I SPY: Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems

© Department2012 Department of Primary of Primary Industries Industries and Resources and Resources South ThisThis manual manual was was compiled compiled by: by: SouthAustralia Australia (PIRSA) (PIRSA), and the theDepartment Department of Agriculture of Agriculture and JudyJudy Bellati Bellati,, SouthSouth AustralianAustralian ResearchResearch andand andFood Food (DAFWA) Western Western Australia Australia. (DAFWA), and cesar Pty Ltd. DevelopmentDevelopment Institute Institute (SARDI); (SARDI); PeterPeter ManganoMangano, ,Department Department of of Agriculture Agriculture and and Food Food Copyright protects this publication. Except for purposes WesternWestern Australia Australia (DAFWA); (DAFWA); permitted by the Copyright Act 1968 (Commonwealth), PaulPaul Umina Umina,, cesarCESAR, Pty The Ltd University and the University of Melbourne; of and no partpart of of this this publication publication (including (including images, images, photos photos and Melbourne;Ken Henry , andSouth Australian Research and Development andtables) tables) may bemay reproduced, be reproduced, stored stored or transmitted or transmitted in any KenInstitute Henry (SARDI)., South Australian Research and inform any or form by any or means,by any electronicmeans, electronic or otherwise, or otherwise, without Development Institute (SARDI). withoutthe prior the written prior permissionwritten permission of Department of Department of Primary of Editing and graphic design provided by: PrimaryIndustries Industries South Australia South Australia (PIRSA) (PIRSA),and Department Department of EditingAngela and Lush graphic, lush logic design and provided by: ofAgriculture Agriculture and and Food Food Western Western Australia Australia (DAFWA). (DAFWA), and AngelaKaylee LushMaitland, lush, Lavaworks.logic; cesar Pty Ltd. Kaylee Maitland, Lavaworks; and ISBN: 978-0-646-53795-5 Michael Graham, T&M Graphic Communications. ISBN: 978-0-646-53795-5 2012 2010 © ©

The developmentThe development of this of edition this edition of I SPY of Ihas SPY been has beenpossible possible due to the financial due to the financialsupport support from: from:

Department of Agriculture and Food

Notification of any errors or omissions are welcome through [email protected], Notification of any errors or omissions are welcome through: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] or [email protected] [email protected], or [email protected] Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian i i SECTIONSECTION 1 INTRODUCTION 1 INTRODUCTION

cover.indd 2 5/08/2010 1:55:22 PM I Ispy spy InsectsInsects of of Southern Southern Australian Australian Broadacre Broadacre Farming Farming Systems Systems IdentificationIdentification ManualManual andand EducationEducation ResourceResource

AboutAbout I ISPY SPY

I ISPY SPY formsforms part part of theof invertebratethe invertebrate identification identification training trainingpackage package developed developed for broadacre for broadacre crops in crops the southern in the southernand western and westerngrain belt grain regions belt ofregions Australia. of Australia. I SPY has I SPYbeen has developed been developed under under the National the National Invertebrate Invertebrate Pest PestInitiative Initiative (NIPI), (NIPI), a aproject project fundedfunded throughthrough thethe Grains Grains ResearchResearch and and Development Development Corporation Corporation (GRDC). (GRDC).

I SPYI SPY highlights highlights the the importance importance of of insect insect identification identification andand includes includes key key characteristics characteristics used used for for identification identification ofof importantimportant insectinsect andand otherother arthropodarthropod groupsgroups (collectively(collectively referred referred to to as as invertebrates). invertebrates).

TheThe first first three three sections sections of of I ISPY SPY provide provide a ageneral general Section six provides information on monitoring, introductionintroduction and and cover cover basic basic insect insect taxonomy, taxonomy, external external sampling techniques and economiceconomic thresholds.thresholds. A crop

anatomy,anatomy, key key insect insect orders orders and and identification identification keys. keys. monitoring record sheet is also provided, with checklists Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource of insect species by crop type and stage. Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource SectionSection four four provides provides detailed detailed information information of of key key invertebratesinvertebrates that that are are likely likely to to be be found found in in broadacre broadacre Finally, I SPY concludes with a section from Plant Health crops.crops. Each Each invertebrate invertebrate group group (or (or relevant relevant species) species) Australia (PHA) on the significance of biosecurity and is is covered,covered, withwith a a detaileddetailed descriptiondescription ofof theirtheir surveillance, andand our our obligation obligation to safeguard to safeguard our industry our keykey characteristics,characteristics, lifecycle,lifecycle, damagedamage andand specificspecific forindustry market for access. market access. managementmanagement options options thatthat cancan bebe employed.employed. This This sectionsection also also covers covers key key biosecurity biosecurity insect insect threats, threats, with with anan emphasis emphasis on on the the diagnostic diagnostic characters characters used used to to differentiate major biosecurity pests from established or differentiate major biosecurity pests from established or Southern and western regions nativenative pests. pests.

IntegratedIntegrated pestpest managementmanagement (IPM)(IPM) isis discusseddiscussed in insection section five. five. I SPY I is SPYnot designedis not designedas an all encompassing as an all encompassingIPM document IPM but document rather as abut base rather level asmanual a base that levelintroduces manual the that main introduces components, the techniquesmain components, and tools techniquesof an IPM andprogram. tools ofIt outlinesan IPM program.management It outlines options managementthat can be implementedoptions that tocan assist be youimplemented to reduce yourto assistreliance you on to broad-spectrum reduce your reliance chemicals on broad-spectrum for pest control in chemicalsyour cropping for pest system. control Insecticide in your modes cropping of action system. and Insecticidetheir impacts modes on ofnatural action enemies and their are impacts listed, onand natural an IPM enemiesdecision-making are listed, flow and chartan IPM is presented.decision-making flow chart is presented.

Southern Australia includes the southern and western grain

cover.indd 3 5/08/2010 1:55:23 PM Disclaimer Acknowledgements

The information provided in this manual is based on The authors are grateful for all technical contributions, the best available knowledge and understanding at the information, advice and revision provided in the time of publishing. No person should act on the basis of development of this manual. Thanks to the following the contents of this publication without first obtaining people: specific, independent professional advice. Recognising that some of the information in this document is provided Susan Ivory, Richard Glatz, Cate Paull, Gabriella Caon, by third parties, the governments of South Australia, Jenny Davidson and Kym Perry (SARDI); Western Australia, cesar Pty Ltd, the authors, editors and the publisher take no responsibility for the accuracy, Hugh Brier, Melina Miles, Kate Charleston and currency, reliability and correctness of any information Dave Murray (DEEDI); contained in this document. It is the responsibility of users to make their kown decision about the accuracy, Gary Fitt, Nancy Schellhorn and Sarina MacFadyen currency and reliability of this information. (CSIRO);

Permission of the publisher is required for reproduction. Stuart McColl and Andrew Weeks (cesar Pty Ltd); Phil Michael, Svetlana Micic, Darryl Hardie, Rob Emery, Dusty Severtson, John Botta, Lisa Sherriff, Doug Sawkins, Francoise Berlandier and Alan Lord (DAFWA);

Sharyn Taylor, Stephen Dibley and Jo Slattery (PHA);

Joanne Holloway and Louise Rossiter (NSW DPI); and 2012

Section 1.  Introduction Section 2.  Basic Insect Taxonomy, External Anatomy, Lifecycles and Development Section 3.  Important Insect Groups and Identification Keys Section 4.  Common Pest, Beneficial and Exotic Species Section 5.  IPM Principles and Case Studies Section 6.  Monitoring, Record Keeping, Sampling Techniques and Economic Thresholds

iv SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION 2012 ©

Introduction

1 SECTION 1 Introduction

Over 95% of all animals on the earth are invertebrates Why do we need to consider more of one form or another. Invertebrates (animals without sustainable management practices? backbones) include sponges, corals, sea-stars, insects, mites, spiders, snails, crabs and worms — to name a The long-term prophylactic and routine use of broad- few. Invertebrates are found in almost all terrestrial spectrum pesticides in field crops and the over-reliance and aquatic habitats. Over 80% of all invertebrates are on chemicals is not a sustainable practice. grouped into the single phylum Arthropoda, which Chemical resistance to various insecticide families includes insects and their allied forms, such as spiders has already developed in some key pests such as the and mites. diamondback moth, corn earworm (cotton bollworm), The terms invertebrates, insects and arthropods are redlegged earth mite, some aphids and several grain used interchangeably throughout this manual. storage pest insects. This has become a real concern for the grains industry Why do invertebrates become pests? and has highlighted the need to move towards strategic Many invertebrates are regarded as pests because and alternative control options that better target the they can destroy crops and are often costly to control, pests of concern. resulting in significant economic damage. Integrating a range of effective and sustainable pest Invertebrates become pests due to a variety of factors. management strategies will remove the reliance on any

single method of control in the future. Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource • Accidental introduction, e.g. redlegged earth mites from South Africa. • Native insects adapting to introduced crop plants, Why is correct identification and e.g. native budworm. monitoring critical? • Changing farming systems, e.g. the use of minimum • Incorrect identification can lead to costly mistakes. tillage and increased stubble retention favours the The species you find may be beneficial or of no survival of some pests such as weevils. consequence and regarded as non-target. Once correctly identified, information on the biology, pest • Simplified ecosystems/monocultures that favour status and management can be accurately obtained. certain pests and lessen the impact of natural enemies. • Correct identification is important for effective control, preventing insecticide misuse and potential • Local climate/seasonal variation that can determine increases in incidences of resistance. host plant availability and pest population dynamics. • Many pests look similar and can be easily • Chemical performance that can result in secondary misidentified. For example, redlegged earth mites, pest flare-ups and impact on insecticide resistance. blue oat mites, clover mites and Balaustium mites are all similar in appearance and size but they respond differently to insecticides and rates. Misidentification can lead to inappropriate control measures. • Modified insect behaviour or the introduction of new pests can be recognised early and general awareness and preparedness can be increased. • Seasonal alerts for irregular and sporadic pests can be given in news outlets such as PestFax/PestFacts. • Exotic pests can be detected and identified at an

1 SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION Accurate identification, monitoring and recording of pest and beneficial invertebrates are perhaps the most critical skills required to effectively manage pests in a sustainable manner and move towards an integrated management approach. This is the starting point for the I SPY resource manual.

A basic knowledge of the key invertebrate groups (and how to tell them apart) is invaluable when taking those first steps towards correct identification.

I SPY aims to: • increase awareness and knowledge of major broadacre pest and beneficial species; • increase the ability of users to identify key invertebrates to order or family level; • increase familiarity with invertebrate lifecycles and biology; • increase familiarity with sampling and monitoring techniques as well as record keeping; 2012

This flow chart can guide you through insect identification using I SPY - either by using the insect identification and plant damage symptom keys or the insect diagnostic features on the species pages.

Have you found an insect? No insect but you have damage Can you tell if it is a larva or an adult? symptoms to your crop?

If it is a larva, go to If it is an adult, check Go to ‘Crop Damage Pest Section 3, page 12. Table 3.2 Identification Key’ in Here you will find an ‘Key characters of insects Section 3. identification key that of agricultural importance’ Cereals, page 18 will help you identify on pages 7-11. Here you Canola, page 20 to order. will find a guide to adult Pulses, page 23 forms of various orders. Pastures & Lucerne, page 25 Section 3, pages 16 & 17 has keys for adult beetles and moths.

Follow the page numbers to the order and common species pages. Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Refer to key characteristics in the blue boxes on each Look for species page (Section 4) to identify your insect. this icon

Found your insect? Not the right insect? Check out the information on Check the ‘Confused with/ monitoring and control. or similar to’ information on species pages in Section 4.

Go to Section 5 for OR IPM information. Can you see damage to your crop? Go to Section 6 for monitoring and economic OR threshold information. Track down the right insect using the sampling techniques in Section 6. © 2012

3 SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION Taxonomy Basic Basic

Basic Insect Taxonomy, External Anatomy, Lifecycles and Development

2 SECTION 2 Basic Insect Taxonomy, External Anatomy, Lifecycles and Development

T he key taxonomic features that separate invertebrates from other groups of organisms are presented in this section. The overall body plan is illustrated, as well as the two distinct insect lifecycle types and associated morphology.

Taxonomy – a filing system for all living things Understanding some basics about taxonomy will help you understand the different terms for invertebrate groups, what they mean and how to identify them.

Taxonomy is the branch of science that sorts all organisms into groups (or taxa) based on their overall similarity and relatedness.

The hierarchy (Linnaean hierarchy) that all living Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource organisms fit into has a minimum of seven levels (kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species), although there can be many more levels.

Table 2.1 (p. 3) lists the main taxonomic levels along with the broad classifications (distinguishing features that separate groups) for invertebrates.

The most distantly related organisms will be in different kingdoms (e.g. plants and animals) and the most closely related organisms are likely to be classified into the same genus. No two creatures share the same scientific name. The unique formal two-word scientific names we see are a creature’s genus and species names.

The generic (genus) is always given with a capital letter and the specific (species) is always lower case. Both are written in italics and after the first use in text, the genus name is often abbreviated to the first letter of the genus, e.g. Myzus persicae to M. persicae. Where the species name is not known with certainty, the genus name is given followed by ‘sp.’ for one species and ‘spp.’ for more than one species. © 2012

1 SECTION 2 Basic Insect Taxonomy, External Anatomy, Lifecycles and Development Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource© 2012 Forewing • • • contains: It and reproduction.internal organs survival vital to insect andisdesigned to holdmostofthe the three bodyparts T have can adults Some wingless forms(e.g. aphids). wings thoracic thatthe middle segment. on are carried in identification. Flies only have important pair of one particularly are Wings wings. of pair a support thorax the of segments the last two insects and in all almost winged has (resulting apairof legs thorax) in atotal of six legs) and meta- distinct). meso- (pro-, thoracic Each segment (notlocomotion and is up of made three segments always T • • • andconsistspurposes of: T absent,greatly or reduced have modified. structures some may orders/families/genera insect particular and others and abdomen. thorax head, the insect; adult an of plan overall body the make up that regions distinct three are There the adult on form. based are often to their basic know itis important insects dentify anatomy. Identification classificationskeys and insect T Adult form body structure body Insect o i he he h 2 e on earwigs). specialised appendages insomecases(e.g. pincers stingers inwasp species); in identification (e.g. thepresence ofspecialised reproductive beused which canoften structures digestion (stomach); internal organs for respiration (spiracles) and section 3) - these are very important inidentification. important 3)-theseare very section andpiercing (referbiting, mouthtypes sucking to mouthparts. one pairofantennae; eyes (ocelli); one pairofcompound eyes andupto three simple ABDOMEN Abdomen HEAD THORAX SECTION 2 SECTION Hind leg isdesigned for bothfeeding andsensory (middle division) is designed for Some parts may be more distinct than than may distinct more be parts Some (rear section) is the largest(rear of and softest section) L ook f B Source: from (1991) Modified CSIRO Midleg asi c In or differences between chewing/ Thorax se ct ct Mouthparts T a x Pronotum ono m Femur y, Ext Eye Foreleg er n a Head l An Tarsus Antennae Tibia a t o m y,

Life cycl because they appear near the end of the abdomen. they nearof the end abdomen. appear because is the legs. for to look wayAn easy regions in larvae to locate the separate body (see change (complete metamorphosis) stage with apupal (larvae) that acompletein undergo juvenile insects merged appear can metamorphosis), they (incomplete (nymphs)in juvenile insects change that partial undergo are usually and abdomen distinct thorax While the head, become. will they adults the mature completely different they or look adults can to similar look smaller either can but than Juvenile insects that the juvenile aredamaging.It isstages the most often Immature form body Beetle larva Beetle pages in section 4. life stages. For more information see the relevant species worms, slugs and snails will have different anatomies and invertebrates, only such insects. Others, as mites, spiders, These general structures body do not hold true for all in identification. important be can of prolegs number and grasping. ventral prolegs or abdominal that legs. resemble theiron abdomen haveprojections fleshy caterpillars, moth particularly larvae, (e.g. larvae). and fly insect Some weevil larvae However, havesegments. legs ‘true’ larvae not all insect the adult legs) to are the thoracic always attached Moth larva Moth es Head Thorax

L a i nd fecycles and development,p. 5,fecycles 6). First segment abdominal Head De Thorax v e lop T h True legs me First segment abdominal ere can also be anal prolegs, so-called so-called analere also can prolegs, be nt Abdominal prolegsAbdominal True legs Source: from (1991) Modified CSIRO T r ue legs (which legs ue also become and assist in locomotion Abdomen T h ese are called areese called Anal prolegs Anal Abdomen T h e Table 2.1 Taxonomic category

Taxonomic category

KINGDOM There are six kingdoms of living creatures - Fungi, Plants, Animals, Eubacteria, Archae- bacteria and Protista. The last three kingdoms are comprised of simple, mostly unicellular organisms.

PHYLUM Vertebrata and Invertebrata Humans along with fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and other mammals, are classified into the sub-phylum Vertebrata (phylum Chordata), meaning they have a backbone. These are called vertebrates.

The Invertebrata includes all animals without backbones such as jellyfish, insects, spiders, slugs, snails, millipedes, mites, crabs, worms etc. These are called invertebrates.

Phylum Arthropoda Arthropod means jointed-foot. Arthro as in arthritis, a joint disease, and pod, as in podiatrist, a foot doctor.

Arthopods are a group of invertebrates including insects, springtails, mites, spiders, ticks and other creatures that are characterised by the presence of: • an exoskeleton (hard outer plate coverings) joined by softer tissue (i.e. hard on the outside, soft on the inside); • jointed limbs (segmented legs).

The remaining invertebrates (other Phyla) consist of worms, slugs and snails. Unlike arthropods, these animals lack segmented legs and are generally soft-bodied. Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Phylum Mollusca (snails and slugs) The Mollusca includes snails, slugs, clams, octopuses, squid, oysters, chitons and other creatures that share, or are characterised by, the presence of: • a muscular foot; • non-segmented mouthparts; • a radula (set of hooked teeth); • a well-developed head. © 2012

3 SECTION 2 Basic Insect Taxonomy, External Anatomy, Lifecycles and Development Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource© 2012 Table 2.1 Taxonomic continued category SPECIES GENUS FAMILY ORDER CLASS Taxonomic category 4 SECTION 2 SECTION B asi c In class classes arthropod othernon-insect Some Arachnida includestheorders Acarina (mites andticks)Araneida (spiders). e.g. budworms, armyworms andcutworms. a • adults • two • Arachnida share orare by: characterised Class Arachnida (mites, ticks, spidersandscorpions) adults • different plant host range to H.punctigera. belong to thegenusHelicoverpa, butH.armigera showsresistance insecticide andhasa example, two moth pests-native (H.armigera budworm (H.punctigera)- ) andcorn earworm D e.g. punctigera Species nameisalways italicisedandalllower case. e.g. Helicoverpa name isalwaysGenus italicisedandfirst letter capitalised. C C C the order Families interms of pestmanagement. orders canbeimportant insect within certain Within Refer to Table 3p. orders ofagricultural section ofinsect 3.2Keycharacters importance, 7. Australia. Worldwide, there orders, are almost30insect andalmostallofthemare represented in e.g. broad groups. T Mollusca. class Gastropoda (meaning istheonlyclassofagricultural interest feet’) ‘belly inthephylum class class Malacostraca (slaters) class class bilateral • six • a • a • share orare by: characterised Insecta isthelargest classoforganisms andaccountsInsecta for over 75%ofallanimalspecies. (insects) Class Insecta se his lev ommon suffixf ommon suffixf ommon suffixf ifferent species withinthesamegenuscanhave significant biological differences. For ct ct modified orabsen N L

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Lifecycles and development Having a basic understanding of a pest’s lifecycle and development is important to effectively manage pests. By looking at a pest’s lifecycle you can predict the occurrence of the most damaging stage to minimise/ avoid crop damage, or alternatively to target control at the most vulnerable life stage.

Most insects have the same basic lifecycle, progressing from an egg through several immature stages until finally becoming an adult, capable of mating and reproduction. In the insect world there are two main ways to complete this lifecycle. These are described as either incomplete or complete metamorphosis, a Greek word meaning change.

Nymphs or larvae hatch from eggs and their survival and development is dependant on environmental factors (particularly temperature and humidity) and the availability of suitable food. For example, the diamondback moth lifecycle in relation to temperature is as follows: - at 12 O C - lifecycle takes approx. 60 days - at 15 O C - lifecycle takes approx. 36 days - at 25 O C - lifecycle takes approx. 12 days - at 28 O C - lifecycle takes approx. 11 days

Nymphs and larvae grow through a series of moults

(immature stages). Entomologists refer to these different Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource immature stages as instars, i.e. 1st instar = just hatched, 2nd instar = 2nd immature growth stage, 3rd instar = 3rd immature growth stage and so on. The number of moults will vary depending on the species, but there are typically four to eight moults between hatching and becoming either an adult (for the nymph) or pupa (for the larva).

In some species, only one cycle or generation occurs per year (e.g. the vegetable weevil) whilst in other species one generation can take years to complete (e.g. some cockchafer species). Multiple generations can also occur in one year depending on seasonal conditions (e.g. diamondback moth and aphids). Where several generations occur in a year, you can often find multiple lifestages of a species in a crop at the same time. © 2012

5 SECTION 2 Basic Insect Taxonomy, External Anatomy, Lifecycles and Development Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource© 2012 6 (Hemiptera) (Blattodea). and cockroaches include grasshoppers and ( locusts thatInsects develop with incomplete metamorphosis have to adults. similar habits in sizeand bigger than the previous stage. each successive is slightly nymph stage developed more nymphal (moults) stages depending on the species and different. very be can (e.g.general structure wings). miniature lack of development with some in but adults through a series of moults. live insects) and gradually inborn some turns into an adult in which hatches the immature (or an egg insect from is Incomplete metamorphosis is a development process as anymph An immature organism within to is this referred lifecycle ->egg -> nymph adult develop in three Insects (Hemimetabolism change) gradual - partial or Incomplete metamorphosis Lifecycles include moths e.g. budworms, armyworms ( that develop with complete metamorphosis Insects areand the adult lost featurescharacters develop. (often contained within acocoon/capsule), larval where larvae. older develop internally in seen and cannotWing-buds be appearance. in grub-like (instars) frequently are stages differentlyfrom,adult the to,form. and acts visual no which bears resemblance the immature insect C as alarva An immature organism withinto is this referred lifecycle -> ->egg -> larva pupa adult within this develop in stages four lifecycle: Insects (Holometabolism -complete abrupt or change) Complete metamorphosis parasitoids of aphids and moths (Hymenoptera). e.g. cockchafers and weevils ( flies maggot( and onion e.g.hoverflies om SECTION 2 SECTION plete metamorphosis is a development process in (plural larvae). (plural (plural nymphs). (plural T B h asi e pupa (plural pupae)e pupa is atransition stage c In se ct ct stages T T a h x ere are usually six to eight ono C N T o m h y within thislifecycle: within leoptera), and wasps e.g. mphal resemble stages eir colour and markings y, Ext er O n r thoptera), bugs a D N l An i y ptera), beetles L mphs usually ep a t T idoptera), o h m e larval e larval y, Life cycl es a nd P P upae upae De v e lop me nt Lepidoptera Coleoptera Hemiptera Adult Adult nymphs caterpillar lar caterpillar lar va or va or Egg Egg Important Insect Groups Identification

and Identification Keys Keys

3 SECTION 3 Important Insect Groups and Identification Keys

Introduction ...... 2 Identification keys ...... 12 Larval forms to main orders/families ...... 12 Beetle larvae to main families ...... 13 Moth/butterfly larvae to main families/species ...... 14 Beetles (adults) to main families/species ...... 16 Moths (adults) to main families/species ...... 17 Crop damage pest identification keys ...... 18 Cereals ...... 18 Canola ...... 20 Pulses ...... 22. Annual pastures and lucerne ...... 24

Tables Table 3.1 Mouthpart types and associated damage symptoms ...... 4 Table 3.2 Key characters of insects of agricultural importance ...... 7 Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource © 2012

1 SECTION 3 IMPORTANT INSECT GROUPS AND IDENTIFICATION KEYS Introduction

The key features to use when identifying invertebrates Head to order level are presented in this section . The • Mouthparts – the type of mouthpart can be simplified classification of the invertebrate groups is important (e g. . chewing or piercing/sucking) . given to assist in the understanding and identification of the major orders and families . This section also covers • Antennae – size (relative to the body) and shape can the importance of particular mouthpart types and be useful . associated damage symptoms . • Alignment – whether the front of the head is angled down (vertical), slanted forward, exposed or hidden Less than 1% of the 86,000+ insect species described can also be important . in Australia (and more yet to be named or discovered), are considered economic pests . The taxonomy of Thorax invertebrates is a specialised job that takes years of • Number and appearance of wings - absence of wings experience . While we can’t recognise all invertebrates may indicate an immature insect stage or a wingless seen in a crop, the aim is to recognise the most important species . Wings have a distinctive appearance, ones in broadacre systems . particularly at the order level . For example, beetle forewings are hardened and called elytra while Table 3.2 (p . 7 in this section) is a quick reference guide fly hindwings are absent and modified into small to the main economically-important insect orders (plus balance structures called halteres . a few non-insect arthropods) that are likely to be found in broadacre field crops . Insects are very diverse and the • Legs – some insects may be quite mobile with general information presented in this table may not hold strongly developed legs for running and grasping

2012 true for all members of an order . (e g. . predatory beetles and praying mantids), while © others will have shorter functional legs indicating Further identification keys to insect orders, families and slower movement (e g . . cockchafers) . In some key species can be found in this section . Additional keys cases, insects may have greatly reduced or no legs, are widely available via an internet search . indicating sedentary behaviour (e g. . mealybugs and most scale insects) . Useful characters Abdomen General body shape and appearance can be useful in distinguishing invertebrate species, e g. . flattened or • Special appendages – such as the pincers on the end elongated body . Colour and size are useful for some of an earwig’s abdomen . adult insects e g. . beetles, but immature stages will vary • Additional legs (prolegs) on larvae – the number in size and colour . of abdominal prolegs can be used to differentiate between some pest moth larvae . The characteristics described below mainly relate to the • Join between abdomen and thorax – a key adult form and not the immature or larval stages . characteristic of most ants, wasps and bees (Hymenoptera) is that the thorax and abdomen are joined either by a broad or narrow waist (constriction) .

Characteristic soil burrows can also provide some indication (e g. . grass or cereal leaves protruding from small holes next to damaged plants are characteristic of pasture webworm) .

Plant damage can be the first indication of a problem and symptoms can be key indicators for the presence of certain pest species . Various damage symptoms are created by insects and the appearance of these is mainly determined by the insect’s mouthpart type (e g. . chewing, piercing/sucking) . This helps to identify the potential culprit causing damage . Further clues can be provided by knowing which plants and plant parts

different pests prefer to feed on . Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Mouth parts are not always easily seen and the type of mouth parts can also vary between different insect orders, as well as lifecycle stages (i e. . between larvae and adult) .

The main mouthpart types are shown in Table 3.1 (p . 4), as well as associated damage symptoms and possible pest species .

This section contains crop damage pest identification keys (pp . 18-27) based on plant damage for various crop types . When using plant damage as an identification aid it is also valuable to note the plant growth stage and the parts of the plant that are damaged (e g. . leaves, flowers or terminal growing points) .

Caution is needed when using plant damage symptoms to help identify pests, as other factors (e g. . disease, physiological and nutritional disorders) can often be mistaken as insect damage .

Plant damage symptoms should be used as an aid in pest identification but the actual invertebrate should be observed before making control decisions . Several types of plant damage may be seen which indicates that more than one pest could be involved . © 2012

3 SECTION 3 IMPORTANT INSECT GROUPS AND IDENTIFICATION KEYS Table 3.1 Mouthpart types and associated damage symptoms CHEWING mouthparts

Pest species generally have mouthparts directed downward, while predatory species generally have enlarged mouthparts that are directed forward so that they can catch prey .

Main mouthpart components Hardened jaw structures (mandibles and maxilla), upper lip (labrum), lower lip (labium) and segmented sensory extensions (maxillary and labial palps) .

Insects with chewing mouthparts Moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera) - the larval stages . Beetles (Coleoptera) - both adults and larvae . Locusts (Orthoptera) - both adults and nymphs .

General damage symptoms include chew marks, portions of leaves missing, scalloped leaf edges and upper leaf surfaces removed, lopped stems .

Eye

Frons Ocellus Clypeus Antennae Labrum Labium

Mandible

Maxilla

2012 Palps Source: Modified from CSIRO (1991) © Specific chewing damage symptoms Likely pest(s) Above ground Green tissue removed from leaves giving an irregular window Lucerne flea or very small moth larvae appearance to remaining leaf surface .

Chew marks – scalloped edges, plant tissue removed . Weevils (adults and larvae) or moth larvae

Seedlings chewed off at ground level leaving stumps . Cutworms, weevils

Portions of grass and cereal leaves protruding from holes in the Webworms ground .

Chewed portions of heads, pods or maturing seeds lopped off . Budworms or armyworms

Under ground Chewing of roots - above ground leaves stunted, pale or dying . Weevils (larvae) Cockchafers False/true wireworms Sandgropers (WA only)

Internal chewing of roots in legumes - above ground leaves stunted, Onion maggot fly larvae pale or dying .

Main mouthpart components Tough, long, needle-like tube (stylet) . Pharynx

Insects with piercing and sucking mouthparts True bugs (Hemiptera) e .g . shield bugs, predatory bugs and leafhoppers . Salivary duct Mites (Acarina) have scissor-like stylets . Labrum

General damage symptoms include bleaching and chlorotic marking, distortion, wilting and stunted growth . Stylets

Source: Modified from CSIRO (1991)

Specific piercing and sucking damage symptoms Likely pest(s) Silvering and distorted leaves . Mites

Distortion and wilting of growing points, sticky exudates and stunted Aphids growth .

Bleaching and chlorotic marks or dotting of leaves in lined patterns Leaf hoppers or Bryobia (clover) mites (distinct trails) . LIQUID feeders (modified sucking mouthparts) Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Coiled proboscis: Adult moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera) uncoil their proboscis (mouthpart) to feed in flowers and suck liquid foods . Most lepidopteran adults are liquid feeders and don’t cause plant damage .

Blunt trunk-like proboscis: Adult flies (Diptera) have this mouthpart structure to suck liquid or soft foods . The mouthparts of biting flies (e .g . stable flies, Stomoxys calcitrans) and mosquitoes are modified for piercing and sucking .

Eye Anntenna

Antennal segments

Eye Arista

Labial palp

5 SECTION 3 IMPORTANT INSECT GROUPS AND IDENTIFICATION KEYS Table 3.1 Mouthpart types and associated damage symptoms continued MOUTH HOOKS

Many juvenile flies (Diptera) or maggots have modified mouthparts called mouth hooks . Predatory species use this specialised mouthpart to capture (hook) their prey e .g . the larval stage of the hoverfly .

Mouth hook

Breathing hole (prothoracic spiracle)

Source: Modified from Peterson (1960) RADULA (rasping mouthparts)

2012 Confined to molluscs (snails and slugs). © General damage symptoms include shredded edges or strips removed (cereals) and chewing (pulses) . Seedlings can often be eaten to ground level .

Oesophagus Radula

Radula gland

Jaw Cartilage

Mouth opening

Source: Modified from Smith & Kershaw (1979)

9 SA 47 - 64 18 - 46 11 - 129 Ute Guide * Ute Page number Page 2 4 17 81 I SPY Section

......

. . . ody usually has a narrow waist waist a narrow has ody usually celli present above each eye each above present celli sually hard,sually rounded body shape utterfliesclubbed have antennae and are emale has a hardened ovipositor (egg (egg a hardenedemale has ovipositor ifecycle: complete metamorphosis complete ifecycle: ifecycle: complete metamorphosis complete ifecycle: ifecycle: complete metamorphosis complete ifecycle: Lifecycle shape &/or other useful features General L U Moths are usually active night at usually are Moths L B mostly active daylight during O L B between first the (constriction) two abdominal segments F can be which modified for organ) laying stinging

. . .

. . ings covered with with covered ings orewings always always orewings orewings and Wing appearance Wing Transparent Transparent concealed hindwings hardened underneath forewings (elytra) scales in regular rows overlapping W Transparent wings Transparent F slightly longer than than longer slightly hindwings F hindwingsare hooked together r Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource 2 2 o none wing pairs No. of No. (usually) 6 6 2 6 legs No. of No. Thorax Body features region . . Variable Often filamentous, multi-segmented females or in feathery and comb-like in males Prominent, Prominent, with generally segmentsnine or more Mouthparts Antennae Chewing Head Coiled sucking Coiled tube (proboscis/ haustellum) Chewing

C rop Insects Guide, Southern the Ute (S.A.) (W.A.) or Western edition * © O: Coleoptera Insect type (O) Order Forms Adult Beetles Moths & butterflies Lepidoptera O: Wasps, beesWasps, & ants Hymenoptera O: Table 3.2 characters Key Table of invertebrates of agricultural FORMS importance – ADULT 2012

7 SECTION 3 IMPORTANT INSECT GROUPS AND IDENTIFICATION KEYS WA 62, 104, 116, 136, 146 52 - 60 49 - 51, 61 1, SA 8 130, 140 169, 179 70 - 79 65 - 69, 80, 142 - 144 Ute Guide * Ute 3 3 Page number Page 4 3 3 50 I SPY Section . .

. .

. . .

. ing buds present in late nymphs late in buds present ing ne set of wings (key diagnostic feature) diagnostic ne (key set wings of phid adults can be winged or wingless base the of at cornicles a pair of have phids cale insects often are sedentary to (stuck ifecycle: complete metamorphosis complete ifecycle: ifecycle: incomplete metamorphosis incomplete ifecycle: ifecycle: incomplete metamorphosis incomplete ifecycle: Lifecycle shape &/or other useful features General L O L A A body S plant surface) L W . . . .

. .

. . axy in appearance any species have species have any indwings replaced indwings alf leathery/half leathery/half alf ariable ometimes immobile ransparent and Wing appearance Wing H with knobs (halteres) Forewings transparent S M adults wingless V H membranous forewings (hemelytra) T veined W wing pairs No. of No. 2012 © 6 1 6 0 - 2 6 2 legs No. of No. Thorax . Body features region . learly learly ypically short T and simple, frilled frilled simple, and or brush-like (in mosquitoes) Usually short C segmented or short and bristle-like .

. . iting (piercing) ometimes ometimes Mouthparts Antennae Head Sponging, Sponging, or sucking much reduced mouthparts species have species have hooksmouth B Piercing & Piercing sucking (needle-like stylet) Piercing & Piercing sucking (needle-like stylet or rostrum beak-like) S folded under the body

C irids, leafhoppersirids, & rop Insects Guide, Southern the Ute (S.A.) (W.A.) or Western edition aphids & whiteflies) & whiteflies) aphids m * . . g g . . Insect type (O) Order Flies Flies O: Diptera True bugs True (e O: Hemiptera Sub-O: Sternorrhyncha True bugs True (e stink bugs) O: Hemiptera Sub-O: Heteroptera Table 3.2 characters Key Table of invertebrates of agricultural FORMS importance continued – ADULT

. . . .

. . .

. .

. . gs aregs thin and long for (adapted running) ings held roof-like over the body the over when at held roof-like ings any species are wingless as adults as species wingless are any ind legs large and adapted for adapted jumping and legsind large ody often flattenedand elongated lender bodylender emale with a well developedemale a well with ovipositor turdy body, large head and the pronotum head pronotum the and large body, turdy orceps (caliper-like cerci) at the end the of at cerci) (caliper-like orceps ifecycle: incomplete metamorphosis incomplete ifecycle: ifecycle: complete metamorphosis complete ifecycle: ifecycle: incomplete metamorphosis incomplete ifecycle: wo segmented body, cephalothorax cephalothorax body, segmented wo (region behind head) is saddle-shaped is head) behind (region usually protruding(egg-laying from organ), abdomen the of tip the metamorphosis incomplete Lifecycle: L S H F T abdomen and thorax) & head (fused rest L S W Lifecycle Lifecycle shape &/or other useful features General L F abdomen B M Le

. . . . same size . athery straight rominent, finely- rominent, ore and hindwings forewing, transparent fan-like hindwing Le P with veined wings lots of cross veins F approx Wing appearance Wing Large membranous folded wings short- underneath leathery forewings, meetwhich the in mid-line reach and only a short way body the down e Wingless r Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource 2 o non none wing pairs No. of No. 8 6 2 6 2 6 legs No. of No. Thorax . .

. . Body features region .

. ong in crickets ong crickets in None forelegs or Use specialised mouthparts in a similar (palps) antennae to way L and locusts,and but short in grasshoppers Filamentous Filamentous, simple and slender Filamentous and to relative long body length Chewing/ Chewing/ sucking chelicerae Head Chewing Mouthparts Antennae Chewing Chewing Chewing (sickle-shaped)

C rop Insects Guide, Southern the Ute (S.A.) (W.A.) or Western edition * rasshoppers, rasshoppers, acewings © Spiders O: Araneae Class: Arachnida Class: crickets & locusts O: Orthoptera G Earwigs O: Dermaptera Insect type (O) Order O: Neuroptera L Table 3.2 characters Key Table of invertebrates of agricultural FORMS importance continued – ADULT 2012

9 SECTION 3 IMPORTANT INSECT GROUPS AND IDENTIFICATION KEYS 0 75 - 78 7 WA

97 - 103 89 SA Ute Guide * Ute Page number Page 4 63 72 I SPY Section

. . . . . lucerne flea) lucerne . g . . . . nly a few pestsnly a few (e lightly hairylightly bodies, abdomen 6 segmented pinnerets at end spinning of organ) (web insectsmall when disturbed jump that using wo segmented body; cephalothorax (fused (fused body; segmented cephalothorax wo or body main cylindricalwo forms; (elongate) Lifecycle: incomplete metamorphosis incomplete Lifecycle: metamorphosis incomplete Lifecycle: T abdomen and thorax) & head S abdomen T globular (compact) S with tube ventral S a forked tail-like present organ (furcula) abdomen underneath O Lifecycle Lifecycle shape &/or other useful features General Wing appearance Wing e Wingless none Wingless non wing pairs No. of No. 2012 © 6 6 in 6 in legs 8 ( No. of No. nymphs) Thorax . . Body features region Often use . one hort and segmented segmented more than (never segments) 6 S forelegs as sensory tools N . . . cissor-like set set cissor-like Chewing oral by (hidden orfolds cheeks) Head Mouthparts Antennae Chewing/ sucking chelicerae S styletsof

rop Insects Guide, Southern the Ute (S.A.) (W.A.) or Western edition * Springtails Class: Collembola Mites Arachnida Class: O: Acarina Insect type (O) Order Table 3.2 characters Key Table of invertebrates of agricultural FORMS importance continued – ADULT

WA 62, 104, 116, 136, 146 37 - 48 17 - 36 95 - 103 113 - 114

- 1, SA 37 - - 37 19 - - 19 130, 140, 169, 179 47 64 8 18 - 46 1 129 1 138 Ute Guide *

Page number 2 4 17 81 50 90 I SPY Section Section

. .

...... Some very .

. . . ost are maggot-like upae often simple, relatively featureless redatory well-developed with legs large and ye spotsye head onof side ifecycle: complete metamorphosis complete ifecycle: metamorphosis complete ifecycle: metamorphosis complete ifecycle: ifecycle: complete metamorphosis complete ifecycle: ifecycle: complete metamorphosis complete ifecycle: ypically 4 distinct larval shapes mobile, othersmobile, so less oftenCan see legs shape of the other and features in pupae L T L E head onof front ‘V’-shaped (groove) suture L P Lifecycle other features useful &/or shape General L M mouthparts body to (head region size relative mouthparts) of mostly comprised L P

. . g . .

. . . . ll prolegsll with ypically legless, Elateridae) A Maggot-like elongate and thin Anal prolegAnal (e rare crochets (hooks at base) T Abdominal Abdominal appearance Sawflylarvae have prolegs but no crochets

. e abdomen Tapering Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource airs 1 - 4 Anal none non pairs p No. of proleg proleg Variable e none 6 6 6 legs non No. of ypically ypically legless none in weevils) ( T Thorax .

. .

. educed educed . . R . . ell-defined and ell-developed odified head eveloped head head eveloped ilamentous / Head Capsule Antennae W head hardened capsule W hardened and head capsule, in darker usually colour M region poorlyand formed head, often retracted body the into Typically shortTypically Short antennae D capsule F antennae . .

. . arge sickle- Variable mouthparts to see) (difficult Body region features region Body Head Mouthparts Chewing Chewing Mouth hooks (piercing and sucking) located the at endpointed of larva L shaped mandibles forward pointing Grasping, sucking

rop Insects Guide, Southern the Ute (S.A.) (W.A.) or Western edition * © Wasps, beesWasps, & ants Hymenoptera O: Larval Forms Insect type (O) Order Beetles Beetles O: Coleoptera Moths & butterflies Lepidoptera O: O: Diptera Flies Lacewings O: Neuroptera Table 3.2 characters Key Table of invertebrates of agricultural importance FORMS – LARVAL 2012

11 SECTION 3 IMPORTANT INSECT GROUPS AND IDENTIFICATION KEYS Identification Keys Larval forms to main orders/families

Can true legs be seen?

