1 A Comparative Analysis of the Policy Process of Elite Sport Development in China and the UK (in Relation to Three Olympic Sports of Artistic Gymnastics, Swimming and Cycling) By Jinming Zheng Doctoral Thesis Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of The degree of PhD of Loughborough University 4 Contents Illustrations: Tables and Figures 12 Acknowledgements 15 Abstract 17 Glossary of Abbreviated Terms 19 Chapter One Introduction 23 1.1 Research Aims and Objectives 23 1.2 Significance of the Area of the Study 23 1.3 Structure of the Thesis 27 Chapter Two A Review of the Policy Theory 32 2.1 Introduction 32 2.2 Macro-Level Theories 34 2.2.1 Pluralism and Neo-Pluralism 34 2.2.2 Elite Theory 36 2.2.3 Marxism and Neo-Marxism 37 2.2.4 Conclusions 39 2.3 Power 39 2.3.1 Steven Lukes’s Three Dimensions of Power 40 2.3.2 Michel Foucault’s Power Theory 42 2.4 Globalisation and Policy Learning and Transfer 45 2.4.1 Globalisation 45 2.4.2 Policy Learning and Transfer 48 2.5 Meso-Level Frameworks 50 2.5.1 The Multiple Streams Framework 51 2.5.2 The Policy Community Framework 57 2.5.3 Conclusions 62 5 2.6 Policy Implementation 63 2.7 Conclusions 66 Chapter Three The Policy Contexts of Elite Sport Development in China and the UK 68 3.1 Introduction 68 3.2 The Context of Elite Sport Development in China 68 3.2.1 Introduction 68 3.2.2 1949-1966 69 (1) Political context 69 (2) Organisational structure and financial support 72 (3) Olympic performance 73 3.2.3 1966-1976 74 3.2.4 1976-2012 75 (1) 1976-1988 75 (2) 1988-2001 78 (3) 2001-2012 85 3.3 The Context of Elite Sport Development in the UK 90 3.3.1 Introduction 90 3.3.2 1965-1990 91 (1) Political context 91 (2) Organisational structure 92 (3) Financial support 93 (4) Olympic performance 93 3.3.3 1990-1997 94 (1) Political context 94 (2) Organisational structure 96 (3) Financial support 97 (4) Olympic performance 98 3.3.4 1997-2005 99 (1) Political context 99 (2) Organisational structure 101 (3) Financial support 101 6 (4) Olympic performance 102 3.3.5 2005-2012 103 (1) Political context 103 (2) Organisational structure 106 (3) Financial support 107 (4) Olympic performance 108 3.4 Conclusions 109 Chapter Four Methodology 110 4.1 Introduction 110 4.2 Type of Research 111 4.3 Ontological and Epistemological Assumptions 113 4.3.1 Ontology 114 (1) Realism 114 (2) Constructivism 115 (3) Critical realism 115 4.3.2 Epistemology 117 (1) Positivism 117 (2) Interpretivism 118 4.3.3 Conclusions 119 4.4 Methodological Considerations 119 4.4.1 Logic of Inference: Deductive and Inductive Approaches 119 4.4.2 Research Strategy: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches 122 4.4.3 Research Design 124 (1) Case study design 124 (2) Comparative design 128 4.5 Research Methods 129 4.5.1 Data Collection 130 (1) Semi-structured interviews 130 (2) Documents 133 4.5.2 Data analysis 135 (1) Thematic analysis 135 7 (2) SPSS 138 4.6 Reliability and Validity 138 4.6.1 Reliability 138 4.6.2 Validity 140 4.7 Conclusions 142 Chapter Five China 146 5.1 Introduction 146 5.2 China’s Categorisation and Differentiation of Olympic Sports and Its Implications 146 5.3 Artistic Gymnastics 150 5.3.1 Introduction 150 5.3.2 Organisational Structure 151 5.3.3 Key Areas of Policy 155 (1) Financial support 155 (2) Talent identification and athlete development 156 (3) Coaching 164 (4) Training 165 (5) Competition opportunities 166 (6) Scientific research 167 (7) Others 168 5.3.4 Conclusions 170 5.4 Swimming 172 5.4.1 Introduction 172 5.4.2 Organisational Structure 174 5.4.3 Key Areas of Policy 176 (1) Financial support 176 (2) Talent identification and athlete development 176 (3) Coaching 180 (4) Training 181 (5) Competition opportunities 183 (6) Scientific research 185 8 (7) Others 187 5.4.4 Conclusions 189 5.5 Cycling 192 5.5.1 Introduction 192 5.5.2 Organisational Structure 193 5.5.3 Key Areas of Policy 195 (1) Financial support 195 (2) Talent identification and athlete development 196 (3) Coaching 200 (4) Training 202 (5) Competition opportunities 205 (6) Scientific research 206 (7) Others 207 5.5.4 Conclusions 208 Chapter Six United Kingdom 212 6.1 Introduction 212 6.2 The UK’s Overall Summer Olympic Performance and the Differentiated Contributions of Olympic Sports 212 6.3 Artistic Gymnastics 214 6.3.1 Introduction 214 6.3.2 Organisational Structure 215 6.3.3 Key Areas of Policy 218 (1) Financial support 218 (2) Talent identification and athlete development 219 (3) Coaching 223 (4) Training 225 (5) Competition opportunities 226 (6) Scientific research 228 (7) International influence 229 6.3.4 Conclusions 231 6.4 Swimming 234 9 6.4.1 Introduction 234 6.4.2 Organisational Structure 235 6.4.3 Key Areas of Policy 237 (1) Financial support 237 (2) Talent identification and athlete development 238 (3) Coaching 