UNIVERSITY OF BERGAMO School of Doctoral Studies Doctoral Degree in Linguistic Sciences XXIX Cycle SSD: L-LIN/01 TYPOLOGY OF PLURACTIONAL CONSTRUCTIONS IN THE LANGUAGES OF THE WORLD Advisor Prof. Sonia Cristofaro Doctoral Thesis Simone MATTIOLA Student ID 1031619 Academic year 2015/16 Acknowledgements. The years of my PhD project have been full of experiences and people. This three-year- journey has represented an incredible growth for me, both at academic level and at personal too. I had the opportunity to travel, to visit new places, and to meet new people. This work would not have been possible without the assistance and the guidance of my supervisor, Sonia Cristofaro, who first led me to discover how an interesting (and unknown) phenomenon pluractionality is. I am in debt to her for several discussions on problematic topics and issues that we had in different part of the World. I would like to thank the people that have supervised me during the periods that I have spent outside Italy and that have discussed several aspects of my thesis: Martin Haspelmath (Leipzig), Martine Vanhove (Villejuif), Maarten Mous (Leiden), Doris Payne (Eugene), and Marianne Mithun (Santa Barbara). Then, I would to express my deepest gratitude to the people that shared with me their works, texts, and knowledge on specific languages: Martine Vanhove (Beja), Doris Payne (Maa), and Spike Gildea (Akawaio and Cariban in general). I have benefited a lot from these data. Several people have followed my work during these three years providing suggestions, criticisms, and corrections. I would like to thank: Silvia Luraghi, Caterina Mauri, Andrea Sansò, Federica Venier, and Pierluigi Cuzzolin. The years of my PhD wouldn’t be the same without the support of my colleagues and friends. I would like to thank: my official proof-reader Alessandra, Caterina, Luigi, Jessica, Jacopo, and all the other PhD students of the doctorate in Linguistics of Universities of Pavia and Bergamo. i Finally, I would like to thank my family, my parents and my sister (and also my cats), for having encouraged me and for giving me the opportunity of doing what I like to do. I would like to thank Elena to be my partner life, my friend, and my love. ii Table of Contents Acknowledgements i Table of Contents iii List of Tables vii List of Figures viii List of Abbreviations ix 1. Introduction 1 1.1. Preliminaries 1 1.2. What is pluractionality? 3 1.3. Previous studies 6 1.3.1. Dressler (1968) 7 1.3.2. Cusic (1981) 8 1.3.3. Xrakovskji (1997a) 11 1.3.4. Other studies 16 1.4. Some issues on the cross-linguistic comparison of pluractional constructions 17 1.5. The functional-typological approach 19 1.6. The language sample 20 1.7. Outline of the thesis 23 2. The semantic domain of pluractional constructions 25 2.1. A brief theory of events 26 iii 2.2. Pluractional functions 28 2.2.1. Core functions 29 2.2.1.1. Pluractionality stricto sensu 30 2.2.1.2. Distributivity 33 2.2.1.3. Participant plurality 35 2.2.1.4. The case of single actions: the ‘singulactionality’ 38 2.2.2. Additional functions 42 2.2.2.1. Non-prototypical plurality 43 2.2.2.2. Grade 50 2.2.2.3. Reciprocity 53 2.2.3. Rare functions 55 2.3. The conceptual space of pluractional constructions 59 2.3.1. The Semantic Map model 59 2.3.2. Pluractional conceptual space 61 2.3.3. A tentative explanation of pluractional conceptual space 64 2.3.3.1. Singular functions 66 2.3.3.2. Plural functions 67 2.3.3.2.1. Pluractional core functions 70 2.3.3.2.2. Non-prototypical plurality and reciprocity 73 2.3.3.3. Linguistic correlations of the pluractional conceptual space 79 3. The morpho-syntax of pluractional constructions 83 3.1.Affixation 84 3.2.Reduplication 88 3.2.1. Total reduplication and repetition: grammatical vs. textual/pragmatic functions 93 3.3.Stem alternation 99 3.3.1. Suppletion vs. stem alternation 104 3.4.Other marking strategies 109 iv 3.5.The problem of participant plurality: syntactic agreement (nominal number) or semantic selection (verbal number)? 115 4. Pluractional constructions: some case studies 127 4.1.Pluractionals in Akawaio (Cariban, Venezuelan) 129 4.1.1. Strategies of marking and functions of Akawaio pluractionals 130 4.1.2. The semantic map of pluractionals in Akawaio 136 4.1.3. The case of the collective -gong in Akawaio 143 4.1.4. Beyond Akawaio: pluractionality in other Cariban languages 146 4.2.Pluractionals in Beja (Afro-Asiatic, Cushitic) 154 4.2.1. Strategies of marking and functions of Beja pluractionals 156 4.2.1.1. Strategies of marking pluractionality in Beja 156 4.2.1.2. The functional domain of Beja pluractionals 160 4.2.2. The semantic map of pluractionals in Beja 169 4.2.3. Pluractionality in Cushitic languages: an independent phenomenon 171 4.3.Pluractionals in Maa (Nilotic, Eastern Nilotic) 178 4.3.1. Strategies of marking and functions of Maa pluractionals 179 4.3.1.1. Stem alternation 179 4.3.1.2. Reduplication 185 4.3.2. The semantic map of pluractionals in Maa 191 4.3.3. The case of direction Away: an incoming pluractional marker? 