With legs Without any legs

Without body ‘True’ legs and With typical Modified head (abdominal) prolegs, only additional body hardened region . 3 pairs of ‘true’ legs (abdominal) prolegs head capsule No distinct head capsule . Pointy head & mouthhooks

Distinctly Various body Prolegs fleshy Prolegs with tapering body forms with in appearance specialised Weevil Fly (Diptera) and head region head capsule & without hooks at base & (Coleoptera) go to

2012 comprised and chewing specialised eyespots on side go to section 4: © mostly of mouthparts hooks at base of head capsule section 4: page 50 ‘sickle-shaped’ page 26 Some mouthparts beneficial species

Sawflies Moths/ (Hymenoptera) butterflies go to (Lepidoptera) section 4: go to page 82 moth larvae key section 3: page 14

Lacewings Beetle (Neuroptera) (Coleoptera) Go to go to section 4: beetle larvae page 90 key See Ute Guide: section 3: SA pp .137-138; page 13 WA pp .113-114 Some beneficial species

Body characteristics

‘C’-shaped . Predatory (campodeiform) . Usually long body . Legless Swollen rear end Head oriented forward . Head oriented downwards . (apodous) (of abdomen) Large mouthparts . Short functional legs Well-developed legs (eruciform)

Weevils Cockchafers/ dung go to beetle (Scarabidae) section 4: go to page 26 section 4: page 19 See Ute Guide: SA pp . 62-64; WA pp . 46-48 Projection No projection at at end of end of abdomen

abdomen Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Other beetle Hair-like Usually grey/ No such families projection on last black with yellow/ pattern (non target) body segment . orange bandings Usually ground across body . dwelling Above ground . Found on vegetation Projection straight Projection off a serrated off the end of body plate (upper side) . (upper side) . Anal proleg present No anal proleg (under side) (under side) Carabidae Ladybirds Others go to (Coccinellidae) e .g . rove section 4: go to beetles page 31 section 4: (Staphylinidae) False wireworms True wireworms See Ute Guide page 29 (Tenebrionidae) or click beetles SA p .139; See Ute Guide go to section 4: (Elateridae) WA p .115 SA pp .132-133; page 24 go to section 4: WA pp .106-107 See Ute Guide page 22 SA pp . 53-54; See Ute Guide WA p . 45 SA p . 60 © 2012

13 SECTION 3 IMPORTANT INSECT GROUPS AND IDENTIFICATION KEYS Moth/butterfly larvae to main families/species * size relates to mature larvae

Number of body (abdominal) prolegs

4 pairs of abdominal prolegs 1 or 2 pairs of abdominal prolegs Anal prolegs vary in size Moves with looping action . Anal proleg Abdominal True legs prolegs Anal prolegs usually large

Long and slender, Extremely hairy * Small (< 30 mm) . Body smooth or found in soil body (covered Slender or stout with few sparse tunnels in stout hairs) hairs . * Large size (30-50 mm) . Active at night Up to 35mm long*, Up to 65mm long* Grass anthelid Noctuidae forms chimneys See Ute Guide on soil surface SA p . 45 *NOT in WA Underground grass grub Pasture tunnel See Ute Guide 2012

Leaf Wriggles & Lime Two whitish Pasture webworm rolling suspends velvety stripes on back See Ute Guide from thread green SA p . 32; WA p . 24 when body disturbed . densely Lucerne leaf Sparse covered Grass blue roller coarse dark with butterfly Prefer warm Wriggles when Feeds See Ute Guide hairs over coarse See Ute Guide periods disturbed inside pod SA p . 29; body dark hairs SA p . 44; WA p . 31 WA p . 36

Diamondback Cabbage white Cabbage centre Weed web moth Lucerne seed moth butterfly grub See Ute Guide web moth go to section 4: See Ute Guide See Ute Guide SA p . 30; go to section 4: page 13 SA p . 42; WA p . 35 SA p . 41; WA p . 32 WA p . 29 page 15

Yellow line running Predominantly Other loopers along back green in colour . Spring pest

Brown pasture looper Chrysodeixis sp . See Ute Guide See Ute Guide SA p . 36; WA p . 28 SA p . 37; WA p . 34 Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Greasy and plump Three stripes on 8th body (abdominal) Body dark brown No such in appearance . neck (cervical segment sharply with yellow and features as No distinct markings shield) and running angled reddish-orange described and relatively few along body to tail downward . markings body hairs . Paler banding Breathing holes running along (spiracles) dark on sides of body side of body with a darker colour banding on top

Cutworms Armyworms Native Pasture day Other noctuids go to go to budworms moth section 4: section 4: go to section 4: See Ute Guide page 7 page 5 page 11 SA p . 34; See Ute Guide See Ute Guide See Ute Guide WA p . 33 SA pp . 23-24; SA pp . 21-22; SA pp .18-20; WA pp . 22-23 WA pp . 20-21 WA pp .17-19 © 2012

15 SECTION 3 IMPORTANT INSECT GROUPS AND IDENTIFICATION KEYS Beetles (adults) to main families/species

Body shape

Very distinct constriction Round ‘Pie’-dish Flat Head region between body parts – with a ‘snout’ . ‘hot water bottle’ shape . Bent antennae Large mouthparts on snout directed forward Eastern false wireworm (Tenebrionidae) Go to section 4: page 24 *In WA: pie-dish beetles not Carabid eastern false wireworm Weevils (Carabidae) Go to go to section 4: section 4: page 26 page 31 Points on base of thorax (pronotum) . No points on See Ute Guide Flicks up and makes click sound ends of thorax SA p .139; when on its back WA p .115

Short wing-covers Typical length True wireworms exposing rear body wing-covers 2012 or click beetles © part (abdomen) . (elytra) (Elateridae) Earwig-like appearance go to section 4: page 22 See Ute Guide Grey false SA p . 60 Rove beetles wireworm (Staphylinidae) (Tenebrionidae) go to Spurs on legs . Shiny black Dull appearance . Domed section 4: Clubbed or bronze Dirty (often shape page 24 antennae (metallic-like) covered in soil) See Ute Guide SA p . 57 Other beetles (non target) Cockchafers/ Bronzed Vegetable May be coloured No such dung beetle field beetle beetle orange/black patterns patterns (Scarabidae) (Tenebrionidae) (Tenebrionidae) go to go to See Ute Guide section 4: section 4: SA p . 59; Ladybirds Others page 19 page 24 WA p . 45 (Coccinellidae) e .g . flea beetles See Ute Guide See Ute Guide go to section 4: (weed control SA pp . 63-64, SA p . 56; page 29 agent) 150-152; WA p . 43 See Ute Guide See Ute Guide WA pp . 46-48, SA pp . 132-133; SA p . 158; 125-126 WA pp . 106-107 WA p . 133

Beaked . Not beaked . Small moths (< 15 mm long) Large moths (> 30 mm long)

Distinct stripe on More than one Non-descript Three diamond side of wings stripe on wings brownish-toned shapes created scales on wings at rest

Lucerne seed Pasture Other Pyralidae Diamondback web moth webworm (non target) moth go to section 4: See Ute Guide go to section 4: page 15 SA p . 32 page 13 See Ute Guide WA p . 24 See Ute Guide Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource SA pp . 27-28 SA pp . 25-26; WA p . 30 WA pp . 26-27

Stout body hairs and many Other markings & scales on wings description in brown tones

17 SECTION 3 IMPORTANT INSECT GROUPS AND IDENTIFICATION KEYS Crop Damage Pest Identification Key – CEREALS Southern – Southern Ute Guide Western – Western Ute Guide * Relevant in S.E. Australia only **Relevant in WA only

Damage to seedlings and young plants . 1 Damage to advanced or ripening crop . 8 1 . Plants chewed above ground . 2 No chewing evident above ground . 3 2 . Plants cut off leaving stumps close to the ground and/or large portions of leaves 4 missing . Chewing but plants generally not cut off . 5 3 . Leaves bleached especially near tips . 6 Plants yellowing, withering, stunted or dying . 7 4 . Leaves or plants cut off and lying on the ground or protruding from small holes next Webworm to plants; brown caterpillars (up to 15 mm long) with black heads, present in web- Western p . 24 lined tunnels; wheat or barley seeded into grassy pasture paddocks . Southern p . 32 Leaves or plants cut off and lying on the ground or protruding from small holes next Pasture tunnel to plants . Slender larvae, up to 35 mm long, construct silk-lined tunnels that moth* protrude above ground to form chimneys . Southern p . 35 Leaves or plants cut off and lying on the ground or protruding from small holes next Grass anthelid* to plants . Larvae are brown with black and yellow marking, covered in tufts of stout Southern p . 45 hairs and can grow up to 50 mm in length . Leaves of young seedlings fed upon or damaged; in severe cases seedlings are Mandalotus weevil* ring-barked at ground level causing them to drop . Adults are 3-5 mm long, round Southern p . 52 2012

© and dull brown resembling small clods of dirt . Plants eaten close to or below ground level causing plant death and bare patches Polyphrades weevil* within the crop . Southern p . 53 Larvae emerge from tunnels with rain events to feed on foliage . Can cause bare Blackheaded patches in crops during late autumn and early winter . ‘C’ shaped larvae with six legs pasture cockchafers* and a black to brown head capsule . Southern p . 61 Large portions of plants eaten and some leaves or plants cut off . Smooth, fat Cutworms caterpillars up to 40 mm long usually found just under the soil surface and may curl Western p . 22 up when disturbed . Southern p . 23 5 . Green material removed in irregular patches from one surface of the leaf leaving Lucerne flea white window-like areas; paddocks may appear white; presence of dumpy, wingless, Western p . 70 greenish yellow insects, which spring off plants when disturbed . Southern p . 89 Leaves shredded or chewed, slimy trails . Slugs and snails Western pp . 71-74 Southern pp . 90-95 Smooth, shiny brown animals with curved pincers at the end of the body . Damage Earwigs irregular, often similar to slug damage, mostly in patches, when sown in heavy Western p . 69 stubble . Southern p . 88 Grasshoppers and locusts . Grasshoppers and locusts Western pp . 64-67 Southern pp . 83-87 Minor leaf chewing; presence of dark brown to black caterpillars up to 60 mm long Pasture day moth with two yellow spots near posterior end . Western p . 33 Southern p . 34

Southern pp . 61, 63 Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource African black beetle Western p . 48 Southern p . 64 Plants yellowing and withering; on light soils mostly on coastal plain; stems Sandgropers** underground shredded; presence of elongated, cylindrical insects up to 75 mm Western p . 68 long, first pair of legs adapted for digging . Larvae may attack germinating seeds below ground and germinating seedlings, Wireworms or click causing plants to wither and die and bare patches in crops . Larvae grow up to 15-40 beetles* mm; soft bodies and flattened in cross section with yellow-brown heads . Southern p . 60 8 . Green and straw-coloured insect droppings like miniature square hay bales on Armyworm ground; cereal heads on ground; some chewing of leaves and seed heads of weeds Western p . 20 such as ryegrass . Smooth, fat caterpillars up to 40 mm long, with three stripes on Southern p . 21 collar behind head; found at base of plants or climbing plants .

Seeds chewed but heads not severed; caterpillars up to 40 mm long, sparsely Native budworm and covered with small bumps and bristles, may be various shades of green, yellow, related species orange or brown; found on seed heads . Western pp . 17-19 Southern pp . 18-20

Presence of many grey- green insects approx . 2 mm long, with or without wings, on Aphids upper portions of stem . If heavy infestations, plants stunted; sticky with secretions, Western pp . 52-53 possibly black mould growing on secretions; Southern pp . 70-72 Damage in fine pale dots in wriggly or zigzag lines . Yellow to green, 3 mm long Leafhoppers wedge-shaped sucking insects that jump sideways when disturbed . Western p . 61 Southern p . 80 © 2012

19 SECTION 3 IMPORTANT INSECT GROUPS AND IDENTIFICATION KEYS Crop Damage Pest Identification Key - CANOLA Southern – Southern Ute Guide Western – Western Ute Guide * Relevant in S.E. Australia only **Relevant in WA only

Damage to seedlings . 1 Damage to flowering and podding canola . 2 Insects contaminating harvested grain . 7 1 . Transparent windows and holes chewed in leaves . Dumpy, wingless, greenish-yellow Lucerne flea insect-like creatures which spring off plants when disturbed . Western p . 70 Southern p . 89 Leaf surface silvered or sucked . 3 Cotyledons and young leaves chewed; seedlings or leaves cut off . 4 Plants stunted or dying; roots eaten; slow-moving, soft bodied insects usually in a ‘C’ WA cockchafers** shape, cream coloured apart from head; found near roots . Western p . 46 2 . Flower heads attacked . 5 Leaves or pods attacked . 6 3 . Surface tissue of leaves rasped by small mites with black or brown bodies and eight Redlegged earth mite orange-red legs (tiny nymphs have 6 legs), giving leaves a silvered appearance . Western p . 75 Southern p . 97 Blue oat mite Western p . 76 Southern p . 99 Bryobia mite Western p . 77 2012 Southern p . 100 © Balaustium mite Western p . 78 Southern p 1. 01 Pear-shaped insects sucking leaves, usually come from summer weeds . Rutherglen bug Western p . 49 Southern p . 65 2 mm long cigar-shaped with and without wings – rarely cause damage . Thrips Western p . 63 Southern p . 82 4 . Presence of smooth, fat caterpillars up to 40 mm long just under soil surface . Cutworms Western p . 22 Southern p . 23 Large sections of leaves chewed . In severe cases plants eaten down to ground level . Vegetable weevil Presence of dull grey-brown weevils (adults), 10 mm long or yellow-green larvae up adult and larvae to 15 mm long with flattened slug-like bodies . Larvae usually found in winter . Western p . 37 Southern p . 47 Large sections of leaves chewed . In severe cases plants eaten down to ground level . Spotted vegetable Adult weevils chew cotyledons, leaves and stems and may eat plants down to or Desiantha weevil ground level . Western p . 38 Southern p . 48 Small lucerne weevil Western p . 39 (WA & NSW) Fullers rose weevil Western p . 42 Southern p . 54

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 20 SECTION 3 IMPORTANT INSECT GROUPS AND IDENTIFICATION KEYS Feed on leaves of young seedlings; in severe cases seedlings are ring-barked at Mandalotus weevil* ground level causing them to drop . Adults are 3-5 mm long, round and dull brown Southern p . 52 resembling small clods of dirt . Areas of leaves chewed . Presence of black and cream striped caterpillars up to 30 Brown pasture mm long that may walk with looping motion . looper Western p . 28 Southern p . 36 Plants eaten at ground level . Shiny dark brown larvae (up 20 mm) with spines or Bronzed field beetle pincers at the tail end; mainly when canola is sown in heavy stubble . Western p . 43 Southern p . 56 European earwigs Western p . 69 Southern p . 88 Seedlings can be defoliated and die . Caterpillars feeding on leaves under a fine web, Weed web moth skeletonising leaves . Mostly in seasons with early autumn rainfall and warm weather . Western p . 29 Southern p . 30 Minor leaf chewing; presence of dark brown to black caterpillars up to 60 mm long Pasture day moth with two yellow spots near posterior end . Minor pest usually after pasture . Western p . 33 Southern p . 34 Leaves shredded or chewed, slimy trails . Slugs and snails Western pp . 71-74 Southern pp . 90-95 Germinating seed or emerging seedlings are ring-barked and hypocotyl severed Grey false just below the surface . Large bare patches can seen a few weeks after sowing . wireworm* Larvae up to 9 mm long, shiny brown-grey on top with paler undersides and two Southern p . 57 distinct upturned spines on last body segment . Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Seedlings chewed at or above ground level, ring-barking or completely cutting False wireworms or stems . Common adult species are 6-8 mm long, dark grey-black and often have a vegetable beetle covering of soil . adult Western p . 45 Southern p . 59 5 . Flower stems covered with masses of small soft-bodied insects and black sticky Aphids mould . Western pp . 54-56 Southern pp . 73-75 6 . Holes chewed in leaves, surface of pods attacked by small, thin, green caterpillars, Diamondback moth up to 10 mm long, that wriggle rapidly when touched and hang down on a thread . Western p . 26 Southern p . 25 Round holes in pods; seeds eaten by large (up to 40 mm long), sparsely haired and Native budworm often brightly coloured caterpillars . Western p . 17 Southern pp . 18-20 Leaves and flowers attacked, especially the basal leaves . Leaves can be combined Cabbage centre grub together with webbing . Small creamish caterpillars with dark heads that may tunnel Western p . 32 into growing points . Southern p . 41 Large, irregular holes chewed in leaves . Velvety green caterpillars (up to 30 mm) . Cabbage white butterfly Western p . 35 Southern p . 42 Pieces of leaves and stems chewed . Complete defoliation can occur in severe cases . Grasshoppers Grasshoppers and locusts . & locusts Western pp . 64-67 Southern pp . 83-87 7 . Plant growth stunted and in severe cases heads can be distorted . Large numbers of Rutherglen bug narrow bodied, greyish-brown, flying insects, 3-4 mm long, contaminating Western p . 49

21 SECTION 3 IMPORTANT INSECT GROUPS AND IDENTIFICATION KEYS Crop Damage Pest Identification Key - PULSES Southern – Southern Ute Guide Western – Western Ute Guide * Relevant in S.E. Australia only **Relevant in WA only

FP=field peas, Lup=lupins, Len=lentils, F=faba beans, C=chickpeas. Not applicable for soybeans.

1 . Seedlings damaged . 1 Areas of green tissue removed from leaves with surface tissue remaining like Lucerne flea windows; presence of dumpy, green, wingless insects that spring off plants when Western p . 70 disturbed . Southern p . 89 FP, Lup, Len, F Leaf surface silvered, sucked and withered . 2 Plants dying without obvious above ground symptoms . 3 Whole plants or parts of cotyledons and leaves eaten or cut off . 4 Damage later to leaves, flowers or pods . 5 2 . Surface tissue of leaves rasped by small mites with black or brown bodies and eight Redlegged earth orange-red legs (tiny nymphs have 6 legs), giving leaves a silvered appearance . mite FP, Lup, Len, F Western p . 75 Southern p . 97 Blue oat mite Western p . 76 Southern p . 99 Bryobia mite Western p . 77 Southern p . 100 2012 © Balaustium mite Western p . 78 Southern p . 101 Plant growth stunted . Pear-shaped insects sucking leaves, usually come from Rutherglen bug summer weeds . Western p . 49 All pulses. Southern p . 65 3 . Plants stunted or dying; roots eaten; slow-moving, soft bodied insects usually in a ‘C’ WA Cockchafers** shape, cream coloured apart from head and visible gut contents; found near roots . Western p . 46 All pulses. Plants yellowing and withering; on light soils mostly on coastal plain; stems Sandgropers** underground shredded; presence of elongate, cylindrical insects up to 75 mm long, Western p . 68 first pair of legs adapted for digging, head and front of thorax reddish brown and the remainder of the body a cream colour . All pulses. Roots rotting, cream grubs tunnelling in stem, worst in previous year’s stubble . Onion maggot FP, Lup Western p . 62 Southern p . 81 4 . Some plants cut off at ground level; cotyledons and leaves chewed; fat, smooth Cutworms caterpillars up to 40 mm long under soil surface near plants . Western p . 22 All pulses. Southern p . 23 Leaves chewed but mostly at edges of crop; 30 mm long caterpillars with dark stripe Brown pasture looper surrounded by lighter areas down the back . Western p .28 All pulses . Southern p . 36 Caterpillars feed on leaves under a fine web, skeletonising leaves . Seedlings can be Weed web moth defoliated and die . Mostly in seasons with early autumn rainfall and warm weather . Western p . 29 All pulses. Southern p . 30

23 SECTION 3 IMPORTANT INSECT GROUPS AND IDENTIFICATION KEYS Crop Damage Pest Identification Key - ANNUAL PASTURES AND LUCERNE Southern – Southern Ute Guide Western – Western Ute Guide * Relevant in S.E. Australia only **Relevant in WA only

Seedlings or young plants damaged . 1 Damage to leaves, flowers or seed formation . 5 1 . Areas of green tissue removed from leaves with surface tissue remaining like Lucerne flea windows; dumpy, wingless, greenish-yellow insects that spring off plants when Western p . 70 disturbed . Broad-leafed plants most commonly affected . Southern p . 89 Leaf surface silvered, sucked and withered . 2 Plants dying without obvious symptoms . 3 Whole plants or parts of cotyledons and leaves eaten or cut off . 4 2 . Surface tissue of leaves rasped by small mites with black or dark bodies and eight Redlegged earth mite orange-red legs (tiny nymphs have 6 legs), giving leaves a silvered appearance . Western p . 75 Southern p . 97 Blue oat mite Western p . 76 Southern p . 99 Bryobia mite Western p . 77 Southern p . 100 Balaustium mite Western p . 78 Southern p . 101

2012 Plant growth stunted . In severe cases, stands flower poorly and buds are aborted . Green mirid © Pale green flying insects and pear-shaped larvae sucking leaves in spring and Western p . 51 summer . Southern p . 69 Plant growth stunted . Pear-shaped (nymph) crawling insects or elongated dark Rutherglen bug winged insects (adults 4 mm long) sucking leaves . May be present in summer, (nymphs) autumn and or spring . Western p . 49 Southern p . 65 3 . Plants stunted or dying; roots eaten; slow-moving, soft bodied insects usually in a Cockchafers ‘C’-shape, cream coloured apart from head and visible gut contents; found near (Not including roots . Note, these cockchafers do not feed on foliage . Blackheaded cockchafers) Western pp . 46-47 Southern pp . 62-63 4 . Some plants cut off at ground level; cotyledons and leaves chewed; fat, smooth Cutworms night feeding caterpillars up to 40 mm long often found under soil surface near Western p . 22 damaged plants . Or brown/black caterpillars that may be found feeding above Southern p . 23 ground during the day . Lucerne, medics, sub clovers and some other plants stunted or dying . May have Sitona weevil yellow or reddened appearance . Nodules and roots eaten by pale or cream Western p . 40 coloured legless weevil grubs, found near roots below ground . Southern p . 50 Weevil adults chew bits out of leaves leaving scalloped edges . Small lucerne weevil** Western p . 39 (& NSW) White fringed weevil Western p . 41 Southern p . 51 Fullers rose weevil Western p . 42 Southern p . 54

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 24 SECTION 3 IMPORTANT INSECT GROUPS AND IDENTIFICATION KEYS Grass leaves or plants cut off and lying on the ground or leaves protruding from Pasture webworm small holes next to plants; brown caterpillars, up to 15 mm long, with black heads Western p . 24 present in web-lined tunnels . Southern p . 32 Leaves chewed but mostly at edges of crop; 30 mm long caterpillars with dark stripe Brown pasture surrounded by lighter areas down the back . looper Western p . 28 Southern p . 36 Leaves shredded or chewed, slimy trails may also be seen . Pest more often seen Slugs and snails after rain with moist leaf surfaces . Western pp . 71-74 Southern pp . 90-95 Minor leaf chewing; presence of dark brown to black caterpillars up to 60 mm long Pasture day moth with two yellow spots near posterior end . Minor pest usually feeding on broad- Western p . 33 leafed weeds e g. . capeweed . Southern p . 34 Leaves or plants cut off and lying on the ground or protruding from small holes next Pasture tunnel to plants; Slender larvae, up to 35 mm long, construct silk-lined tunnels that moth* protrude above ground to form chimneys . Southern p . 35 Larvae emerge from tunnels with rain events to feed on foliage . Can cause bare Blackheaded patches in crops during late autumn and early winter . ‘C’ shaped larvae with six legs pasture cockchafer* and a black to brown head capsule . Southern p . 61 Leaves or plants cut off and lying on the ground or protruding from small holes next Grass anthelid* to plants . Larvae are brown with black and yellow markings; covered in stout hairs Southern p . 45 and can grow up to 50 mm in length . Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource 5 . Flower stems covered with masses of small soft-bodied insects and sometimes black Aphids sticky mould . Susceptibility varies between legume species and medic varieties . Western pp . 54-56 Aphids may occasionally become a pest in early established pasture and lucerne Southern pp . 73-79 stands with warm temperatures . Some leaves and flowers chewed; holes in podding legumes; caterpillars up to 40 Native budworm mm long sparsely covered with bumps and hairs, often brightly coloured in greens, Western p . 17 browns and shades of orange and usually with black stripes along their backs . Southern pp . 18-20 Serradellas are often affected . Pods are chewed out resulting in reduced yield . Cream to green caterpillars with Lucerne seed red-brown heads and red stripes along the back, feeding on plants or inside pods, web moth often with fine silken webbing nearby . Western p . 30 Southern p . 27 Leaves at the tips of growing points are rolled and can be skeletonised . Pale to green Lucerne leafroller caterpillars which may drop from plants on a silken thread . Western p . 31 Southern p . 29 Pieces of leaves and stems chewed . Complete defoliation can occur in severe cases . Grasshoppers & Grasshoppers and locusts present . locusts Western pp . 64-67 Southern pp . 83-87 Leaves and growing points are chewed . Ten millimetre green slug-like larvae with a Grass blue butterfly white line down each side and a dense covering of short hairs; mostly attacks leaves Western p . 36 with skeletonising type damage . Southern p . 44 © 2012

25 SECTION 3 IMPORTANT INSECT GROUPS AND IDENTIFICATION KEYS 2012 ©

Moths & Butterflies ...... 2 Armyworms ...... 4 Cutworms ...... 7 Budworms ...... 11 Legend Diamondback moth ...... 13 Lucerne seed web moth ...... 15 Crop type Beetles ...... 17. Cockchafers ...... 19 Cereals True wireworms ...... 22 False wireworms ...... 24 Canola (& Brassicas) Weevils ...... 26 Ladybird beetles ...... 29. Pulses & legumes Carabid beetles (or Ground beetles) ...... 31 Pasture Bugs ...... 33 Figure 4.1 An example of an aphid lifecycle (Aphis sp.) ...... 35 Figure 4.2 Persistent versus non-persistent transmission of viruses ...... 36 Monitoring type Table 4.1 Some aphids known to transmit viruses in pulse crops ...... 36 Cereal aphids - Corn aphid, Oat aphid & Russian wheat aphid ...... 37 Observation Canola aphids - Cabbage aphid, Turnip aphid & Green peach aphid . . . 41

Pulse aphids - Blue green aphid, Pea aphid, Cow-pea aphid & Sweep net Green peach aphid ...... 43 Sunn pest ...... 45 Yellow sticky trap Damsel bugs (or Nabids) ...... 47 Predatory bugs - Predatory shield bugs and Assassin bugs ...... 49 Yellow pan trap Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Flies ...... 50. Gall midges or Gall gnats - Hessian fly & Barley stem gall midge ...... 52 Digging Exotic leaf miners ...... 54 Hoverflies ...... 57 Pitfall trap Earwigs ...... 59 European earwig & Native earwigs ...... 60 Pheromone trap Springtails ...... 63 light trap Lucerne flea ...... 63 Slugs & Snails ...... 65. Round snails - White Italian snail & Vineyard or common snail ...... 66 Insect status Conical snails - Small pointed snail & Pointed snail ...... 68 Slugs - Reticulated or grey field slug & Black-keeled slug ...... 70 pest = blue

Mites ...... 72. beneficial = green Red legged earth mite, Blue oat mite, Balaustium mite & Bryobia mite or Clover mite ...... 72 biosecurity = red Figure 4.3 Typical lifecycle of redlegged earth mites in southern Australia . .75 Predatory Mites ...... 80. F = Family Wasps, Bees & Ants ...... 81 Wheat stem sawfly & European wheat stem sawfly ...... 82. SF = Superfamily Wasp parasitoids ...... 84. Egg parasitoids ...... 87 Bees as pollinators ...... 89 Scale bar 10 mm 20 30 Lacewings & Antlions ...... 90 adult Green lacewings & Brown lacewings ...... 90. Maximum size shown Spiders ...... 92. for larva and adult

1 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species MOTHS & BUTTERFLIES (Order Lepidoptera)

Lepidoptera - scale (lepi); covering wing (ptera)

In Australia there are about 20,800 lepidopteran species bodies, a small head covered in scales and large eyes . divided into over 80 families . Adults have a long, thin, coiled sucking tube (proboscis) which they use to feed on liquid sugar sources . They have Main characteristics multi-segmented antennae (comb-like in male moths, thread-like in female moths) . Moths usually shelter by Larva day and fly at night, unlike butterflies, which are mostly Larvae or grubs are generally elongated in form, active during the day . with three pairs of true (thoracic) legs directly behind the head . Larvae have a well-developed and Lifecycle hardened (sclerotised) head capsule and chewing Complete metamorphosis . Depending on the species, (mandibulate) mouthparts . On the front of the head females may lay a few or tens of thousands of eggs is a groove (suture) shaped like an inverted ‘V’ and a second (several hundred is typical) . Larvae develop through 4-7 suture (adfrontal) just under the ‘V’ . Most have ventral and instars (taking a few weeks or up to a few months) before anal prolegs as well as crochets (small hooks) on the base pupating . Pupation can occur on vegetation, in the soil of the prolegs . These hooks help the larva hold on to the or leaf litter and even inside wood . Many lepidopterans surface . Most larvae feed on foliage or stored products . have one or two generations per year, some breed continuously and others may take years to develop (e g. . Adult (moths) Cossidae) . Adults have two pairs of large membranous wings that are completely covered with scales in regular, overlapping rows on both surfaces . They have hairy 2012 © Lepidopteran larva Side view of head Front view of head

Eyespots

1st abdominal segment Cervical (neck) shield

Anal proleg Hardened with (sclerotised) crotchets head capsule with Abdominal Spiracle ‘True’ leg chewing prolegs with (breathing mouthparts crochets hole)

Various crochet (hook) patterns at the base of all abdominal and anal prolegs-soles on feet

Source: Modified from Goodyer (1978) and CSIRO (1991)

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 2 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species Groups (families) relevant to broadacre Day moths (F: Agaristidae): These moths usually fly by cropping day and have visually striking colours of dark brown to black, yellow and orange . A common pest is the Cutworms, armyworms and native budworm pasture day moth, Apina calisto, usually seen in autumn . (F: Noctuidae): The larvae of this family are among the most For further information refer to Ute Guides, Southern damaging crop pests and are covered in this section on (p . 34)/Western (p . 33) . page 4-12 . Tiger moths (F: Arctiidae): Usually brightly coloured Looper caterpillars (F: Geometridae): Larvae have moths with markings of orange, red, black and/or white . a reduced number of prolegs (i e. . two or three pairs Some larvae have a dense covering of tightly packed of prolegs towards their rear end) and move by a upright hairs and are known as woolly bears . They are characteristic looping action when walking . The brown not usually economic pests in broadacre agriculture but pasture looper, Ciampa arietaria is an example . This are occasionally seen in large numbers . looper undergoes one generation per year with the moths flying in autumn . Refer to Ute Guides, Southern Hawk moths (F: Sphingidae): Larvae have a characteristic (p . 36)/Western (p . 28) for more detail . Loopers are not spine that rises up from the rear . These are not economic just confined to the Geometridae family . A minor spring pests in broadacre agriculture but are occasionally seen pest of canola and pulses, Chrysodeixis spp . (Noctuidae) in large numbers on autumn weeds . also move with a characteristic looping action and have a reduced number of prolegs . For further information, Butterflies (various families): Two of the most widely refer to Ute Guides, Southern (p . 37)/ Western (p . 34) . known pest butterflies found in broadacre cropping are the cabbage white butterfly, Pieris rapae, and the grass Diamondback moth (F: Plutellidae): This is a pest of blue butterfly, Zizina labradus . For further information canola and is covered in this section on page 13 . refer to Ute Guides, Southern (pp . 42-44)/Western (p . 35,36) . Grass moths (F: Pyralidae): These are generally small moths (most <15 mm long) with characteristic ‘beak- like’ protrusions on their heads . Legs are usually long relative to the body . Larvae are often web-spinners creating shelters or joining plant and debris together . Lucerne seed web moth is covered in detail on page 15 . Other examples include pasture webworm, Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Hednota spp , . and weed web moth, Achyra affinitalis . For further information refer to Ute Guides, Southern (pp . 30-33)/Western (pp . 24, 25 & 29) . © 2012

3 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species ARMYWORMS, CUTWORMS, BUDWORMS & SEMI-LOOPERS Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

Key noctuid characteristics and biology Larvae Adults • have four pairs of abdominal prolegs; • are generally dull coloured moths but some have • have anal prolegs; metallic-looking markings on their wings; • crochet (soles of prolegs) arrangement is a row on one • generally have stout bodies covered in dense long side (mesoseries); scales; • usually have a stripe on cervical shield; • feed on nectar from flowers; • usually smooth, lacking obvious dense hairs; • mainly fly at night . • can vary widely in colour and this variation sometimes Many species are able to migrate long distances aided depends on the food source . Larvae are often green, by wind currents . This enables them to exploit abundant brown or yellow in colour and striped longitudinally; plant growth after rain . • mostly feed at night on a variety of crops .

Most fully mature noctuid larvae burrow into the soil to pupate, although a few species pupate in a sparse cocoon under a leaf of the host plant . Depending on the species, pupation can take place over a short or long time before moths emerge .

There are many noctuid species that lack some abdominal prolegs and these are known as semi- loopers . They loop their bodies when moving and are often mistaken for a ‘true’ looper (Geometridae family) .

2012 Semi-looper species are not covered in this manual . ©

Noctuidae larva 1st abdominal segment Cervical shield

Cervical stripe

Head

Anal True legs prolegs Spiracle Body hair Abdominal prolegs

Round dark coloured base

Crochet (hook) arrangement meso-series to one side . Armyworms, cutworms and budworms have this pattern on the ‘soles of their feet’

Source: Modified from Goodyer (1978)

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 4 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species ARMYWORMS Lepidoptera: Noctuidae Common armyworm (Leucania convecta), Southern armyworm or barley grub (Persectania ewingii), Inland armyworm (Persectania dyscrita) and Sugarcane armyworm (Leucania stenographa - WA only)

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 40 50 larva Three stripes on cervical shield and adult wingspan along entire Larva body to tail

Head

4 abdominal prolegs Cervical shield (neck)

Last abdominal segment Source: Modified

from Goodyer (1978) Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Adult Common armyworm

Forewing: dull red-brown or yellow-brown speckled with small black dots and a small white centred mark . Hindwing: grey

Southern armyworm Forewing: reddish-brown and streaked with white on edges . Silvery fish (or submarine) shape in centre is closed . Hindwing: dark grey

Inland armyworm

5 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Larvae are mostly nocturnal . They burrow into the When in large numbers, armyworm larvae can eat their soil or hide under leaf litter during the day . They may way across a paddock like an army on the march . This sometimes be found feeding during the day on the is occasionally seen in establishing pastures in autumn . leaves, stems and heads of cereal crops . Monitoring/sampling Confused with/similar to Assessing the numbers of armyworms in a cereal crop Larvae of these main pest species are very similar to each can be difficult as their movements will vary with other and distinguishing characters are obscure . They can weather conditions and feeding preference . Sometimes be distinguished by the position of the breathing holes they are found sheltering on the ground and under leaf (spiracles) in relation to a band on the side of the body . litter, while on other days they will be high up on the plants or on the heads, and easily picked up using sweep Distribution, pest status and risk period nets . They often prefer to feed on ryegrass if it is present . Armyworm populations are often sporadic . They may Armyworms may be confined to only small portions of a build up in an area over time in response to favourable crop . Several different locations within the crop should seasonal conditions or suddenly migrate into an area on be checked for caterpillar numbers before deciding on prevailing winds from a remote location . any control measures .

Armyworms can be in damaging numbers at any time of A suggested monitoring procedure is to: year if growing conditions allow . They are occasionally a • look for signs of caterpillar droppings and damaged pest on seedling crops and pastures in autumn but more ryegrass heads; commonly cause damage to maturing cereal crops . • look for damage on crop foliage; There can be 3-4 generations per year . • shake the plants and look for caterpillars on the plants and on the ground . Search leaf litter between rows; Crops attacked/host range • check frequently for the first signs of head-lopping Armyworms are pests of cereal crops and pastures . They in barley . prefer to feed on ryegrass and will often feed until it is depleted before turning to other grasses or cereals . Larvae do not feed on broad leaf and legume crops . Management options

2012 Some threshold guidelines available indicate spraying

© Barley is the most susceptible cereal crop . Wheat crops may be worth considering if 3 larvae/m2 are present in are less frequently attacked . barley crops that are still more than a week away from harvest, and 10 larvae/m2 in other cereals . If the barley Damage symptoms crop is almost dry, continue checking daily until fully mature, as sudden head-lopping requires immediate Younger larvae feed on cereal or grass leaves . They are action . at their most damaging when large larvae (25-40 mm) attack barley crops nearing maturity in late spring . As barley matures, part of the stem often remains green and is appetising to larvae after other plant parts have dried . The caterpillars chew through the stem causing heads to fall to the ground . In oat crops, the larvae bite off pieces of the panicle, causing grain to fall .

Biological Cultural Chemical Naturally occurring biological Use of herbicide or grazing to control Registered rates of synthetic control agents are important in weedy paddocks several weeks before pyrethroids are usually adequate keeping armyworm populations sowing pastures or cereals will starve for control . Increased spray volumes below damaging levels in some out caterpillars . may be required in high-yielding years . These include parasitic flies bulky crops . Desiccating or swathing crops close to and wasps, predatory beetles and harvest may have the added benefit of diseases . minimising armyworm damage .

Ute Guides, Southern (pp. 21-22)/Western (pp. 20-21).

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 6 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species CUTWORMS Lepidoptera: Noctuidae Common cutworm or Bogong moth (Agrotis infusa), Brown or Pink cutworm (Agrotis munda) and Black cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon)

Distinguishing characteristics/description No distinct lines on sides

10 mm 20 30 40 50 of body and subtle larva longitudinal line may be present along midline upper adult wingspan (dorsal) surface

Spiracles Larva Dark head region

8th abdominal segment spiracle (breathing hole)

4 abdominal prolegs

Cervical shield stripe Plump, smooth, and greasy can be present or appearance with relatively absent few stout hairs with dark pigmentation at their base Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

4 abdominal Adult prolegs

Pink cutworm Forewing: brownish with darker markings and streaks . Large inner light mark and darker outer mark . Hindwing: pale with dark edging

Black cutworm Stout Forewing: brown or grey-black . bodies Dark arrow-mark streak broken covered by 2 dark ringed dots . Outer with margin is streaked . dense Hindwing: pale with scales darker edging

Bogong moth Forewing: Dark brown or grey black . Dark arrow-mark streak broken by 2 light dots . Hindwing: pale with

7 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Adult colouration can be highly variable . Damage symptoms Large caterpillars will chew through or cut off the stems Larvae are plump and smooth (greasy appearance) and of young seedlings, hence the name cutworm . will vary in colour depending on the instar and species . The larva of the pink cutworm is usually found in sandy Whole paddocks of cereal or legume seedlings may be soils and is grey-green with a pink tinge . The larva of the destroyed or severely thinned in the presence of high bogong moth is dark grey . populations of large cutworm larvae early in the season . Larvae are mostly nocturnal . They generally hide under Larvae feed at or near ground level . When small, the the soil surface or litter and come out at night to feed, larvae feed on the surface tissues of the tender foliage . although at least one species may be found feeding This surface feeding may be confused with damage above ground during the day . The caterpillars often curl caused by lucerne flea or other small caterpillars . up when disturbed . Monitoring/sampling Confused with/similar to A suggested monitoring procedure is to: Larvae of these three main pest species are very similar • look for patches of newly emerged crops with to each other and distinguishing characters are obscure . seedlings cut off; • scratch the soil layers close to recently damaged They may also be confused with the biosecurity threat, seedlings to reveal hidden larvae; the turnip moth (Agrotis segetum) . • use a shovel to sample for grubs by scraping off the top 50mm of soil near freshly damaged plants . Flick Distribution, pest status and risk period the soil off the shovel so that it spreads in a thin layer, Widely distributed with various other species . They are revealing the grubs . Do this in several places near most damaging when caterpillars transfer from summer damaged areas; and autmun weeds onto newly emerged seedlings . They • use a backpack sprayer to spray out small areas . can have several generations per year . Check the following morning for dead grubs which can be found on the soil surface . Crops attacked/host range Cutworms will attack all crops and pasture plants Management options (polyphagous) but are at their most damaging when they 2012 These are not regular pests, but large areas may be © feed on newly-emerged cereal and pasture seedlings . affected in some seasons . Extensive damage can occur if more than 3 larvae/m2 are found . Spot spraying, or spraying a 20 metre buffer around the infestation, may provide adequate control . Spraying in the evening is likely to be more effective .

Biological Cultural Chemical Naturally occurring insect fungal Prolonged autumn green feed in Cutworm caterpillars are usually diseases are successful in some many areas may allow larvae to easy to control with label rates of seasons . Wasp and fly parasites are develop to a large size by the time synthetic pyrethroid chemicals also very active in preventing more crops emerge . Early control of this (refer to currently registered frequent and serious outbreaks . plant material (green bridge) using products) . Parasites include the orange and a herbicide to create a complete two-toned caterpillar parasite, brown-out for two weeks pre- (Heteropelma scaposum) and the planting, will minimise larval survival . orchid dupe (Lissopimpla excelsa) . Refer to Southern (pp . 120 & 122)/ Western (pp . 96-97) Ute Guides for more detail .

Ute Guides, Southern (p.23, 24)/Western(p22, 23)

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 8 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species Cutworm - Turnip moth (Agrotis segetum) BIOSECURITY THREAT NOT PRESEN T IN AUSTRALIA

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 40 50 larva 4 abdominal prolegs adult wingspan

Larva Greyish-brown in colour with a greasy appearance and a reddish or brownish-black head capsule

Two broad and light longitudinal bands running along the midline (that can have a very thin white line cutting through)

On each body (abdominal) segment, there are 4 black spots each bearing a small bristle Narrow dark Broad light band with white bands line inside Stout bodies covered in Adult dense long scales . Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Antennae: threadlike in females; feather-shaped in males Uniform Thin black circle border on wing periphery

Hindwings: grey in female; Kidney-shaped white/silver with light marking purple tinge in males

All cutworm caterpillars are plump and smooth (greasy Distribution and potential spread appearance), and can vary in colour depending on the Europe, Africa, northern Asia including China . Turnip instar . moths are strong flyers and dispersal is aided by wind currents . This species is not known to migrate over large Larvae are mostly nocturnal and often burrow during distances . Incursion and dispersal could occur through the day, hiding under the soil surface or litter . the transportation of plant and soil material . More than one generation per year . Crops attacked/host range Confused with/similar to Turnip moth is a highly polyphagous pest in its current Turnip moth can be confused with other cutworms distribution, attacking wheat, barley, oats, brassicas,

vegetables and weeds . ©

present in Australia . 2012

9 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Damage symptoms Reporting protocol All cutworm larvae are most damaging when they feed A rapid response to detection of potential exotic on newly emerged seedlings and cause plant death . pests can be the key to containment, eradication or Large caterpillars will chew through or cut off the stems management . of young seedlings . When small, the larvae feed on the surface tissues of the foliage resulting in very small round ‘window panes’ . This surface feeding may be confused with damage caused by lucerne flea or other small caterpillars .

Surveillance Turnip moth is likely to be misidentified as other cutworm If you see anything unusual, call the Exotic Plant Pest species already present in Australia due to the difficulty Hotline on 1800 084 881 . of distinguishing between species . Speak to your department of primary industries or Early detection of plant pests can greatly increase department of agriculture before sending any samples . the chance of successful eradication and reduce the cost and social impact of an incursion . It is essential that the correct sampling protocol is followed including packaging, handling and transport to Incorporate surveillance for exotic pests when the laboratory assigned for diagnosis . Incorrect handling undertaking routine crop monitoring and other crop could spread the pest further or render the samples unfit detection and measurement activities . for identification .

Stop the movement of people, vehicles and equipment in the detected area until a confirmation can be made .