242 (4) Training 244 (5) Competition opportunities 246 (6) Scientific research 247 (7) International influence 248 6.4.4 Conclusions 250 6.5 Cycling 253 6.5.1 Introduction 253 6.5.2 Organisational Structure 254 6.5.3 Key Areas of Policy 256 (1) Financial support 256 (2) Talent identification and athlete development 257 (3) Coaching 262 (4) Training 264 (5) Competition opportunities 265 (6) Scientific research 266 (7) International influence 267 6.5.4 Conclusions 269 Chapter Seven Conclusions 273 7.1 Introduction 273 7.2 Main Conclusions regarding Elite Sport Development in Artistic Gymnastics, Swimming and Cycling in China and the UK 273 7.2.1 Organisational Structure 273 7.2.2 Financial Support 276 7.2.3 Talent Identification and Athlete Development 278 7.2.4 Coaching 280 10 7.2.5 Training 282 7.2.6 Competition Opportunities 283 7.2.7 Scientific Research 285 7.2.8 Other Areas 286 7.3 Comparisons of Elite Sport Development between China and the UK 287 7.3.1 Common Themes in Elite Sport Development 287 7.3.2 Differences between China and the UK 289 7.4 Theoretical Reflection 291 7.4.1 Macro-Level Theories and Power 291 7.4.2 The Multiple Streams Framework and The Policy Community Framework 295 (1) The multiple streams framework 295 (2) The policy community framework 310 7.4.3 Globalisation and Policy Transfer 317 (1) Globalisation theory 317 (2) Policy transfer and policy innovation 319 7.4.4 Policy Implementation and Policy Instruments 323 7.5 Contributions of the Thesis, Its Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research 329 7.5.1 The Value of This Thesis 329 7.5.3 Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research 331 References 333 Appendices 434 Appendix 1: Definitions of Public Policy 434 Appendix 2: Major Meso-level Policy Frameworks and Theories Introduced by Sabatier (2007a) 435 Appendix 3: Examples of Applications of the Advocacy Coalition Framework to Various Policy Areas 436 Appendix 4: National Sports Management Centres Subordinated to GAS 437 Appendix 5: Key Features of Exploratory, Descriptive, Explanatory and Predictive Research 438 11 Appendix 6: A Comparison between Pure and Applied Research 440 Appendix 7: Interview Themes and Question Examples 441 Appendix 8: Interviewees Identified for the UK and China 443 Appendix 9: Types of Documents Selected for this Research 445 Appendix 10: A List of Financial and Other Forms of Material Rewards that Sun Yang Received for His Performance at the 2012 London Olympic Games 449 Appendix 11: Major International and Domestic Competitions that British Elite Swimmers Participate In 450 Appendix 12: The Number of Riders Invited to and Accepted by the World Class Start/Potential Programmes between 2001 and 2003 451 Appendix 13: A Sample of Interview Transcriptions 452 12 Illustrations Tables 2.1 Three dimensions of power 42 2.2 Ten ingredients of ‘perfect implementation’ 64 3.1 Chinese sports budget: 1981-1990 77 3.2 China’s medal tally and position in the medals table in Los Angeles 1984 and Seoul 1988 78 3.3 Chinese sports budget: 1991-2001 83 3.4 China’s medal tally and position in the medals table between Barcelona 1992 and Sydney 2000 84 3.5 China’s medal tally and position in the medals table at the Winter Olympic Games between Albertville 1992 and Nagano 1998 84 3.6 Annual budget of GAS from 2006 to 2013 88 3.7 China’s medal tally and position in the medals table between Athens 2004 and London 2012 89 3.8 China’s medal tally and position in the medals table between Salt Lake City 2002 and Vancouver 2010 90 3.9 Grants to the GB Sports Council, received by the government between 1972- 1973 and 1988-1989 93 3.10 The UK’s medal tally and position in the medals table at the Summer Olympic Games between Tokyo 1964 and Seoul 1988 94 3.11 Grants to the GB Sports Council, received from the government between 1990- 1991 and 1996-1997 97 3.12 Funding (estimates) for elite sport from the GB Sports Council between 1990- 1991 and 1996-1997 98 3.13 The UK’s medal tally and position in the medals table in Barcelona 1992 and Atlanta 1996 98 3.14 Funding (estimates) for elite sport from UK Sport between 1997-1998 and 2004-2005 102 3.15 The UK’s medal tally and position in the medals table in Sydney 2000 and Athens 2004 103 13 3.16 Funding for elite sport from UK Sport between 2005-2006 and 2012-2013 108 3.17 The UK’s medal tally and position in the medals table in Beijing 2008 and London 2012 109 4.1 Two broad research traditions 123 4.2 Key characteristics of case studies 125 4.3 A summary of methodological characteristics of this research 143 5.1 Tian’s (1998) categorisation of Olympic sports and disciplines 148 5.2 A summary of China’s performance in artistic gymnastic at the Summer Olympic Games between Barcelona 1992 and London 2012 150 5.3 The amount of money