sports grounds……………………………………………………………………………...256 Figure 28. Scenes from Ice Sisters….……..…………..………………..…………..260 Figure 29. Swimmers at the spare-time sports school crawl across the floor in dry land practice……………………….........……..……………..………..……………263 Figure 30. Ding Shuping discusses fabric designs with her factory co-workers…...265 Figure 31. Swimmers host an exhibition for a rural audience.……………...……...266 Figure 32. Athletes gather around a piano and sing.……...………………….……..267 Figure 33. “Selected works from Shandong’s First Photographic Art Exhibition.”..279 Figure 34. “Personal goods.”…….………..……………..……………………..…..296 Figure 35. Official logo of the GANEFO..………..………………………..………305 Figure 36. “Friendship and honor.”.………..……………..………………………..309 Figure 37. Opening ceremony of the Games of the New Emerging Forces..………313 Figure 38. GANEFO cartoon with figure resembling JFK..………..………………316 Figure 39. GANEFO parade cartoon..………..……………..……………………...317 Figure 40. “International Olympic Committee Ostrich Competition.”.………...…..317 Figure 41. A poster displayed in Jakarta, Indonesia that says “Onward! No Retreat!”.…….……………………………………………………………….……..319 ! vi Figure 42. Stamps issued by the PRC for the first GANEFO……..…..……………319 Figure 43. GANEFO athletes….………..……………..……………………………320 Figure 44. “In close harmony.”..………..……………..……………………..……..324 Figures 45-46. GANEFO athletes displaying friendship, cultural sharing, and unity………………………………………………………………………………...324 Figure 47. Zhou Enlai shakes hands with members of the Japanese Nichibo women’s volleyball team……..…………………………………………………….…………338 Figure 48-49. The famous “rolling dive.”…..………..………………………..……366 Figure 50. Opening ceremony of the Second National Games: first calisthenics movement..….………………………………………………………………………372 Figure 51. Opening ceremony of the Second National Games: “carry the revolution through to the end.”...…………………..……………………………………...……373 ! vii ABSTRACT THE POLITICS OF SOCIALIST ATHLETICS IN THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA, 1949-1966 Amanda Shuman This dissertation traces the political significance of sport to the Chinese socialist state between 1949 and 1966 by examining state-sponsored tiyu (loosely translated into English as “sports and physical culture”) and the connection between its two intertwined goals: tiyu for every citizen, and the development of elite sports programs. In these years Chinese leaders began to use international sport to carve out for China a different position in the world, while at the same time developing general tiyu and competitive training programs for ordinary citizens. China’s athletic and political performance at international events was intended to showcase the emergence of a successful socialist state peopled by healthy, fit citizens and capable of international leadership. A diverse group of tiyu experts helped usher in a new organizational and institutional structure for tiyu in the early 1950s. Inspired by the Soviet model, this included introducing the Soviet “Ready for Labor and Defense” system in China (known in Chinese as the laoweizhi) as the centerpiece of the government’s efforts to use mass tiyu in order to cultivate the ideal socialist citizen. Chinese leaders also signaled their deference to Soviet leadership in the international socialist movement by participating in socialist bloc delegation visits. ! viii By the late 1950s, work unit sports associations, spare-time sports schools, and the laoweizhi effectively blurred the lines of mass and elite sport because they included ordinary citizens while also providing ways to identify those with more athletic potential.