More information Plant Health Australia website www .planthealthaustralia c. om .au/biosecurity/grains 2012 ©

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 10 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species BUDWORMS Lepidoptera: Noctuidae Native budworm (Helicoverpa punctigera), Lesser budworm (Heliothis punctifera) and Corn earworm/cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera)

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 40 50 larva

adult wingspan Stout hair over the body with pigmentation Larva around the base

Rear portion of body sharply angled downward from 8th abdominal segment

Dark spiracles in Often broad lighter coloured lighter colour strip along each side of the band body with a darker strip down centre

Source: Modified from Goodyer (1978) Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Native budworm Corn earworm Lesser budworm

Black hairs White hairs White around around head hairs over head region whole region body Saddle

Adult

Male Male Male

11 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Confused with/similar to All budworms are at their most damaging when they feed on the fruiting parts and seeds of plants . Armyworm and cutworm in general appearance and size . Losses attributed to budworms come from direct weight Distribution, pest status and risk period loss through seeds being wholly or partly eaten . Grain quality may also be downgraded through unacceptable Native budworm: Occurs in most years and often levels of chewed grain . migrates into agricultural areas from nearby pastoral areas . It is a native species and is usually easily controlled with insecticides . Monitoring/sampling The quickest and easiest method to sample most crops Lesser budworm: Infrequent pest . is sweep netting . Multiples of 10 sweeps should be taken Corn earworm/cotton bollworm: Rarely found in in several parts of the crop and larval numbers averaged . dryland broadacre crops but often associated with irrigated and/or horticultural crops . This pest is known Management options to develop strong resistance to insecticides and can be Caterpillars eat increasing quantities of seed and plant difficult to control . material as they grow . The last two growth stages (5th & 6th instar) account for over 90% of their total grain Crops attacked/host range consumption . Native budworm: Broad leaf and legume crops such as field pea, faba bean, lentil, chickpea, lupin and canola . Field pea, chickpea, lentil and faba bean crops are Pastures such as pasture serradalla, lucerne, annual very susceptible to all sizes of native budworm medic and clovers . Only occasionally feeds on cereals caterpillars during the formation and development of and some grasses . pods . Small caterpillars can enter emerging pods and damage developing seed while larger caterpillars may Lesser budworm: Wide host range, will feed on both devour the entire pod contents . broad leaf grasses and cereals . Narrow-leafed lupin and canola crops will not be Corn earworm/cotton bollworm: Wide host range . damaged by native budworm until they are close to maturity and leaf fall commences .

2012 Damage symptoms

© For lesser budworm, the same principles as native Holes or chewing damage may be seen on pods and/or budworm can be applied . seed heads . Grubs may be seen occasionally . For corn earworm, please refer to DEEDI website .

Biological Cultural Chemical Naturally-occurring insect fungal Swathing canola or desiccating Native budworm and lesser budworm diseases and viruses can be very pulse crops such as field peas may are easily controlled by synthetic successful in some seasons . be an option to advance the drying pyrethroids . Predatory shield bugs, damsel bugs of crops when small/medium size and fly parasites may also be active larvae are present . Corn earworm are known to have in preventing serious outbreaks . insecticide resistant populations . Parasites include the orange and For corn earworm refer to DEEDI two-toned caterpillar parasite website . Use of Bt and NPV biological (Heteropelma scaposum) and the insecticides are important IPM orchid dupe (Lissopimpla excelsa) . options . Refer to Southern (pp . 120 & 122) and Western (pp . 96-97) Ute Guides for more detail .

Ute Guides, Southern (pp. 18-20)/Western (pp. 17-19).

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 12 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species Lepidoptera: Plutellidae Diamondback moth - DBM (Plutella xylostella)

Distinguishing characteristics/description Head capsule 10 mm 20 30 40 50 Larva larva lightens as matures adult Larvae slightly tapered at Adult each end . Pale yellowish Beak-like green in colour mouthpart

‘Diamond’- shape pattern on wings Body covered in at rest coarse black hairs Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Mesh-like pupal casing Four abdominal prolegs Anal prolegs

Nearly complete crochet arrangement at base of prolegs Leaf mine of 1st larval instar

Confused with/similar to Eggs are pale yellow, oval and about 0 5. mm in length . Diamondback moth (DBM) larvae can be confused Eggs are laid singularly or in clusters along the leaf with young cabbage white butterfly Pieris( rapae) and margins . cabbage centre grub (Hellula sp.) larvae .

Larvae develop through four instars . The first two instars have a dark head, but the first instar is not visible as it lives Distribution, pest status and risk period and feeds inside leaf tissue (its presence is indicated by DBM is a worldwide pest with a high propensity a leaf mine) . Larvae wriggle vigourously when disturbed to evolve insecticide resistance . DBM is widely and often drop from the plant on a silken thread . distributed in southern Australia .

The pupal casing is mesh-like in appearance and the DBM has no diapause phase in Australia and has pupa inside is cream-green initially, but darkens before overlapping generations . All life stages can be present the adult emerges . at any one time . Adults are active flyers but usually do not move far within a crop . © 2012

13 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species They are capable of long distance migration on prevailing Monitoring/sampling winds, particularly when host material has died off . Crops should be monitored using a sweep net at the first Weather conditions can impact dramatically on DBM sign of damage and throughout the growing season populations . Development is faster in warm weather from late winter to late spring . and slower in cool weather . For example, at 15 °C the life cycle takes approximately 36 days to complete, but at Take a minimum of five sets of 10 sweeps and calculate 28°C it takes approximately 11 days to complete . the average number of larvae per 10 sweeps .

Crops attacked/host range If spraying, it is important to monitor 5-7 days after spray application to assess the effectiveness of treatment . DBM feeds on canola and all Brassica plants, including weeds . Management options The availability of Brassica host plants can influence Threshold guidelines indicate spraying is recommended outbreaks . Summer rainfall can also provide a green when: bridge of summer weeds . • 50 larvae are collected per 10 sweeps for pre-flowering DBM adults migrate from summer weed sources into unstressed crops . canola crops in autumn and winter . Significant rainfall • 30 larvae are collected per 10 sweeps for pre-flowering events (greater than 8 mm) can reduce larval abundance stressed crops . by drowning or dislodging larvae or facilitating death by • 100-200 larvae are collected per 10 sweeps for disease . unstressed crops with the majority of plants in flower .

Damage symptoms If monitoring detects a rapid increase in DBM larvae and Larvae can cause damage to all growth stages of the numbers exceed spray thresholds, a two-spray policy canola plant . They feed on the foliage before flowering is thought to be more effective than a single spray . and, as flowering progresses, an increasing proportion The second spray should be applied approximately of the larvae move to the floral buds, flowers and pods . seven days after the first if more than 20% of the initial Maturing pods are surface grazed or scarred by the population remains . Good spray coverage is critical larvae . They are not as damaging as native budworm as for effective DBM control as more than 20% of the they do not chew into the pods . Premature shattering of larvae reside in the bottom third of the plant . You should

2012 pods rarely occurs . consider the size of the majority of the larvae before © making a management decision . Target treatment at Larger larvae feeding on the underside of leaves can larvae <5 mm in length (2nd & 3rd instar) to achieve more create holes, often with the upper surface intact, effective control . Chemical resistance to synthetic producing a window effect . pyrethroids and organophosphates is widespread in DBM populations on Brassica vegetable crops Canola can tolerate considerable foliar feeding damage throughout Australia, and to a lesser and varying before crop yield is affected . Severe feeding damage can extent, in many canola cropping regions . cause complete defoliation resulting in yield reduction .

Biological Cultural Chemical The most important natural enemies are small Summer weed control close to This species is difficult to wasp parasitoids (Diadegma semiclausum, crop areas will help break the control with insecticides . Apanteles ippeus and Diadromus collaris) . ‘green bridge’ . Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is the Predators such as brown lacewings, spiders, Area wide management . softest insecticide on natural damsel bugs and other predatory bugs can enemies and very effective contribute to DBM mortality . on DBM . Correct application is critical to achieve effective Naturally-occurring insect fungal diseases may control . Refer to Bt checklist, also be very successful in some seasons under section 5 page 15 . ideal conditions (i .e . a combination of rainfall, high humidity and warm temperatures) .

Ute Guides, Southern (pp. 25-26)/ Western (pp. 26-27).

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 14 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species Lepidoptera: Pyralidae Lucerne seed web moth (Etiella behrii)

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 40 50 larva adult Wings greyish-brown Orange/tan band and held over body at running crossways rest, giving moth slender Adult on the forewings appearance

White strip along front edge of each Prominent wing edge, snout-like running along beak full length

Larva Body colour: Green to cream with a pinkish tinge and several stripes running along

the body Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

The pinkish tinge Darker hardened becomes more area (cervical shield) pronounced as Darkened head behind head it ages capsule that lightens region to a golden brown when mature . (image of 4th instar) Four pairs of abdominal Nearly prolegs, anal prolegs complete ring of (prolegs not visible hooks (crochet) in image) arrangement at base of prolegs

Confused with/similar to Lucerne seed web moth can be confused with other snout moths (Pyralidae), such as weed web moth . Larvae The highest risk period is when pods mature prior can be confused with podding pests such as budworms . to harvest in summer . Seed damage is sporadic over Lucerne seed web moth larval damage is associated with seasons, varying from light to severe infestations when characteristic webbing of pods and flowers - budworms an outbreak occurs . do not web . Lucerne seed web moth can have 2-3 generations per year depending on the temperature, location and host Distribution, pest status and risk period plant availability . In southern Australia, adults are first Lucerne seed web moth is widespread throughout seen in late September with a second peak (generation) Australia but it is generally only a major and irregular in November/early December . A third generation often pest in lucerne-growing areas of southern Australia . occurs in late December/early January . © 2012

15 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Crops attacked/host range Suggested monitoring procedures Lucerne seed web moth has been found on a wide range • Sweep netting is a common method used for of native and introduced legume plants that include estimating moth numbers . Susceptible crops should lucerne, lentils, lupins, field peas, medics, clovers and be sampled at least once a week during podding soy beans . for evidence of lucerne seed web moth activity . A minimum of three groups of 20 sweeps should be Damage symptoms randomly undertaken within each field . • Pheromone trapping requires a minimum of two to Larvae can feed in the growing points, buds, flowers and three traps to be placed within a crop approximately inside pods, where there are few signs of damage during 25 cm above the canopy . the early stages of attack, and internal larvae feeding can go unnoticed . Each larva usually damages more than • Light trapping is used at night to detect lucerne one pod and several pods are often webbed together - seed web moth moths in spring but a range of other this is characteristic of lucerne seed web moth . insects will be collected and checking specifically for the lucerne seed web moth can be difficult . Female moths lay their eggs under the calyx or on the pod surface and these eggs hatch within 4-7 days, Check for the presence of young larvae and eggs on depending on the temperature . Newly hatched larvae maturing seed pods when moths are present . bore into immature pods within a very short period after hatching, to begin feeding on developing grain . This Examine damaged growing points or pods particularly results in inferior quality lentils and yield losses due to where webbing is seen . It is too late to prevent damage a reduction in grain weight and grain breakage . Once when webbing by mature larvae is detected . inside the pods, larvae are protected from insecticide sprays and damage is usually only identified at harvest . Management options Lucerne seed web moth management is based on Monitoring/sampling timing spray applications to target adult moths before Successful lucerne seed web moth control relies on egg laying commences . Sprays are ineffective against thorough crop monitoring in order to correctly time lucerne seed web moth eggs and when larvae bore into insecticide applications . In southern Australia, adults pods they are physically protected from sprays . are first seen in mid to late September which usually coincides with early pod development . Recommended action threshold for lucerne seed web 2012

© moth is 1-2 larvae collected in 20 sweeps . The degree-day model (found on the SARDI website - Etiella management in lentils) can be used to help identify the onset of significant lucerne seed web moth flight activity within crops and when in-crop monitoring should commence .

Biological Cultural Chemical Predatory bugs such as glossy Delay harvest or grazing period Chemical control with synthetic pyrethroids shield bug (Cermatulus nasalis) to prevent these coinciding should aim to kill the adults before egg laying can attack lucerne seed web with moth flights . commences . moth . A number of parasitic Control volunteer legumes and Insecticides with short withholding periods wasps and flies have also been other host plants . should be used later in the season . recorded from larvae and pupae . Insecticide sprays applied to control native budworm early in the podding period may provide some control for lucerne seed web moth if present . Lucerne seed web moth monitoring should recommence no later than one week after spraying .

Insecticides with a fumigant action may kill some larvae but control may not always be achieved .

Ute Guides, Southern (pp. 27-28)/Western (pp. 30-31) and the SARDI website (Etiella management in lentils).

Coleoptera - sheath (koleos); wing (ptera)

Beetles are the largest order of insects, including about Groups (families) relevant to broadacre one quarter of all the known insects in the world . There cropping are around 28,200 described beetle species in Australia, divided into 113 families . Cockchafers and dung beetles (F: Scarabaeidae): Mixed group with some larval pests and adult beneficials . Some Main characteristics adults are also pests . All larval stages are curl grubs, ‘C’- Larva shaped larvae . Cockchafers are covered in detail in this section on page 19 . There are four major morphological types of larvae; eruciform, scarabaeiform, campodeiform and apodous True wireworms or click beetles (F: Elateridae): These (see p . 18) . All have chewing (mandibulate) mouthparts soil dwelling larval pests are covered in detail in this and a hardened (sclerotised) head capsule . Many larval section on page 22 . stages are considered to be the pest phase of beetles . Three pairs of legs (with the exception of weevil larvae) False wireworms (F: Tenebrionidae): These soil-dwelling are present . The absence of prolegs with crotchets larval pests are covered in detail in this section on (specialised hooks) distinguishes beetle larvae from page 24 . moth larvae . Weevils (F: Curculionidae): Adults have a snout Adult (rostrum) . All weevil larval stages are legless (apodous)

Forewings are hardened into sheath-like wing covers and maggot-like in shape . Both adults and larvae can be Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource (elytra) and they have a hardened body . All have chewing damaging to plants . Weevils are covered together in this (mandibulate) mouthparts . section on page 26 .

Lifecycle Bruchid/seed beetles (F: Chrysomelidae): Pest in the Complete metamorphosis . larval stage . The pea weevil (Bruchus pisorum) belongs in this family but it is not a true weevil, not having a weevil snout . This introduced pest beetle is one of a number of common worldwide pests in field pea and bean growing areas . This pest has an interesting lifecycle with the larvae beginning life in the growing pod and completing it in the dry seed . For further information on pea weevil refer to Ute Guides, Southern (p .55)/Western (p .44) .

Ladybirds (F: Coccinellidae): These predatory beetles are covered in detail in this section on page 29 .

17 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Eruciform Scarabaeiform Campodeiform Apodous

Source: Modified from CSIRO (1991)

Cylindrical elongated ‘C’ - shaped body . Tapering body . Legless . body . Relatively short Well-developed legs . Reduced mouthparts Short legs . functional legs . Large mouthparts and antennae . Head & mouthparts Swollen lower abdomen . directed forward . Adapted to living in oriented downwards . Highly mobile and active . confined spaces . Less active and mobile .

Groups Groups Groups Groups False wireworms Cockchafers and dung Ladybirds Weevils (Curculionidae) (Tenebrionidae) beetles (Scarabaeidae) (Coccinellidae) 2012

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 18 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species COCKCHAFERS Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae Blackheaded pasture cockchafer (Acrossidius tasmaniae), Yellowheaded cockchafer (Sericesthis sp ). and Redheaded pasture cockchafer (Adoryphous coulonii)

Distinguishing characteristics/description

Blackheaded pasture cockchafer NOT IN WA Black head capsule

Dark brown *Short functional to black *Mouthparts legs oriented downwards *Flares and Sriations *Abdomen spurs on legs (grooves) on swollen elytra (wing distally *Spiracle covers) behind head capsule Broad shovel-like Raster of larva 10 mm 20 30 head ‘U’-shaped lower larva *Clubbed antennae groove adult

Yellowheaded cockchafer NOT IN WA

Yellow head Broad, light capsule brown in

colour Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource *Flares and spurs on legs

Raster of larva 10 mm 20 30 *Clubbed antennae ‘Y’-shaped groove larva adult

Redheaded pasture cockchafer NOT IN WA

Stout, dark brown/red in Red head colour capsule

*Flares and spurs on legs

Raster of larva 10 mm 20 30 open groove larva

*Clubbed antennae ©

adult 2012 * indicates character for all species 19 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species The larval stages of all cockchafers and dung beetles BH pasture cockchafers are found in higher rainfall are ‘C’-shaped grubs that curl up when disturbed or areas in southeastern Australia (not WA) . Larval growth handled . They have relatively short functional legs, the rates depend on the number of rainy days during autumn abdomen is swollen distally and their mouthparts are and winter, which is when pastures and crops are most oriented downwards . at risk . Pupation occurs towards the end of October with adults emerging during January to March . Their Cockchafer species usually live in vertical tunnels in emergence and activity is dependent on the frequency soil and are free-living . The presence of tunnels can of rainfall events . Adults live for several weeks and will sometimes make the soil appear spongy . lay egg batches on bare earth . One generation per year .

WA Cockchafers YH cockchafers are found across southeastern Australia Species of cockchafers found in Western Australia and (not WA), including New South Wales, Victoria and South eastern Australia differ . Although many WA species Australia . Larvae live in the soil until mid-late summer appear similar to those found in eastern Australia, most when they emerge as adult beetles . Cereal and pasture are not damaging . A few species (e g. . Heteronyx obesus) plants are most likely to be damaged from emergence can cause extensive below-ground damage in some to late autumn or early winter . One generation per year . seasons . Larvae are soil-dwelling root feeders that do not come to the surface . Refer to Western Ute Guide RH pasture cockchafers are found throughout south- (p . 46) for more detail . eastern Australia (not WA), but are most common in south-west and central Victoria, the southern tablelands Blackheaded (BH) pasture cockchafers are foliage of New South Wales, south-eastern South Australia and feeders and the presence of green material in tunnels is northern Tasmania . Although they are typically found in also a good indicator of this species . higher rainfall zones, RH pasture cockchafers tend to be more numerous and problematic in drier years . Pastures Yellowheaded (YH) cockchafer and Redheaded are most likely to be damaged from emergence to late (RH) pasture cockchafer larvae are soil-dwelling (root autumn or early winter . Although RH pasture cockchafers feeders) . Newly-hatched larvae are about 5 mm long . have a two year life cycle, they can be problematic every year if generations overlap . Larvae are present from The Scarabaeidae family also includes other pest autumn to spring and pupation occurs over summer . cockchafer species and beneficial species such as: Adults remain in the soil until the following spring when • African black beetle (Heteronychus arator) . they emerge, fly off, and then lay their eggs in the soil . Refer to Ute Guides, Southern (p . 64)/Western 2012 © (p . 48) for more detail . Crops attacked/host range • Beneficial dung beetles . Cockchafers are important pests of pastures and cereals . In general, beneficial dung beetles are found with Crops sown into long term pasture paddocks are most at brood balls . Brood balls are balls of dung on which risk of attack . Adults do not feed on crops . dung beetles lay eggs . Eggs hatch into larvae which feed on the dung of the brood ball . BH pasture cockchafer larvae feed on the foliage of Refer to Ute Guides, Southern (p . 150)/Western annual pasture species (e g. . subterranean clover), and (p . 125) for more detail . occasionally perennial pasture species and cereal crops .

Confused with/similar to YH cockchafer larvae mainly attack the roots of cereal crops but can also attack pastures . Similar to all other Scarabaeidae ‘C’-shaped larvae (e g. . dung beetles) . Distinguishing between most species RH pasture cockchafer larvae attack the roots of at the larval stage is difficult and generally only possible clovers and a range of annual and perennial grasses, using a microscope to compare hair (setae) structure . typically in the top 10 cm of soil . They also occasionally attack wheat . Distribution, pest status and risk period WA cockchafer larvae attack a range of crops and WA Cockchafers are found throughout the state . Their pastures . They can cause extensive damage to wheat presence in the soil does not always mean that damage crops . will occur . The larval stages feed underground and are most damaging to seedling crops during autumn/ winter . Damage may occur every second year as some species have a two year lifecycle .

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 20 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species Damage symptoms Monitoring/sampling BH pasture cockchafer larvae usually only come to the Inspect susceptible paddocks prior to sowing . Check surface to feed after rain and they take enough food established pastures or weed growth in autumn to early into their tunnels for 7-10 days . Most damage occurs to winter, particularly in areas where bare batches were pastures during late winter and at the seedling stage in present over summer . Use a spade to remove soil from cereals when larvae eat all the leaves . The amount of the ground and count the number of grubs . Grubs are damage varies from year to year . usually found in the top 80 mm of moist soil . Repeat multiple times across the paddock . YH cockchafers are primarily cereal root feeders and they will damage roots of young plants while foraging for soil organic matter . Damaged plants initially grow normally but wither and die at tillering, resulting in bare patches in the crop . Damage is worse under drought conditions as the plant’s capacity to replace severed roots is reduced .

RH pasture cockchafers are primarily root feeders . Moisture stimulates the larvae to move closer to the soil surface in autumn where they feed on roots of newly emerging seedlings . High numbers of grubs sever the roots of pasture plants below the soil surface, which allows the pasture to be rolled back like a carpet . Damage can also result in completely bare regions within a paddock, ranging in size from small isolated patches to very large areas .

Management options

Biological Cultural Chemical Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource For all cockchafers For WA cockchafers For WA cockchafers • Birds prey upon grubs and are • If damage is anticipated, increase • Surface applications of most effective after cultivation or sowing rate for higher plant insecticides are not effective . tillage . density . Chemical seed treatments or • Several predatory and parasitic insecticides incorporated during flies and wasps . For BH seeding can assist in control . • Other general predatory • Avoid overgrazing of pastures as invertebrates . bare batches are more attractive For BH • Fungal pathogen Metarhizium to adults laying eggs during • Foliar application of an insecticide spp . summer and early autumn . is effective, particularly on young larvae before they begin to feed For YH and RH on green plant material . • Cultivation • Grazing of pasture during late For YH and RH spring, summer and autumn (for • Surface-applied insecticides are YH) and heavy grazing in spring generally not effective given the (for RH) . subterranean feeding habits of • Re-sow affected areas using a larvae . higher seeding rate . • Re-sowing is best done using a method which disturbs the soil surface, leaving grubs vulnerable to predation . • Sowing less palatable crops (e.g. oats) .

21 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species TRUE WIREWORMS or CLICK BEETLES Coleoptera: Elateridae Various species

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 40 50 larva Hardened skin (cuticle sclerotised) Larva Elongated cylindrical body shape (eruciform) – slightly flattened . Flattened head Slightly tapering at and mouthparts both ends – oval in oriented cross section downwards Short legs

Two upturned spines Creamy yellow body colour 2012

Anal proleg

Flattened Point at the body base of the thorax (pronotum)

There are numerous true wireworm species in Australia Adults make a click sound when they flick themselves but they are not described in detail here and are only over after being placed on their backs . discussed at the family level . The lifecycle of many true wireworm species is not fully understood . The lifecycles of most pest species probably take more than a year to complete .

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 22 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species Confused with/similar to Damage symptoms Larvae are similar to those of false wireworms Larvae feed on seed and bore into the underground (Tenebrionidae) but are flatter in appearance and can stems of cereal plants . They may also damage the roots grow larger . The predatory larvae of carabid beetles of seedlings . Germinating seedlings can be ring-barked (Carabidae) are also easily misidentified as wireworms and hypocotyls severed just below the soil surface . and may be found in similar environments . Plants wither and die after emergence and damage can result in a thinned crop or bare patches, which become Distribution, pest status and risk period visible shortly after crop emergence . True wireworms are more common on wetter soils and are found under plant debris and in the soil . They can Monitoring/sampling be found together with false wireworms and, when this Check under stubble prior to sowing, especially if occurs, true wireworms are usually more numerous than coming out of long term pasture . false wireworms in some regions . Early identification and detection of these pests prior Larvae are soil-dwelling pests that can be very damaging to seeding and applying a treatment at seeding will to cereals during crop emergence . This is rarely the case prevent additional costs of re-sowing damaged areas . in WA and sporadic in other southern states . As a threshold guide, around 10 larvae/m2 may warrant control . Average densities of approximately Crops attacked/host range 40 larvae/m2 can cause enough damage to necessitate Germinating cereals are most at risk . Crops following re-sowing . long term pasture (fallow for 4-5 years) as well as crops sown on recently cultivated land are more susceptible . Stubble retention and trash can also favour these pests .

Management options Biological Cultural Chemical

Carabid beetle larvae feed on Removing excess stubble and Insecticidal seed dressings may offer Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource soil-dwelling insects, including trash is an effective strategy where some protection from moderate wireworms, but are usually not in this resident pest is a problem in larval numbers . high enough numbers to effectively continuous years . control large pest populations . Re-sow affected areas using a higher There are no other known parasites, seeding rate . predators or pathogens that effectively control wireworms in Using a re-sowing method that cereal crops . disturbs the soil surface, leaving larvae vulnerable to predation, is recommended .

23 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species FALSE WIREWORMS or MEALWORMS Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae Various species

Distinguishing characteristics/description *Elongated Larva *Head and cylindrical body shape mouthparts oriented (eruciform) with ring like downwards segmentation – round in cross section *Short legs (stronger pair of front legs) *Hardened skin (cuticle Adult sclerotised) *Simple (thread- like) antennae Two upturned Dome-shaped body spines usually brown in Striations colour and (pits) on elytra covered in soil (wing covers)

Vegetable beetle Grey false wireworm Gonocephalum spp . Isopteran sp .

Shiny creamy- tan in colour 2012 © Shiny brown- greyish in colour Dark grey to with paler black in colour Flattened and under parts dull brown in colour

10 mm 20 30 40 50 10 mm 20 30 40 50 larva larva adult adult

Bronzed field beetle Eastern false wireworm Adelium brevicorne Pterohelaeus sp .

Shiny uniformly dark brown in colour

Cream-tan to yellow-orange in Dull black in Shiny black to colour with bronze in colour colour with darker rings flanged edges

10 mm 20 30 40 50 10 mm 20 30 40 50 larva larva adult adult * indicates character for all species

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 24 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species Confused with/similar to Damage symptoms Larvae are similar to those of the true wireworm Vegetable beetle larvae bore into germinating (Elateridae) but are rounder in cross-section and not cereal seeds (especially when swelling) and chew on flattened or tapered . The predatory larvae of carabid seedlings below ground level . Adults sometimes attack beetles (Carabidae) are also easily misidentified as false germinating canola at ground level, which results in wireworms and may be found in similar environments . ring-barking or completely cut stems .

Bronzed field beetle larvae attack germinating canola Distribution, pest status and risk period above the ground and at the base of seedlings . Ring- False wireworms are common in fine textured soils, with barking and death of plants may occur . high levels of organic matter . They are not usually a problem on compacted soil (e g. . tyre tracks) . Grey false wireworm larvae attack germinating canola just below the ground, which results in damage to the Stubble retention and trash can favour these pests and crown and roots . some species can attack successive crops . Both the larvae and adults may cause damage depending on the crop and time of year . Monitoring/sampling Check under stubble prior to sowing, particularly if the paddock is coming out of long term pasture . Early Crops attacked/host range identification and detection of these pests (possibly Vegetable beetles are minor pests that attack summer using germinating seed traps prior to seeding) is (e g. . sunflowers) and winter crops (e g. . emerging canola important . Seed treatments can be applied to prevent and cereals) . damaged areas when pest numbers are high .

Bronzed field beetle larvae and grey false wireworms It is important to be aware of the crop growth stage as can attack canola at emergence in some seasons . cotyledons are most susceptible, whilst advanced plants will be able to out-grow moderate pest pressure .

Management options

Biological Cultural Chemical Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Carabid beetle larvae feed on Removing excess stubble and trash is Insecticidal seed dressings may offer soil-dwelling insects, including an effective strategy where this pest some protection from moderate wireworms, but are usually not in is a problem in successive years . larval numbers . high enough numbers to effectively Early sowing and crop establishment A foliar application can be used control large pest populations . prior to egg hatching may result for partial control of bronzed field There are no other known parasites, in plants being able to outgrow beetle larvae as they attack crops predators or pathogens that damage . above ground . effectively control wireworms Re-sow affected areas using a higher in crops . seeding rate .

Using a re-sowing method that disturbs the soil surface, leaving larvae vulnerable to predation, is recommended .

Compacting soils post sowing to improve seedling vigor has been shown to have some benefit against grey false wireworm .

25 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species WEEVILS Coleoptera: Curculionidae The largest family of beetles . There are over 6,000 described species in Australia .

Distinguishing characteristics/description

Adult Antennae usually bent (elbowed) and clubbed . Situated on rostrum Elongation of front Rostrum head and (snout) rostrum

Rostrum - shapes vary Rigid Thorax between genus/species body Elytra (hardened forewings) . Membranous hindwings (concealed beneath forewing) may be present or absent

Larva

Body colour usually creamy Small hardened but can also be green/yellow head capsule with 2012

Legless (maggot- like) - no ‘true’ Presence of hair (setae) legs or can be highly variable prolegs from stout and distinct to short or absent

As there are so many species, weevil identification is Confused with/similar to only discussed here at the family level . It is difficult to distinguish between the larval stages of weevil species . Larval stages are legless (apodous), Broadacre weevil pests are not covered in detail in this maggot-like in shape and may be confused with fly manual . Only adult size differentiation and key field larvae which are also legless . Unlike weevils, most fly identification characters are shown . larvae do not have a well-defined head capsule .

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 26 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species 41 51 . . body White White SA p weevil hite stripe hite WA p WA fringed Ute Guide Ute W down sides of down 39 . ey with snout Small weevil WA p WA lucerne lucerne Gr Ute Guide Ute short broad 37 47 . . SA p weevil WA p WA abdomen Ute Guide Ute on back of -shaped mark Vegetable Vegetable V 42 54 . . SA p weevil WA p WA Ute Guide Ute White stripe White on side of first Fullers rose rose Fullers two segments two Grey- on rear on rear weevil abdomen Paler banding Paler banded leaf 49 . in WA SA p weevil Not Ute Guide Ute emales: two emales: two of abdomen F spines on end Spine-tailed Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource 38 48 . . or 7mm 7mm 8mm 8mm 8mm 10mm 10-13mm SA p weevil Spotted Spotted WA p WA abdomen Spotted Spotted Ute Guide Ute vegetable vegetable Desiantha Increasing in size ) . ed 53 . in WA imit te Guide te L SA p weevil Not U (Eyre Pen (Eyre distribution Polyphrades 52 . in WA SA p weevil on elytra Not Ute Guide Ute setae (hairs) overed in dirt overed (wing covers) Mandalotus C Paddle-shaped 40 50 . . ipes on thorax Sitona SA p weevil WA p WA Ute Guide Ute 3 str

A IN e

T T IA

US L 143 A 176 . . R

IN A 5 mm 3-5mm 3-5mm 4mm

T T . PRESEN curved US weevil rostrum T SA p © THREAT A WA p WA 2-3 Ute Guide Ute Distinctiv seedpod downward downward Cabbage Cabbage

PRESEN long narrow long narrow 2012 T NO

BIOSECURITY

NO 27 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species The distinctive appearance of adult weevils make them As larvae are legless, they are restricted in their unlikely to be confused with other beetles . However, movement and distribution . They may be restricted distinguishing between the many species of weevils can above ground (e g. . vegetable weevil) or confined be difficult . Mandalotus weevil (Mandalotus spp ). adults underground (e g. . Desiantha weevil) . Adults are more in particular are highly variable in appearance . mobile and can be winged and active flyers, or wingless and walk or march en masse . Adults and larvae can both Distribution, pest status and risk period cause damage depending on the crop and time of year . Weevils can be found in a wide range of habitats and many are known as pests of agriculture, stored products, Monitoring/sampling horticulture and forestry . They feed on vegetable parts A variety of sampling techniques can be used depending including shoots, buds, leaves, roots, wood and bark . upon the habitat . For example, pitfall traps can be used Some also feed on stored grain and vegetable products . to sample ground-dwelling weevils . For above-ground species, visual direct searches are appropriate . Often, direct searches may need to be undertaken at night when many species are active .

Damage symptoms Ring barking plants at ground level Scalloping on results in lopping leaf edges

Bullet hole on leaves 2012 ©

Thinning of plants and bare patches due to underground feeding on roots/seeds

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 28 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species LADYBIRD BEETLES Coleoptera: Coccinellidae Various species - approximately 500 Australian species . BENEFICIAL Generalist and transient

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 40 50 larva adult Larva Pupa Adult

Elongated and Well-developed mandibulate tapered at rear Transparent hindwing mouthparts Round to concealed underneath oval shaped Well-developed elytra (forewing) . blackish legs Patterns of black over red, orange or yellow Grey-black with

orange-yellow Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource markings across body . May have spines or white fluffy material

Colour and pattern variations of different species

Black ladybird Striped ladybird Minute two-spotted ladybird Rhyzobius sp . Microspis sp . Diomus notescens

29 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species There are numerous species, but three species commonly Distribution/habitat found are the white collared ladybird, the common Ladybirds are common throughout Australia and can spotted ladybird and the transverse ladybird . Adults are be found in almost all habitats, particularly in canola round to oval shaped, with black spots on red, orange or and wheat crops during spring, where there has been a yellow shells . Larvae have grey/black elongated bodies large build-up of aphids . They may also be seen on some with orange markings and may be covered in spines or native vegetation and in domestic gardens . white fluffy wax material . Ladybird eggs are generally yellow, spindle ‘football’ -shaped and laid standing on They are most prevalent in spring and seen occasionally end in clusters on plants . in autumn when large populations move to areas rich in prey . Lifecycle Complete metamorphosis . Pests attacked/impact on pests Ladybird beetles can be found throughout the year . The Most ladybird adults and larvae are predatory and prey highest numbers are observed in spring to early summer on a range of pests including aphids, leafhoppers, thrips, when they can undergo several generations . Each mites, moth eggs and small larvae . They are particularly generation takes approximately one month (depending voracious feeders on aphids and in some seasons the on the species) under ideal conditions . Female ladybird increase in ladybird populations (often in combination beetles can lay up to 200-1000 eggs in a lifetime, which with lacewings and other beneficial insects) will be may span several months . sufficient to keep aphid numbers below economically damaging levels . Confused with/similar to Many adults supplement their diet with pollen and a The larger more colourful (contrasting patterns/spots) sugar source (e g. . nectar) . ladybird adults are readily identifiable but smaller drab species can be confused with other oval-shaped beetles Ute Guides, Southern (pp. 132-133)/Western (pp. 106-107). such as leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae) .

Predatory ladybirds can be confused with the 28-spot ladybird (Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata), which is a large (8 mm) leaf-eating pest species found in horticultural areas, but rarely seen in broadacre . 2012 ©

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 30 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species CARABID BEETLES or GROUND BEETLES Coleoptera: Carabidae BENEFICIAL Various species - approximately 2,500 Australian species . Generalist and residential

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 40 50 larva adult a few species can be larger

Larva

Large well- Two long developed hair-like processes Semi-flattened, mouthparts Well projecting from last cream to brown developed body segment directed forward body with a darker legs head region Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Bulging eyes Adult ‘Hot water bottle’ body shape – distinct constriction Rows/striations running along elytra (wing covers)

Transparent hindwing concealed underneath elytra

Large well- Well-developed developed and long legs mouthparts protruding forward

31 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Most species are soil-dwelling and move rapidly . Distribution/habitat Carabid beetles are widespread across Australia . Many Lifecycle species are nocturnal and can only be found during the Complete metamorphosis . day under tree bark, logs or among rocks . Some species There are many different species and their lifecycles have been found to increase in numbers in paddocks can differ greatly . Most species have a one or two year practicing minimum/no-till and stubble retention . lifecycle . Some breed in late summer and autumn Refuges (beetle banks) are considered beneficial in and then hibernate as larvae through winter . Others fostering carabids to help control pests in broadacre hibernate as adults and reproduce in spring or early crops . summer, after which the beetles usually die off, and a new generation appears in autumn . Pests attacked/impact on pests Confused with/similar to Adults and larvae both feed mostly on ground-dwelling invertebrates . This includes a wide range of soft-bodied All carabids can be distinguished by their large mouthparts pests including wireworms, cockchafers, caterpillars, that are directed forward . earwigs and slugs . Most carabid species are useful in Larvae may be mistaken for larvae of true wireworms suppressing pest populations, while a small number also (Elateridae) or false wireworms (Tenebrionidae) as they feed on plant vegetation . are similar in shape and soil-dwelling . However, carabid Ute Guides, Southern (p. 139)/ Western (p. 115). larvae have very prominent mouthparts in keeping with their predatory lifestyle . They also have processes projecting from their last abdominal segment, which are hair-like in structure and usually longer than those in true and false wireworms .

Carabid beetles are also often confused with true and false wireworm beetles . Many adults have a characteristic flattened ‘hot water bottle’–shaped body, with pitted groove lines running along the wing covers . They also possess large bulging eyes . Some carabid beetles such

2012 as Calosoma spp . are conspicuous due to their bright © metallic green colour . Carabid beetles usually move faster than wireworms and can be shinier .

Hemiptera - half (hemi); wing (ptera)

The order Hemiptera is divided into three groups Groups (families) relevant to broadacre (suborders) each with distinct features: cropping • Auchenorrhyncha (leaf hoppers) - pairs of wings Aphids (F: Aphididae): There are many pest aphid similar in structure (not shape); species, including a key biosecurity threat . Aphids are • Heteroptera (e g. . nabids, assassin bugs and shield covered in detail in this section on page 34 . bugs) - forewings have half of the wing thickened (hardened) to form a hard leathery cover and a softer Leafhoppers (F: Cicadellidae): Leafhoppers are membranous rear wing; generally small, green insects that puncture leaves and may leave a pattern of bleached marks . They are minor • Sternorrhyncha (e g. . aphids, scale insects, lerps and and sporadic pests in broadacre crops . Leafhoppers are mealy bugs) - pairs of wings similar in structure (not not covered in this manual . For further information refer shape) . Some can be wingless . to Ute Guides, Southern (p . 80)/Western (p . 61) .

There are 6,000 hemipteran species described in Australia, Mirids (SF: Miridae): Mirids are similar to leaf hoppers . in 100 different families . Some mirids are predatory . Mirids are not covered in this manual . For further information refer to Ute Guides, Main characteristics Southern (p . 69)/Western (p . 51) .

Nymphs Seed Bugs (SF: Lygaeoidea): Rutherglen bug (Nysius

Most resemble adults but are smaller, wingless and less vinitor) belongs to this family and it is a common but Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource developed . sporadic native pest in broadacre crops . It can breed abundantly, if rain allows flowering and seed set of Adult forms plants in warm weather . Nymphs are different in colour While the appearance of bugs varies widely, most bugs and shape to adults . Seed bugs are not covered in this have two pairs of wings . Some adult forms are wingless manual . For further information on Rutherglen bugs (e .g . aphids) . Bugs have piercing and sucking mouthparts refer to Ute Guides, Southern (p . 65)/Western (p . 49) . which are often modified to form a hardened stylet/ rostrum/proboscis or beak . The proboscis of bugs Shield and stink bugs (F: Pentatomidae): This family contains cutting blades and a two-channelled tube . contains both beneficial insects (e g. . the glossy shield bug, Cermatulus nasalis) and some sporadic pests, which Bugs feed by cutting into a plant or animal and sending are more common in warmer climates (e g. . the green saliva down one of the tubes to begin digestion . The vegetable bug, Nezara viridula) . Shield and stink bugs liquid food is then sucked up the other tube . When are not covered in this manual . For further information insects are resting, the proboscis is often tucked up refer to Ute Guides, Southern (pp . 66-68)/Western under the body between the legs . (p . 50, 117, 118) .

Lifecycle Nabids (F: Nabidae): These bugs are predators, attacking a wide range of prey . Nabids are also called damsel bugs Incomplete metamorphosis . and tend to be more delicate in structure than assassin bugs . Nabids can also eat plants and are regarded as omnivores . They are covered in this section on page 47 .

Assassin bugs (F: Reduviidae): These bugs are predators, attacking a wide range of prey . Assassin bugs are not covered in this manual . For further information refer to Ute Guides, Southern (p . 142)/Western (p . 120) . © 2012

33 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species CROP APHIDS Hemiptera: Aphididae

Key aphid characteristics

• Piercing sucking mouthpart - needle-like mouthpart (stylet/proboscis) on the underside of the body . • Siphuncles (cornicles) - paired tube-like projections (on 5th abdominal segment); wax secreting structures; characteristic shape and size . • Cauda - tail-like process terminating the abdomen; characteristic size, shape and hair pattern . • Segmented antennae – 4 to 6 segments; last antennal segment can be characteristic (e .g . length of terminal segment relative to the base segment) . • Tubercle - small humps on the forehead between antennae . • Wings - adults can have wings or be wingless .

Antennal or frontal tubercle Variations in last antennal segment Compound eye

vi TP Base v Terminalocess iv pr vi Terminal process antenna Base Head iii ii Base Compound i

2012 Rostrum eye Source: Modified from Krono & Papp (1977) ©

Abdomen Side view of abdomen

Abdominal Siphunculus spiracle Segment 8 Femur

Cauda Tibia Cauda Cornicle (Siphunculus) i Cauda Genital ii aperture Tarsus Source: Modified from Blackman and Eastop (2000)

Source: Modified from Krono & Papp (1977) ii

Tibia i Tarsus

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 34 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species General aphid lifecycle and biology Summer/autumn In Australia, most pest aphid species only produce Aphids require specific host plants for their females, which may be winged (alates) or wingless survival . Aphid populations usually decline over (apterae), and these give birth to live young . In other summer . The availability of suitable host plants (e g. . countries some aphid species have different (or altered) specific weed families on roadsides and verges) allows lifecycle phases (e g. . sexual/asexual) that are initiated populations to survive and increase . Winged aphids by host-insect interactions and/or environmental move into crops in autumn and aphid numbers conditions . Many aphids are plant host (crop) specific . will usually start to build up along crop edges . The formation of winged aphids and aphid movement Some aphids are vectors of crop diseases that can be generally increases when host plants are dying or when detrimental to growth and limit yield . These diseases overcrowding occurs with high populations . include barley yellow dwarf virus in cereals, cucumber mosaic virus in lupin and pea seed borne mosaic virus Winter in field peas . These viruses have the largest yield impact Low temperatures and heavy rainfall in winter often limit when they are introduced early in the life of the crop, aphid populations . Nymphs go through several growth usually within the first ten weeks of growth . Aphids are stages, moulting at each stage into a larger individual . efficient in spreading diseases due to their sap-sucking Sometimes the delicate pale aphid skins or casts (the mouthparts . Transmission occurs via feeding on the exoskeleton they have shed) can be seen . Nymphs do vascular tissue (phloem) of infected plants . Once the not have wings . virus is picked up, it can be carried in the salivary glands or restricted to the stylet of the aphid . The virus can be Spring carried for a long (persistent transmission) or short (non- Spring often triggers a rapid increase in aphid numbers persistent) period of time after aphids feed on infected as increasing temperatures and flowering crops provide plants . These different modes of transmission influence favourable breeding conditions . Most aphids form the effectiveness of chemical sprays against virus spread . dense colonies before winged aphids are produced . These move onto surrounding plants further into the crop creating hot spots . In some seasons, aphids form large colonies (especially at flowering) and heavy infestations may produce large amounts of a sticky

secretion (honeydew) . Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Figure 4 .1 An example of an aphid lifecycle (Aphis sp .) Primary host plant Secondary host plant

Spring migrants alate

apterous alate

males eggs

Source: Modified from Blackman and Eastop

35 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species APHID VIRUSES Aphids as virus vectors in pulse crops

There are many aphid species that transmit viruses in For non-persistent transmission, the virus is usually pulse crops (Table 4 1. ) . The major species are green restricted to the stylet of the insect . This means virus peach aphid, cowpea aphid, pea aphid and blue- spread generally only occurs over short distances and green aphid but this list is not exclusive . Aphids spread aphids only remain infective for periods from a few viruses between plants by feeding and probing when minutes up to a few hours . For persistently transmitted they fly during autumn and spring . viruses, the virus is ingested, passes through the gut and then moves to the salivary glands where it can The ability to transmit particular viruses differs with potentially be transmitted to other plants . The aphid each aphid species and viruses may be transmitted in retains the virus for the remainder of its life . a persistent or non-persistent manner . This influences the likelihood of plant infection (Figure 4 .2) .