194 4.3.4. Pluractionality in Maa 202 4.4.What do these case studies tell us? 204 5. Pluractional constructions in cross-linguistic perspective 206 5.1. Pluractionality as a heterogeneous phenomenon 207 5.1.1. Strategies of marking 209 5.1.2. Diachronic data and sources 214 5.1.2.1. Demonstratives 215 v 5.1.2.2. Verbs of feeling: love/like (or hate) 219 5.1.2.3. Locative or positional verbs: sit/stay 222 5.1.2.4. Pluractional markers as sources for other constructions 224 5.2.The categorial status of pluractional constructions 226 5.3.The language- and construction-specificity of pluractionality 229 5.4.The relationship between pluractionality and other types of constructions 233 6. Conclusion 235 References. 239 Appendix: Language Sample. 269 vi List of Tables 1.1 – Classification of the types of situational plurality (Xrakovskij 1997a:27). 13-4 3.1 – Criteria to distinguish repetition and reduplication (Gil 2005:33) 94 4.1 – Number of occurrences of the functions encoded by -pödï in Akawaio. 138-9 4.2 – Number of occurrences of the functions encoded by Intensive in Beja. 164 4.3 – Number of occurrences of functions encoded by Pluractional in Beja. 168-9 4.4 – Verb stems of the verbs ‘go’ and ‘come’ in Maa (Doris Payne p.c.). 182-3 4.5 – Functions of reduplicated verbs in Maa. 193-4 5.1 – Pluractional marking strategies in Chadic languages. 213 vii List of Figures 2.1 – The conceptual space of pluractional constructions. 62 2.2 – Singular and plural functions. 65 2.3 – Singular area. 67 2.4 – Plural functions of the pluractional conceptual space. 68 2.5 – Plural area and relative semantic clusters. 70 2.6 – Pluractional core and strictly related functions. 71 2.7 – Non-prototypical plurality and reciprocity. 74 2.8 – Paths of development of reduplication (adapted from Bybee, Perkins & Pagliuca 1994:172). 78 2.9 – Linguistic correlations of the pluractional conceptual space. 81 4.1 – Semantic map of pluractional marker -pödï in Akawaio (Extended version). 137 4.2 – Semantic map of pluractional marker -pödï in Akawaio (Restricted version). 140 4.3 – Geographical distribution of Cariban pluractional markers (Spike Gildea p.c.). 152 4.4 – Semantic map of pluractional constructions in Beja. 170 4.5 – Semantic map of pluractional constructions in Maa. 192 viii List of Abbreviations 1 1st person 2 2nd person 3 3rd person I Active for non-past (Khwe) I Agreement prefix of agreement pattern one (Eton) II Active for past + Affermative polarity series A Subject of transitive verb ABL Ablative ABS Absolutive ACC Accusative ACT Actor ACT1 Actual ADN Adnominalizer ADV Adverb AEO Absence of explicit object AG Agent like ALLEG Allegation ANAPH Anaphoric AND1 Andative singular intransitive AND2 Andative nonsingular, singular transitive AN.INVIS Animate demonstrative pronoun invisible/distal singular ix AOR Aorist ART Article ATBZ Attributilizer ATTR Attributive AUG Augmentative AUX Auxiliary AWAY Andative/Away B Gender agreement marker BEN Benefactive CAUS Causative CL Classifier CN1 Connective 1 CN2 Connective 2 CNJ Coordinating conjunction COMP Completive COMPL Completeness CON Construct case COORD Coordinator COP Copula CSL Causal CVB Converb CVB.ANT Anteriority converb CVB.MNR Manner converb CVB.SMLT Simultaneity converb DAT Dative DEF Definite DEM Demonstrative DEP Dependent clause DET Determiner DIR Directional x DISCN Discontinuous DISTR Distributive DLMT Delimitative DU Dual DUR Durative EM Emphatic EP Epenthetic ERG Ergative EV Direct evidential EXC Exclamation EXCL Exclusive F Feminine FOC Focus FREQ Frequentative FUT Future G Suffix or infix that occurs in several TAM-forms (Eton) GEN Genitive GL Goal HAB Habitual HSY Hearsay ID Dependent initial IMP Imperative IMPS Impersonal INAC Inaccompli INAN Inanimate INC Incompletive aspect IND Indicative INDF Indefinite INF Infinitive IN.INVIS Inanimate demonstrative pronoun distal invisible xi INST Instrument INT Intensive (pluractional) INTERIOR Interior INTR Intransitive IP Immediate past IRR Irrealis ITER Iterative JUS Jussive L Low (tone) L Linker (Enumeration) LOC Locative LV Locative voice M Masculine MID Middle MULT Multiplicative n Non-eyewitness N.AC Action noun N.AGN Agent noun NE Non-Euchee NEG Negative NEGPOT Negative potential NIPL Instrument nominalization plural NOM Nominative NMLZ Nominalizer/nominalization NON.SG Non-singular NONSPEC.I Non-specific aspect, intransitive stem N.PF Non-perfect NPPR Non-final form of the personal pronominal NR Non-realis (subject-modality clitic) OBL Oblique xii OBJ Object