Table 4 .1 Some aphids known to transmit viruses in pulse crops

Aphid Species Common Name Cucumber Mosaic Pea Seed-borne Mo- Beet Western Virus (CMV) saic Virus (PSbMV) Yellows Virus (BWYV)

Acyrthosiphon pisum Pea ahid   50% Aphis craccivora Cowpea aphid  9 .4%   Acyrthosiphon kondoi Blue green aphid  6 .1% Myzus persicae Green peach aphid  10 .8%   96% Lipaphis erysimi Turnip aphid  3 .9% Macrosiphum euphorbiae Potato aphid   14% Aphis gossypii Melon or cotton aphid   Aulacorthum solani Foxglove aphid    Brachycaudus helichrysi Leafcurl plum aphid  Brevicoryne brassicae Cabbage aphid    Hypermyzus lactucae Sowthistle aphid  2012

© Myzus ascalonicus Shallot aphid  Myzus ornatus Ornate aphid   Rhopalosiphum maidis Corn aphid (in glasshouse) Rhopalosiphum padi Oat aphid (in glasshouse)  Therioaphis trifolii Spotted alfalfa aphid  Uroleucon sonchi Brown sowthistle aphid  Note that many more vectors are listed for PsbMV and/or CMV. % is the virus transmission rate for various species

References and further reading: Figure 4 .2 Persistent versus non-persistent transmission of viruses Aftab and Freeman (2006) Temperate Pulse Viruses: Pea Seedborne Mosaic Persistent transmission Non-persistent transmission Virus (PSBMV) AG1267 DPI-Victoria Coutts and Jones (2006) Aust J Ag Res 1-2 hours feeding e .g . BWYV Instant transmission e .g . CMV, AMV 57,975-982 Freeman and Aftab (2006) Temperate Pulse Viruses: Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV) AG1207 DPI- Victoria ICTVdB Virus Descriptions http:// www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/ ICTVdB/00.039.0.02.003.htm Jones and Proudlove (1991) Ann App Biol 118, 319-329 x x Jones et al. (2008) Plant Path 57, 842- 853 McKirdy et al. (2005) Viruses diseases of chickpea Farmnote 16/97 www.agricwa. Aphicides for non-persistent transmission are likely to be ineffective . gov.au Early management strategies are important . Nault et al. (2009) Environ Entomol 38, 1347-1359

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 36 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species CEREAL APHIDS Corn aphid (Rhopalosiphum maidis) and Oat aphid (Rhopalosiphum padi)

Distinguishing characteristics/description

Corn aphid

10 mm 20 30 adult Oblong- Antennal shaped segment VI

Terminal process

Base ½ as long as terminal segment Basal portion

Pointed and Two dark tapering tip on patches at siphuncles, the base not clearly visible of each in this image siphuncle Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Oat aphid

10 mm 20 30 adult Pear- shaped Antennal segment VI

Terminal process

Base ¼ as long as terminal process

Basal portion

Rust-reddish patch at the Blunt tip on base of abdomen, siphuncles in between siphuncles

Cereal aphids are similar in colour with only subtle A definitive diagnostic character to distinguish between differences . Corn aphids tend to be light green to dark oat and corn aphids (both adults and nymphs) is the olive in colour and oat aphids olive-green to black in length of the terminal part of the antennae relative to colour . the base of the antennae (see diagram above) . © 2012

37 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Confused with/similar to Large amounts of honeydew (aphid exudates) and black sooty mould may be seen in prolonged, severe cases . These aphids can be confused with each other and other minor cereal aphids (e g. . rose-grain aphid, grain aphid and rice root aphid) . Monitoring/sampling Direct visual searches and/or sweep netting . Distribution, pest status and risk period Regular monitoring for cereal aphids should start in late Cereal aphids can be found all year round and on all cereal winter and continue through to early spring with more crop growth stages . They sometimes cause feeding frequent monitoring at the most vulnerable crop stage damage to cereals when there is a rapid increase in their (stem elongation to late flowering) . Check at least five reproduction and populations rise above economically points over the entire paddock including representative damaging levels, usually in spring . parts . Visually search for aphids on a minimum of 20 plants at each point and count the number of tillers The two major cereal aphids can vector plant diseases infested with aphids . such as barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV) . This is more common in high rainfall cropping zones where virus- For aphid-prone areas (high rainfall), regular monitoring infected self-sown cereals and grasses are present, along is recommended from crop emergence in autumn, to with large numbers of aphids during the early growth detect aphids moving into crops, particularly along stages of new season crops . paddock edges . Very few aphids are required to transmit BYDV from infected to healthy seedlings . If aphids are Crops attacked/host range seen, it may be too late for control unless plants are at Oat aphids mainly attack oats and wheat, but can occur the early seedling stage . on all cereals and grasses . When widespread early infection occurs, BYDV can Corn aphids mainly attack barley, but can also attack reduce grain yields by up to 50% . More commonly, the other cereals and grasses . disease is confined to patches close to crop edges, where early aphid disease transmission occurred . Both aphid species may be found during summer/early autumn on a range of volunteer grasses (alternate host Western Australian recommendations for aphid feeding plants) and self-sown cereals . damage action thresholds on cereals at tillering is to consider control if aphid populations exceed 15 aphids/

2012 tiller on 50% of tillers for crops expected to yield 3 t/ha © Damage symptoms or more . Direct feeding damage by large numbers of aphids on plants can result in sap removal that can cause nutrient Western Australian research on aphid feeding damage loss and plant-wilting . Visual symptoms are usually not in the absence of BYDV demonstrated variable yield very obvious until close inspection of leaf whorls and losses up to 10% and reduction in seed size with aphid sheaths, where dark-coloured masses of aphids may infestations at these levels . be seen . In some cases, aphid colonies infest the seed heads and congregate in large numbers .

Management options

Biological Cultural Chemical Hover fly, lacewing larvae Summer/autumn BYDV control: and ladybirds are known pre-season Use of appropriate insecticide seed dressings and/or synthetic predators that help weed control by pyrethroid sprays in the first eight weeks of crop development . suppress populations . heavy grazing or Aphid feeding damage: herbicides to control Aphid parasitoid wasps, Seed treatments delay colonisation . alternate host plants evident by the presence Border spraying (e .g . autumn/early winter) when aphids begin (e .g . volunteer of ‘mummies’ . to colonise crop edges may provide sufficient control . grasses and cereals) . Naturally occuring Selective chemicals (i .e . pirimicarb) should be considered aphid fungal diseases because they are effective against aphids but relatively can dramatically affect harmless to beneficial species and other non-targets . populations .

Ute Guides, Southern (pp. 70-71)/ Western (pp. 52-53). Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 38 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species CEREAL APHIDS BIOSECURITY THREAT NOT PRESEN Russian wheat aphid (Diuraphis noxia) T IN AUSTRALIA

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 adult

Short antennae

Elongated spindle- shaped body

Pale green in colour

Dual tail appearance (cauda - bifurcate)

Siphuncles not visible

Early feeding damage: streaking along plant veins (white and purple in colour) Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Later feeding damage: flag leaf curling and immaturity of grain head; prostrate appearance

Confused with/similar to As with all aphids, RWA would spread through crops by active flight or wind currents . Long-distance dispersal Russian wheat aphid (RWA) can be confused with overseas also occurs through hitchhiking on machinery, other cereal aphids but the lack of visible siphuncles clothes or plant material . distinguishes this exotic aphid threat from common cereal species . Crops attacked/host range Distribution and means of spread Wheat, barley, triticale, oats and rye are preferred hosts, but RWA can attack most cereal crops . RWA has spread throughout all major grain growing countries except Australia . If this exotic pest enters This species spends its entire lifecycle on cereals and Australia it has been estimated that it could cause grasses . Volunteer cereals and grasses around crop edges significant damage to crops, resulting in up to 60-75% and road verges can provide a food source, particularly yield loss . over summer (between harvest and emergence of ©

autumn-planted crops) . 2012

39 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Damage symptoms Reporting protocol Plant damage symptoms include leaf curl and A rapid response to detection of potential exotic pests discolouration, as well as white and purple streaks can be the key to containment, eradication or along the veins . RWA prefers to live in leaf whorls and management . If you see anything unusual, call the tightly rolled leaves, thus damage begins at the base Exotic Plant Pest Hotline on 1800 084 881 . and progresses towards the tip of the leaves . Often the leaves will lay prostrate on the ground . Later infestations Speak to your state department of primary industries or can cause damage to the flag leaf which curls, trapping department of agriculture before sending any samples . the awn and preventing the head from completely emerging . This produces a ‘gooseneck’ head and as a result, the grain does not properly mature . Heads can also appear bleached .

Surveillance One of the best ways to identify if RWA is present in the It is essential that the correct sampling protocol is field is to look for the damage symptoms listed above . followed including packaging, handling and transport to These symptoms can also be caused by other diseases the laboratory assigned for diagnosis . Incorrect handling and disorders such as herbicide and virus damage, could spread the pest further or render the samples unfit nutrient deficiencies and frost . It is important to identify for identification . these symptoms in conjunction with the presence of aphids to be more confident in the diagnosis . Stop the movement of people, vehicles and equipment in the detected area until a confirmation can be made . Early detection of plant pests can greatly increase the chance of successful eradication and reduce the More information cost and social impact of an incursion . Plant Health Australia website Incorporate surveillance for exotic pests when undertaking www .planthealthaustralia .com .au/biosecurity/ routine crop monitoring and other crop detection and grains measurement activities . Ute Guides, Southern (p. 171)/ Western (p.138). 2012 ©

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 40 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species CANOLA APHIDS Cabbage aphid (Brevicoryne brassicae), Turnip aphid (Lipaphis erysimi) and Green peach aphid (Myzus persicae)

Distinguishing characteristics/description 10 mm 20 30 Cabbage aphid adult for all species

Dark head and thorax

Tips of Form dense colonies Dull grey- siphuncles (appear bluish grey) green in do not reach with a fine, whitish colour base of powder covering . cauda Often found on flowering spikes and early pods Turnip aphid Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Tips of Dark bars on siphuncles Form dense colonies abdomen (dorsal) nearly reach with a WAXY covering of adults and base of (less pronounced than later instars cauda powdery cover of cabbage aphids) . Often found on flowering spikes and early pods Green peach aphid Pale yellow- green, green, orange or pinkish in colour

Dark abdominal patch on winged adults Tubercles turned inwards

Mainly found sparsely Oval-shaped distributed on undersides of leaves Siphuncles longer than cabbage and

41 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Confused with/similar to Green peach aphid may also cause indirect damage by Cabbage, turnip and green peach aphids can be spreading plant viruses . confused with each other and some pulse aphids . Heavy infestations, particularly at flowering, can lead to large amounts of honeydew and black sooty mould . Distribution, pest status and risk period Cabbage and turnip aphid infestations occur most Cabbage and turnip aphids usually form dense colonies frequently from early flowering to late pod development . on the floral parts, especially at the maturing, terminal They are most prolific in autumn and spring when the flowering spike . Colonies on leaves often become warm weather enables them to rapidly multiply . Rates evident by the distortion and discoloration (yellowing) of development reduce over winter . Canola is most of infested parts . Younger developing plant parts are vulnerable to aphid damage during bud formation preferred to older senescing parts . through to late flowering . The cabbage aphid is more Green peach aphids are usually found on the lower tolerant of cold weather than the turnip aphid and will surface of basal, senescing leaves . They do not generally continue to develop slowly at temperatures around form dense colonies or cause leaf distortion . Large 5-9o C . numbers occasionally occur on young, vegetative Green peach aphids are most common in autumn and canola . seldom cause economic loss to canola crops . However, they are an important vector of plant diseases such as Monitoring/sampling cucumber mosaic virus, bean yellow mosaic virus and Direct visual searches, sweep netting, yellow sticky traps beet western yellows virus in canola (see p . 36) . or yellow pan traps .

Crops attacked/host range Monitoring for aphids should start in late winter and continue through early spring with regular checks at Cabbage and turnip aphid host plants are generally the most vulnerable crop stage (bud formation to late restricted to the crops and weeds belonging to the flowering) . cruciferous plant family . For disease-prone areas (high rainfall), regular aphid Green peach aphids will attack many plant families monitoring from autumn onwards is recommended (including broad leaf pastures, pulse crops and oilseeds) . to detect aphids moving into crops, particularly along

2012 paddock edges . © Damage symptoms Aphids can cause direct feeding damage to plants, when Check at least five points over the entire paddock, in large numbers, as they remove sap . This reduces including representative parts . Visually search for aphids nutrient flow and can cause plant wilting . on a minimum of 20 plants at each point and count the number of plants infested with aphids . If more than 20% of plants are infested, control measures should be considered to avoid yield losses .

Management options

Biological Cultural Chemical Hover fly, lacewing larvae and Implementing early summer weed Seed treatments and border spraying ladybirds are effective predators control in areas where aphids build (autumn/early winter) when aphids and can help suppress populations . up on alternate host plants (e .g . begin to colonise crop edges may cruciferous weeds) . provide sufficient control . Aphid parasitoid wasps (evident by the presence of ‘mummies’) . Sow crops early where possible to Selective foliar spray (e .g . pirimicarb) . enable plants to begin flowering Insecticide resistance is common in before aphid numbers peak . some Australian aphid populations . Select cultivars that are less Chemical rotation of insecticide susceptible to aphid-feeding damage groups will reduce the onset of where possible . resistance .

Ute Guides, Southern (pp. 73-75)/Western (pp. 54-56).

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 42 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species PULSE APHIDS Blue green aphid (Acyrthosiphon kondoi), Pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum), Cowpea aphid (Aphis craccivora) and Green peach aphid (Myzus persicae)

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 Blue green aphid adult Pea aphid adult Cowpea aphid adult

Blue green aphid Pea aphid

Dark joints on antennae Long segments antennae

Very long siphuncles (relative to pea aphid) Blackish Blue-green to Yellow-green or knee joints grey-green in pinkish in colour colour

Cowpea aphid Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Adults black in colour

Nymphs dull grey in colour

Black and white banding on the legs (for all growth stages)

For green peach aphid characteristics see canola aphids.

Confused with/similar to Distribution, pest status and risk period Can be confused with other pulse and canola aphids . Pulse aphids are common in winter and spring and are Currently there are no aphid biosecurity threats for usually found on the upper part of the plants, particularly pulses . growing points .

43 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Crops attacked/host range Monitoring/sampling These aphids are commonly found on all pulses Direct visual searches and counts, sweeping netting, including field peas, lupins, lentils, faba beans and yellow sticky traps or yellow pan traps (can assist in early other legumes . aphid detection) .

Blue green aphids are also found on annual medic, For disease-prone areas (high rainfall), regular subterranean clover pastures and vetch . monitoring for virus management is critical in pulses . Minimising the virus source, sowing seed that is virus- Damage symptoms free, managing crop agronomy (to reduce aphid landing sites) and monitoring for early detection are some key Aphids can cause direct feeding damage to plants when management strategies . in large numbers as they remove sap, which can cause wilting of plants . Aphids also cause indirect damage by Regular monitoring for aphids should start in autumn spreading plant viruses that they take up and pass on and continue through to early spring with several checks when sucking sap from infected plants and then feeding a week at the most vulnerable crop stage (bud formation on uninfected plants . to late flowering) . Heavy infestations deform leaves, growing points and Check at least five points over the entire paddock stunt plants . At flowering, heavy infestations can lead to including representative parts . Visually search for aphids large amounts of honeydew and black sooty mould . on a minimum of 20 plants at each point and count the number of plants infested with aphids . If more than 20% of plants are infested, control measures should be considered to avoid yield losses .

Management options

Biological Cultural Chemical Hover fly, lacewing larvae and Implementing early summer weed Selective foliar spray (e .g . pirimicarb) . ladybirds are effective predators control on your property where Seed treatments . and can help suppress populations . aphids build up on alternate host

2012 plants (e .g . broad leaf weeds) . Border spraying (autumn/early

© Aphid parasitoid wasps (evident by winter) when aphids begin to the presence of ‘mummies’) . Sow crops early where possible to colonise crop edges may provide enable plants to begin flowering sufficient control . before aphid numbers peak . Insecticide resistance is common Select cultivars that are less in many Green peach aphid susceptible to aphid feeding damage . populations . Chemical rotation of Ensuring rapid development of dense insecticide groups will reduce the crop canopy so that bare ground is onset of resistance . covered will assist in deterring aphid landings .

Narrow rows with high seeding rates can assist .

Ute Guides, Southern (pp. 75-78)/Western (pp. 54, 57, 58, 60).

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 44 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species Hemiptera: Scutelleridae BIOSECURITY THREAT NOT PRESEN Sunn pest (Eurygaster integriceps) T IN AUSTRALIA

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 40 50 adult

Adult Colour varies from greyish-brown to Wide oval-shaped reddish-brown body with a wide triangular head

Wings completely covered by a Piercing hardened shield (scutellum) and sucking with a rounded bottom edge mouthpart Eggs Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Nymphs Rounder in shape Spherical (about 1 mm in diameter) . than adults, five Shiny light green in colour, nymphal stages laid in two even rows (raft)

Confused with/similar to Distribution and potential spread The Sunn pest can be confused with other true bugs such The Sunn pest is widespread in Bulgaria, Greece, as stink bugs (Pentatomidae), seed bugs (Lygaeidae) and Romania, Southern Russia, Iran and Israel . It is also other shield bugs such as the predatory glossy shield present in other European and Asian countries . bug (Cermatulus sp ). . A distinctive character of the Sunn pest is the wing covering (scutellum) which completely Adults have functional wings and can actively disperse hides the wings . This feature is not seen in the other two and migrate long distances (>250 km) . bug families nor in predatory shield bugs . The Sunn pest has one generation per year and individuals can survive for up to one year depending on temperature and fat reserves .

45 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Crops attacked/host range Reporting protocol The Sunn pest attacks a variety of cereal crops such as A rapid response to detection of potential exotic wheat, barley, oats, sorghum, rye, durum millet and pests can be the key to containment, eradication or corn . It can also feed on wild cereal grasses . management . If you see anything unusual, call the Exotic Plant Pest Hotline on 1800 084 881 . Damage symptoms Sunn pests predominantly attack leaves, stems and grain, reducing yield and quality . Young instars feed on buds and leaves, hiding deep in the plant canopy . Older instars and adults feed on developing grain and are capable of feeding on dry grain if water is available .

Infested cereal crops display yellowing and dieback Speak to your department of primary industries or of the leaves, stems and entire plant . Stunting and department of agriculture before sending any samples . abnormal flower formation and discolouration (whitening) can also occur . Cereal grains may be aborted It is essential that the correct sampling protocol is if feeding occurs before grain development . Feeding on followed including packaging, handling and transport to developing seeds can result in shrivelled, discoloured the laboratory assigned for diagnosis . Incorrect handling (white) and empty heads . The Sunn pest injects toxic could spread the pest further or render the samples unfit enzymes into the seed during feeding and, as a result, for identification . the grain flour has a foul smell and the quality of baking dough is substantially reduced . Stop the movement of people, vehicles and equipment in the detected area until a confirmation can be made . Surveillance More information Winter and spring cereals should be targeted for Plant Health Australia website surveillance of the Sunn pest . www .planthealthaustralia .com .au/biosecurity/ grains Any insect that resembles this bug must be sent to a specialist for identification . Ute Guides, Southern (p. 181)/ Western (p.148).

2012 Early detection of plant pests can greatly increase © the chance of successful eradication and reduce the cost and social impact of an incursion .

Incorporate surveillance for exotic pests when undertaking routine crop monitoring and other crop detection and measurement activities .

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 46 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species DAMSEL BUGS OR NABIDS Hemiptera: Nabidae Damsel bugs or Nabids (Nabis kinbergii) BENEFICIAL Generalist and transient

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 40 50 adult

Nymph

Undeveloped wings (wing buds) Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Large and well Long antennae Adult developed eyes and legs

Narrow elongated head

47 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Lifecycle Distribution/habitat Incomplete metamorphosis . Damsel bugs are common throughout most of Australia and can generally be found in the canopy of crop plants Adults have a slender pale brown body with a narrow with an abundance of prey . They are prevalent in spring head, large protruding eyes and long antennae . Damsel to autumn and adults can live for a few weeks . bugs move quickly when disturbed . Juveniles are similar but smaller in size . Pests attacked/impact on pests Damsel bugs can have multiple generations per year Adults and nymphs are predatory and feed on a range with each generation lasting around 4-5 weeks in warm of prey including caterpillars, aphids, leafhoppers, mirids conditions . and moth eggs . In particular, damsel bugs are considered to be effective predators of diamondback moth . Females insert their eggs into leaves or plant stems . Ute Guides, Southern (p. 141)/Western (p.119). Confused with/similar to Damsel bugs can sometimes be mistaken for other bugs such as mirids but they differ by having a long snout (proboscis) that is fine, curved and carried under the body when not feeding . They also appear similar to assassin bugs, although these have a concave abdomen (when viewed from above) and are less widely distributed than damsel bugs .

The mouthparts fit into a groove under the body . 2012 ©

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 48 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species PREDATORY BUGS Hemiptera: Heteroptera Predatory shield bugs (Pentatomidae) BENEFICIAL Assassin bugs (Reduviidae) Generalist and transient

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 40 50 adult Spined predatory shield adult Assassin

Spined predatory shield bug Assassin bug

Adult Nymph Eggs

Narrow, elongated head region

Prominent spines Lack of wings Eggs have ‘eye- in nymph Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource on shoulders lashes’ and laid Long antennae and legs . (thorax) in batches Large and well developed eyes . Piercing/sucking mouthparts (beak)

Lifecycle Incomplete metamorphosis . Distribution/habitat There are many different species and although these Predatory shield bugs are common throughout most differ widely in their lifecycles, most species have of Australia and are often found in the canopy where multiple generations per year . Species that may be found there is an abundance of prey . Assassin bugs are more in broadacre crops are assassin bugs, the glossy shield common in tropical crops . bug (Cermatulus nassalis) and the spined predatory shield bug (Oechalia schellenbergii) . Pests attacked/impact on pests Predatory bugs are typically prevalent in spring through Adults and older nymphs are predatory, feeding on a to autumn . Adults usually live for several months . They range of prey including moth larvae, eggs, aphids, mites lay their eggs in batches or rows on plant material or the and other insects . Some assasin bugs just attack spiders . soil surface . Species vary in the size and type of prey they are able to capture, but all use piercing mouthparts to suck out the Confused with/similar to body contents of their prey . Some inject a toxin to help break down the cellular material . Predatory shield bugs can easily be mistaken for pest shield bugs, such as the brown shield bug . Shield bugs are larger in size than other pest sucking bugs such as Ute Guides, Southern (pp. 142-144)/Western (pp. 117, 118, 120). rutherglen bugs and mirids . The spined predatory shield bug is easily recognised by the large spines on its thoracic region . Assassin bugs are similar to damsel bugs . © 2012

49 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species FLIES (Order Diptera)

Diptera - di (two); ptera (wings)

Distinguishing characteristics/description

Antennae brush- Antennae Modern antennae - Adult like in males thread-like in hair-like structure females (arista)

Sponging Piercing mouthpart and sucking mouthpart *Compound eyes *Six legs

Primitive *One pair Modern

2012 form adult form of wings © (forewing)

*Reduced knob-like hindwings (halteres) just behind forewings

Larva Modern form

Tapering head region Legless Primitive Mouth Breathing hole form hook (prothoracic spiracle) Head capsule

* Indicates character for all species Setae

Source: Modified from Peterson (1960) and CSIRO (1991)

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 50 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species Larvae Groups (families) relevant to broadacre Larvae are legless and can be variable in form . Primitive cropping forms can have a sclerotised head capsule and non- Gall midges or gall gnats (F: Cecidomyiidae): This jointed legs . Larvae of more evolved fly groups do not family includes the biosecurity threats, Hessian fly and have a distinct head capsule and the head region has Barley stem gall midge . These are covered in this section mouth hooks . on page 52 . Some gall midges predate on aphids and mites . Adult Small to medium in size, only one set of wings (forewings) Leaf miners (F: Agromyzidae): This family includes and hindwings reduced to halteres (balancing organs) . the biosecurity threats, pea leaf miner and American serpentine leafminer . These are covered in this section Lifecycle on page 54 .

Complete metamorphosis . Hoverflies (F: Syrphidae): Resemble bees superficially The eggs are usually laid into a suitable food source . The but adults have a characteristic hover behaviour in larvae complete their development and pupate in the flight . Hoverfly larvae are predators of soft-bodied substrate where eggs were laid . This can be soil, organic insects, particularly aphids . Hoverflies are discussed in matter, water, plant tissue or animal tissue . this section on page 57 . Feeding Adult mouthparts vary from sucking and/or piercing to biting . Most adults ingest liquid foods and digestion is partially external (e g. . salivary secretions are used to liquefy food and then the softened product is ingested) . Some flies (e g. . mosquitoes and March flies) pierce the skin of their prey and suck up blood .

Fly larvae generally feed on moist, decomposing food items such as carrion, fungi and rotting vegetable matter, although some are predators (e .g . Syrphidae) and parasites (e g. . Tachnidae) of other insects and animals . Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource © 2012

51 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species GALL MIDGES OR GALL GNATS BIOSECURITY THREAT NOT PRESEN Diptera: Cecidomyiidae T IN AUSTRALIA Hessian fly Mayetiola( destructor) & Barley stem gall midge (Mayetiola hordei)

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 larva both species pupa both species Long filiform adult both species (bead-like) antennae Adult Resemble Hessian fly mosquitoes - slender body

Long legs

Halteres, reduced hindwing Wing venation consists of a few weak veins

Larvae of both species Legless (maggot-like) with 13 body segments . 2012

© Cylindrical and tapered to one end . Barley stem gall midge larvae - pale red initially and turn white as they mature . Hessian fly larvae - initially Hessian fly eggs white then turn Approx . 0 .5 mm long . brown Elongate with rounded ends . Initially red in colour, then darken with age . Laid on upper leaf surface in lines parallel with leaf veins Pupae Hessian fly pupae Barley stem gall midge pupae

Larvae produce a pea-sized stem gall while residing inside the stem and feeding internally

Pupae of both species known as ‘flax- seeds’ . Dark brown in colour . No galls formed when Tapered to one end . Hessian fly larvae reside Present towards harvest at within host plant base of host plant

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 52 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species Confused with/similar to Barley stem gall midge larvae feed at the base of barley between the leaf sheath and the stem, producing small These two closely-related species are difficult to identify characteristic pea-shaped galls . Galls are an abnormal without specialist knowledge . outgrowth of the plant in response to barley stem The brown ‘flax-seed’ pupae can be diagnostic in the gall midge feeding . Infestations can lead to weakened field . The presence of a gall produced by M. hordei is also stems, stunted plant growth and a loss of grain quality characteristic . and yield . Infested plants are a darker green than undamaged plants . Larvae can be confused with other legless maggots but there are no major fly larvae pests above ground on The adults do not feed . There may be 2-3 generations plants in broadacre crops in southern Australia . each year .

Adults can also be confused with other midges and Surveillance mosquitoes . On a symptomatic plant, separate the sheath at the base of the stem . You may find maggot-like larva feeding on Distribution and potential spread the stem surface . Look carefully for a pea-shaped gall Hessian fly is widespread in Europe and has been formation caused by Barley stem gall midge . Carefully recorded in the USA . It has also been detected in other split the gall and you may find the larvae inside . countries including New Zealand, Africa and Russia . Early detection of plant pests can greatly increase Barley stem gall midge has been recorded in Europe, the chance of successful eradication and reduce the USA, Canada and Africa . cost and social impact of an incursion .

These species actively fly and can disperse on wind Incorporate surveillance for exotic pests when currents more than nine kilometres . All life stages undertaking routine crop monitoring and other crop (larvae, pupae and adults) can achieve long distance detection and measurement activities . dispersal by hitchhiking on plant material (e g. . straw) . Pupae are able to survive over long periods . Any insect that resembles these flies must be sent to a specialist for identification .

Crops attacked/host range Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Reporting protocol These exotic fly pests impact on market access and production costs . Crop losses of up to 40% have been A rapid response to detection of potential exotic recorded for Hessian fly . pests can be the key to containment, eradication or management . If you see anything unusual, call the Exotic Hessian fly: Wheat is the primary host capable of Plant Pest Hotline on 1800 084 881 . supporting the whole lifecycle . Alternate host plants include wheatgrass, rye, barley, grass weed species and broome .

Barley stem gall midge: Found almost exclusively on barley but occasionally recorded on oat, wheat and rye . Speak to your department of primary industries or Due to the difficulty in distinguishing between these department of agriculture before sending any samples . two species, the information on distribution and host types are limited and not absolute . It is essential that the correct sampling protocol is followed including packaging, handling and transport to the laboratory assigned for diagnosis . Incorrect handling Damage symptoms could spread the pest further or render the samples unfit Hessian fly larvae feed on leaves, stems and plant heads for identification . resulting in leaf discolouration (dark green to bluish- green), stunted growth and reduced grain quality and Stop the movement of people, vehicles and equipment yield . Larvae lodge themselves between leaf sheaths in the detected area until a confirmation can be made . above nodes, while pupae are found at the base of plants at harvest . Control of these flies would rely on cultural More information methods and plant host resistance as most chemical Plant Health Australia website controls are ineffective . www .planthealthaustralia c. om .au/biosecurity/grains ©

Ute Guides, Southern (pp. 169, 170, 175)/Western (pp. 136, 137, 142). 2012

53 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species EXOTIC LEAF MINERS BIOSECURITY THREAT NOT PRESEN Diptera: Agromyzidae T IN AUSTRALIA

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 adult

Adult Larval damage

Shiny black/ One set of grey and wings (fore- yellow in wings) colour

Bright yellow marking on Characteristic leaf mining (tunnelling) from larvae 2012 base of thorax © (scutellum) in feeding in plant tissue most species

Tunnels usually whitish in colour with dried cut brown areas that thicken as larvae mature . Tunnels can be tightly coiled, linear, serpentine or irregular shaped

The Agromyzidae family are a well-known group of Key exotic agromyzid species for Australian small flies whose larvae feed internally on living plant agriculture include: tissue, often as stem and leaf-miners . Within Australia there are approximately 147 Agromyzidae species in 16 American serpentine leaf-miner (Liriomyza trifolii) genera . Many Australian species are still undescribed . Pea or serpentine leaf-miner (Liriomyza huidobrensis) Pea leaf-miner (Chromatomyia horticola) Nearly all Agromyzidae species are host-specific but a Chickpea leaf-miner (Liriomyza cicerina) few species are highly polyphagous and have become important pests of agriculture and horticulture in many Diagnostic characteristics are dealt with at the family parts of the world . level due to the difficulty in separating these species .

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 54 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species Eggs are laid just below the leaf surface and larvae feed Crops attacked/host range internally on the plant in which the eggs were laid . The L. trifolii: beans, peanuts, soybeans, lentils, lupins, faba number of eggs laid varies according to the host plant beans and chickpeas . and temperature . L. huidobrensis: beans, lupins, field peas and faba beans . C. horticola: sunflower, field peas, canola, lentils, Larvae (maggots) are legless, typically cylindrical in lupins, chickpeas and other Brassicaceae, Fabaceae and shape and tapering at the head region . There are three Asteraceae plants . larval stages that feed within the leaves (beneath the L. cicerina: chickpea, sweet clovers, disk trefoil and surface) creating a winding tunnel or ‘mine’ . They Ononis species . occasionally feed on the outer surface of young pods .

The larvae of Liriomyza spp . leave the plant to pupate, Damage symptoms so pupae may be found in crop debris, in the soil or Typical leaf miner damage includes leaf destruction (leaf sometimes on the leaf surface . In contrast, pea leaf- wilt, desiccation and premature fall) and retarded plant miner (C. horticola) larvae pupate inside the leaf at the growth . Plant damage in the form of stippling can also end of the larval mine . be caused by females puncturing leaves for sap-feeding and egg-laying (oviposition) . Plants can also suffer from These closely-related species are difficult to tell apart secondary attack when pathogenic fungi enter the leaf and identification requires specialist knowledge . through puncture wounds . Mechanical transmission of plant viruses can also occur . Severe infestations can lead These biosecurity threats can be confused with native to total crop loss due to both larval-mining and leaf- leaf-miner species . Most of these are host-specific but puncturing . they are not well known, and as many species remain undescribed, they should be sent for identification . Most leaf mines are greenish in colour at first, turning whitish over time . Leaf mines wind irregularly through The occurrence of leaf mining (tunnelling) can be easily the leaf and increase in width as larvae mature . recognised in the field .

Distribution and potential spread Mine shapes in the leaf tissue can vary depending on L. trifolii is present in Europe, Asia, Africa, Central the species and can be narrow and linear with anterior America and the Caribbean, North and South America spiracles (e g. . C. horticola), linear and shallow on the Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource and Oceania . upper leaf surface (e g. . L. trifolii), serpentine in shape L. huidobrensis is widespread through Africa, Asia, (e g. . L. cicerina) serpentine or irregular in shape (e g. . L. Central America, Europe, Canada and the USA . huidobrensis) or have distinctive trails of frass deposited C. horticola is widespread in Africa, Asia and Europe . in black strips on the sides of the mine (e g. . L. trifolii) . L. cicerina is found in Africa and Europe . Surveillance Agromyzid flies are not very active flyers and tend to While fully-formed leaf mines should be readily visible to remain close to their target crops, often only moving quarantine officials, signs of early infestations are much very short distances between host plants within a crop . less obvious and can be easily overlooked . They can move longer distances if carried by wind . Any leaf-mining damage or insect that resembles these Entry of these invasive agromyzids (apart from L. cicerina) flies must be sent to a specialist for identification . is likely to be via imported plant material containing leaves, particularly seedlings or propagation material Early detection of plant pests can greatly increase where eggs have been deposited . the chance of successful eradication and reduce the If eggs have not yet hatched and no signs of mining cost and social impact of an incursion . are visible, the eggs may survive treatment at port of entry . Initial incursions are likely to arise from Incorporate surveillance for exotic pests when horticultural areas, and grains industries will face undertaking routine crop monitoring and other crop secondary attack from these horticultural incursions detection and measurement activities . if eradication is not achieved . © 2012

55 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Reporting protocol A rapid response to detection of potential exotic pests can be the key to containment, eradication or management . If you see anything unusual, call the Exotic Plant Pest Hotline on 1800 084 881 .

Speak to your department of primary industries or department of agriculture before sending any samples .

It is essential that the correct sampling protocol is followed including packaging, handling and transport to the laboratory assigned for diagnosis . Incorrect handling could spread the pest further or render the samples unfit for identification .

Stop the movement of people, vehicles and equipment in the detected area until a confirmation can be made .

More information Plant Health Australia website www .planthealthaustralia c. om .au/biosecurity/grains

Ute Guides, Southern (p. 179)/Western (p. 146). 2012 ©

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 56 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species HOVERFLIES Diptera: Syrphidae Various species - approximately 170 species . BENEFICIAL Generalist and transient

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 larvae adult

Adult Hair-like Metallic sheen Hair-like antenna on thorax antenna

Black and yellow Large Flattened compound (bee-like) (dorsal-ventral) eyes One set colouration body of wings on abdomen Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource (forewings)

Larva

Pointy head region with mouth hook

57 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Lifecycle Pests attacked/impact on pests Complete metamorphosis . Larvae attack a range of soft-bodied insects but prefer aphids . They spear prey with their mouth hooks, Adult hoverflies have dark-coloured flattened bodies often holding them upright and sucking out the body with black and yellow markings . contents . Adults feed on pollen and honeydew and are not predatory . Larvae are legless, green in colour and appear grub-like . The adult fly can often be seen hovering near flowers Confused with/similar to searching for nectar and a place to lay eggs . These are usually placed near prey (e g. . aphid colonies) for the Some species superficially resemble bees as they hover newly hatched larvae to feed on . near plants and have similar colouration . They differ

from bees in having only one set of developed wings Ute Guides, Southern (p.140)/Western (p.116) . and their movement is faster and more direct than bees . They can also be confused with other flies .

Distribution/habitat Hoverflies are common throughout most of Australia, can be found in a variety of habitats and are often associated with aphid populations . They are common in flowering crops such as canola, pasture paddocks and on some flowering roadside weeds . Some species can be found throughout summer months in irrigated paddocks . They are most prevalent in spring . 2012 ©

Dermaptera - derma (skin or covering); ptera (wing)

There are at least 63 species of earwigs present in Australia . Earwig families relevant to broadacre Forficulidae: This family has three native Australian Main characteristics species and the introduced European earwig Forficula Adult and juvenile forms auricularia, which has become a troublesome pest within localised areas . Earwigs are a distinctive group of insects of small to medium size (5-50 mm in length) that are mostly dark Labiduridae: This family consists of relatively primitive coloured (brown to black), have chewing (mandibulate) earwig species that are generally red-brown in colour mouthparts and moderately long bead-like (filiform) and range from 10-45 mm in length . Members of this antennae . Both adults and nymphs are similar in family are found all over Australia . The native earwig, appearance but nymphs are smaller and paler than adults . Labidura truncata, is by far the most common species, particularly in sandy habitats . Earwigs are usually easily identified by their hardened pincers (cerci) or claw-like structures at the rear of their flattened, elongated bodies . Both sexes have these pincers, but in males they are large and curved whereas in females they are mostly straight with slightly inward pointing tips . These sexual characteristics relate to all earwig species .

Most species of earwigs are wingless . Those with wings Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource have clear (membranous) hind wings folded in a fan-like way and hidden beneath a protective, hardened and short covering (forewing or tegmina) .

Lifecycle Incomplete metamorphosis . Earwigs mate end to end, often grasping each other’s pincers . Unlike most insects, female earwigs have a maternal instinct and care for their young . They lay 20- 80 white eggs in clusters, usually within tunnels dug especially for this purpose . The eggs hatch over a 2-3 week period before turning into nymphs . Immature nymphs are paler in colour and take four or more moults before developing into an adult .

Habitat Earwigs are nocturnal but are attracted by lights and can become unwelcome visitors to houses . The majority of earwigs are found during the day in dark, sheltered environments and are common under rocks, wood, tree bark, stones, stubble or other plant residues .

Most species are omnivores, feeding mainly on decaying plant material but occasionally on dead creatures . They sometimes feed on live insects and can be seen using

59 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species EARWIGS Dermaptera European earwig (Forficula auricularia) and Native earwigs (Labidura truncata, Gonolabis michaelseni, Forniculina spp . and others)

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 40 50 European earwig

European earwig Short forewings (tegmina) Yellow ‘shoulders’

Uniform dark coloured body

Legs and pincers are a lighter colour than the body

Male – Female – long and curved straight pincers pincers

Native earwig

Wingless 2012 © Generally lighter body foreparts and darker abdomen

Legs and pincers are similar in colour to parts of the body

Male – Female – long and curved straight pincers pincers

Native earwig

Orange triangle on back

Male pincers - long and slender Dull brown with with a distinctive tooth near the middle straw coloured of the inner edge markings

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 60 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species Damage symptoms: shredded leaf tips or jagged holes in the leaves are typical of earwig damage .

Confused with/similar to Labidura truncata is a common large native earwig (about 35 mm) that is considered beneficial because Native earwigs and the European earwig are similar to of it’s preference to feed on caterpillars and other soft- other earwig species . Earwigs are sometimes confused bodied invertebrates . It captures prey with its pincers with staphylinid beetles, but they can be distinguished and holds them while feeding . from the latter by the presence of pincer-like cerci .

Distribution, pest status and risk period Crops attacked/host range European earwigs attack a variety of crops . Crop European earwigs are an introduced pest into Australia seedlings, particularly canola, cereals and pulse crops and were first recorded around 1930 . They were recorded are the most susceptible . as crop pests in WA in the early 1990’s and have since been spreading, although their distribution appears to Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Native earwigs are omnivorous, eating a wide variety of be patchy and isolated . They are also commonly found plant and animal material and they are rarely known as in eastern Australia . crop pests . Many species live primarily on a diet of plant matter, both living and decaying . They also consume The European earwig’s native climate is cool and relatively dead insects and other organisms . humid . Although adults have wings, they rarely fly and are mainly spread to new areas and crops by human activity . They can be transported in contaminated seed, Damage symptoms pot plants, cardboard boxes, machinery and vehicles . European earwigs often feed at night, starting along Once introduced, earwigs slowly spread from the paddock edges and moving deeper into the crop with original infestation to neighbouring properties . time . Shredded leaf tips or jagged holes in the leaves are typical of earwig damage . In severe infestations, Crop and pasture residues on the soil surface enhance European earwigs can completely defoliate young earwig survival and breeding, allowing large populations seedlings leaving only stems or bare ground in to build up during autumn and early winter . Crops and the crop (which corresponds to the highest earwig pastures sown into these high risk paddocks are most populations) . vulnerable to attack by pest earwigs . European earwigs may become a contaminant of Native earwigs are widespread throughout Australia . harvested grain . They shelter in crop windrows (swaths) They are generally found either individually or in and may be collected with the seed at harvest . If earwig low numbers under rocks or wood . This contrasts to numbers are high, the harvested grain may be rejected the European earwig which is more commonly seen or require cleaning, ultimately reducing profits . congregating in high numbers . Native species rarely exceed 40 mm long and are generally elongated, Native earwigs rarely cause crop damage to southern flattened and have smooth, shiny bodies that are mainly Australian grain crops . brown to black in colour . © 2012

61 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Monitoring/sampling Inspect establishing crops with bare or thinning patches . Look under wood, rocks and plant residues for earwigs . Inspect paddocks on warm, moist nights using a torch to detect feeding earwigs . Carpet squares, tiles or terracotta pots can be left out for several nights in suspected risk areas and then inspected for earwigs that may shelter beneath these refuges .

Management options

Biological Cultural Chemical All earwigs will predate on Stubble management and cultivation Carbaryl is registered for control of themselves . will reduce earwig breeding sites . earwigs in some situations .

Pest numbers of earwigs may be Burning stubbles has shown some Insecticide seed dressings may also controlled by high populations of success . Early season burning is give some control of moderate pest carabid beetles . preferable . Aim for an even paddock levels . burn or patch burn known affected Various vertebrate pests such Baiting with a mixture of cracked areas . as birds and lizards will feed on wheat, sunflower oil and chlorpyrifos Note: burning may not be the earwigs . has had some success . Best results preferred option because of the risk of are obtained in autumn before wind erosion . alternative food sources are Grazing pasture paddocks to below available . 1 .5 t/ha of feed on offer in spring will reduce earwig numbers .

Early season weed control of affected paddocks, fence-lines, rock-heaps or other habitats will help to minimise survival . 2012 ©

Ute Guides, Southern (p. 88)/ Western (p. 69).

Collembola: Sminthuridae Lucerne flea Sminthurus( viridis)

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 adult

Colour variations - light yellow brownish- green with irregular darker patches Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Segmented Jumping structure Globular shape - antennae (furcula) normally soft bodied tucked under body (rear end)

Damage symptom: transparent windowing of leaves (originating from the underside) Newly hatched nymphs (about 0 .75 mm long) are pale yellow in colour

The lucerne flea is a collembolan (springtail), included in They are frequently found in leaf litter and other decaying a group of arthropods that have six or fewer abdominal material, where they are primarily detritivores . Only a segments and possess a tubular appendage . In sheer few species, including the lucerne flea, are regarded as numbers, Collembola are one of the most abundant of crop pests around the world . all macroscopic animals . © 2012

63 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Confused with/similar to Crops attacked/host range Lucerne flea can be confused with other globular type Lucerne fleas have a tendency to feed on broadleaf springtails . plants including clovers, medics, lucerne, serradella and capeweed . They can also cause damage to canola, Distribution, pest status and risk period ryegrass, wheat and barley but these appear to be non- preferred hosts . Typically found throughout the winter rainfall areas of southern Australia, including Tasmania . Although lucerne fleas are widespread and commonly encountered, they Damage symptoms are often sporadically distributed within a particular Lucerne fleas feed by removing the epidermal cells of region . plants and feeding on the soft tissue underneath, leaving behind the fibrous veins joined by a thin layer of leaf Lucerne flea are commonly observed in paddocks with membrane . This results in the characteristic appearance a heavy soil type (e g. . clay/loam) and are less frequently of feeding ‘windows’ . found on sandy soils .

Crops and pastures are most susceptible around the Monitoring/sampling time of emergence . Lucerne fleas are easily detected as they spring off vegetation when disturbed . Feeding damage is very noticeable when lucerne fleas are present in high numbers . Susceptible crops and pastures sown in paddocks where lucerne fleas have previously been a problem should be checked regularly between autumn and spring .

Management options

Biological Cultural Chemical Pasture snout mite (Bdellodes Grazing management in spring . Spot spraying or border sprays . lapidaria) and the spiny snout mite Weed control (particularly cape- Avoid most synthetic pyrethroid (Neomulgus capillatus) . 2012 weed), cultivation and crop rotations sprays as these are ineffective against © Several ground beetles and spiders can prevent build up of lucerne flea lucerne flea . are also known to prey upon numbers . Control lucerne flea in the season lucerne fleas . prior to sowing susceptible crops .

Ute guides, Southern (p. 89)/ Western (p. 70).

Gastropod - gastro (stomach); pod (foot)

The phylum Mollusca is divided into six classes of which Lifecycle the Gastropoda contains the only land-based molluscs . Most gastropods are hermaphrodites, which means they There are about 36 gastropod families in Australia . have both male and female reproductive organs within the same body . Eggs are usually laid in crevices in the soil Main characteristics or under rocks but some species dig holes in the soil, lay Adult and juvenile forms eggs into the cavern, then cover the hole with soil . Gastropods have an unsegmented soft-body that Habitat commonly has an external (or internal) calcareous shell . Gastropods favour moist environments and are usually All gastropods have a well-developed head at one end found under logs and rocks, in leaf litter or under tree of the foot with eyes and 1-2 pairs of tentacles . The body bark during the day, and move about and forage in more and internal organs are twisted back so that the stomach favourable conditions at night . Slugs are particularly lays above the large fleshy foot, hence the name susceptible to drying out and some snails enter ‘stomach foot’ . Gastropods move by gliding along a aestivation (shell sealed with a thickened mucus layer to surface of mucus or slime that is produced from glands conserve moisture ) to survive hotter periods . on the foot .

All gastropods feed using a radula, which is a tongue- like structure covered by rows of rasping teeth . Most gastropods feed on fungi, algae and dead organic matter Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource but some can also damage young crops and pastures . A few are carnivorous and may prey on other snails .

Generalised shelled gastropod Generalised slug

Protoconch

Body whorl Keel Mantle Eye

Umbilicus

Columellar Foot plait Tentacle Breathing pore

Aperture

65 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species ROUND SNAILS Helicidae White Italian snail (Theba pisana) and Vineyard or common snail (Cernuella virgata)

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 40 50 White Italian snail 10 mm 20 30 40 Vineyard snail

White Italian snail Vineyard or common snail

White coiled shell White coiled shells with broken brown bands . Umbilicus is with almost continuous Open circular Some lack banding semi-circular brown bands . umbilicus or partly Some lack banding closed 2012 © Confused with/similar to Damage symptoms These snails are similar to and can be easily confused Round snails can shred leaves and defoliate young with other round snail species . plants, due to their rasping action when feeding . Round snails are a grain contaminant . During extended periods Distribution, pest status and risk period of inactivity (aestivation) snails can be found resting above ground on stems, stubble and fence posts . Round snails are an important pest of crops and pastures across southern Australia, particularly where conservation farming involves stubble retention, Monitoring/sampling reduced burning and reduced tillage . Crops and pastures Monitor all year round to allow for full use of all available grown on calcareous and highly alkaline soils are highly control options . Monitor using a 0 1 . m2 quadrat, susceptible . Crops are most vulnerable at emergence counting all the live snails found within the quadrat on and early development . the ground . Separate round from conical snails and split snails into two size groups, 7 mm and larger and < 7 mm, Snails can be active all year round with a small amount using a sieve . Snails < 7 mm in diameter are unlikely to of moisture and cool conditions . Snails are least likely to be controlled successfully by baits . be active in hot, dry conditions, particularly in late spring and early summer .

Crops attacked/host range All crops and pastures can be attacked . Emerging and young plants of crops and pastures . Barley, canola, and pulse crops are most susceptible .

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 66 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species Management options Thresholds for control options: • Cereals at seedling growth stage - 20 snails/m2 • Pulses and canola at seedling - 5 snails/m2

Biological Cultural Chemical Carabid beetles are known Stubble management includes Molluscicidal baits can be used predators and can help suppress cabling, rolling and slashing . Use these effectively in autumn to control populations . techniques post harvest, after mid- mature snails across the whole morning on hot days over 35o C . Ideally paddock . Start baiting when this should be done when several moisture triggers snail activity in hot days will follow . Control summer autumn and before significant egg- weeds prior to stubble management . laying . Repeat applications may be Around 50-90% kill can be achieved needed after monitoring . Around 60- when temperatures are over 35o C . 90% kill can be achieved depending This is less effective in dense cereal on timing, snail activity and bait stubbles . application rate .

Burning is best undertaken early in the Fence line and border baiting can be burn season . Aim for an even paddock effective after autumn rains when burn . Around 80-100% kill can be snails are moving from aestivation achieved with an even burn and about sites . 50-80% kill with a patchy burn .

Note the potential risk for soil erosion with these methods .

Summer weed control especially along fence lines and borders . Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

67 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species CONICAL SNAILS Helicidae Small pointed snail (Prietocella barbara) and Pointed or conical snail (Cochlicella acuta)

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 40 50 Small pointed snail 10 mm 20 30 40 Pointed snail

Small pointed snail Pointed or conical snail

three or three Fawn, grey or Fawn, grey or brown conical brown conical Ratio of shell length shells Ratio of shell length shells to its base diameter to its base diameter is always is always greater two or less than two

Confused with/similar to Crops attacked/host range 2012

Distribution, pest status and risk period Small pointed snails are a pest of pastures, lucerne, Small pointed snails favour areas of rainfall higher than canola, and some pulses across southern Australia, 500 mm . Crops and pastures grown on calcareous and particularly where conservation farming involves highly alkaline soils can be highly susceptible . Smaller stubble retention, reduced burning and reduced tillage . snails can be a contaminant of canola and cereal grains . Conical snails are rarely recorded directly feeding on crops Conical snails are found in the highest concentration and pasture as these snails prefer dead organic material . on the Yorke Peninsula, SA but scattered populations can be found in other parts of SA, Victoria, NSW and Damage symptoms WA . The pest status of this species comes from being a Small pointed snails may eat seedlings off at ground contaminant of grain, particularly barley . Conical snails level when snail numbers are very high . over-summer under stones and stumps, and on posts and vegetation . Numbers can build up in the pasture Conical snails prefer dead organic material and therefore phase of cropping rotations . have limited impact on the crop directly .

Monitoring/sampling Monitor all year round to allow for full use of all available control options . Monitor using a 0 1. m2 quadrat, counting all the live snails found when the quadrat is placed on the ground . Separate round from conical snails and split snails into two size groups, 7 mm and larger and < 7 mm, using a sieve . Snails < 7 mm in diameter are unlikely to be controlled successfully by baits .

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 68 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species Management options No thresholds established for conical snails . See round snail thresholds as a guideline .

Biological Cultural Chemical Carabid beetles are known Stubble management includes Molluscicidal baits can be used predators and can help suppress cabling, rolling and slashing . Use effectively in autumn to control populations . these techniques post harvest, after mature snails across the whole mid-morning on hot days over 35o paddock . Start baiting when A parastic fly, Sarcophaga C . Ideally this should be done when moisture triggers snail activity in penicillata, is the only currently several hot days will follow . Control autumn and before significant egg- available biological control for the summer weeds prior to stubble laying . Repeat applications may be conical snail . Flies were released in management . Around 50-90% kill needed after monitoring . Around 60- 2000 on the Yorke Peninsula, SA, but can be achieved when temperatures 90% kill can be achieved depending the impact on control is unclear . are over 35o C . This is less effective in on timing, snail activity and bait dense cereal stubbles . application rate .

Burning is best undertaken early in Fence line and border baiting can be the burn season . Aim for an even effective after autumn rains when paddock burn . Around 80-100% kill snails are moving from aestivation can be achieved with an even burn sites . and about 50-80% kill with a patchy burn .

Note the potential risk for soil erosion with these methods .

Summer weed control especially along fence lines and borders Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Ute Guides, Southern (pp. 94-95)/ Western (p. 74). © 2012

69 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species SLUGS Eupulmonata: Agriolimacidae and Milacidae Reticulated or grey field slug Deroceras( reticulatum) and Black-keeled slug (Milax gagates)

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 40 50 60 70 Grey field slug 20 30 40 Black-keeled slug

Reticulated or grey field slug Black-keeled slug

Keel (ridge) at Uniform Variable in colour, posterior end grey to black Prominent ridge (keel) often light grey to fawn along mid-dorsal line from mantle with dark brown markings . to tail . Keel more obvious when Active on soil surface Secretes milky body contracts as slug is white mucus over disturbed

2012 body when © disturbed

Grey field slug Confused with/similar to This slug secretes a sticky milky-white coloured mucus Other slugs . See Slugs: The Back Pocket Guide (GRDC over their body when disturbed (i .e . when touched) . This 2008) . can be used to distinguish them from other slugs . Grows up to 50 mm long . Distribution, pest status and risk period Black-keeled slug The grey field slug is a major pest of crops and pastures across southern Australia . Like all slug species it The body size, colour and extended keel are requires moist habitats for survival and is more likely distinguishing features . to be a problem in higher rainfall areas . Crops are most vulnerable at establishment and damage may be more severe if cool wet weather slows crop growth . Heavy soil types, summer rains and reduced tillage are all factors which promote the build up of slug populations .

The black-keeled slug is a burrowing species and as a result can be a more serious pest than other slug species in drier areas, such as South Australia, Western Australia and western Victoria .

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 70 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species Crops attacked/host range Monitoring/sampling Grey field slugs attack all crops and pastures but Check paddocks prior to sowing or before crop broadleaf plants such as canola and clovers are the most emergence . This can be done by placing refuges susceptible . which retain moisture, such as tiles, on the soil surface at multiple sites across the paddock . Look for slugs Black-keeled slugs attack all crops and pastures but underneath refuges on moist mornings or alternatively young canola seedlings are particularly vulnerable . monitor slugs directly in emerging crops at night when conditions are damp . Damage symptoms Grey field slugs are mainly active on the soil surface and may eat plants off at ground level or remove irregular shaped areas from leaves, due to their rasping action when feeding . If the apical meristem and cotyledons of broad-leaf crops are damaged, the plants may not recover .

Black-keeled slugs feed on the soil surface, as well as below the ground where they burrow down and attack germinating seeds . Feeding can result in the failure of seedlings to emerge, plants eaten off at ground level and irregular shaped pieces removed from leaves . In cereals, strips can be removed from the leaves .

Management options

Biological Cultural Chemical Carabid beetles are known Cultivation . Molluscicidal baits can be used prior predators and can help suppress to or at sowing when slug numbers

Summer and autumn weed control . Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource populations . are high . Seed bed consolidation (rolling) .

Rotate susceptible crops with those less prone to slug damage .

Early sowing canola can help reduce damage .

71 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species MITES (Order Acarina)

Acarina - (akari)

Mites are among the most diverse and successful of all the Groups (families) relevant to broadacre invertebrate groups . They have exploited an incredible cropping array of habitats and, because of their small size (most Redlegged earth mites and blue oat mites (F: are microscopic), go largely unnoticed . Many live freely Penthaleidae): These are among the most important in the soil or water, but there are also a large number pests of grain crops and pastures in southern Australia . of species that live as parasites on plants, animals and They are covered in detail in this section on pages 73-77 . some that feed on mould . It is estimated that over 50,000 Acarina species have been described and that a million Balaustium mite (F: Erythraeidae): The Balaustium mite or more species are currently living . attacks a variety of crops and pastures and is covered in detail in this section on page 78 . Main characteristics Bryobia mites, two-spotted mite and the brown wheat Nymphs mite (F: Tetranychidae): These are important pests of Most resemble adults but are smaller . Some juveniles various crops . The two-spotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) only have three pairs of legs, gaining a fourth pair with and brown wheat mite (Petrobia latens) are small mites their first moult . (< 1 mm in length) that are sporadic pests of cotton, cereals and lucerne . For further information on the two- Adult forms spotted mite refer to the Southern Ute Guide (p . 102) . While the appearance of mites varies widely, all mites are Bryobia mites are covered in detail on page 80 . wingless . The mouth parts of mites may be adapted for biting, stinging, sawing, snipping or sucking . Predatory Wheat curl mite (F: Eriophyidae): The wheat curl mite 2012

© mites often use their chelicerae to cut through webbing (Aceria tosichella) is a tiny cigar-shaped mite that is the of spider mites . Mites have four pairs of legs, no external principal vector of the damaging cereal virus, wheat segmentation of the abdomen and individuals appear streak mosaic virus . For further information, refer to the as a single body mass . Mites do not have antennae, they Southern Ute Guide (p . 103) . use their pedipalps and front legs for probing .

Lifecycle Incomplete metamorphosis . They can range in size from minute (0 08. mm) up to 20 mm in length . Chewing/sucking mouth parts (chelicerae)

No external segmentation of body parts (fused) No antennae present

Wingless Four pairs of legs (adult)

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 72 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species Acarina: Penthaleidae Redlegged earth mite - RLEM (Halotydeus destructor)

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 adult and 0.6 mm wide

Eight red-orange legs

Newly-hatched Globular shaped, RLEM larvae are velvet black body pinkish-orange with six legs

Usually found in groups (up to 30 individuals) in pasturein pasture Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Damage symptom: silvering leaves (similar to frost damage)

Newly-hatched redlegged earth mite (RLEM) larvae are Confused with/similar to only 0 2. mm long and are generally not visible to the Other mite pests, in particular blue oat mites and the untrained eye . In the following three nymphal stages, Balaustium mite, are sometimes confused with RLEM mites have eight legs and resemble adults, but are in the field . Unlike other species that tend to feed smaller and sexually undeveloped . singularly, RLEM generally feed in large groups of up to 30 individuals . © 2012

73 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Distribution, pest status and risk period Damage symptoms The RLEM is widespread throughout most agricultural Typical mite damage appears as silvering or whitening regions of southern Australia . They are found in southern on the attacked foliage . Mites use scissor-like chelicerae NSW, on the east coast of Tasmania, the south-east of SA, adapted mouthparts to lacerate the leaf tissue of the south-west of WA and throughout Victoria . plants and suck up the discharged sap . The resulting cell and cuticle damage promotes desiccation, retards RLEM are active from autumn to late spring . They are photosynthesis and produces the characteristic silvering most damaging to newly-establishing pastures and that is often mistaken as frost damage . Affected seedlings emerging crops, greatly reducing seedling survival and can die at emergence with high mite populations . development . RLEM can also cause significant feeding damage and a reduction in legume seed-set of pastures in spring . Monitoring/sampling Inspect susceptible pastures and crops from autumn to spring for the presence of mites and evidence of damage . Crops attacked/host range It is especially important to inspect crops regularly in the All crops and pastures, although canola, lupins, cereals first three weeks after crop emergence . Mites are best and legume seedlings are most at risk . RLEM also feed detected feeding on leaves in the morning or on overcast on a range of weed species including Paterson’s curse, days . In the warmer part of the day, redlegged earth ox-tongue and capeweed . RLEM feeding reduces the mites tend to gather at the base of plants, sheltering in productivity of established plants and has been found leaf sheaths and under debris . When disturbed during to be directly responsible for a reduction in pasture feeding they will drop to the ground and seek shelter . palatability to livestock .

Management options

Biological Cultural Chemical French Anystis mites can suppress Crop rotations with non-preferred Seed dressings . populations in some pastures . crops, such as lentils and chickpeas . Carefully timed spring spraying (e g. . Weed control pre-sowing . TIMERITE®) . 2012

Ute Guides, Southern (p. 97)/ Western (p. 75).

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 74 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species Understanding the lifecycle of pests can be important before deciding on control strategies

Example Earth mites are active in the cool wet months from April to November . During the winter, they usually pass through three generations, with each lasting about 8-10 weeks depending on the species . During the hotter months of the year, earth mites avoid the hot dry conditions by producing over-summering eggs (diapause) .

For redlegged earth mites, the first two generations of mites lay predominantly winter eggs, usually on the under surface of the host plant leaf . In spring, mites stop laying eggs on plants and start producing the over-summering eggs, which are retained in the body (Figure 4 .3) .

This knowledge can be used to time insecticide applications more strategically . Timerite® is a strategy that works by controlling the number of redlegged earth mites emerging in autumn by minimising the number of diapause eggs produced (through a carefully timed spray in the previous spring) and therefore reducing the number of mites emerging from diapause .

However, this approach is not as effective for other mite species . For blue oat mites and several other crop-emergence pests, a large number of diapause eggs are already present in paddocks by spring - well before the spring spray date recommended by Timerite® . Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Termination of diapause: summer conditions for 30-40 days Diapausing eggs

Post-diapausing eggs Jan Feb Dec Mar Initiation of egg hatch: o Nov < 20 C & >10 mm rain

Apr Oct

Summer Sep eggs III I May Aug Jun Jul

II Winter eggs Source: P. Umina (CESAR)

75 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Acarina: Penthaleidae Blue oat mite (Penthaleus spp ).

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 adult

Globular-shaped, dark purplish blue- black body

Eight red-orange legs (adults)

Oval orange/red marking (anal shield) on back

Usually not found

2012 in foraging groups © Nymphs are pink-orange in colour with six legs

Damage symptoms: silvery-grey patches on leaves (similar to frost damage)

Confused with/similar to Distribution, pest status and risk period There are three recognised pest species of blue oat Blue oat mites are widespread throughout the southern mites, but these are morphologically very similar and agricultural regions of Australia . They are broadly cannot be identified without the use of a microscope . distributed across Victoria and New South Wales, the eastern half of Tasmania, the southern part of South Blue oat mites are similar in appearance to redlegged Australia and the south-west of Western Australia . earth mites and may also be confused with other mite pests, such as Balaustium mites . The orange-red patch Blue oat mites often coexist with redlegged earth mites on the back of blue oat mites is unique and generally and both are typically active from autumn to late spring . quite conspicuous when viewed with a hand lens . Feeding damage can occur throughout this period but newly emerging crops and establishing pastures are most at risk .

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 76 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species Crops attacked/host range Monitoring/sampling A wide range of agriculturally important plants are Susceptible crops and pastures should be inspected attacked, but cereals, canola, lucerne and pastures regularly, particularly around the time of emergence . are most susceptible . The three species differ in their Mites may be present on the tops and undersides of host plant preferences which can sometimes assist leaves or on the ground . identification . Broadleaf weeds, including cat’s ear and ox-tongue, are favoured by one species .

Damage symptoms Blue oat mites penetrate the epidermal cells of plants and suck out cellular contents using their specialised mouthparts . This typically results in silvery-grey patches on plants which can sometimes be mistaken for frost damage . Feeding can also lead to distorted and shrivelled leaves, stunted growth and seedling mortality with a heavy infestation .

Management options

Biological Cultural Chemical French Anystis mite can suppress Crop rotations with non-preferred Seed dressings . populations in some pastures . crops e .g . chickpeas . Border spraying . Cultivation . Carefully timed autumn sprays Weed management . usually recommended .

Spring spraying using Timerite® is largely ineffective against blue

oat mites . Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

77 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Acarina: Erythraeidae Balaustium mite (Balaustium medicagoense)

Distinguishing characteristics/description Body covered in short 10 mm 20 30 stout hairs adult

Rounded body shape . Body colour variable but generally dark red-brown . Slow moving Damage symptoms: cupping and ‘Pad’-like leathering structure of canola on forelegs cotyledons

Nymphs are smaller than adults and Damage symptoms: bleached leaves leading to bright orange-red in wilting and irregular white colour with six legs in spotting to cereals the larval stage and grasses

Confused with/similar to Crops attacked/host range Balaustium mites can be confused with other mite Balaustium mites have a wide host range and are species . Adult Balaustium mites are approximately twice commonly found attacking canola, lupin and cereal the size of adult redlegged earth mites and blue oat crops . They will also feed on pasture legumes, lucerne, mites, and their body is larger and more rounded than grasses and some broadleaf weeds . 2012

© Bryobia mites . Damage symptoms Distribution, pest status and risk period Balaustium mite feeding causes leaves to become Balaustium mites are broadly distributed across the bleached, which can lead to wilting and plant mortality southern coastal regions of Australia . They are found under high infestations . Feeding results in the ‘cupping’ throughout most of Victoria, along the eastern side of and ‘leathering’ of canola cotyledons and irregular white New South Wales, in the south-east of South Australia and spotting on cereals and grasses . the south-west of Western Australia . Balaustium mites are typically active from March to November, although mites Monitoring/sampling can persist on green feed during summer if available . Monitor susceptible crops and pastures in autumn, particularly those with a history of chemical applications Crops are most at risk during the seedling stage . Summer for redlegged earth mites . Established pastures can eggs hatch in autumn following significant rainfall . tolerate moderate numbers of Balaustium mites without sustaining significant damage but seedlings can be totally wiped out . Balaustium mites tend to be more active during the warmer parts of the day, so monitoring in the early afternoon is best . Management options

Biological Cultural Chemical Unknown . Control of summer weeds can prevent No chemicals currently registered . build up of mite populations . Balaustium mites have a high natural Avoid volunteer grasses within susceptible tolerance to many chemicals . crops, such as cereals and pulses .

Ute Guides, Southern (p. 101)/ Western (p. 78).

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 78 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species Acarina: Tetranychidae Bryobia mite or Clover mite (Bryobia spp ).

Distinguishing characteristics/description Body flattened

10 mm 20 30 and dark grey-brown adult to fawn-orange in colour

Scale-like hairs (setae) around edge of body visible under microscope

Long front legs up Eight pale to 1 .5 times orange legs in body length total (adults)

Newly hatched mites are smaller and bright orange-red in colour with six legs in the larval stage and eight Distinct feeding legs in the nymphal stage trail damage

Confused with/similar to Crops attacked/host range There are over 100 species of Bryobia with at least six Bryobia mites attack a variety of crops including canola, of these present in Australia . Bryobia mites may be lupins, wheat, lucerne, vetch and clovers . confused with other mite species such as redlegged Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource earth mites and blue oat mites . Their long forelegs are quite prominent and Bryobia mites are also lighter in Damage symptoms colour, smaller and slower moving than other species . Mites feed on the upper surface of leaves and cotyledons and leave distinctive trails of whitish-grey spots . When young leaves are affected they become discoloured and Distribution, pest status and risk period may fail to grow . On grasses, Bryobia mite feeding can Unlike other broadacre mite species which are active resemble that of redlegged earth mites (leaf-silvering) . from autumn to spring, Bryobia mites prefer the warmer months of the year . They are generally present from spring until autumn and are unlikely to be Monitoring/sampling problematic in winter . Autumn-sown crops and pastures Bryobia mites are active during the warmer parts of in paddocks containing summer or early autumn weeds the day and may be difficult to detect during the early are most at risk . morning or in wet conditions . Look for mites and evidence of feeding damage in newly-sown crops and Management options on clovers and Brassica weeds prior to sowing .

Biological Cultural Chemical Unknown . Control of summer and early autumn weeds Some chemicals are registered for can prevent build up of mite populations . the control of Bryobia mites .

Rotate crops with non-preferred plant types, Many insecticide rates used e .g . chickpeas and oats . against other mite species may be ineffective (e .g . alpha- There is greater risk with rotations following cypermethrin) . pastures with high clover content .

79 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species PREDATORY MITES Acarina: Snout mites (Bdellidae), Anystidae and Mesostigmata BENEFICIAL Various species - approximately 30,850 Australian species . Generalist and residential

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 Bdellidae adult Anystidae adult Mesostigmata adult

Bdellidae Anystidae Mesostigmata

Red bodied

Very * Well developed Moves in a circular Usually brown pointed legs and fast motion, hence the in colour snout moving ‘common name’ whirly gig mite 2012

Lifecycle Distribution/habitat Incomplete metamorphosis . Predatory mites are common throughout most of Many species of predatory mites have a lifecycle that Australia and can be found in a variety of habitats . They coincides with pest earth mites - generally between April are more likely to be found in under-grazed pasture and December . Some species can be found throughout paddocks where there is an abundance of plant cover summer months in irrigated paddocks . They usually and large prey populations . They are also found on have many generations per year . weeds along roadside verges where mite prey are plentiful . Confused with/similar to Some predatory mites may be confused with pest earth Pests attacked/impact on pests mite species such as the redlegged earth mite and the There are a variety of native predatory species, as well Balaustium mite . Predatory mites are generally highly as deliberately introduced species, that are important mobile (quick-moving) and have more prominent predators . These can reduce numbers of pest mites, mouthparts than plant-feeding (phytophagous) pest lucerne flea and other springtails (Collembola) . species . There is evidence that some predatory snout mites prevent damaging outbreaks of earth mites and lucerne flea in pastures and lucerne paddocks . Ute Guides, Southern (p. 135, 136)/ Western (p. 111, 112).

Hymenoptera - hymeno (membrane); ptera (wing)

The Hymenoptera is divided into 71 families and contains Mouthparts are formed for chewing (e .g . adult wasps) or about 15,000 species in Australia . The Hymenoptera is can be modified for sucking (e .g . honey bees) . In females, divided into two suborders - Symphyta (sawflies), which the abdomen ends in an egg laying tube (ovipositor) have no distinct waist and Apocrita (ants, bees and that is often prominent and can be modified to a stinger wasps), which have a distinct waist . This order includes or a saw-like organ in some species . harmful, as well as some of our most beneficial insects . Hymenopteran habits can vary considerably: some are Lifecycle predaceous; some parasitic; some cause plant galls; Complete metamorphosis . some feed on plant foliage and others, like honey bees, Lifecycles can vary considerably between species . Wasp live on plant pollen and nectar . parasitoids have a lifecycle that coincides with their host . In general, eggs are either injected into the host prey or Wasps are important as parasitoids of broadacre pests attached to the outer body . The larval stage feeds on and are the only group covered in this section . Bees are their host, which is often killed in the process . Larvae well known as important pollinators of crops and are that feed internally either emerge from their host to frequently seen in flowering crops, such as canola during pupate (e g. . braconid wasps), or emerge from the host spring . Ants may also be abundant, particularly during as adults (e g. . aphid parasitoids) . Different species can the warmer months of the year, and may play a role attack different stages of the host’s lifecycle . as scavengers or in seed dispersal and burial . Sawflies include the ‘spitfire’ grubs which can occasionally be Many species are colonial and are fed by members of seen in clusters feeding on some native trees .

the colony . Adult wasps mostly feed on nectar and Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource honeydew . Main characteristics Larval form Groups (families) relevant to broadacre Most are legless (maggot-like) and differ from similar cropping looking fly maggots (Diptera) as they generally have Predatory wasps (F: Ichneumonidae and Braconidae): visible chewing mouthparts and a developed head Small to large wasps, including Diadegma semiclausum, a region . Larval forms of the parasitoid wasps are rarely seen larval parasitoid of diamondback moth . Most beneficial in broadacre crops because they are generally concealed wasps that attack moth larvae and aphids associated within the bodies of the prey from which they are feeding . with broadacre crops belong to these two wasp families . Major species are covered in detail in this section on Legs are present in some hymenopteran larvae, such as pages 84-88 . sawflies . Sawfly larvae look similar to moth caterpillars (Lepidoptera) because they have numerous abdominal Bees (F: Apidae): This family includes the introduced prolegs, but they are more fleshy in appearance and do not honey bee Apis mellifera, but also many native species have specialised hooks (crochets) at the base of prolegs . that are important plant pollinators and may be seen visiting flowers . Adult form Can be winged or wingless insects . Winged species Ants (F: Formicidae): All ants belong to the one family . have two pairs of membranous wings with relatively few Worker ants, soldiers and males are commonly seen veins . The forewings are always slightly longer than the and in some species the queen is also visible . The hind wings . The body of wasps, bees and ants are usually feeding habits of adult ants can vary and may range identified by their characteristic narrow waist or the from specialist to generalist predators, scavengers constricted area that appears to separate the last two and omnivores, to seed-eaters, fungus or honeydew body segments (the thorax and the abdomen) . Sawflies feeders . Some ant species play an important role in seed have wide waists . dispersal . © 2012

81 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Hymenoptera: Cephidae BIOSECURITY THREAT Wheat stem sawfly (Cephus cinctus) and European wheat stem sawfly Cephus( pygmeus)

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 larva both species pupa both species adult both species

Wheat stem sawfly

Strong head with Thread-like strong mouthparts (filiform) antennae

Two sets of wings . Brown for wheat stem sawfly . Clear with brown veins for European wheat stem sawfly

2012 Yellowish legs © Narrow bodies, shiny black in colour with Colouration can prominent bright vary between the yellow bands across sexes and between the abdomen populations

Sawflies are wasps and not flies . Sawflies undergo 2-3 moults and darken to a whitish- yellow-green colour when mature . Larvae are legless (although European wheat stem sawfly has three pairs of reduced thoracic legs) with a These species go through one generation per year and head capsule and prominent mouthparts . They have larvae overwinter in underground stems . Pupae are a horn-like projection at the rear end of the abdomen white and become darkened before adult emergence . (tubercule) . Newly hatched larvae look transparent with tan-brown head regions . Pupation occurs within a cocoon inside the stem near the roots or crown of the plant . Adults emerge in spring .

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 82 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species Confused with/similar to Reporting protocol These closely-related species are difficult to tell apart A rapid response to detection of potential exotic and identification requires specialist knowledge . pests can be the key to containment, eradication or management . If you see anything unusual, call the Exotic They can also be confused with other wasps . Plant Pest Hotline on 1800 084 881 .

Distribution and potential spread Wheat stem sawfly occurs in North America and the European wheat stem sawfly occurs in Europe, Asia, Africa and North America .

Adults of both these species are weak flyers and transportation of larvae and pupae in straw is the most likely source of long-distance dispersal . Speak to your department of primary industries or department of agriculture before sending any samples . Crops attacked/host range Female wasps lay eggs in large, hollow-stemmed grasses It is essential that the correct sampling protocol is such as wheat, rye, triticale, barley, oats and many other followed including packaging, handling and transport to cultivated and wild grasses . the laboratory assigned for diagnosis . Incorrect handling could spread the pest further or render the samples unfit Host plants are only susceptible to oviposition after for identification . stem elongation . Stop the movement of people, vehicles and equipment in the detected area until a confirmation can be made . Damage symptoms Larval feeding reduces yield and quality . Larvae bore More information into stems and nodes, making a discoloured tunnel Plant Health Australia website and leaving frass throughout . Mature larvae cut a notch www pl. anthealthaustralia c. om .au/biosecurity/grains around the inside circumference of lower stems .

Ute Guides, Southern (p. 173)/Western (p. 140). Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Damage varies depending on the year, locality, host plant and cultivar . The most obvious damage (caused by tunnelling and pupation) is weakening and clean cutting of stems and the subsequent lodging and loss of grain . Darkened spots can be visible on stems below nodes . This is a result of damage to the conducting tissue within the plant and the accumulation of impassable carbohydrates .

Surveillance Damaged stems should be cut open to reveal eggs and larvae . Infested stems will contain saw-like frass inside . Any insect that resembles these wasps must be sent to a specialist for identification .

Early detection of plant pests can greatly increase the chance of successful eradication and reduce the cost and social impact of an incursion .

83 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species WASP PARASITOIDS Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae and Braconidae BENEFICIAL Various species - approximately 2000 species in Australia . Specialists (parasites and parasitoids) and transient

Distinguishing characteristics/description

Ichneumonidae

10 mm 20 30 adult though can vary from 2-120 mm

*General body appearance: elongated and slender - long antennae (filiform) and legs highly variable in colour from orange to black, with or without markings

Ichneumonidae wing venation to distinguish from braconids

*Waist constriction between thorax Diadromus collaris and abdomen *Wing venation can *Wing venation vary depending on genera full and many veins 2012 (e .g . fused or no veins) . usually extend to © Forewing 2mcu vein is the wing margin always present

*Long and thin exposed ovipositor (females)

Light coloured legs Diadegma semiclausum

Diamondback moth cocoon (top) and cocoon of D. semiclausum Orange coloured inside diamondback moth cocoon body and legs (bottom), resulting in darkened Netelia producta cocoon with rounded ends

* indicates character for all species

Distinguishing characteristics/description

Braconidae 10 mm 20 30 adult though some can be up to 80 mm

Braconidae wing venation to * Strong distinguish from ichneumonids darkened cell * Wing venation incomplete and many veins usually terminate before the wing margin

* 2mcu vein always absent Opivs sp. * Wing venation can * General body appearance: vary depending on dark coloured (relatively uniform), genera (e .g . fused or no long antennae (filiform), shiny body veins) with paler coloured and long legs

Aphidiinae Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Shiny black colour Cocoons of Cotesia spp . Larva are internal in host are usually white/ bodies and legless Apanteles sp . (DBM parasitoid) yellow in colour (maggot like)

Host pupae unparasitised (above) and Dark co- parasitised (below) loured

Cotesia sp . (DBM parasitoid)

Aphid mummies - Aphidiinae wasp parasitoids

Distinct bloated appearance . Usually brown/buff/gold or bronze sheen colouring

85 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Lifecycle Complete metamorphosis . Wasp parasitoids have a lifecycle that coincides with Evidence of parasitism their host . The eggs are either injected into the host prey or attached to the outer body . Larvae feed internally on in aphids: mummies a host which is often killed in the process . They either emerge from the host to pupate (e .g . braconid wasps) or Mummies are aphids that have been emerge from the host as adults (e g. . aphid parasitoids) . transformed into juvenile wasp casings and are only evident in the later stages of the Different wasp parasitoid species can attack at different wasp’s development. stages of the host’s lifecycle . Look for: Confused with/similar to • round, bloated, buff to bronzed coloured aphids that are relatively slow moving or These wasps resemble small flies but they are usually stationary; shiny in colour and have two sets of developed wings . • emergence (exit hole) in mummies; They can be confused with other wasp species, which • aphid skin casts - don’t confuse these are hard to distinguish in the paddock and identification with mummies or aphids. often requires specialist knowledge .

Distribution/habitat Common throughout most of Australia and can be found in a variety of habitats . Due to their close association with their host, their distribution is usually similar to that of their host .

Pests attacked/impact on pests Ichneumonids and braconids attack a range of insects (mainly the larval form) where the developing wasp larvae can grow either inside the host (endoparasite) or

Ichneumonid wasps inject their eggs into native in some caterpillars: budworm or armyworm pupae within the soil . The feeding larvae prevents the moth from emerging, external wasp cocoons reducing future generations of pests . Some wasp species will: Braconids attack a range of caterpillar pests including • leave emergence (exit) holes in the armyworm, cutworm and budworm . They lay their caterpillar host and spin a cocoon nearby; eggs inside host caterpillars which are often < 10 mm • pupate inside the host, resulting in the in size . Developing wasp larvae feed internally, before host pupae differing in some way (e.g. burrowing through the skin of their host and spinning a changing colour or shape). silken cocoon externally .

Many species are utilised as biological control agents of pest insects as they have a small host range - where a particular wasp attacks only one or several closely related genera .

Some particular species include: Netelia producta attacks native budworms and other noctuid moths . Diadegma semiclausum and Diadromus collaris attack diamondback moth larvae .

Ute Guides, Southern (pp. 123-125,127)/Western (pp.98,99,102,103).

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 86 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species EGG PARASITOIDS Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae, Scelionidae and Mymaridae Various species Specialists (egg parasitoids) and transient

Distinguishing characteristics/description

Trichogrammatidae

10 mm 20 30 adult * Robust marginal wing vein and no veins posterior to this

* Antennae short (4 - 9 segments) Trichogrammatidae * Tarsi three * Body not very parasitising Helicoverpa segmented (segments hardened (sclerotised) moth egg elongated and of Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource roughly equal size)

Scelionidae Telenomus spp .

10 mm 20 30 adult although some are bigger

* Body fully * Wing venation hardened completely reduced (sclerotised)

* Very short ovipositor Parasitoid of Wasp development in Rutherglen bug Rutherglen bug eggs * Antennae located low on ‘face’ with long 1st antennal segment (scape) giving it a ‘z’- shape

87 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species Lifecycle Some species can be purchased and mass-released but this is generally not cost effective in broadacre systems . Trichogrammatidae, Scelionidae and Mymaridae are families of very small parasitic wasps that attack the eggs of insects and spiders . Pests attacked/impact on pests Trichogrammatidae attack a wide range of host eggs Wasp parasitoids have a lifecycle that coincides with including moths, bugs, thrips and, less commonly, their host . They lay their eggs inside the egg of a host beetles, lacewings, flies, and dragon and damsel flies . (e g. . moth egg) . The wasp larvae feed inside the host Trichogramma spp . are biological control agents of egg until maturity, when one or more new parasitic Helicoverpa species . wasps emerge from the destroyed egg . Telenomus spp . are common egg parasitoids of moths Confused with/similar to (e g. . Noctuidae, Geometridae, Pyralidae, Lymantriidae, Zygaenidae) and true bugs (e g . . Pentatomidae, They are confused with other wasp species and are Lygaeidae, Reduviidae) . hard to distinguish in the paddock . Identification often requires specialist knowledge . An exit hole in insect eggs is evidence of parasitism . The parasitised egg changes colour in Helicoverpa species . More often, they go unnoticed due to their small size (usually <1 mm in length) . Members of these families are Ute Guides, Southern (p. 126)/ Western (p. 101). difficult to classify, with many undescribed species likely to exist in Australia .

Distribution/habitat Various species can be found on a range of native plants (e g. . saltbush), grasses (e g. . Enneapogon) and Brassica weeds .

Bees provide a valuable service to agriculture by improving pollination and increasing crop yields, as well as being an important primary industry in the production of honey . It is often necessary to apply insecticides to flowering crops to control pests; but it is important to consider the effects on bees and take steps to reduce the risk of bee poisoning . Bees taking chemicals back to a hive can result in mass bee deaths, devastation of entire hives and contamination of the honey .

Bee poisoning can occur when: • Insecticides have been used on flowering crops and foraging bees are subsequently exposed to contaminated foliage, pollen or nectar . • Insecticides have been used on crops that are not flowering, but other plants in the target area are flowering, causing bees foraging on these plants to become contaminated . • Insecticides come in direct contact with bees that Good practices for beekeepers are present in or flying over the target area . • Before placing hives, advise all adjoining crop • Bees access water that contains insecticide owners and any other persons or authorities likely residues . to be applying insecticides .

• Spray drift causes direct contamination of bees, • Leave adequate signage in the area, including Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource hives or flowering plants . contact details . • Place hives in sheltered areas away from crops that Communication between crop owners and bee are likely to be treated with insecticide . keepers is key to developing a mutually acceptable chemical program and minimising the risk to bees . Bee-friendly practices for growers • Advise beekeepers with hives in the area that you intend to spray, giving as much notice as possible (at least 48 hours) to allow time to close down or move hives for the risk period . • Choose chemicals that are less toxic to bees – carefully read all product labels (particularly ‘Protection of Livestock’ statements) to check toxicity to bees . • Avoid applying insecticides at times when bees are foraging . Consider spraying very early in the morning (low hazard/short residual chemicals only) or late in the evening after bees have stopped foraging . • Take care to avoid spray drift and contamination of water supplies .

89 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species LACEWINGS & ANTLIONS BENEFICIAL (Order Neuroptera)

Green lacewings Chrysopidae - approximately 70 Australian species . Brown lacewings Hemerobiidae - approximately 50 Australian species . Generalist and transient

Distinguishing characteristics/description

10 mm 20 30 green lacewing larva brown lacewing larva green lacewing adult brown lacewing adult

Adult Green lacewing Brown lacewing *Large compound eyes (bulging) on side of head . Eyes have a metallic sheen

*Long bead- like (filiform) antennae 2012

*Two pairs of relatively equal sized, clear (membranous) wings . Numerous cross veins across entire wing surface (lace-like appearance) . Wings held tent-like over body when at rest

Larva Green lacewing Brown lacewing

Larvae carry *Tapering body dead prey material on shape with their back highly mobile legs . Body covered in curved spines

*Large sickle- shaped mouthparts (modified jaws) projecting from the front of the head * indicates character for all species

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 90 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species Lifecycle Distribution/habitat Complete metamorphosis . Lacewings are common throughout most of Australia The females of many green lacewing species lay their and can be found in almost all habitats . They are common eggs on the end of thin stalks . These may be attached on native vegetation, such as flowering eucalyptus, and to wood, leaves or other plant parts . Female brown in house gardens . Their numbers increase where there is lacewings lay eggs directly on vegetation . After hatching, an abundance of prey, such as aphids . larvae moult on average three times (sometimes four or five depending on the species) before they spin a silken Pests attacked/impact on pests cocoon in which they pupate . Most larvae are active predators and have large sickle- Development is usually rapid (approx . three weeks for shaped sucking jaws, which they use to catch small brown lacewings at temperatures of 25-30°C), with insects and suck out their insides . numbers most prevalent in spring and autumn when large populations move to areas rich in prey . Many Brown lacewing larvae and adults are both predatory, species of lacewings go through several generations a while only green lacewing larvae are predatory . Some year . adults of lacewing species supplement their diet with pollen and are omnivorous .

Confused with/similar to Predatory lacewings prefer sap-sucking insects such Lacewing adults can be distinguished from other as aphids, mites, scale insects and moth eggs, but as winged insects by the presence of numerous veins generalists they will eat a wide range of prey . and forked veins in wings . They can be confused with Ute Guides, Southern (pp.137-138)/ Western (pp.113-114) dragonflies (Odonata) and stoneflies (Plecoptera) but lacewings usually have longer antennae and softer bodies than dragonflies . Lacewings can also be confused with flying termites . Lacewings do not have two thin processes (cerci) at the end of the body (abdomen) as in stoneflies .

Lacewing larvae are easily distinguished by the prominent jaws at the front of their head that take up Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource almost all of the head region . Green lacewing larvae commonly cover themselves in debris and the bodies of their prey as camouflage . © 2012

91 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species SPIDERS (Order Araneae) BENEFICIAL

Various families and species - approximately 2000 Australian species . Generalist and residential

Distinguishing characteristics/description

Wolf spider (Lycosidae)

Eight legs

Various spider eye arrangements as seen from front (some of the eyes can be found on top of the head) . Most spiders have eight eyes

Abdomen Fused head and thorax (cephalothorax) Mouthpart (chelicerae) used for grasping and killing, usually pointed downwards . Fangs can be pointed side- 2012 ways and inwards or pointed backwards © towards the centre of the body Spinnerets

Source: Line drawings modified from Child (1965) Mouthpart (palps) . Swollen on the ends (males)

Lifecycle Distribution/habitat Incomplete metamorphosis . There are at least six groups of spiders that commonly Most spiders have one generation per year . occur in field crops, with the most common being active Spiders are easily recognisable but identification of specific hunters (rather than web-building) . These include the families and species requires specialist knowledge . wolf and huntsman spiders that chase down their prey, and trapdoor spiders that lie in wait to grab prey walking All spiders are predatory and use a variety of hunting past their burrows . Smaller spiders, such as jumping strategies to capture their prey, therefore it is easier to spiders, are usually well-hidden ambush specialists and, classify them in their functional group (e .g . web-builders although harder to see, are just as important . or active hunters) . Pests attacked/impact on pests Confused with/similar to Spiders consume a wide range of prey . They are effective Spiders can range from just 0 5. mm in size to large predators not only of pests but also on other predators . species such as the huntsman with a leg span of over 20 cm . All spiders spin silk from a group of spinnerets at the Ute Guides, Southern (pp. 134)/Western (pp. 108-110). end of the abdomen, but not all are web building for the purpose of catching prey .

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 92 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial and exotic Species More Information PestFax/PestFacts services The PestFax/PestFacts services are free Website links interactive tools designed to keep growers and DAFWA Department of Agriculture and Food, advisers informed about pest-related issues Western Australia - and solutions - as they emerge during the www .agric .wa .gov .au growing season .

SARDI South Australian Research and The services are distributed as electronic Development Institute newsletters and aim to help growers achieve www .sardi .sa .gov .au maximum yield and quality for the lowest CESAR CESAR cost by providing timely information about www .cesaraustralia .com pest outbreaks, effective controls and current information about relevant and new research PIRSA Department of Primary Industries and findings . Regions, South Australia www .pir .sa .gov .au To provide this service PestFax/PestFacts draws Vic DPI Department of Primary Industries, Victoria on the field observations of consultants, growers http://new .dpi .vic .gov .au/agriculture and researchers across southern Australia as they report on the location and extent of DEEDI Department of Employment, Economic invertebrate outbreaks . Development and Innovation, Queensland The PestFax/PestFacts services, part of GRDC’s www .dpi .qld .gov .au/26_3510 .htm National Invertebrate Pest Initiative (NIPI), also I & I NSW Industry and Investment, New South Wales issue warnings (or reminders) for a range of www .dpi .nsw .gov .au invertebrate pests of broadacre crops, including CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial pulses, oilseeds, cereals and fodder crops . Research Organisation www .csiro .au For further information or to subscribe to these

services visit: Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource GRDC Grains Research and Development Corporation PestFax (DAFWA) www .grdc .com .au http://www .agric .wa .gov .au/pestfax PHA Plant Health Australia: Grains Biosecurity www .planthealthaustralia .com .au/go/ biosecurity/grains PaDIL Pest and Disease Image Library www .padil .gov .au PestFacts SA & western Victoria Edition (SARDI) www .sardi .gov .au/pestfacts

93 SECTION 4 COMMON Pest, Beneficial AND EXOTIC Species IPM Principles and Case Studies

5 IPM SECTION 5 IPM Principles and Case Studies

Introduction ...... 2 Biological control ...... 4. Biological agents ...... 5 Conservation and enhancing natural enemy numbers ...... 7 The impact of biological agents on pest populations ...... 7 Cultural, physical and other control of insects ...... 10 Host plant availability ...... 10 Removing the ‘green bridge’ ...... 10 Host plant susceptibility and resistance ...... 11 Stubble retention, minimum tillage and changing farming systems . . . 11 Grazing ...... 11 Chemical control of insects and resistance issues ...... 12 Pesticide usage and IPM ...... 12 Selective insecticides ...... 13 Insecticide resistance and tolerance ...... 13 Conserving the benefits of insecticides using an IPM approach ...... 15 Rotation of insecticide groups ...... 15 Area-wide management (AWM) ...... 1. 6 What is AWM? ...... 16 The benefits of AWM ...... 16 For which broadacre pests is AWM applicable? ...... 16 First steps towards AWM ...... 16 Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource AWM examples ...... 17 Case studies ...... 20 Case study 1: Shelterbelts in agricultural landscapes suppress invertebrate pests . . . . 20 Case study 2: Selective chemicals and their role in broadacre cropping ...... 21 Case study 3: Creating pest problems and losing money with broad-spectrum pesticides 22 Case study 4: Seed dressings protect emerging canola seedlings from pest attack . . . . 23 Case study 5: The effects of grazing on redlegged earth mite populations ...... 24 Figures and Tables Figure 5.1 Flow chart for IPM decision making ...... 3 Figure 5.2 Schematic moth lifecycle and associated parasitoid (wasp) . . . . 6 Figure 5.3 Diagram illustrating the concept of AWM ...... 18 Figure 5.4 How IPM and AWM work together to achieve pest management at larger scales ...... 18 Table 5.1 Beneficial species commonly observed in broadacre crops ...... 8 Table 5.2 Impact of insecticides on natural enemies in crops ...... 14 Table 5.3 Pest species for which an AWM approach may prove more useful than a paddock-by-paddock approach ...... 19 © 2012

1 SECTION 5 IPM Principles and Case Studies Introduction

In its simplest form, integrated pest management (IPM) The sole reliance on chemical control for pest is a control strategy in which a variety of biological, management is NOT a sustainable long-term chemical and cultural control practices are combined to solution . IPM does not mean the abandonment manage and prevent pests (invertebrates) from reaching of pesticides but aims to reduce the frequency damaging levels in crops . The integration of a range of of pesticide applications . effective, economic and sustainable pest management tactics to deal with pests replaces the reliance on any Pesticides within an IPM framework are tools used single control method to give stable long-term pest to assist in pest control when biological and control . cultural control methods are insufficient .

IPM principles involve a sound understanding of pest biology, natural enemies of pests and host crop IPM advantages phenology to allow rational use of a variety of control tactics . These control strategies generally fall into the • Natural enemies are encouraged to help maintain categories listed below . pests . • Maintaining chemical effectiveness by reducing (or Biological control delaying) the risk of pests developing resistance to • The conservation or release of natural enemies insecticides . (predators, parasites and pathogens) that feed on or • Reduced chemical contamination of produce and attack pests (e .g . control of canola aphids by ladybird environmental damage . and lacewing predators) . • Reduced use and dependence on chemicals . Cultural control • Increased health benefits to producers, their families, staff and consumers by decreased pesticide usage . • Tactics such as crop rotation, trap cropping, crop hygiene, removal and destruction of weeds (e g. . • Development of more robust cropping systems that ‘green bridge’) and diseased plants, planting/ do not rely solely on one method of control . 2012

© harvest date selection, site selection, cultivar • Potential to save money and time spent applying and variety selection and nutrient management . pesticides . The incorporation of nectar-producing plants to encourage natural enemies . IPM disadvantages Mechanical/physical control • More complex than using chemical control alone . • The use of barriers such as windbreaks and physical • Requires a time commitment for regular crop disturbances of the system (e g. . mowing, grazing, monitoring . ploughing and inter-row cultivation) . • Requires an understanding of the ecology of the cropping system, the ecology of the pests, their Genetic natural enemies and the surrounding environment . • The use of crop varieties bred or genetically • Lack of economic threshold information on many developed for pest resistance/tolerance . pests and the control their natural enemies provide, Pesticides can lead to uncertainty of acceptable damage levels or risk to crops associated with IPM strategies . • Strategic chemical applications that are justified by monitoring and use of valid pest threshold levels . • Potential crop damage associated with the transition to an IPM system . • Where applicable, the use of selective chemical options that are specific to target pests and relatively harmless to natural enemies (e g. . pirimicarb for aphids, Bt for caterpillars and pesticide baits for beetle pests) should be used in preference to broad- spectrum insecticides . • Spray application techniques (e g. . correct timing, nozzle selection and coverage) .

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 2 SECTION 5 IPM Principles and Case Studies The IPM decision-making process A change in mindset on how to tackle pests, coupled with the development of a new set of IPM principles are well documented, but when and how decision-making tools is critical for sustainable to intervene remain the key questions for most growers pest management . and advisers . To successfully implement good decision- making practices in an IPM framework one must gain One of the most difficult parts of any IPM program is confidence in, and adopt, a new set of tools for the deciding when and what action to take . decision-making process . This involves a whole-systems approach that extends beyond simply killing pests when Flow charts with set pathways, like the one below (Figure they appear . 5 1. ), provide a good start to help you develop a decision- making process and a flexible program that can be A sound understanding of the following is required: modified to suit any crop-production system . It is • pest and beneficial identification skills; important to accept that longer time-frames may be • pest and beneficial lifecycles, biology and ecology; required to achieve pest control through the adoption of IPM methods (i e. . actions may need to be put in place • effective crop monitoring or scouting skills that a year or two prior to receiving the benefit) . provide specific information on pest and beneficial activity; • effects of pest damage on crop yield and quality utilising economic thresholds as the front line for pest control decisions; • the impact of different control tactics on pest populations and their natural enemies .

Figure 5 1. Flow chart for IPM decision making

1 . Identify the pests that are present . Previous monitoring and paddock history will help inform this decision (consider both the primary pest and other pests) . Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

YES CONTINUE MONITORING 2 . Are there sufficient beneficial species that could control the pest in the short-term or long-term?

NO SPRAY SELECTIVE INSECTICIDE NO 3 . Are there sufficient pests to cause an economic loss or crop damage? This a judgement that each individual will have to make . .

USE BAIT, SEED DRESSING, YES BORDER SPRAY OR OTHER FARM PRACTICES YES 4 . Are there selective (chemicals that target only the pest), cost effective insecticides available to spray?

NO USE A NON-SELECTIVE INSECTICIDE YES (important to assess subsequent 5 . Are there baits, seed dressings, border sprays damage to beneficial species) or other farm practices that could be used?

Forward planning is essential to maximise the pest control options available . If control of the pest problem is only addressed in the year of sowing, the options and ability to minimise the effect on

beneficial species through different treatment options is greatly reduced . For example, if a seed Project and Graze Grain Cam Nicholson IPM brochure Modified from Source: dressing is not used, then pest control options are further reduced to just in-crop spraying . © 2012

3 SECTION 5 IPM Principles and Case Studies Biological Control

All pest populations are regulated to some degree by There are several different approaches to using biological the direct effect of other living organisms . Beneficial control agents, including: species (natural enemies) play a vital but often unseen natural biological control role in cropping systems . The Classical biological control concept of integrated pest management (IPM) is based T his involves the deliberate introduction and on naturally-occurring levels of biological control agents establishment of imported (exotic) natural enemies to or a deliberate effort to increase these levels . control established pests . In Australia, there have been many parasitoids (e g. . aphid wasp parasitoid Aphidius Biocontrol agents may be arthropods (insects, ervi) and predators (e g. . predatory mite of lucerne mites, spiders) and disease-causing microorganisms flea, Bdellodes lapidaria) imported and established in and pathogens (bacteria, fungi, protozoa, broadacre agriculture . There are also a number of weed nematodes and viruses) . biocontrol agents that have been released (e g. . the flea beetle, Longitarsus echii for Paterson’s curse weed Many invertebrate natural enemies are highly mobile control) . and will move from crop to crop if left unsprayed . They can help keep pest populations under control but the This control approach must adhere to the Biological degree to which they can be used will vary with crop Control Act (1987) and takes years before biocontrol type, area and time of year . Broad-spectrum insecticides agents can be released . generally have harmful effects on beneficial invertebrate populations . Inundation or seeding biocontrol agents Major characteristics of beneficial organisms C ommercially available biocontrol organisms can be and pathogens: either mass-released (inundative) to have an immediate impact or released early (seeded) into the system so they • They kill, reduce reproduction, slow growth, or can breed up with the pest . These approaches are more shorten the life of pests . suited to intensive forms of agriculture, high value crops, • Often host specific i e. . will attack only target pest small areas and those with market requirements for low 2012

© species or are specific to a life stage . or no pesticide use . • Their effectiveness may depend on environmental Natural biocontrol conditions or host abundance . N aturally occurring beneficial populations do their • The degree of control may be unpredictable . own thing, provided they are not sprayed with broad- • They are relatively slow acting and may take several spectrum insecticides . The preservation of natural days or longer to provide adequate control . enemies already in the system is the most effective approach likely to be used in broadacre systems . Biological control is more easily implemented in intensive Therefore, various strategies (e g. . cultural techniques) forms of agriculture (such as tree crops or horticulture) that preserve and enhance natural enemies should be where the maintenance of biological control agents and favoured, such as providing alternate food sources (e g. . the expenditure of resources to monitor and maintain nectar sources, non-pest hosts) and refuge habitats (e .g . high levels of biological control are economically remnant vegetation) . justified .

In extensive and discontinuous broadacre agricultural systems it is more difficult to utilise biological control, but natural agents are often seasonally abundant and can reduce pest damage in crops and pastures . Pest attack would be more frequent and severe without them in our systems . While it may not be viable to employ all biological approaches and all components of IPM, we can improve the management of beneficial organisms that naturally occur .

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 4 SECTION 5 IPM Principles and Case Studies Biological agents In broadacre agriculture, most biological control agents GENERALIST predators in this category are parasitoids . Predators (adults and immature forms) are mainly free- Main parasitic and parasitoids groups: wasps (e g. . living species that consume a large number and range Braconidae, Ichnuemonidae, Trichogrammatidae, of prey during their lifetime and are therefore often Scelionidae, Mymaridae, and Chalcidoidea), and flies (e g. . regarded as generalists rather than specialists . Tachinidae, Calliphoridae and Sarcophagidae) .

Characteristics of generalist predators It is important to know what parasitoids look like, • Generally larger in size than their prey . and which pests and life-stages they attack . • Consume many prey (often attack immature and Evidence of parasitism adult prey) . Ways to determine if parasites or parasitoids are present: • Males, females, immatures and adults all may be predatory . • look for evidence of an ‘exit hole’ in the host caused by the parasitoid (e g. . aphid parasitoid or ‘mummified’ • Can be transient (e g. . ladybirds) or residential (e g. . aphid bodies); predatory mites) . • dissect samples (can be difficult if an insect is very • Have different approaches to how they find and kill small); their prey (e g. . mantids sit and wait and may also be camouflaged while ladybird beetles actively search • rear individuals of the pest in an insect proof jar to for prey) . see if any parasitoids emerge; • Modification of their body parts in keeping with their • observe deformed caterpillars or wasp cocoons predatory style (e g. . well developed mouthparts and surrounding caterpillars . legs, streamlined bodies or other modified structures

to enhance prey capture) .

Main predator groups: spiders (Arachnida), predatory mites (Acarina), lacewings/antlions (Neuroptera), beetles RESIDENTIAL or TRANSIENT modes (Carabidae, Coccinellidae, Staphylinidae), hoverflies Residential: Permanently living within the

(Syrphidae) and true bugs (Hemiptera) . Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource system and most relevant at crop establishment . SPECIALIST parasites and parasitoids Usually have limited dispersal capabilities . Parasite - an organism that lives in or on the body of Pests include mites, cockchafers, wireworms and another organism (the host) during some portion of its slugs . lifecycle (e .g . parasitic mites) . They mostly do not kill the host . Beneficials include predatory mites, carabid beetles and native earwigs . Parasitoid - invertebrate that oviposits externally on, or internally in a host, where eggs hatch and larvae feed Transient: Mobile species that do not and develop into adults, eventually killing the host permanently reside in a system and generally (e .g . some flies and wasps) . See Figure 5 .2 for a schematic have shorter generation times compared with diagram of a parasitoid and its host . residential species . Beneficial species will often follow the movements patterns of prey in and Characteristics of parasitoids and parasites out of crops . • They are highly specialised and host specific, often with a prolonged and specialised relationship with Pests include aphids and moths . one or a few hosts (i e. . will attack only one species or Beneficials include ladybirds, lacewings, and a particular genus) . parasitic wasps . • They tend to be smaller than their host . • Only the female searches for the host to deposit eggs . • They are often very susceptible to chemicals, particularly the adults . • Can be gregarious or solitary . © 2012

5 SECTION 5 IPM Principles and Case Studies Figure 5 .2 Schematic moth lifecycle and associated parasitoid (wasp)

Un-parasitised Eggs Moth

Moth pupae C aterpillar

Lifecycle broken here by egg Parasitised parasitoids Moth Eggs Lifecycle broken here by larvae and pupae parasitoids Parasitic wasp laying Parasitic wasp an egg in a caterpillar emerges Parasitic wasp cocoon develops

Source: C . Paull (SARDI)

Disease-causing micro-organisms

2012 and pathogens © Fungi: Fungi are the most common diseases of insects . Bacteria: Bacteria rarely kill insects but one species, Fungal spores that come in contact with insects Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), and variants of the strain have germinate under certain conditions and fungal hyphae been widely used as a biocontrol agent . penetrate the insect’s skin (cuticle), often releasing toxins . The fungus grows inside the insect body and Bt is mainly used against caterpillar pests (Lepidoptera) leads to its eventual death . Useful genera: Beauveria, but is also active against some beetles (Coleoptera) and Entomophthora, Hirsutella, Metarhizium, Nomuraea and mosquito larvae (Diptera) . It is formulated as a dust or Verticillium . as granules and then applied as an aqueous spray . The bacteria need to be applied when pest larvae are The disadvantages of fungi include: young as there is a delayed killing action . Bt toxins are • sporulation and germination require ideal conditions also produced in some genetically modified crops such (adequate moisture and humidity) to affect control in as cotton and corn . Check out the Bt checklist on page the field of large pest populations; 13 in this section .

• difficult to mass produce consistently for Nematodes: Nematodes are microscopic invertebrates commercial use and have a limited storage life . with a smooth, cylindrical body and no legs . They Metarhizium is available for locust control (e .g . Green actively search for their host, then enter the body TM Guard ) . through natural openings where they release bacteria that digest the insect . The nematodes then feed on Viruses: Many viruses infect and kill insects . This occurs the bacteria/insect slurry . Eventually the dead insect mainly via viral proteins damaging the insect’s gut lining . bodies rupture and release further nematodes . Some Several useful naturally-occurring viral groups include: nematodes are commercially produced as a dehydrated the nuclear polyhedrosis viruses (NPVs), granulose cellulose mixture, which is rehydrated before use in high viruses (GVs), cytoplasmic polyhedrosis viruses value crops . (CPVs), and entomopoxviruses (EPVs) . NPV is available commercially (e g. . GemstarTM) .

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 6 SECTION 5 IPM Principles and Case Studies Conservation and enhancing natural The impact of biocontrol agents on pest enemy numbers populations An effective strategy in broadacre systems is the D etermining the effectiveness of biocontrol agents can conservation and enhancement of beneficial species be difficult and is often underestimated, as their actions that occur in paddocks naturally . The abundance of are not as immediate as those seen with insecticide use . beneficial species is affected by host pests, sugar It is also very difficult to assess and quantify the amount sources, mating partners, overwintering sites, shelter, of prey taken, since biological agents tend to destroy climatic conditions and insecticide usage . Preserving or their hosts leaving little evidence of their actions . enhancing these requirements will ultimately lead to an increase in their overall effectiveness . Under changing environmental conditions and crop management practices, pest and beneficial organisms Practical techniques that could help are rarely stable but oscillate to different degrees . The to conserve and enhance beneficial response time of biological control agents is often too effectiveness include: long for the control of pest populations approaching • tolerating some pest damage early in the season; economic levels and those increasing quickly in numbers (e g. . a migratory moth flight with a large egg-lay event • delaying spraying if large numbers of beneficials in a paddock) . are present and pest damage is below economic threshold levels; Look for trends in monitoring data • leaving some areas unsprayed if these areas are Monitoring numbers of pest and beneficial species harbouring beneficial species; over time by sampling crops can provide an estimate • using selective insecticides (where available) that are of the impact that natural enemies may be having . less harmful to beneficial species (e g. . pirimicarb for For example, large numbers of ladybirds, lacewings aphid control); or hoverfly larvae picked up in sweep net sampling of canola crops indicates that these beneficials are feeding • using appropriate timing and application of on pests, within the crop . pesticides (i .e . using registered rates when economic pest damage is about to occur and not as ‘insurance’ Research in broadacre grain crops will hopefully develop sprays); and utilise beneficial / pest ratios similar to those used in

• spraying late evening to minimise direct exposure of the cotton industry . Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource foraging bees; • using beneficial insect attractants (e g. . food sprays) in high value crops; Food webs • using refuge areas (e g. . shelterbelts with shrubs/ Pests and natural enemies are part of a complex trees) or nursery crops which help to conserve food web of potentially many hundreds of sources of natural enemies; species . Individuals interact with others in a • maintaining habitat diversity on farm by using a variety of ways and can use resources from many mixture of crops and preserving bushland; habitats across the landscape (see case study on • using insect resistant crop varieties . shelterbelts in this section on page 17) .

There is a growing awareness of the utilisation of For example, adult lacewings use flowering ‘ecosystem services’ for long-term sustainability plants as a source of nectar and pollen and may of some agricultural systems and the ability of these also eat honeydew exuded from other insects . services to generate economic and ecological benefits . Easy access to these resources improves an adult Extensive research overseas has demonstrated the value lacewing’s lifespan and their ability to produce of manipulating landscape features to assist in pest eggs . Spiders can consume a wide variety of non- control (see cultural control in this section) . pest and predatory species and these can be valuable food resources prior to pest populations developing in fields .

Field crops, despite being widespread across a landscape, are extremely temporary habitats so it is important that natural enemies can find all the resources they need from other habitats across the landscape, such as perennial vegetation patches . © 2012

7 SECTION 5 IPM Principles and Case Studies Table 5 .1 Beneficial species commonly observed in broadacre crops

Beneficial Prey or host Mode of Monitoring Field Life mobility method prevalence Name Name Life stage stage Carabid beetles Larvae Resident Ground-dwelling pests . Larvae, Shelter traps All year in O: Coleoptera and Slugs, caterpillars, nymphs and or night either adult or F: Carabidae adults European earwigs, adults observation larval forms Various species true wireworms, false wireworms and moth larvae

Predatory mites Nymphs Resident Redlegged earth mite, Nymphs Direct Autumn to O: Acarina and blue oat mite and and adults search, spring F: Various families adults lucerne flea suction and species samples and e g. . snout mites pitfalls Bdellodes species

Native earwigs Nymphs Resident, Caterpillars, mites, Larvae, Direct All year O: Dermaptera and some lucerne flea and some nymphs search F: Labiduridae adults capable pest earwigs and adults under e g. . Labidura truncata of flight wood, rocks, and some other etc ., shelter native species traps

Spiders Nymphs Resident, Flies, crickets, lucerne L arvae, Direct All year for O: Araneae and some are flea, aphids, caterpillars nymphs search, most species F: Various families adults carried by and moths and adults suction and species winds as samples and juveniles Most invertebrates pitfalls including other predators 2012 © Hover flies Larvae Transient A range of soft-bodied Nymphs Direct Predominantly O: Diptera only insects, but prefer and adults search and spring to F: Syrphidae aphids sweep net autumn

Brown lacewings Larvae Transient Various moth pests Larvae Direct Predominantly O: Neuroptera and and eggs search and spring to F: Hemerobiidae adults sweep net autumn Aphids, thrips and mites Nymphs and adults

Green lacewings Larvae Transient Various moth pests Larvae Direct Predominantly O: Neuroptera only and eggs search and spring to F: Chrysopidae sweep net autumn Aphids, thrips and mites Nymphs and adults

Predatory bugs Nymphs Transient Various moth pests Larvae Direct Predominantly Nabids, damsel bug and and eggs search and in spring O: Hemiptera adults Aphids, leafhoppers, Nymphs sweep net F: Nabidae mirids and mites and adults Shield bugs Nymphs Transient Various moth pests Larvae Direct Predominantly O: Hemiptera and and eggs search and in spring F: Pentatomidae adults sweep net Various species Assassin bugs Nymphs Transient Various moth pests, Larvae, Direct Predominantly F: Reduviidae and other bugs and wasps nymphs and search and in spring Various species adults adults sweep net

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 8 SECTION 5 IPM Principles and Case Studies Table 5 .1 Beneficial species commonly observed in broadacre crops (continued)

Beneficial Prey or host Mode of Monitoring Field Life mobility method prevalence Name Name Life stage stage Ladybird beetles Larvae Transient Various moth pests, Eggs, larvae, Direct Predominantly O: Coleoptera and aphids, leafhoppers, nymphs and search and in spring F: Coccinellidae adults thrips and mites adults sweep net Various species

Parasitic wasps

Wasp parasitoids Adult Transient Diamondback moth Larvae Direct Predominantly (medium-large, search and in spring 10-20 mm) sweep net F: Ichneumonidae Diadromis spp . and Diadegma semiclausim

Netelia spp . Adult Transient Armyworms, cutworms Larvae Direct Predominantly Heteropelma and and native budworms search and in spring Lissopimpla spp . sweep net Ichneumon sp . Adult Transient Native budworm and Larvae Direct Predominantly some armyworms search and in spring sweep net

Wasp parasitoids Adult Transient Moths including Larvae Sweep net Predominantly (small <5mm) armyworm, cutworm and rearing in spring F: Braconidae and native budworm out host

Cotesia spp . and larvae Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Apantales spp . F: Aphidiinae Adult Transient Aphids Nymphs Look for Predominantly (various species) and adults aphid spring to mummies autumn

F: Trichogrammatidae Adult Transient Moth larvae (wasps are Eggs Eggs will Predominantly species specific) not hatch & spring often turn black

Diseases of insects N/A N/A Moth larvae, aphids and Most Look for High pest Fungal diseases grasshoppers . Some are effective diseased populations or • Bacillus spp . species specific on young larvae/ through spray • Nomuraea rileyi larvae and fungus on applications • Beauveria bassiana nymphs bodies of • Zoopthora radicans pests • Metarhizium spp . • Pandora sp . • Conidiobolus sp . Viral diseases N/A N/A Moth larvae Most Look for High pest Nuclear polyhedrosis effective dead larvae populations or on young in ‘V’- shape through spray larvae applications © 2012

9 SECTION 5 IPM Principles and Case Studies Removing the ‘green bridge’ Cultural, physical and T he term ‘green bridge’ describes the role of weeds and crop volunteers in helping pests cross from one cropping other control of insects season into the next . Late summer and early autumn rainfall is an important trigger for the establishment C ultural farming management practices and the use of of the ‘green bridge’ in parts of Australia where winter mechanical or physical techniques are incorporated into cropping dominates . Availability of summer/early an IPM framework . These management practices can autumn weeds within regions can provide pests with a minimise pest attack by altering the habitat to achieve food source that enables them to develop and increase . partial or complete pest control . Pest populations can then infest any subsequent crops Cultural practices and techniques for pest control sown early in the season, when pests transfer from dying have been used in agriculture for centuries and their weeds (e .g . following herbicide sprays) to new seedlings . effectiveness is frequently underestimated or not fully The most damaging situations usually occur where pest utilised . Examples include plant varietal selection, time of populations have had several weeks or even months to sowing, crop rotation, crop hygiene and cultivation/fallow . increase in number prior to crops being sown . These seasonal situations are usually accompanied by high Other practices or tactics aim to alter paddock habitat to temperatures that provide fast developmental rates for promote beneficial species and encourage their survival . pests . These areas are relatively new in broadacre and need to be further researched and developed . While individual farmers will benefit from efforts to eradicate the ‘green bridge’ on their properties, effective Host plant availability control requires neighbours to work together to remove volunteers and weeds simultaneously . Weeds should be Most insects have preferred hosts (oligophagous) and controlled early . Plants along fencelines, around sheds some are host specific (monophagous) . By manipulating and roadsides should all be targeted as potential hosts plant host availability, pest populations can be suppressed for pests . Seasonal conditions provide an indication of or controlled . Seasonal variations will naturally provide a the ‘green bridge’ risk from year to year . wide range of host availability options for insects . Examples of pests that can use ‘green bridges’ are Destroying host plants using chemical fallowing or a lucerne flea and Bryobia mites . These species will have cultivation fallow for several weeks prior to crops being 2012 an early hatch from their over-summering diapause state

© sown will greatly reduce the populations of many pests and increase rapidly if good rainfall provides abundant by depriving them of a food source . Complete fallow weed growth . Snails and slugs will also emerge from periods (no green material) of about two weeks are their summer resting phase to commence development sufficient to starve-out many pests . when green hosts are abundant . Aphids and Rutherglen bugs are solely reliant on the availability of host plants Changing farming practices in some cropping areas has to over-summer (i e. . survive between seasons) . The seen the introduction of lucerne, millet, grain, sorghum abundance of these plants available during summer/ and other summer host plants into the farming system . early autumn will determine the level of their carry- These plants will increase the feed availability and over between seasons . Seasons with dry summer/early survival of some insect pests . Examples include aphids, autumn periods often result in lower pest pressures . Helicoverpa spp , . Sitona weevil, Rutherglen bugs and African black beetle . Reduced pest pressure can also occur in seasons where ‘false breaks’ enable insect activity on weeds following Managing host weeds for some pests is also important . early rainfall, before prolonged hot dry weather destroys For example, the vegetable weevil, prefers to feed on those weeds . capeweed . They can often be found in high densities in pastures or areas of paddocks where capeweed is The risk of viral diseases such as barley yellow dwarf dominant . Use of selective herbicides and grazing to virus (BYDV) or wheat streak mosaic virus (WSMV) is also manage capeweed in pastures prior to sowing canola increased in years with a ‘green bridge’ . Virus survival will help to reduce weevil numbers below damaging between seasons will increase if hosts such as volunteer levels . cereals and their disease-carrying vectors are given the opportunity to increase . Aphids will transmit BYDV and Sampling pre-season weeds for the presence of insects wheat curl mites carry WSMV from diseased hosts into will provide an indication of potential pest pressure new season crop seedlings if seasonal conditions allow that may affect crop seedlings at germination . for their development .

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 10 SECTION 5 IPM Principles and Case Studies Host plant susceptibility and resistance Stubble retention, minimum tillage and Some cultivated agricultural plants have been selected changing farming systems by breeders or genetically modified for their resistance Increased stubble retention within cropping systems has or tolerance to specific insect pests . occurred over recent decades largely as a result of: • higher yielding crops; Plants are known to have at least three categories to defend themselves from insect attack: • increased use of minimum or no till cultivation; • antibiosis – the eating of particular plants adversely • fewer or no grazing animals in the farming system; effects the biology of the feeding insect; • reduced burning of stubble . • antixenosis – the plant has characteristics that deters insects from feeding; Stubble retention has favoured the increase of some pests, such as the bronzed field beetle, weevils, slugs • tolerance – plants are able to withstand or quickly and snails, which now have a higher pest status . Bronzed recover from insect damage . field beetle larvae can reach very high numbers in some paddocks and have caused significant damage to canola High levels of malic acid in most varieties of chickpeas in some seasons . This is exacerbated by poor control is very effective at deterring most insect pests (apart with insecticides . from the native budworm) as well as beneficial species . Some varieties of narrow-leafed lupins (e g. . Yorrel and Some farmers have addressed excessive stubble Tallerack) are susceptible to feeding damage by aphids, through burning stubble in autumn, cultivation to while others (e g. . Tanjil and Wonga) are considered incorporate stubble into the soil, baling and removing resistant . These host susceptibility characteristics are straw following harvest and widely dispersing straw important when considering pest management options . behind headers . Canola is very susceptible to damage by insects and Changes in tillage practices have also favoured the is often treated with prophylactic insecticide sprays increase and survival of some residential beneficial to avoid anticipated damage . The small cotyledons species such as carabid beetles, predatory mites of canola and exposed growing tips make it most and spiders . However, the benefits of some of these vulnerable to damage . Pulse crops with exposed growing natural enemies has been reduced by the over-use of points are also vulnerable, but to a lesser extent, as their

‘insurance’ spraying with broad-spectrum insecticides . Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource cotyledons are more robust and fleshy . Cereal crops with concealed growing points (within their stems) are far less Changing farming systems have resulted in a ‘changing vulnerable to insect attack and can tolerate high levels pest complex’ with some newer pests becoming more of defoliation before plant death occurs or spraying is troublesome and other pests becoming less problematic . economically justified . For example, the increasing use of swathing as part of the harvest system has meant that vagrant insects Genetic engineering techniques have enabled foreign sheltering in swaths have contaminated grain samples . genes, such as insecticidal toxins, to be inserted into the Examples of these grain contaminants include the molecular structure of some agricultural crop species . bronzed field beetle, vegetable beetles and weevils . For example, the toxins of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) have been incorporated into some transgenic varieties of cotton and canola . Grazing Grazing management is an effective technique to alter Testing of cultivars of transgenic peas that have resistance the populations of a number of pasture pests . The carry- to the pea weevil has provided promising results in over benefits of grazing management will also have WA . Research and development of crop cultivars with a large bearing on pest populations in pasture/crop tolerance against pests is less likely while effective and rotations . Pests affected by grazing strategies include cheap insect control is available . redleggged earth mites, lucerne flea, slugs, snails, weevils and other beetles such as false wireworms, The susceptibility characteristics of crop types cockchafers and African black beetle . are important when considering pest management options . © 2012

11 SECTION 5 IPM Principles and Case Studies Redlegged earth mite populations are dramatically reduced by grazing winter/spring pastures to ‘feed on Chemical control of offer’ levels of below 2 5t/ha. . This reduction is due to the altered pasture habitat and micro-environment insects and resistance providing a harsher environment for mite survival, as well as direct ingestion by stock . Grazing to these levels issues has the added advantages of: • greater pasture utilisation by increased animal Pesticide usage and IPM production; Pesticides within an IPM framework are the support • changing pasture composition to favour legumes tools used to assist control when biological and cultural and decreasing grasses; methods are insufficient . Although chemical control • increased legume (sub clover) seed production . is still an important part of an IPM strategy, there needs to be a shift from using non selective broad- Intensive spring grazing of selected pasture paddocks spectrum pesticides to more selective alternatives, if that will be cropped in the following season is routinely available . Broad-spectrum or ‘hard’ chemicals (e g. . most carried out by many cereal farmers, with the major organophosphate, carbamate and synthetic pyrethroid objective of minimising grass seed production and insecticides) have an impact on a wide range of non- carryover . Less well understood is the added bonus of target organisms . minimising the seasonal carry-over of some pests . In contrast, selective or ‘soft’ pesticides are active on The benefits of grazing can be equivalent to spraying specific pest types (e g. . pirimicarb for aphids, Bt for pastures with insecticides . For example mite populations caterpillars) and are effective management tools that 2 have been reduced from approximately 50,000/m to facilitate – rather than disrupt – the natural biological 2 less than 102 mites/m in grazing trials at the South control that already exists . By specifically targeting Stirlings (WA) . particular pests, they allow beneficial species to remain in the system to help further suppress other pests . Crop establishment in paddocks following pastures that have been intensively grazed in spring to prevent large Start to take a whole-systems approach – get to know pest carry-over will be less reliant on seed dressings and your pest and beneficial invertebrates and the role they foliar insecticides . play . Start to change your tactics – have a closer look

2012 at alternative control strategies . Think about ‘softer’

Chemical pesticides such as insecticides, acaricides and molluscicides are categorised into various groups according to their mode of action and chemical composition . They are also referred to by the different formulations available (for example: WG = water dispersible granules, EC = emulsifiable concentrate) . Formulations refer to how the chemical’s active ingredient is prepared with other substances and made available to the end user . It is partially dependant on the chemical’s physical properties and influences the mode of application . The effectiveness of a pesticide is based on its chemical nature, effect on the target pest and the environment in which it is applied .

Chemicals should preferably be applied in conjunction with general IPM principles . By law, all chemicals must be used in accordance with current label instructions . This includes the rates applied and adhering to withholding periods for grazing, harvesting and fodder production .

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 12 SECTION 5 IPM Principles and Case Studies Selective insecticides T he terms ‘soft’ or ‘selective’ are frequently applied to Bt checklist pesticides (active ingredient) that kill target pests, but • Spray as late in the day as possible to minimise have minimal impact on non-target organisms . UV breakdown of product .

In practice, there are varying degrees of ‘softness’ and • The lack of Bt persistence in the field means some insecticides are selective or safe for one group of it must be applied as a uniform spray to leaf natural enemies but not another (see Table 5 .2) . surfaces where young insect pests are actively feeding . Unfortunately, soft chemical control options are not • Target the small larvae, < 5 mm long (Bt is less available for all pests and selective pesticides are not toxic and effective on larvae > 5 mm) . always expected to provide 100 % mortality of the • Avoid applying if rain (or overhead irrigation) target pest, but aim to suppress population numbers so is expected within 24 hours after spraying . that biological and cultural methods can regain control . • Use a wetting agent . In addition to foliar applications, other soft options • Use a high water volume . include coating seeds with insecticide (seed dressing) prior to sowing . The chemical is translocated into the • Make sure your water is not too alkaline . new growing shoots where it provides control of plant A pH of 6 .5 to 8 .0 is ideal . feeding pests . This control option delays application of • Make sure you use the appropriate strains and foliar sprays giving beneficial insects time to build up formulations suitable for the target pest . and smaller quantities of chemical are applied per • Spray out within a few hours of mixing . hectare . Seed dressings may not give sufficient protection against large numbers of pests . For example, insecticide seed dressings on canola may not be effective against very large populations of redlegged earth mites .

The routine application of insectide seed treatments Management of resistance is essential to ensure that should not be practiced (i e. . using treated seed every valuable insecticides remain effective . One of the year across all paddocks) . As with foliar applications, objectives of IPM is to help manage insecticide resistance pests can develop resistance to chemicals expressed by reducing the overall use of insecticides . This reduces Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource through seed treatments . The use of the seed treatments the number of selection events . Insecticide resistance should be reserved for paddocks where moderate levels has evolved in many important pest species within of pests are expected . Australia including the cotton bollworm, diamondback moth, whiteflies, several species of aphids and mites as well as many grain storage pests . Insecticide resistance and tolerance Resistance occurs when applications of insecticides Many pest species possess natural tolerances to several remove susceptible insects from a population leaving chemicals which is unrelated to developed insecticide only individuals that are resistant . Mating between these resistance . The exact reasons for these differences in resistant individuals gradually increases the proportion tolerance levels between species are unknown . Body of resistance in the pest population as a whole . size and plant hosts have been suggested as factors for Eventually this can render an insecticide ineffective, varying levels of susceptibility to chemicals observed in leading to control failures in the field . Resistance can be some species . For example, Balaustium and Bryobia mites due to a trait that is already present in a small portion of are difficult to control in the field with insecticides used the pest population or due to a mutation that provides to control other mites, such as the redlegged earth mite resistance . The main mechanisms of resistance are target and blue oat mite . Laboratory assays have discovered site insensitivity, metabolic resistance, penetration these pests have not developed resistance following resistance, altered behaviour and cross-resistance . extensive exposure to insecticides, but rather have a naturally high tolerance to multiple chemical classes . © 2012

13 SECTION 5 IPM Principles and Case Studies Table 5 .2 Impact of insecticides on natural enemies in crops

INSECTICIDES TOXIC EFFECT ON SPECIFIC NATURAL ENEMIES

Hymenoptera

Active Ingredient Persistence Spiders acewings Ants L xicity bees to Haplothrips o Impact rating Predatory bugs Predatory T parasitoids arval & pupal Predatory beetles Predatory L Egg parasitoids Egg

Bacillus thuringiensis (VRP) Very short VL VL VL VL VL VL VL VL VL Very low

NP virus Very short VL VL VL VL VL VL VL VL VL Very low

Pirimicarb Short H VL VL VL VL - L VL VL L VL Very low

Indoxacarb Medium L VL - L VH M - VH L VL - L VL VL H Low

Metarhizium anisopliae Short L L L L L L L L L Low

Spinosad Medium H - VH MHVL VL - M VL VL HH Low

Fipronil (low) Medium VH M VH L L - M VL M VH VH Moderate

Fipronil (high) Medium VH M - H VH L L - H VL M VH VH Moderate

Imidacloprid Medium VH L - M H H M - H L L HMModerate

Methiocarb Medium VH VH - M VH VH - - VH High

Methomyl (VRP) Very short H M - H H H - VH L - H M - H M H H High

Organophosphates (VRP) Short-medium H H VH H M - H L MHHHigh

C arbaryl Short - - - H H - - H H High

Synthetic pyrethroids (VRP) Long VH VH VH VH VH H - VH VH VH H Very High 2012

Overall impact rating (% reduction in natural enemies following application): VL (Very Low) less than 10% H (High) 40-60% L (Low) 10-20% VH (Very High) > 60% M (Moderate) 20-40% A dash (-) indicates no data available

Persistence of pest control: short = < 3 days; medium = 3-7 days; long = > 10 days Pyrethroids may include alpha-cypermethrin, beta-cyfluthrin, cyfluthrin, bifenthrin, esfenvalerate, deltamethrin, lamba-cyhalothrin and gamma-cyhalothrin . Organophosphates may include dimethoate, omethoate, profenofos, chlorpyrifos, methidathion, parathion-methyl, diazinon, fenitrothion, maldison, phosmet and methamidophos .

Data sources: Cotton Pest Management Guide 2009-2010 . Cotton CRC Extension Team, Industry & Investment NSW (2009) . Toxicity of Tomato & Bell Pepper Insecticides/Miticides to Beneficial Insects . Mark A . Mossler, University of Florida AFAS Extension (2008) . Koppert Biological Systems (http://side-effects .koppert .nl/) . HAL project VG04004 “National diamondback moth project: integrating biological chemical and area-wide management of brassica pests” . K . Henry (pers . comm ). .

IMPORTANT NOTICE: Although the authors have taken reasonable care in the advice, neither the agencies involved nor their officers accept any liability resulting from the interpretation or use of the information set in this document . Information provided is based on the current best information available from research data . Users of insecticides should check the label for registration in their particular crop & state, and for rates, pest spectrum, safe handling and application details . Further information on products can be obtained from the manufacturer .

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 14 SECTION 5 IPM Principles and Case Studies Conserving the benefits of insecticides Rotation of insecticide groups using an IPM approach Effective and sustainable insecticide management seeks T he routine use of low cost non-selective pesticides can to minimize the selection pressure on invertebrates to be very effective, but indiscriminate use of chemicals can develop insecticide resistance . Alternations or rotations also lead to changes in the populations of non-target of chemicals from groups with different modes of pests and increase potential chemical resistance . Over- action will ensure that successive generations of the use of insecticides will also affect the pest/beneficial pest are not repeatedly treated with the same chemical balance and secondary pests may flare up, which can be compound . This particularly applies to pests with more problematic than the initial pest problem . multiple generations in the one season that may require several spray applications . Pest populations are often affected by competition from other pests within farming systems . For example, Rotating use of the commonly used synthetic pyrethroid applying chemicals with specific activity against (group 3A) and organophosphate groups (1B) in redlegged earth mite (e .g . bifenthrin) will frequently lead broadacre farming, with other groups (where possible), to a substantial increase in lucerne flea numbers through will help to minimise resistance development of target the removal of competition . In other cases, farmers have and non target pests . commented that by increasing their pesticide usage they have not solved their pest problems, but have Other important considerations when chemical selected for pests that are more difficult to kill, such as control is required include: Balaustium mites . • chemical rotation of insecticide groups to reduce the pressure of resistance onset; Non-selective insurance (prophylactic) sprays • increasing or decreasing the rates of insecticides may to protect crops ‘just in case’ is not a speed up the development of resistance and in the sustainable practice . case of increasing rates, could lead to unacceptable The application of broad-spectrum insecticides in a levels of residues; strategic and targeted manner (e g. . seed treatments, • target the spray application to the most vulnerable baits and spot or border spraying rather than wide- pest life-stage; spread and insurance applications), will help to avoid • spray application techniques (e .g . time of day, nozzle the detrimental effects on natural enemies and increase

selection to avoid drift, good coverage); Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource their benefits . • withholding periods for stock, harvest or fodder crops - check label; • delay the spraying of a non-selective insecticide for as long as possible . © 2012

15 SECTION 5 IPM Principles and Case Studies For which broadacre pests is AWM Area-wide management applicable? AWM works best for species that are mobile, migratory, or (AWM) capable of being transported large distances . For these species the home-range of an individual may be much What is AWM? larger than a single paddock . Control tactics applied at the paddock-scale may only help for short periods of Area-wide management (AWM) aims to solve pest time because the species can recolonise quickly . management problems by coordinating the efforts of growers in an area . AWM can take many forms, from There are species that have lower mobilities, but are still neighbours discussing how to tackle common pest potential candidates for AWM . Coordinating the timing problems through to centrally organized groups that of control tactics may have the biggest impact on these implement a coordinated control tactic . AWM may be species (e .g . species that may have developed resistance particularly useful for mobile (or transient) pests where to insecticides) . Table 5 .3 is a rough guide that indicates management at a larger-scale may be more effective which pest species are likely candidates for AWM . If than a paddock-by-paddock approach (Figure 5 .3) . you are experiencing problems with these species you should consider an AWM approach . AWM can also improve our ability to achieve IPM goals . IPM principles can be applied at the paddock-scale, but some activities may provide better results if used across First steps towards AWM larger areas (Figure 5 4. ) . This is where AWM comes in . Here is a general guide to the steps involved in For example the Australian Plague Locust Commission developing an AWM approach . implements an AWM plan to control locust populations . These pests are highly mobile, migratory species that Step 1 . Define the problem have the ability to inflict damage across a range of What is the pest problem? Is it high abundance agricultural industries in multiple states . A coordinated of a pest causing direct damage and yield loss, area-specific and time-dependent response to threats or perhaps a pest causing damage at critical posed by this pest is required . Another example comes times of crop growth or establishment? Is from AWM groups that were developed in response there control failure that may be linked to pest to cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera, problems resistance to an insecticide? in cotton on the Darling Downs in Queensland . AWM

2012 groups had regular meetings before, during and after Step 2 . Identify the objective © the season to share information . Their objective was Minimising crop damage and increasing profit to reduce the survival of overwintering insecticide- may be the ultimate objective of AWM, but what resistant pupae and reduce damage to susceptible crops are the specific goals of an AWM approach? across a region . They may include reducing pest densities over the long-term, slowing new pest arrivals into The benefits of AWM the crop, slowing the spread of insecticide resistance, stopping disease transmission, or AWM can be used to address a number of objectives making sure pests are at low levels during a relating to pest problems at a regional or district scale . critical crop growth stage . For certain species, a sustained reduction in pest populations across time is more likely to be achieved if Step 3 . Where, when, and how big is the other susceptible crops and pastures surrounding the problem? paddock are taken into consideration (Figure 5 3. ) . The same is true for increasing the abundance and activity Identify what crops this pest attacks . Determine of beneficial species . Actions aimed at minimising the how many growers in the area are experiencing spread and/or development of insecticide resistance, a similar problem . Examine maps and assess and the spread of diseases vectored by insect pests are the location of susceptible crop-types now or more likely to provide better long-term results if efforts in future plantings, the location of large areas of are coordinated across neighbouring growers . other host plants such as pasture or weeds, and any likely sources of beneficial species .

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 16 SECTION 5 IPM Principles and Case Studies Step 4 . What are the management options? AWM examples C onsider a range of management options that 1 . Green peach aphid (see p 41, section 4) is a highly include pre-season actions such as destroying mobile species that can move rapidly into a region weeds that host pests between seasons, and has shown resistance to insecticides . The sometimes known as the ‘green bridge’ (see objective of an AWM plan in your region may be to p 10 this section) . Make sure you can identify the reduce the populations of over-summering aphids pest and the relevant beneficial species in the on weeds and slow the spread of resistance . Before field . Know what insecticides work best, their the season starts get together as a group and map availability, and the economic threshold (see out the likely locations of crops at risk (canola and p 9, section 6) for spraying . Think about cultural pulse crops) . Determine if resistance is present in control options including grazing pastures and your region and to what chemicals (you may need to the timing of crop harvest (see p 11 this section) . send samples to your Department of Agriculture or Primary Industries) . Step 5 . Gain commitment from participants Make sure all growers are committed to the Clarify the identification of this species as it can plan and feel confident in the actions they easily be confused with other aphid species . Assess need to take . It may help to ask your local the over-summering weather conditions and, if and district agronomist (DA) or trusted consultant where, a ‘green bridge’ is present . Before planting to coordinate the group’s activities . Plan a discuss how the group will communicate during the monitoring strategy that is simple to use and season and plan some management options (see discuss how results will be communicated to p 44, section 4 ) . During the season monitor and the group . record as planned, and compare pest levels to thresholds of economic injury . Keep regular contact Step 6 . Monitoring, recording and with the group and share information on where you communicating throughout the season do and don’t see aphids and if beneficial species are As the season progresses catch up regularly present and active . to let each other know how it’s going . At the end of the season get together and reflect on If pest levels reach threshold, hence a spray is the season and discuss what worked and what required, use a selective insecticide that doesn’t disrupt beneficial species . Before spraying, check

could be improved . Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource the mode of action, and develop a plan for rotating different chemical groups throughout the season . After applying an insecticide, monitor to assess if the spray(s) worked, and watch for ‘flaring’ of secondary pests .

2 . Native budworm (see p 11, section 4) is a pest that migrates from inland Australia into agricultural regions and its life-cycle is well known . The larvae cause damage to pulses and canola but will also damage other crops and pastures as it feeds on a wide variety of host plants . When developing an AWM plan for this species, (in addition to the steps detailed in example 1) you could use pheromone traps (see p 6, section 6) to monitor for influxes . Traps are placed across a wide area and checked weekly . The information is communicated to the AWM group (or to a pest alert service such the PestFax/ PestFacts services) where all trap information is collated and disseminated to subscribers . This is a great early-warning system, and can signal the need for more frequent monitoring for the larval stages that are most damaging . Crop monitoring to determine whether the pest has reached threshold can be conducted using a sweep net (see p 5, section 6) . © 2012

17 SECTION 5 IPM Principles and Case Studies Figure 5 .3 . Diagram illustrating the concept of AWM . A . indicates a hypothetical pest outbreak . B . indicates a situation where a pest is controlled on a paddock-by-paddock basis . c . indicates AWM where all habitat-patches are controlled in a co-ordinated fashion . 2012 ©

Figure 5 .4 How IPM and AWM work together to achieve pest management at larger scales (Source: L . Wilson, pers . comm .) .

Field Farm Groups Region

IPM IPM Groups AWM

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 18 SECTION 5 IPM Principles and Case Studies Table 5 .3 Pest species for which an AWM approach may prove more useful than a paddock-by-paddock approach . Mobility and outbreak frequency across large areas: *** high; **intermediate; * low; ? too little information for confirmation . Insecticide Resistance:  recorded in Australian grain crops; ✗ not recorded AWM:  AWM may bring benefits over a paddock-by-paddock approach; ~ AWM provide some benefit but other species are high priority for developing AWM; ✗ little added benefit from AWM .

OUTBREAK INSECTICIDE PESTS MOBILITY AWM FREQUENCY RESISTANCE green peach aphid *** ***   oat aphid *** *** ✗  rutherglen bug *** ** ✗  diamond back moth *** ***   budworm (Helicoverpa spp ). *** ***   Australian plague locust *** * ✗  redlegged earth mite ** ***   Other aphids (corn, spotted alfalfa, blue green, pea) *** ** ✗ ~ green mirid *** * ✗ ~ cockchafers ** ** ✗ ~ wheat curl mite ** *** 1 ✗ ~ 2 Bryobia mite or clover mite ** ** ✗ ~ two-spotted mite * * ✗ ~ Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Balaustium mite ** *** ✗ ~ blue oat mite ** *** ✗ ~ cutworms *** ** ✗ ~ armyworms *** ** ✗ ~ lucerne seed web moth *** ** ✗ ~ snails ** ** ✗ ~ thrips (western flower, onion, plague thrips) ** *  ~ lesser budworm (Heliothis punctifera) ** * ✗ ✗ leafhoppers ? * ✗ ✗ true and false wireworms ** ** ✗ ✗ weevils ? * ✗ ✗ European earwig ** ** ✗ ✗ lucerne flea * *** ✗ ✗ brown wheat mite ** * ✗ ✗ slugs * *** ✗ ✗ black Portugese millipede ? * ✗ ✗

1 Can reach high abundance in local outbreaks 2 Controlling the ‘green bridge’ may be important for reducing disease transmission by this pest

19 SECTION 5 IPM Principles and Case Studies IPM in Practice: Case Studies

Case study 1 Shelterbelts in agricultural landscapes suppress invertebrate pests Location: Western district and Northern Country, Victoria Date: 2003-2004 Lead Researcher: Angelos Tsitsilas (CESAR)

Summary: Landscape ecology can be manipulated in The windbreak composition/ecology is important, with such a way that promotes natural enemies and aids IPM long grasses and shrubs offering complexity, which strategies . The use of windbreaks in providing a reservoir in turn provides more niches for important beneficial for key functional invertebrates and their impact on pest invertebrates such as spiders, predatory mites, species was investigated . Invertebrates along transects parasitoids and pollinators . Thus, relatively simple running from replicated shelterbelts into pastures were measures, such as the management of a windbreak sampled . Numbers of redlegged earth mites, blue oat understorey can be used to maximise the use of mites and lucerne fleas were low within shelterbelts . naturally occurring biological control and have a direct Numbers were typically lower adjacent to shelterbelts negative impact on pest invertebrates . compared with 50 m into the pasture, an effect that was much more apparent when shelterbelts carried a (Adapted from Tsitsilas et al ,. 2006 . Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 46: 1379-1388) . groundcover of high grass (>30 cm) .

Streatham Streatham Streatham Average numbers per sample Average

Redlegged earth mites Blue oat mites Lucerne fleas

Number of pest species in windbreaks and in adjoining pasture . Transect points are marked as negative when extending into the windbreak and positive into the adjacent pasture . Closed squares and solid lines = simple shelterbelts . Crosses and dashed lines = complex shelterbelts . Error bars = standard errors for transect points . (Data from Tsitsilas et al ., 2006 AJEA 46: 1379-1388) .

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 20 SECTION 5 IPM Principles and Case Studies Case study 2 Selective chemicals and their role in broadacre cropping Location: Northern Country, Victoria Date: 2008 Lead Researcher: Stuart McColl (CESAR)

Summary: Although chemical control is still an A trial was performed in a canola crop in late spring important part of an IPM strategy, there needs to be a to examine the efficacy of the selective aphicide shift from using broad-spectrum pesticides to more (pirimicarb) against the cabbage aphid, Brevicoryne selective alternatives if they are available . Broad- brassicae . This was compared with a conventional spectrum chemicals invariably kill non-target organisms, broad-spectrum insecticide . Pirimicarb provided very whereas the use of more selective or ‘soft’ pesticides good control of cabbage aphids up to 25 days after is an effective management tool that facilitates – rather application . Pirimicarb also showed little negative than disrupts – the natural biological control that effect on a number of important beneficial predatory already exists . By specifically targeting plant-feeding invertebrates, including lady beetles, lacewings and invertebrates, they allow beneficial species to remain in hoverflies . the system to help suppress pest numbers . (Unpublished preliminary findings from S . McColl and P . Umina) . Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Preliminary field trials assessing the ‘soft’ chemical pirimicarb, for the control of cabbage aphids in a late-spring canola crop at Elmore, Victoria, in 2008 . Control = unsprayed canola . DAT = days after treatment application . Error bars = standard error of the mean . (McColl & Umina, unpublished) . © 2012

21 SECTION 5 IPM Principles and Case Studies Case study 3 Creating pest problems and losing money with broad-spectrum pesticides Location: South Burnett region, Queensland Date: 2001 Lead Researcher: Hugh Brier (DEEDI)

Summary: Mirids are major pests of summer pulses, such In contrast, H . armigera populations in unsprayed plots as mungbeans, attacking buds, flowers and small pods . remained well below threshold . This trend is explained Despite being quite damaging to crops, the threshold by a 50% reduction in beneficial activity in dimethoate- levels for mirids (0 3. - 0 5. mirids/m2) are low because sprayed plots, and a negative correlation between the most effective pesticides, such as dimethoate, are beneficial activity (mainly predatory bugs, beetles and inexpensive . As a result, most crops are sprayed at least spiders) and H . armigera activity in this trial . once for mirids, often at the first sight of the pest at early flowering . These applications are disruptive to beneficial The economic implications for the trial crop in question insects (predatory bugs and beetles, parasitic flies are shown in Figure B . The expected crop value if there and wasps) . It is therefore not surprising that there are was no pest activity is $660/ha, based on $600/t and reports of outbreaks of Helicoverpa armigera within 7-14 a yield of 1 1. t/ha . If the pests are untreated, economic days of mirid spraying . Helicoverpa armigera is a major threshold models predict crop value will be reduced to caterpillar pest of mungbeans . $609/ha . When the ‘above threshold’ mirid population is controlled, the predicted crop value in the absence of Data presented from a mirid management trial confirms H . armigera increases to $645/ha . However, if the that a single dimethoate spray can initiate an above- insecticide application results in an increase in threshold outbreak of H . armigera (Figure A) . While H . armigera the crop value declines to $596/ha . While 2012

© mirids were adequately controlled by dimethoate in this H . armigera may not be flared in every mungbean crop trial, populations of H . armigera increased significantly to sprayed for mirids, the above scenario illustrates how a above threshold within 10 days of spraying . single spray of a non-selective pesticide can trigger an outbreak of another pest, reducing the crop’s net return to growers .

(Adapted from Brier HB, 2009 . Final Report for GRDC project DAQ00086) .

Figure A . Data showing pest population trends following a single applica- Figure B: Crop values ($/ha) for different spray treatment scenarios tion of dimethoate against mirids in flowering/early podding mung- in mungbeans with a yield of 1 .1 t/ha and a crop value of $600/t . beans . D500 = dimethoate @ 500mL /ha D500 = dimethoate @ 500mL /ha, S400 = Steward (indoxacarb) @ 400mL/ha, helis = Helicoverpa armigera . The calculations assume application costs of $5/ha with a ground rig .

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 22 SECTION 5 IPM Principles and Case Studies Case study 4 Seed dressings protect emerging canola seedlings from pest attack Location: Western district, Victoria Date: 2008 Lead Researcher: Paul Umina (CESAR)

Summary: Seed treatments provide targeted control In this trial, plots containing both insecticide seed of many invertebrate pests . They offer protection at the treatments did not require foliar applications to control critical establishment phase of crops and can often delay any crop establishment pests . However, it is important application of foliar sprays giving beneficial species to note that seed dressings may not give sufficient time to increase in number . A research trial was protection against pests, including earth mites, when performed in an emerging canola crop under attack found in large numbers . Monitoring crops (even those from the redlegged earth mite (Halotydeus destructor) sown with insecticide treated seed) during the first few and blue oat mite (Penthaleus sp ). . weeks of emergence is critical .

Two registered seed dressings, imidacloprid (Gaucho®) (Unpublished preliminary findings from P. Umina and S . McColl) and fipronil C( osmos®), were compared with untreated canola seed . Untreated control plots had significantly fewer plants per square metre, higher plant damage scores and lower crop vigour scores than all insecticide seed treated plots at all sampling dates . Fewer pest mites

were found in the plots sown with insecticide-treated Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource seed and significant benefits in yield were observed in these plots compared with the untreated controls .

A) B)

Preliminary field trials assessing the effect of seed treatments as a means of protecting emerging canola at Ballarat, Victoria in 2008 . A) Average number of seedlings per metre square at 7 days, 14 days and 28 days after crop emergence . B) Average number of redlegged earth mites per metre square at 7 days and 14 days after crop emergence . Control = untreated seed . Error bars = standard error of the mean . (McColl & Umina, unpublished) . © 2012

23 SECTION 5 IPM Principles and Case Studies Case Study 5 The effects of grazing on redlegged earth mite populations Location - South Stirlings, Mt . Barker and North Dandalup, Western Australia Date: 1992 - 1994 Lead Researcher : Phil Michael (DAFWA)

Summary: Redlegged earth mites are a major pest of Results showed that grazing was clearly a major factor in pastures and seedling crops in southern Australia . Their affecting RLEM populations over the three seasons and impact on agricultural productivity is related to their sites . pest abundance which in turn is related to season and paddock habitat . Pasture production with dominance Reductions in mite numbers with grazing were of broad-leafed species such as clover and capeweed is repeatedly seen with more than ten times the number particularly conducive to redlegged earth mite increase . of RLEM often found in pasture clumps compared with Farming systems in high rainfall areas of Western adjacent “patched grazed” areas . A combination of Australia often have several years of pasture production reasons is involved in the reduction including ingestion followed by a cropping phase, such as canola . In this of eggs and mites by grazing stock, trampling and situation there is a high risk of seedling damage and creating a less favourable / more exposed environment heavy reliance on insecticides to protect seedling canola for the mites . against RLEM damage . Importantly there was a strong correlation between Research was conducted over a three year period on spring and autumn RLEM populations with carryover three separate locations to investigate the effects of populations remaining very low in the 1 4. and 2 .8 t DM/ intensive grazing levels and pest control on pasture ha treatments compared to set stocked plots shown in growth and composition, pest populations and animal the graphs below (Figures A and B) . The low levels of productivity . Three grazing treatments were set-up mites found in the spring and autumn populations of to maintain pasture feed on offer (FOO) levels of 1 4. t the 1 4t. DM/ha treatments were at levels approaching DM/ha, 2 8. t DM/ha and set stocked (S/S) at the district those achieved by repeated spray applications in the average stocking rate for each locality, being South treated plots (not shown as they were close to zero) . 2012 Stirlings, Mount Barker and North Dandalup . © The research has demonstrated that strategic intensive Merino wethers were replaced as one year olds, each grazing can be confidently used as an IPM management year and at each site . Additional merino wethers from tool to manage RLEM populations within the pasture outside the experimental paddocks were added or phase and between seasons perhaps prior to a cropping removed from trial plots as required to maintain the season, with minimal use of insecticides . required treatment feed on offer levels . At each sites, the grazing treatments were randomly allocated within 3 blocks, with and without pest control (total of 18 plots) . The fenced plots ranged from 0 5. – 1 2. ha for 45000 differentially grazed treatments and 1 0. to 1 6. ha for set stocked treatments . 40000 35000

30000 45000 25000 FOO 1.4 t/ha 40000 FOO 2.8 t/ha 20000 Set Stocked 35000 15000 30000 FOO 1.4 t/ha 25000 10000 FOO 2.8 t/ha 20000 5000 Set Stocked 2375 420 16 15000 0 SST MB ND 10000

5000 Figure B: The effects of grazing to 1 .4, 2 .8 t DM/ha or set stocked on the 351 161 351 0 following autumn (year 2) redlegged earth mite numbers per m² at SST MB ND three sites . SST=South Stirling, MB=Mount Barker, ND=North Dandelup Note - The lower levels of autumn mites at North Dandalup (ND) Figure A: The effects of grazing to 1 .4, 2 .8 t DM/ha or set stocked on was because of overgrazing during summer . spring (year 1) redlegged earth mite numbers per m² at three sites . SST=South Stirling, MB=Mount Barker, ND=North Dandelup

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 24 SECTION 5 IPM Principles and Case Studies Monitoring, Record Keeping, Sampling Techniques and Economic Thresholds

6 Monitoring SECTION 6 Monitoring, Record Keeping, Sampling Techniques and Economic Thresholds

Introduction ...... 2 Factors to consider for effective monitoring ...... 2 Monitoring kit checklist ...... 2 Frequency and timing ...... 2 Unbiased and random sampling procedure ...... 3 Plant damage symptoms ...... 3 Sample size and number ...... 3 Defined sampling area ...... 3 Confidence in monitoring crops ...... 4 Sampling techniques ...... 4 Visual observations ...... 4 Suction sampling ...... 5 Sweep net ...... 5 Cut and bash ...... 5 Brushing or beat sheet ...... 5 Sampling with traps Pitfall traps, Pheromone traps, Sticky traps, Light traps, Baiting & shelter/refuge traps ...... 6 Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Effective monitoring and record keeping ...... 7 Sending samples for identification ...... 8 Economic thresholds ...... 9 Yield-based thresholds, Quality-based or preventative thresholds, Defoliation thresholds & Nominal thresholds ...... 9 More factors to consider ...... 10 Multi-pest situations ...... 10 Control decision processes ...... 11 Putting it all together ...... 11 Important factors to consider before deciding to control pests ...... 11 Outcomes of pest control decisions ...... 12 Figures and Tables Figure 6.1 Economic pest thresholds guiding control decisions ...... 9 Figure 6.2 Percent defoliation of soybean leaflets attacked by Helicoverpa larvae10 Table 6.1 Row length estimates for different crop row spacings ...... 4 Table 6.2 Crop monitoring record sheet ...... 13 Table 6.3 Check list of broadacre pests occurring in southern Australia . . . 15 Table 6.4 Checklist of common pest in southern Australia by crop type . . . 19 © 2012

1 SECTION 6 MONITORING, RECORD KEEPING, SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND ECONOMIC THRESHOLDS Introduction

Monitoring pest and beneficial species is one of the most important tools for making informed decisions Monitoring kit - checklist around pest management . • recording sheet (Table 6 2. p . 13) and pencil Frequent, accurate and timely crop monitoring will allow you to: • hand lens • ruler to measure invertebrates and row widths • be aware of pest and beneficial abundance, and their • shovel development and impact on crops and pastures; • sweep net • maximise the chance of effective and timely pest • pitfall trap (and liquid solution) control; • white plastic containers or trays (e .g . ice cream • have the confidence that chemical control is either containers) needed or unwarranted . • sample jars (non-crushable and some with small vent holes for live specimens) When inspecting crops, developing a monitoring kit can • plastic bags be useful (see checklist opposite) . • camera There are a range of monitoring methods available, • torch - for night inspections depending on the type of invertebrates you are looking • sieve for . Knowledge of the pest’s lifecycle and habits, as well as the crop growth stages that are most vulnerable to damage, will allow you to choose the most appropriate technique . Frequency and timing In many cases, it doesn’t take too much longer to Record keeping is useful for decision-making . Monitoring check crops and pastures systematically and to results should be recorded for each visual observation record observations, than some informal monitoring and sampling technique . Use the supplied monitoring

2012 approaches . In cases where pests species are in low © record sheet in this manual or draw up a similar form numbers and/or are hiding during the day, allow that suits your specific needs . sufficient time to complete thorough checks .

Factors to consider for effective It is essential to monitor crops during critical crop stages monitoring such as: • What pest is causing the damage? • pre-sowing; • Is there more than one pest involved? • first few weeks of emergence; • Where are they hiding? • prior to and during pod/grain formation . • How many are there? Management and control decisions should be • Are there any beneficial invertebrates? based on timely monitoring throughout the season to detect early damage and assess the impact of Invertebrate numbers should be recorded so they can beneficial invertebrates . be compared with known economic threshold levels . Insect activity, and hence monitoring, will be influenced by the time of day and weather conditions . Late morning (warmth increases movement) or late afternoon (nocturnal insects become active) are often good times to look . Invertebrates will often move up or down the plant canopy and on or near the soil surface with changes in daily temperature, rainfall and wind events .

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 2 SECTION 6 MONITORING, RECORD KEEPING, SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND ECONOMIC THRESHOLDS Unbiased and random sampling Determine if the pest damage is: procedures • only along the crop edges or on one side where it adjoins Invertebrate pests can be unevenly distributed (patchy) paddocks that may be the source of migrating pests; across a paddock and go unnoticed when monitoring, • in patches that are scattered throughout the crop; especially when plant damage symptoms are relatively • in rows that follow previous cultivation or header trails; minor . Representative parts of a paddock should be checked to account for this . • from a pest that may be hiding during the day . Turning over wood, stubble, rocks or using a tile trap Inspect in an unbiased random pattern covering may catch the culprit . representative parts of the crop . Sample size and number The pattern used for inspecting a paddock will depend on what crops are growing and what stage they are at . In general, taking more smaller samples across a wide area is better than taking just a few large samples . For In small paddocks, walking a W-pattern over the whole example, inspecting many individual plants for aphids or area, selecting random plants along the way and looking budworm in spring over a wide area is far more accurate for symptoms and damage is recommended . than inspecting one square metre at random .

In large paddocks at crop seedling stage, driving or The numbers of samples required and the level of using a motor bike to cover the whole paddock using a confidence obtained is linked to population levels . If ‘zig-zag’ pattern is more practical . populations are well above the economic thresholds (ET) or well below ET, then fewer samples need to be taken . When • Randomly pick five sampling stops (positions) along populations are near threshold levels, a larger number of the zig-zag line . samples will be required to have confidence in the results . • Check plants within an appropriate radius distance (e .g . five metres) around each sampling stop . Defined sampling area • Avoid focusing on small unrepresentative areas as Using a defined sampling area often helps to focus they can give biased results (e g. . most damage may attention and provide a measure for calculations of be on one crop edge or near a grassy shelterbelt) . abundance . For example:

In advanced crops in large paddocks, driving across • Numbers of insects per leaf/growing point Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource is impractical and walking takes too long . It is often best (e g. . mites per seedling, aphids per flowering spike to drive along firebreaks, vehicle tracks or adjoining in canola or cereal aphids per tiller in cereals . For paddocks, stopping at representative spots around the assessments of cereal aphids, it is easier to select paddock . Walk into the crop at least 20 m and sample random tillers and cut them off near ground level there, to be sure you are not just looking at an edge effect . with a sharp knife or cutters, then raise them up to eye level for inspection . The single tillers can then Plant damage symptoms be inspected and turned over in good light to view insects hidden under leaf blades) . Close inspection on or near damaged plants found within a crop is a good starting point . Thoroughly investigate • A wire frame that is a defined area (e g. . 1/10 m) any obvious bare patches, damage symptoms or provides a measure for calculations of abundance . thinning of a crop/pasture and determine the cause, This can be used in established pasture paddocks extent and distribution of the damage . that have relatively uniform coverage . The sample area provides a manageable way of counting plants, Pest damage keys (section 3, p . 18) are a good aid to assessing damage or taking cuts for biomass measure . identify which invertebrates could be present using • Monitoring stations marked by a peg or flagging tape descriptions of their typical feeding patterns and their can be placed in designated spots for fixed referral natural behaviour (e .g . ground dwelling, found on upper points to look at plant numbers, insect numbers and leaves or hiding during the day) . plant damage changes over time . • Using a defined-length pole is useful ot assess plant If no pests are immediately obvious after close numbers and damage along row crops (e g. . number inspection, then the following techniques in this section of plants per unit area) . The size of the sampling area could be used, depending on the time of year and crop is best modified to suit the width of the crop rows type . examined . Table 6 1. (page 4) provides row length estimates for different crop row spacings . The 1/10 m² area is based on distance along a row and the inter- row gap . © 2012

3 SECTION 6 MONITORING, RECORD KEEPING, SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND ECONOMIC THRESHOLDS Table 6 .1 Row length estimates for different crop Sampling techniques row spacings Visual observations Relationship of crop row width Finding pests can sometimes be difficult for the for a sampling area 1/10 m² inexperienced observer because of their small size, Crop row spacing Row length (cm) inconspicuous colours and/or because they hide by day . (cm) (Row length x inter-row gap = 1/10 m²) Some tips are provided below to assist with monitoring . 100 10 • Digging over the upper soil surface to uncover 35 .5 28 .2 hidden pests (e g. . cutworm larvae, false wireworms and cockchafers) . A suitable-sized soil sieve can 30 33 .3 be useful to separate insects from dry soil . Inspect 25 40 .0 underground root systems and soil beneath plants showing poor growth symptoms and yellowing for 20 50 .0 underground species (e g. . Desiantha larvae or adult 17 .5 57 .1 African black beetles) . • Tiller and flower inspections . While walking 15 66 .7 through a crop, inspect random cereal tillers, or canola 10 100 or lupin flowering and podding spikes . Record each observation point to work out an average number per 5 200 tiller or flower spike . Use especially for monitoring aphid populations . Length of stem covered in aphids can also be recorded (see p . 7) . Confidence in monitoring crops • Physically uncover by sifting through plant material This is influenced by: such as stubble and leaf litter for ground-dwelling • Sampling technique . This will vary depending on insects (e g. . wireworms, weevils, earwigs and slugs) the time of year and crop type; and also in the inter-row spaces (e g. . armyworms) . Turn over bits of wood, stones and soil clods to find • Allowing sufficient time to accurately assess (and sheltering pests (e .g . weevils and slugs) . identify) pest levels . It may take more than one

2012 hour to accurately assess a large paddock for pest • Spraying small patches of crop (e g. . few square © populations that are close to ET levels . It will take less metres) with an insecticide can kill off whatever pests time if levels are well above or well below ET; are in the sample area . Inspection of this sprayed area early on the following day may expose hidden pests • Frequency of monitoring . Infrequent checks or (e g. . weevils, false wireworms and cutworm) . Laying missing the critical periods can be costly and give the trails of poison baits overnight and checking early on false impression that pests have appeared suddenly, the following morning will reveal areas of a paddock when in reality, they may have been building up where snails and slugs are most prevalent . over several weeks . For example, a native budworm moth flight may have gone unnoticed and the resultant small larvae may have been present in a pea crop weeks before flowering . Extensive damage to newly formed field pea pods by large larvae would have easily been identified if earlier pre-flowering sweep net sampling was performed; • Proportioning damage where there are a number of issues . Crops can show signs of invertebrate feeding damage together with one or more other stresses such as nutrient deficiency, disease, frost damage and moisture stress .

Confidence in monitoring will result in improved IPM decision making .

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 4 SECTION 6 MONITORING, RECORD KEEPING, SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND ECONOMIC THRESHOLDS Suction sampling ring diameter every time . It is recommended that sweep net samples are used in conjunction with some visual Suction sampling is a sampling method that uses a observations, particularly on the underside of leaves and vacuum machine (sometimes called D-vac) . Suction lower down in the crop canopy . sampling is most effective in dry, upright vegetation <15 cm tall . This method is not effective for larger pests (e .g . some beetles) or those species that live near the soil surface .

A standard petrol-powered garden blower/vacuum machine may be used for suction sampling . A gauze bag or mesh container should be fitted into the suction tube to collect invertebrates while the motor is running at full speed . The suction tube opening should be placed directly over plants and bare soil areas should be avoided . The suction machine should be inverted while Main species targeted: caterpillars, aphids and many on full revs before stopping to withdraw the sample bag beneficial species including hoverfly adults and larvae, or mesh container . Samples should be transferred into a lacewings and ladybirds. Most effective during spring. tray where the species collected can be identified and counted . Cut and bash Select individual plants picked at random . Cut plants near ground level with secateurs . Bash plants over a large plastic rubbish bin (or similar) to dislodge grubs . Record individual results to get average numbers per plant . This can also be used to calculate the number of grubs per square metre if the plant numbers per known area or row-length are also counted .

Main species targeted: caterpillars. Most effective during spring. Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Brushing or beat sheet Brushing foliage over white paper or white ice-cream containers can be useful to detect and count small insects . Alternatively, place a yellow or white piece of canvas/tarpaulin material along the furrow and extend up and over the adjacent row of plants . Use a stick to beat the plants multiple times against the beat sheet, moving from the base to the tops of plants . This will dislodge the invertebrates from the sample row onto the beat sheet, where they can be recorded .

Main species targeted: earth mites, lucerne flea, weevils and predatory mites. Most effective in autumn-winter months.

Sweep net A sweep net is useful to cover a large sample area quickly . It is particularly useful for invertebrates that are difficult to see . Sweep nets can be obtained from most entomological suppliers . Ensure that a full 180° arc is used and that the lower leading edge of the net Main species targeted: bugs, caterpillars, aphids and is angled and ‘sweeps’ the crop canopy so the insects mites. Brushing is effective in autumn through spring. Beat fall into the net . Make sure you use the same netting or ©

sheet is most effective during spring. 2012

5 SECTION 6 MONITORING, RECORD KEEPING, SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND ECONOMIC THRESHOLDS Sampling with traps Sticky traps are usually made from a yellow cardboard material in varying shapes and sizes Some invertebrate species can be easily attracted and/or and have one or more surfaces coated with captured through the use of traps and chemical or visual a non-drying sticky substance . They can be lures . The results of monitoring in this way can provide attached to a post and placed in a paddock (usually just general evidence of pest presence and activity . above the crop canopy) to catch flying insects . Pitfall traps are containers that are dug Main species targeted: aphids and wasps. Effective into the soil, their open-mouthed tops in autumn through spring. They can be useful for early flush with the ground surface . They detection of winged aphid arrival into crops. are used to capture invertebrates that crawl over the soil surface and fall into the opening . Various containers (e .g . Light traps catch many species, but generally plastic cups) can be used for pitfall traps, which usually not in high enough numbers to have an have fluid (detergent/water impact on pest populations . As samples are so mix or glycol) in the bottom . diverse (i e. . large numbers of pest, beneficial Ensure that there is no ‘edge and non–target species), they are often impractical for effect’ and that the trap is estimating numbers . Farmers will often notice large placed flush with the soil numbers of insects attracted to house or shed lights on surface, otherwise smaller warm evenings . Inspecting some of the dead insects species may walk around that drop beneath the light can give an indication of the the trap . movement of pest and/or beneficial species . Main species targeted: most ground-dwelling Main species targeted: moths, beetles and bugs. invertebrates, especially beetles, mites, spiders and ants. Effective in spring and summer. Effective in autumn through spring. Baiting and shelter/refuge traps Pheromone traps use highly specific Baits can be placed under refuges or shelters, such as odours (pheromones) that have the large ceramic tiles, where crawling invertebrates may same function of chemical signals emitted by the hide . After a few days, count the number of pests under targeted female species to attract a mate . As they use and around each square, preferably before midday and female-emitted compounds, they only catch males . They after moist conditions . Be aware that baits which actively are best suited to signalling the arrival of significant peaks attract slugs and snails can result in numbers which are

2012 or influxes in moths over broad areas . They are usually

© artificially high . It is important to sample representative unreliable indicators of pest abundance and sampling parts of each paddock because the distribution of of crops using other methods (e g. . a sweep net) is pests can be patchy . Alternatively, shelters can be used advised in conjunction with pheromone trapping . without baits to provide a more accurate indication of the numbers present in a paddock . Wet carpet squares and hessian sacks can also be used, but provide a less suitable refuge because they heat up during the day and retain less moisture . Materials used as refuge traps should at least be 30 cm x 30 cm . Place traps when the soil surface is visibly wet, allowing a small space for invertebrates to squeeze underneath .

Seed-germinating baits are swollen germinating seeds that are buried in the soil . The chemicals released from the seed during the germination process can attract pests . This is a quick and effective method to assess potential soil-inhabiting pests that attack seeds and seedlings . Remember to mark where you buried the seeds so you can find them again . Main species targeted: moths. Pheromone lures are available for a number of moth species (e.g. Helicoverpa Main species targeted: nocturnal and ground-dwelling spp). Most effective in spring or before anticipated moth species such as slugs, snails, cutworms, weevils and earwigs. flights.

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 6 SECTION 6 MONITORING, RECORD KEEPING, SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND ECONOMIC THRESHOLDS Effective monitoring and record-keeping Spring monitoring for aphids causing Monitoring of pest abundance and damage should feeding damage be recorded together with their distribution within crops . This should be achieved through frequent and Aphids can have a patchy distribution within unbiased (random) monitoring across representative crops . Their habit of forming dense colonies parts of each paddock . Records should also be kept of in clusters often results in high numbers on beneficial species (diversity and relative abundance), a single plant whilst the neighbouring plants as well as other general field information such as crop have few or no aphids . Several separate sites health/stage, paddock history, weather patterns and the within a paddock should be checked to account presence of weeds . for potential patchy distributions and to avoid under- or over-estimating aphid populations . Use the monitoring record sheet supplied in this section (page 13) . Canola crops – check at least five separate representative locations within a paddock and Alternatively you can draw up a similar recording sheet look for aphids on a minimum of 20 random that suits your needs . Monitoring sheets should at least flowering spikes at each point . If more than 20% indicate the numbers of insects found (including details of these are infested with aphids, control should on numbers of adults and immature stages), date, be considered . time, weather conditions and crop observations . This is especially critical if an insecticide treatment is required, Cereal crops – check at least five separate so an accurate assessment can be made post-chemical representative locations within a paddock and application . look for aphids on randomly picked tillers . If 50% or more of these tillers are infested with 15 or Details of spray operations should include date, time more aphids and crops have a yield expectation of of day, conditions (wind speed, temperature and at least 3 t/ha then control should be considered . humidity), product used, product rate and water rate, method of application and other relevant details . Nil or Remember that other factors can contribute to low invertebrate numbers are also important to record . an increased risk of economic yield loss including

poor finishing rains and crops already under Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Accurate records are useful for future reference some degree of stress . to review the success of control measures, help refine thresholds and management guidelines applicable to localised situations and practices, plus provide ‘proof of absence’ of exotic pests for market access . © 2012

7 SECTION 6 MONITORING, RECORD KEEPING, SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND ECONOMIC THRESHOLDS Sending samples for identification

Where there is uncertainty around identification Where delays for correct identification are expected, of a particular pest or beneficial invertebrate, the following preserving methods can be used: seek assistance from your local consultant, a • Hard-bodied insects can be killed and preserved departmental entomologist or through your in 70% alcohol or methylated spirits . Never use regional PestFax/PestFacts services (see section 4 water . for more information) . • Butterflies and moths should be killed by Specimens should be undamaged and in an freezing for 24 hours or by placing them in an appropriate developmental stage for reliable airtight glass container with a ball of cottonwool identification . Some species show considerable or tissue, soaked in nail polish remover or variation in size, colour, shape and appearance acetone . After killing, place them gently in between males and females so, where possible, 10- another container between layers of tissues . 15 fresh specimens should be collected . • Larvae should be killed with water at just below boiling point to ensure that they do not turn Data collection black and become difficult to identify . The Adequate information is essential to aid in successful specimens should then be transferred into 70% identification and is important in cases where the alcohol for preservation . specimen may become part of an insect collection . • Soil-dwelling animals can be placed in moist soil Collection data labels should be written with pencil with the container topped up with a little bit of as ink may run or ruin the sample . The minimum padding (e g. . tissue) to minimise damage by information provided should be date, locality, shaking . collector name(s), host plant and description of damage (type and extent) . Sending samples Specimen preparation Where possible, samples should be sent via express post . Where it is suspected that samples may be Fresh healthy specimens should be placed in a non- delayed over a weekend before being sent or 2012

© crushable plastic container with small pinholes in arriving at their destination, it is better to store them the lid for ventilation . A small quantity of food on in a fridge, between 2-5 °C, to send the following which the insects were feeding should be placed monday . in the container with a piece of tissue to absorb any excess moisture . If strong-jawed predatory Photos insects such as ground beetles or scarab larvae are It is possible to identify species from photos, collected, it is best to place them in separate jars providing a good macro lens is attached to as they may damage each other . Live samples are your camera . It is recommended that multiple easier to identify and this is the preferred method invertebrate photos are taken, together with photos of receiving specimens . of the damage they are causing . Good quality digital photos can be e-mailed to a departmental entomologist or consultant for identification .

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 8 SECTION 6 MONITORING, RECORD KEEPING, SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND ECONOMIC THRESHOLDS Economic thresholds

Economic thresholds are one of the cornerstones Example: A farmer estimates his cost of control (C) is of IPM . They help to rationalise the use of $14 per hectare, and the on-farm value (V) of his canola is pesticides and are one of the keys to $390 per tonne ($0.39/kg). If the given loss (L) of each profitable pest management . caterpillar found in every 10 sweeps is 6 kg/ha, then: EIL = 14 ÷ (0.39 x 6) = 5.98 grubs/10 sweeps The development of economic thresholds requires knowledge of pests, their damage, The lack of entomological broadacre research in the and the crop’s response to damage . southern grain belt has seen many ETs become outdated and somewhat irrelevant to current economic costs and Yield-based thresholds management practices . They will be updated in future . Yield-based economic thresholds are based on measured losses from invertebrate feeding damage that Quality-based or preventative has a direct impact on yield . thresholds Quantitative measures of insect density are used to A preventative pest threshold is a pest population that is assess the pest status of different pests within a given lower than the pest population inflicting critical damage crop type . The economic injury level (EIL) is defined in a crop . In this context, critical damage occurs when a as the pest density at which the loss caused by the pest certain quality standard (such as percentage damaged equals in value the cost of the available control measures . seeds) is breached, resulting in a significant crop value This can also be expressed as the lowest population discount . The threshold is set lower than the critical pest density that can cause economic damage . population because of the need to avoid this quality reduction - almost at all costs . The economic threshold level (ET) or action threshold is a density level at which control measures are instigated When seed quality is the critical pricing factor, preventative thresholds, rather than a yield-based to prevent the pest population from attaining the EIL . Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource threshold, should be considered . The formula for calculating the EIL includes the cost of control (chemical plus application costs), market value of This type of threshold is quite different from a yield- the crop, yield loss attributed to a unit number of pest based threshold where there is no hefty monetary invertebrates and effectiveness of control measures . penalty if the threshold is slightly exceeded . Because quality thresholds are usually very low, thorough EIL = C/VLR monitoring for pests is essential . Inadequate sampling will very likely underestimate invertebrate numbers . Where C = cost of control Figure 6 .1 Economic pest thresholds guiding control decisions (e g. . $/ha) V = value per unit of product (e g. . $/kg) L = yield loss per unit number of insects (e g. . kg of crop eaten by n insects) R = proportionate reduction of insect populations from control measure © 2012

9 SECTION 6 MONITORING, RECORD KEEPING, SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND ECONOMIC THRESHOLDS Example: In an average sized (1500 seeds/m2) crop of Nominal thresholds edible soybeans, more than 2% of seeds are damaged Where the damage factor is unknown, pests are often when green vegetable bug populations exceed 0.5 adult assigned nominal or fixed thresholds, based on the ‘gut bugs/m2. If bug populations exceed this critical level of 2% feelings’ of experienced consultants and researchers . damaged seeds, the bonus for edible quality is lost and While many nominal thresholds have been proved to be crop value can be downgraded by up to $400/ha (i.e. by reasonably close to the mark, they fall down in situations many times the cost of control). Thus 0.5 green vegetable where crop values and spray costs vary widely . These bugs/m2 is a critical pest population in edible soybeans. types of thresholds should be used with caution . The preventative or action threshold in soybeans is set at 0.3 bugs/m2 to ensure the critical damage level is not reached or exceeded. More factors to consider The presence of a pest does not imply it is causing Crop size/yield is important to consider when using quality economic damage to the crop . Monitoring over thresholds expressed as the maximum level of tolerable successive periods will provide a good indication of damage . This is because a given pest population inflicts whether the pest population is increasing or deceasing more damage in percentage terms in a low yielding crop over time . (i e. . one with fewer seeds per unit area) than the same population in a larger yielding crop with many more seeds Other critical factors to be considered include insect and per unit area . Therefore, small crops are at an inherently plant growth stages and the abundance of beneficial greater risk of being downgraded by pest damage . invertebrates . Late in the season, the loss of yield caused Consequently, it is desirable to have an estimate of the by driving a spray vehicle and wheel tracks through the number of seeds per unit area (usually per square metre) crop to apply a treatment must also be considered . when determining risk and thresholds for your crop . Multi-pest situations Defoliation thresholds Where a number of pests causing similar damage are Defoliation thresholds are a type of yield-based threshold, present, it is easier to express their combined damage but are based on studies linking percent defoliation with potential in ‘standard pest equivalents’ . This is much yield loss . Studies have shown that vegetative crops are easier than having a separate threshold for each species remarkably tolerant of attack and can tolerate up to 33% and is the only workable solution where more than one defoliation with no subsequent loss of yield . However, species is present . Further consideration is needed if tolerable defoliation falls to 15-20% during flowering/ pest target species are of varying ages/developmental 2012

Crop stage and health will ultimately have a large bearing on any decisions taken in these situations . The larger the crop, the less percentage defoliation occurs for a given number of leaf feeding pests . As such, rapidly growing, healthy crops are at lesser risk . Smaller, drought stressed crops not only face the risk of terminal damage, but are much more affected by sap-sucking pests, such as aphids and mites . Varying levels of defoliation are shown in Figure 6 .2 .

Figure 6 .2 Percent defoliation of soybean leaflets attacked by Helicoverpa larvae . Note how the measured defoliation seems to be less than suggested by the observer’s eye .

Source: Brier et al 2009 (DEEDI)

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 10 SECTION 6 MONITORING, RECORD KEEPING, SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND ECONOMIC THRESHOLDS Market demands also determine the level of insect Thresholds for immature caterpillars contamination that is acceptable in harvested grain samples before price penalties are applied . Since crop damage is often caused by the larval stages of a pest, the question is often asked about how to factor young larvae into thresholds Putting it all together and damage estimates . Where older larvae are Important factors to consider before deciding detected at sub thresholds, the number of smaller to control pests larvae will have to be taken into account when • Accurate assessment of pest populations and assessing potential economic damage . their distribution within crops . For example, biased monitoring along a crop edge for weevils and Thresholds often assume that they will complete armyworms may give a misleading result . Unbiased their development if not controlled, thus wreaking random observations across the whole paddock may the maximum possible amount of damage . indicate an average population that is below the EIL . However, in practice many larvae are attacked by Spot spraying could be an option in this case . predators, killed by disease or even just forced off the crop (e g. . by rainfall or strong winds) before • Physiological state of the crop . Is the crop healthy they reach a damaging size . For this reason, a and growing well? Poor crop-growth from moisture decision can be made to hold off if the majority stress, poor finishing rains, disease pressure, lack of of caterpillars present are only small, particularly nutrients, waterlogging or wind/sandblasting will if large numbers of predators are present . In other restrict the crop’s ability to cope with invertebrate situations, pests populations alone (irrespective pest pressures . of size) will be above threshold and determining • Prevalence of natural control agents such as the damage potential will be unnecessary . parasitic wasps, ladybirds and insect diseases . Little information is currently available regarding the impact of beneficial invertebrates in suppressing pest populations in broadacre Control decision processes grains . However, it is known that large numbers The ability to assess pest status and make valid control of parasitoids and predators do reduce potential decisions or recommendations depends on the increases in pest populations and their presence

following factors: should be taken into consideration, especially if pest Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource • the ability to identify invertebrate pests . numbers are approaching spray threshold levels . Misidentification can lead to incorrect insecticide usage and continuing pest damage (e g. . mistakenly identifying Bryobia mites for redlegged earth mites); Feeding damage: no economic loss • confidence and the ability to find, and then accurately Feeding damage to the host plant can result in no assess, pest population levels; economic loss to the final crop yield . This is because plants can recover from or out-compete the effects • availability of an economic threshold and consideration of the feeding injury . Economic feeding damage is of contributing factors (e .g . crop health and abundance the measurable loss to the crop yield or quality . of beneficial species); • understanding of pest behaviour and risk For example, redlegged earth mites and lucerne predictability . This is often shaped by an individual’s flea are frequent seedling establishment pests that previous history and experiences of invertebrate cause visually obvious injury to plants but may not pest problems . Fear of potential loss (especially at result in measurable yield loss unless seedlings crop establishment), low confidence in the ability to are severely stunted or actually killed . Even when detect pests and the inconvenience or time involved a percentage of seedlings are killed, some plants in monitoring are important practical considerations . such as canola can survive without a measurable yield loss if the remaining plants are able to express The main impacts of pests in broadacre agriculture compensatory growth . are through feeding damage to plants, transmission of diseases (particularly in high rainfall areas), reduced Native budworm larvae can cause significant injury grain quality or appearance, and grain contamination . to the foliage of pre-flowering pulse crops without any measurable economic loss . However, a lesser Changing market demands will alter the pest status of number of larvae attacking the crop once the pods an insect . For example, acceptable levels of chewed seed are formed will often result in measurable damage damage in field peas will be much higher for feed-grade in the form of harvested grain weight losses . markets than those destined for human consumption . © 2012

11 SECTION 6 MONITORING, RECORD KEEPING, SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND ECONOMIC THRESHOLDS • The dynamics of the pest population in relation to crop growth stage . The amount of crop damage which has already occurred must be considered against any additional damage which will occur if the crops are not sprayed . For example, earth mite numbers may have peaked and caused most of their damage during the cotyledon stage of a canola crop . If inspection occurs when the true leaves have formed, the most critical damaging stage will have passed and plants are likely to outgrow any further damage . • Growth stages of the invertebrate population . For many species, early lifestages consume very little or may even feed on other non-crop sources such as microflora . For example, caterpillar pests such as armyworms, cutworms and Helicoverpa species have multiple instars (life-stages), consuming only about 14% of their total food requirement during the first four stages . Thus, the early stages cause relatively little feeding damage . Comparatively, the last two instars consume 86% of the total food requirement .

Outcomes of pest control decisions No control – Insects below ET - or didn’t check .

Apply insecticides when pest levels are below the EIL (‘insurance sprays’) . This approach is common and somewhat understandable while insecticide prices are low, but it is ecologically unsustainable . This practice will increase the risk of insecticide resistance developing,

2012 reduce beneficial parasitoids and predator populations © and thus increase the reliance on chemicals to control future pest incursions, resulting in higher chemical residues in crops, soils and waterways .

Apply insecticides at the correct time . Well done!

Insecticides applied too late . Plant damage is noticed too late due to a lack of appropriate monitoring . Significant yield losses can be expected despite insecticide application .

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 12 SECTION 6 MONITORING, RECORD KEEPING, SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND ECONOMIC THRESHOLDS Table 6 .2 Crop monitoring record sheet Sample Only

Observer/recorder: Paddock number/name:

Crop and variety: Paddock history (e .g . previous rotations, tillage):

Sowing date: Chemical history (e g. . seed treatments, foliar insecticides, herbicides) Date:…………………Treatment:…………………………………… Date:…………………Treatment:…………………………………… Date:…………………Treatment:…………………………………… Observation 1 Observation 2 Date:……………… . .Time:……… . . am/pm Date:………… . .… . .Time:………… . .am/pm Crop growth stage Crop growing conditions (e .g . moisture stress) Weather conditions at time of sampling Sample number 1 2 3 4 5 Avg . 1 2 3 4 5 Avg . Pest Record no . per sampling unit (leaf/flowering spike/10 sweeps nets/other) Insect Life stage Damage (% of leaf area) Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource

Beneficials Insect Life stage

Biosecurity Pests Record absence . If detect anything unusual call the exotic pest hotline 1800 084 881 Insect

Paddock Map Paddock Map Paddock Map high insect ‘A’ pressure

Other comments (e .g . weather history, soil moisture, herbicide)

13 SECTION 6 MONITORING, RECORD KEEPING, SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND ECONOMIC THRESHOLDS Observer/recorder: Paddock number/name:

Crop and variety: Paddock history (e .g . previous rotations, tillage):

Sowing date: Chemical history (e .g . seed treatments, foliar insecticides, herbicides) Date:…………………Treatment:…………………………………… Date:…………………Treatment:…………………………………… Date:…………………Treatment:……………………………………

Observation 3 Observation 4 Date:……………… . .Time:……… . . am/pm Date:………… . .… . .Time:………… . .am/pm Crop growth stage Crop growing conditions (e .g . moisture stress) Weather conditions at time of sampling Sample number 1 2 3 4 5 Avg . 1 2 3 4 5 Avg . Pest Record no . per sampling unit (leaf/flowering spike/10 sweeps nets/other) Insect Life stage Damage (% of leaf area) 2012 ©

Beneficials Insect Life stage

Biosecurity Pests Record absence . If detect anything unusual call the exotic pest hotline 1800 084 881 Insect

Paddock Map Paddock Map Paddock Map high insect ‘A’ pressure

Other comments (e .g . weather history, soil moisture, herbicide)

Decisions/action taken

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 14 SECTION 6 MONITORING, RECORD KEEPING, SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND ECONOMIC THRESHOLDS Table 6 .3 Check-list of common broadacre pests in southern Australia Blue = Pests Green = Beneficials Red = Biosecurity threat A = adult L = larva Cereals Pulse Canola Pastures Southern Western & Lucerne Ute Guide Ute Guide pp . pp . Mites Pre and/     97-101 75-78 or post RLEM, Bryobia, Balaustium, BOM Snails & slugs emergence     90-94 71-74 (winter) Numerous spp . Lucerne flea 89 70 Sminthurus viridis     True wireworm larvae (L) 60 Not in WA Numerous spp .  Cockchafers (L) Blackheaded pasture cockchafer Accrossidius tasmaniae Redheaded pasture cockchafer   61-63 Not in WA Adoryphous coulonii Yellowheaded cockchafer Sericesthis spp . WA Cockchafer Not in SE 46-47     Australia African black beetle 64 78 Heteronychus arator   Grey false wireworm (L) 57 Not in WA Isopteron spp .  Spinedtail weevil 49 Not in WA Steriphus caudatus 

Predatory mites Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource 135-136 111-112 Numerous spp .     Carabid beetle (A,L) 139 115 Numerous spp .     Spiders 134 108-110 Numerous spp .     Aphids – bluegreen, pea, cow pea 76-78 57-59 Acyrthosiphon spp ., Aphis craccivora   Canola aphids – green peach, turnip, cabbage  73-75 54-56 Myzus sp ., Lipaphis sp ., Brevicoryne sp . Cereal aphids - corn oat 70-71 52-53 Rhopalosiphum spp .  Cutworms (L) 23-24 22-23 Agrotis spp .    Armyworms (some seasons) (L) 21-22 20-21 Persectania spp ., Leucania sp .   Brown pasture looper (L) 36 28 Ciampa arietaria    Pasture day moth (L) 34 33 Apina calisto   Grass anthelid (L) 45 Not in WA Pterolocera sp .   Pasture tunnel moth (L) 35 Not in WA Philobota productella   Pasture webworm (L) 32-33 24-25 Hednota sp .   © 2012

15 SECTION 6 MONITORING, RECORD KEEPING, SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND ECONOMIC THRESHOLDS Table 6 .3 Check-list of common broadacre pests in southern Australia (continued) Blue = Pests Green = Beneficials Red = Biosecurity threat A = adult L = larva Cereals Pulse Canola Pastures Southern Western & Lucerne Ute Guide Ute Guide pp . pp . Mandalotus weevils (A) Pre and/     52 Not in WA or post Mandalotus spp . Vegetable weevil emergence    47 37 (winter) Listroderes difficilis Spotted vegetable weevil continued 48 38 Steriphus diversipes    Bronzed field beetle (L) 56 43 Adelium brevicorne  Vegetable beetle (L) (A) 59 45 Gonocephalum spp .   True wireworm larvae (L) 60 Not in WA Numerous spp .  Small lucerne weevil (A) NSW, WA 39 Atrichonotus sp .   only White fringed weevil (L) 51 41 Naupactus leucoloma  Sitona weevil 50 40 Sitona discoideus  Locust 83-84 64-65 Chortoicetes sp .     Sandgroper Not in SE 68 Clindraustralia sp .   Australia European earwig 88 69 Forficulina auricularia     2012 Rutherglen bug © 65 49 Nysius vinitor     Predatory mites 135-136 111-112 Numerous spp .     Carabid beetle (A,L) 139 115 Numerous spp .     Spiders 134 108-110 Numerous spp .     Predators 106-107, ladybirds, hover flies, lace wings, 132-133, 113-114, nabids     137-141 116, 119-120 Parasites 119-131 95-105 aphid parasites, moth parasites     Turnip moth (L) Agrotis segetum     Russian wheat aphid 171 138 Diuraphis noxia 

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 16 SECTION 6 MONITORING, RECORD KEEPING, SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND ECONOMIC THRESHOLDS Table 6 .3 Check-list of common broadacre pests in southern Australia (continued) Blue = Pests Green = Beneficials Red = Biosecurity threat A = adult L = larva Cereals Pulse Canola Pastures Southern Western & Lucerne Ute Guide Ute Guide pp . pp . Mites Spring 97-101 75-78 RLEM, Bryobia, Balaustium, BOM     Aphids – bluegreen, pea, cow pea Acyrthosiphon spp .   76-78 57-59 Aphis craccivora Canola aphids – green peach, turnip, cabbage  73-75 54-56 Myzus sp ., Lipaphis sp ., Brevicoryne sp . Cereal aphids – corn, oat 70-71 52-53 Rhopalosiphum spp .  Armyworms (L) 21-22 20-21 Persectania spp ., Leucania sp .   Native budworm (L) 18-20 17-19 Helicoverpa spp .     Diamondback moth (L) 25-26 26-27 Plutella xylostella  Lucerne leafroller (L) 29 31 Merophyas divulsana  Lucerne seed web moth (L) 27-28 30 Etiella behrii   Pea weevil (A) 55 44 Bruchus pisorum  White fringed weevil (A)

51 41 Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Naupactus leucoloma  Locust 83-84 64-65 Chortoicetes sp .     Rutherglen bug 65 49 Nysius vinitor     Predatory mites 135-136 111-112 Numerous spp .     Carabid beetle (A,L) 139 115 Numerous spp .     Spiders 134 108-110 Numerous spp .     Predators 106-107, ladybirds, hover flies, lace wings, 132-133, 113-114, nabids     137-141 116, 119-120 Parasites 119-131 95-105 aphid parasites, moth parasites     BIO- Russian wheat aphid  171 138 SECURITY Diuraphis noxia Sunn Pest 181-182 148-149 Eurygaster integriceps  Hessian fly 169-170 136-137 Mayetiola destructor  Leaf miners 180 146 Agromyzidae: Diptera     Barley stem gall midge 175 142 Mayetiola nordei  © 2012

17 SECTION 6 MONITORING, RECORD KEEPING, SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND ECONOMIC THRESHOLDS Table 6 .4 Check-list of common pests in southern Australia by crop type*

Main Risk Main Risk Barley Period Wheat Period African black beetle    African black beetle    Armyworms   Armyworms   Australian plague locust    Australian plague locust    Balaustium mite   Balaustium mite   Blackheaded pasture cockchafer Blackheaded pasture cockchafer (SE Australia only)   (SE Australia only)   Blue oat mite   Blue oat mite   Bryobia mite  Bryobia mite   Corn aphid  Corn aphid  Corn earworms (SE Australia only)  Corn earworms (SE Australia only)  Cutworms    Cutworms    Earwigs   Earwigs   Grasshoppers    Grasshoppers    Grass anthelid (SE Australia only)  Grass anthelid (SE Australia only)  Leafhoppers  Leafhoppers  Lucerne flea   Lucerne flea   Mandalotus weevil (SE Australia only)  Mandalotus weevil (SE Australia only)  Native budworm  Native budworm  Oat aphid  Oat aphid  Pasture tunnel moth (SE Australia only)  Pasture tunnel moth (SE Australia only)  Pasture webworm  Pasture webworm 

2012 Polyphrades weevil (SE Australia only) Polyphrades weevil (SE Australia only)

©   Redlegged earth mite   Redlegged earth mite   Sandgropers (WA only)   Sandgropers (WA only)   Slugs   Slugs   Snails (pointed or conical)    Snails (pointed or conical)    Spinetailed weevil (SE Australia only)  Spinetailed weevil (SE Australia only)  Spotted vegetable weevil  Spotted vegetable weevil  True wireworms (SE Australia only)  True wireworms (SE Australia only)  Vegetable beetle (larvae)  Vegetable beetle (larvae)  Yellowheaded cockchafer   Yellowheaded cockchafer  

Legend  Emergence (autumn – early winter)  Vegetative (winter)  Flowering (spring)  Harvest (contaminant)

* This check-list is a guide only. Pest occurrence and timing may vary between crops, regions, and seasons, influenced by seasonal climatic conditions, soil type and land management programs.

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 18 SECTION 6 MONITORING, RECORD KEEPING, SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND ECONOMIC THRESHOLDS Table 6 .4 Check-list of common pests in southern Australia by crop type* (continued)

Main Risk Main Risk Oats Period Lentils Period African black beetle    Australian plague locust   Armyworms    Balaustium mite   Australian plague locust   Bllue green aphid  Balaustium mite   Blue oat mite   Blackheaded pasture cockchafer Brown pasture looper  (SE Australia only)   Bryobia mite  Blue oat mite   Corn earworms (SE Australia only)  Bryobia mite  Cowpea aphid  Corn aphid  Cutworms    Corn earworms (SE Australia only)  Earwigs  Cutworms    Grasshoppers   Earwigs  Green peach aphid  Grasshoppers    Lucerne flea   Grass anthelid (SE Australia only)  Lucerne seed web moth  Leafhoppers  Mandalotus weevil (SE Australia only)  Lucerne flea   Native budworm  Mandalotus weevil (SE Australia only)  Onion maggot  Native budworm  Redlegged earth mite   Oat aphid  Sandgropers (WA only)   Polyphrades weevil (SE Australia only)  Slugs   Redlegged earth mite Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource   Snails (pointed or conical)    Slugs   Thrips   Snails (pointed or conical)    True wireworms (SE Australia only)  Spinetailed weevil (SE Australia only)  Vegetable weevil   Spotted vegetable weevil  True wireworms (SE Australia only)  Vegetable beetle (larvae) 

Legend  Emergence (autumn – early winter)  Vegetative (winter)  Flowering (spring)  Harvest (contaminant)

* This check-list is a guide only. Pest occurrence and timing may vary between crops, regions, and seasons, influenced by seasonal climatic conditions,

19 SECTION 6 MONITORING, RECORD KEEPING, SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND ECONOMIC THRESHOLDS Table 6 .4 Check-list of common pests in southern Australia by crop type* (continued)

Main Risk Main Risk Lupins Period Peas Period Australian plague locust   Australian plague locust   Balaustium mite    Balaustium mite   Blue green aphid  Blue green aphid  Blue oat mite   Blue oat mite   Brown pasture looper  Brown pasture looper   Bryobia mite  Bryobia mite  Corn earworms (SE Australia only)  Corn earworms (SE Australia only)  Cowpea aphid  Cowpea aphid  Cutworms    Cutworms    Earwigs  Earwigs   Grasshoppers   Grasshoppers   Green peach aphid  Lucerne flea  Lucerne flea   Lucerne seed web moth  Lucerne seed web moth  Mandalotus weevil (SE Australia only)  Mandalotus weevil (SE Australia only)  Native budworm  Native budworm  Onion maggot  Onion maggot  Pea aphid  Redlegged earth mite   Pea weevil  Sandgropers (WA only)   Redlegged earth mite   Slugs   Slugs   Snails (pointed or conical)    Snails (pointed or conical)    2012

Legend  Emergence (autumn – early winter)  Vegetative (winter)  Flowering (spring)  Harvest (contaminant)

* This check-list is a guide only. Pest occurrence and timing may vary between crops, regions, and seasons, influenced by seasonal climatic conditions, soil type and land management programs.

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 20 SECTION 6 MONITORING, RECORD KEEPING, SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND ECONOMIC THRESHOLDS Table 6 .4 Check-list of common pests in southern Australia by crop type* (continued)

Main Risk Main Risk Canola Period Pastures and Lucerne Period Australian plague locust   African black beetle    Balaustium mite   Australian plague locust   Blue oat mite   Balaustium mite    Bronzed field beetle   Blackheaded pasture cockchafer (SE Australia only)   Brown pasture looper  Blue oat mite Bryobia mite    Brown pasture looper Cabbage aphid   Bryobia mite Cabbage centre grub    Cowpea aphid Cabbage white butterfly    Cutworms Cockchafers (WA species only)      Earwigs Corn earworms (SE Australia only)     Grass anthelid Cutworms      Grasshoppers Diamondback moth    Leafhoppers Earwigs     Lucerne flea Green peach aphid     Lucerne leafroller Grey false wireworm (SA only)     Lucerne seed web moth Lucerne flea    Native budworm Mandalotus weevil (SE Australia only)   Pasture day moth Millipedes     Pasture tunnel moth (SE Australia only) Native budworm    Pasture webworm Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Pasture day moth    Pea aphid Redlegged earth mite     Redheaded pasture cockchafer Rutherglen bug    Redlegged earth mite Slugs      Rutherglen bug Small lucerne weevil (WA and NSW only)   Sitona weevil Snails (pointed or conical)     Slugs Spotted vegetable weevil    Small lucerne weevil (WA and NSW only) Thrips     Snails (pointed or conical) Turnip aphid     Spotted alfalfa aphid Vegetable beetle (adults)     Thrips Vegetable weevil     Weed web moth Weed web moth   White-fringed weevil    Legend Yellowheaded cockchafer    Emergence (autumn – early winter)  Vegetative (winter)  Flowering (spring)  Harvest (contaminant)

* This check-list is a guide only. Pest occurrence and timing may vary between crops, regions, and seasons, influenced by seasonal climatic conditions,

21 SECTION 6 MONITORING, RECORD KEEPING, SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND ECONOMIC THRESHOLDS Biosecurity

7 Biosecurity SECTION 7 Biosecurity

Introduction High priority exotic pest threats to the Biosecurity is about the protection of livelihoods, grains industry lifestyles and the natural environment that could be A number of pests present in other countries but not in harmed by the introduction of new pests (insects, mites, Australia (exotic pests) have been identified as potential snails, diseases and weeds). Biosecurity is a national threats to the grains industry at the national level. Some priority implemented off-shore, at the border and onof the medium to high risk ‘in crop’ exotic pest threats farm. Biosecurity is essential for your business. have been included in this I SPY resource manual. Serious consequences would be expected should any of Australia’s geographic isolation has meant that we have these pests enter and become established in Australia. relatively few of the pests that affect plant industries In addition to the exotic pests listed here, a number of overseas. Freedom from these exotic pests (those that biosecurity pest threats are listed in Crop Insects: The Ute are not present in Australia) is a vital part of the future Guide booklet, SA (pp. 168-182)/WA (pp. 135-149) and a profitability and sustainability of Australia’s plant complete list of the exotic pest threats can be found in industries. Biosecurity allows us to preserve existing the Grains Industry Biosecurity Plan. trade opportunities and provide evidence to support new market negotiations.

Farm biosecurity is a set of management practices and Early detection and immediate reporting activities that are implemented on-farm to protect a increases the chance of effective and efficient eradication. property from the entry and spread of unwanted pests. Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Farm biosecurity is essential for your business and is your responsibility as well as that of every person visiting or working on your property. What do you need to do? New pests will occasionally enter and establish in Growers can play a key role in protecting themselves your crop. Conducting regular surveillance and crop and the Australian grains industry from exotic pests by monitoring is a core part of your farm management implementing farm biosecurity. If a new pest becomes practices and gives you the best chance of spotting a established on your farm, it will affect your business pest soon after it arrives. The earlier you detect a new through: pest, the better the chances of eradication. • increased farm costs (e.g. changing crop rotations, additional chemical control and implementing other To effectively detect something new: management treatments and strategies); • know the normal pests associated with your crops - • reduced productivity (reduced yield and/or quality); so you notice anything unusual; • loss of markets. • investigate all crops that are not performing or are showing pest symptoms – get them checked out if For more information on securing your farm, refer to the you are not sure of the cause; Farm Biosecurity Manual for the Grains Industry. • record all surveillance activities.

1 SECTION 7 Biosecurity If you see anything unusual, call the Exotic Plant Pest Hotline 1800 084 881 Speak to your department of primary industries before sending any samples.

It is essential that the correct sampling protocol is followed including packaging, handling and C alls to the Exotic Plant Pest Hotline are forwarded to transport to the laboratory an experienced person in the department of primary assigned for diagnosis. industries in each state or territory. Every report will be investigated and treated confidentially. Incorrect handling could spread the pest further or If you suspect that you have found an exotic plant pest the following general precautions should be taken: render the samples unfit for • mark the location of the pest detection and limit identification. access to the area; • do not allow people, stock and equipment near the affected area; • wash hands, clothes and boots that have been in More information contact with affected plant material or soil; For copies of the Grains Industry Biosecurity Plan and • do not touch, move or transport affected plant the Farm Biosecurity Manual for the Grains Industry, material without advice from your state department as well as information on key exotic pests of the of primary industries. grains industry, visit the Plant Health Australia website

2012 (www.planthealthaustralia.com.au/biosecurity/

Biosecurity vehicle check list C arry a biosecurity tool kit in your vehicle. Each tool kit should contain cleaning items for clothing, vehicles and equipment in addition to personal safety gear.

A basic vehicle biosecurity kit should include: • A small hand sprayer with a solution of • Stiff brushes and a scraper for cleaning tyres methylated spirits (at the rate of 70% and shoes. methylated spirits to 30% water). • Dustpan and brush for cleaning inside vehicle • Flagging tape to mark sample location. cabins. • Strong plastic and paper bags for collecting • Personal safety gear such as rubber boots, rubber samples and sealing items for disposal. gloves, disposable overalls and boot covers. Additional items for an advanced biosecurity kit: • Footbath and bucket for disinfecting boots • Camera. and equipment. • GPS to record sample collection location. • Approved disinfectant for cleaning down vehicles/equipment. • Sample jars and plastic boxes for sample collection. • Hand sanitiser, soap and a minimum of 5 litres of water.

8 Glossary SECTION 8 Glossary

Abdomen: the third and rear (posterior) major division Biological control: is the reduction of pest of an insect’s body. populations by natural enemies (predators, parasites and pathogens). This may involve intervention by people for Adfrontal area/suture: refers to an area on the head conservation or release of natural enemies that feed on of lepidopteran larvae. The adfrontal suture is formed by or attack pests. the fusion of adfrontal sclerites. Bt: Bacillus thuringiensis, a bacterium that is used Aestivation: summer dormancy. An invertebrate (i.e. as an insecticide against many insects, particularly snails) may be metabolically or physically inactive during lepidopteran larvae. summer or periods of high temperatures. Campodeiform: a term used to describe the shape Alate: winged form of some insects, such as aphids or of a larva. Campodeiform larvae are generally elongated ants, that have both winged and wingless forms. with a tapering body and well-developed legs (e.g. ladybird larvae). Antennae: a pair of appendages used for sensing, attached to the head. Cauda: a tail-like process at the tip of the abdomen. Shape, size and hair patterns are characteristic for certain Anterior: front; in front of. species.

Aperture: opening. In the context of this manual, this Cephalothorax: fused head and thorax (Arachnida). Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource refers to the opening in a snail’s shell where its body comes out. Cerci: a pair of appendages at the end of the abdomen.

Apical meristem: growing tip of a plant (root and Cervical shield: refers to a hardened body part shoot). (sclerite) just behind the head (prothorax) of lepidopteran larvae. Apodous: legless. Chelicerae: the pointed mouth parts of mites and other Arthropods: members of the Phylum Arthropoda. arachnids. Anterior pair of appendages in arachnids. This includes insects and their allied forms, such as spiders and mites. Chlorotic marking: pattern of damage usually caused by insects with piercing and sucking mouthparts Asexual: means ‘without sex’ and in the context of this (as well as some plant diseases) where parts of the plant manual refers to invertebrates that reproduce without leaves/stems lack green colour (chlorophyll) and have a exchanging genetic material between two parents. ‘bleached’ appearance.

Beneficial insect: an insect that helps to suppress Clypeus: anterior sclerite on an insect’s head below the pest populations. face and above the labrum.

Bifurcate: a structure that is divided or forked into two Complete metamorphosis: a development arms. process in which the immature insect bears no visual resemblance to, and acts differently from, the adult Biocontrol agents, biological agents: natural form. Insects develop in four stages within this lifecycle: enemies (predators, parasites and pathogens) that feed egg; larvae; pupae; adult. on or attack pests. © 2012

1 SECTION 8 GLOSSARY Cornicles: see siphuncle. Green bridge: describes the role of weeds and volunteer crop plants in helping some pests to survive Cotyledon: a seed leaf; leaf of the embryo of a seed from one cropping season to the next. plant. Halteres: rudimentary hindwings (Diptera) used for Crochets: hooks situated at the base of prolegs. In this balance. manual it refers to the ‘soles of the feet’ of caterpillar rear legs (abdominal legs). Haustellum: part of the proboscis (mouthpart) that is adapted as a sucking organ. Cultural control: Non-insecticidal tactics to prevent or reduce pest populations. These can include crop rotation, Hemelytra: half leathery/half membranous forewing trap cropping, crop hygiene, removal and destruction of hemipterans. of weeds and diseased plants, planting/harvest dates, site selection, cultivar and variety selection, nutrient Honeydew: a sticky substance that is secreted by management and the incorporation of nectar producing some aphids and scale insects. It is sugar-rich and can be plants to encourage natural enemies. used as a form of reward for predatory arthropods that then protect the herbivores. Diapause: a ‘resting stage’. A state of reduced metabolic and physical activity which is not directly Hypocotyl: the stem part of a germinating seedling caused by unfavourable environmental conditions (cf. which bears the cotyledons. aestivation). For example, redlegged earth mites eggs diapause over summer in southern parts of Australia. Incomplete metamorphosis: development process in which an immature insect hatches from an Dorsal: top or uppermost. egg (or is born live in some insects) and gradually turns into an adult through a series of moults. Dorsoventral: in a line from the upper to the lower surface. Insecticide resistance: Resistance occurs when application of insecticides removes susceptible insects Elytra: hardened forewing covers present on insects in from a population leaving only individuals that are some orders, but seen mostly in beetles (Coleoptera). resistant. Mating between these resistant individuals gradually increases the proportion of resistance in the

2012 Eruciform: a term used to describe the shape of a pest population as a whole. Eventually this can render © larva. Eruciform larvae have a cyclindrical, elongated an insecticide ineffective, leading to control failures in body and short legs. the field.

Exoskeleton: hard, outer plate coverings on the body. Instar: a stage of growth in an insect’s lifecycle between This is characteristic of arthropods. each moult (between the egg and adult stages).

Exotic pest: a pest that is present in another country Insurance sprays: applying insecticides when pest but not in Australia or a pest that is native to another levels are below the economic injury level for the crop. country and has been introduced to Australia. This practice is ecologically unsustainable and will increase the risk of insecticide resistance developing Filamentous: slender or thread-like. Generally refers and reduce populations of beneficial parasitoids and to the form of antennae. predators.

Filiform: slender or thread-like. Generally refers to the Invertebrates: animals without backbones. form of antennae. IPM: integrated pest management. A control strategy Frass: insect excreta, faeces. where a range of biological, chemical and cultural control practices are combined to manage and prevent Furcula: forked tail-like organ used for jumping or pests from reaching damaging levels in agriculture. springing in springtails (Collembola), usually folded underneath the abdomen. Lucerne fleas have a furcula. Keel: ridge or raised section, as in the ‘keel of a boat’. In the context of this manual, this refers to the ridge Generalist predators: are mainly free-living present on the upper body of some slug species. predators that consume a large number and range of prey during their life.

Insects of Southern Australian Broadacre Farming Systems Identification Manual and Education Resource Education Resource Manual and Identification Systems Farming Insects Broadacre of Southern Australian 2 SECTION 8 GLOSSARY Labium: lower lip. Ovipositor: egg-laying organ, usually protruding from the tip of the abdomen. Labrum: upper lip. Palps: specialised appendages near the mouth that Larva (plural larvae): the juvenile form of are used for sensing in a similar way to antennae. invertebrates that undergo complete metamorphosis. Panicle: a loose, irregularly branched, flower cluster. Mandibles and maxilla: hardened jaw structures for chewing plant material or crushing prey. Parasite: an organism that lives in or on the body of another organism during some portion of its lifecycle. Mandibulate: mouthparts, chewing mouthparts. Parasitoid: an arthropod that parasitises and kills its Mantle: a structure on snails/slugs which covers part host. A parasitoid is parasitic in its immature stages and of the body. free-living as an adult.

Maxillary and labial palp: segmented sensory PestFax/PestFacts: free services designed to keep extensions. growers and advisors informed about pest related issues and solutions in southern grains regions of Australia. Mesoseries: the arrangement of crochets of a larval Electronic newsletters are distributed and aim to help proleg in a band (single, inner or longitudinal). growers by providing timely information about pest outbreaks, effective control and current information Mesothorax: middle (2nd) of the three thoracic about relevant and new research findings. segments. Pheromones: highly specific odours that function Metamorphosis: physical change in the form of an as chemical signals, often as a sex attractant between animal during its development. individuals of the same species. These are often used in traps to attract specific insects. Metathorax: posterior (3rd) of the three thoracic segments. Phytophagous: plant feeding.

Monoculture: the cultivation of a single type of crop Pleuron: the lateral region of any segment (generally Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource over a wide area. thoracic or abdominal) of an arthropod’s body.

Moult: when an invertebrate sheds its outer layer Polyphagous: feeds on multiple food types. (exoskeleton) revealing new growth, and passes from one nymphal stage (instar) to another (incomplete and Proboscis: extended beak-like mouthpart. complete metamorphosis). Process: a natural projection from a part of an organism. Mummies: common term for the swollen bodies of In the context of this manual it refers to insects with parasitised aphids. projections, such as cauda on aphids.

Natural enemies: an insect that helps to suppress Proleg: a non-segmented appendage used for pest populations (cf. beneficial insect). grasping. Abdominal prolegs can be found on moth and butterfly larvae as well as some sawfly larvae. Anal Nectar: a sugar-rich liquid produced either by the prolegs can also be present on the abdomen. flowers of plants or by extra-floral nectaries. It is useful for attracting pollinating animals. Pronotum points: the dorsal hardened body section (sclerite) of the prothorax pleuron in true wireworms. Nymph: an immature stage (following hatching) of an insect that undergoes incomplete metamorphosis. Prophylactic: preventative or protective.

Ocelli: the ‘simple’ eyes of an insect or other arthropod. Prothorax: anterior (1st) of the three thoracic segments.

3 SECTION 8 GLOSSARY Pupa (plural pupae): transition stage in the lifecycle Tarsus (pl. tarsi): insect foot. where larval characters are lost and adult features develop (complete metamorphosis). Taxonomy: is the branch of science that sorts all living things into groups based on their similarity or Radula: rasping mouthpart of molluscs. relatedness.

Raster: a group of bare areas, hairs (setae) and spines Tegmina: hardened, leathery forewings of some on the ventral surface of the last abdominal segment of insects. scarabaeoid larvae. Tentacle: a flexible organ of touch (e.g. ‘feeler’ of snails/ Refuge area: a place providing protection or shelter. slugs). In the context of this manual, this refers to an area providing protection from insecticide sprays and/or Thorax: the middle section of an adult insect’s three providing suitable habitat for beneficial species. main body divisions. Legs and wings are attached to the thorax. Residential: permanently living within the system. Transient: mobile species that do not permanently Rostrum: the protruding, piercing and sucking reside in a system and generally have shorter generation mouthparts of all bugs; particularly used to describe a times compared with residential species. weevil’s snout. Trochanter: the second segment of an insect leg. Scarabaeiform: refers to the shape of a larva. Scarabaeiform larvae have a ‘C’-shaped body, with Tubercle: small bumps/humps on the forehead of relatively short legs and a swollen lower abdomen. invertebrates.

Sclerite: a hardened plate on the body wall bounded Umbilicus: is the hollow space on the underside of a by structures or membranous areas. snail’s shell, around which the shell coils. Not all snails have an umbilicus. Sclerotised: hardened. Vector: an organism, in this context an invertebrate, Scutellum: a small shield-like sclerite. that transmits disease to another organism (e.g. aphids

2012 can be a vector of barley yellow dwarf virus in cereals). © Selective pesticide: a pesticide that kills only target pests and has minimal impact on non-target organisms, Ventral: front, underneath. particularly beneficial invertebrates. Sometimes referred to as a ‘soft’ pesticide. Wing venation: the pattern of veins on an insect’s wing. Setae: bristles or hairs.

Siphuncles: paired tubular wax-secreting structures (projections) on the rear of an aphid’s abdomen.

Spinnerets: an apparatus from which silk is spun.

Spiracles: small openings in the body that allow oxygen exchange (breathing holes).

Sporulation: the production of spores (fungi).

Striations: a longitudinal ridge or furrow. Stylet: one of the mouthparts modified for piercing; generally a long, thin, rigid appendage.

Suture: a seam or line of contact between two sclerites that makes the sclerites connected and immovable.

The information in this document was derived in Henry, K., Bellati, J., Umina, P. and Wurst, M. (Eds) (2008). part, from the following sources: Crop insects: the ute guide, southern grain belt edition. Government of South Australia PIRSA and Grains Bailey, P.T. (Ed) (2007). Pests of field crops and pastures: Research and Development Corporation, Canberra. identification and control. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne. Horne, P. and Page, J. (2008). Integrated pest management Blackman, R.L. and Eastop, V.F. (2000) Aphids on the for crops and pastures. Landlinks Press, Collingwood. worlds crops, an identification and information guide, second edition. Wiley, New York. Kono, T. and Papp C.S. (1977). Handbook of agricultural pests. State of California Food and Agriculture, Division Brier, H., Charleston, K., McLennan, A., Hughes, J. of Plant Industry, California. and Dougall, A. (2009). Pulse break crop IPM reference manual. Queensland AgriSciences, Department of Leonard, E., Baker, G.H. and Hopkins, D. C. (2003). Bash Employment Economic Development and Innovation, ’em, burn ‘em, bait ‘em: integrated snail management Mackay. in crops and pastures. South Australian Research and Development Institute, Adelaide. Child, J. (1965). Australian spiders. Periwinkle Press, Gladesville. Mangano P. (2008) Insect training course manual broadacre crops and pastures. Department of Agriculture CSIRO, Department of Entomology (1991). The insects of and Food, Perth. Australia: a text book for students and research workers, second edition. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne. Mascord, R. (1980). Spiders of Australia: a field guide. Reed New Holland, Sydney. Emery, R., Mangano, P. and Michael, P. (Eds) (2005). Crop insects: the ute guide, western grain belt edition, Matthews, E.G. (1987). A guide to the genera of beetles Insects of Southern Australian of Southern BroadacreInsects Farming Systems IdentificationManual and EducationResource Department of Agriculture Western Australia and Grains of South Australia, Part 2. South Australian Museum, Research and Development Corporation, Canberra. Adelaide.

Glatz, R. (2009). SARDI Entomology: Guide to the insects on McCaffery, D., Potter, T., Marcroft, S. and Pritchard, F. (Eds) the northern Adelaide Plains. South Australian Research (2009). Canola best practice management guide for south- and Development Institute (SARDI), Adelaide. eastern Australia. Grains Research and Development Corporation, Canberra. Goodyer, G. (1978). The identification of armyworm, cutworm, budworm and looper caterpillar pests. Peterson, A. (1960). Larvae of insects: an introduction to AGbulletin2. Department of Agriculture, New South nearctic species. Ohio State University, Ohio. Wales, Sydney. Smith, B.J. Non-marine molluscs: A key to the families of Goodyer, G. Identifying major noctuid caterpillar pests. non-marine molluscs of quarantine concern in Australia. NSW Agriculture Rhône-Poulenc Rural Australia Pty Ltd, Lucid Key, AQIS. New South Wales, Baulkham Hills. Smith, B.J and Kershaw, R.C. (1979). Field guide to the non- Gordh, G. and Headrick, D.H. (2001). A dictionary of marine molluscs of south-eastern Australia. Australian entomology. CABI Publishing, Cambridge. National University Press, Canberra.

Gullan P.J. and Cranston P.S. (2000). The insects: an Umina, P.A., Fitt, G.P., Anderson, C.A. and Webb, L.E., (Eds) outline of entomology, second edition. Blackwell Science, (2008). Special issue: invertebrate pests of grain crops and Melbourne. integrated management: current practice and prospects for the future. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, vol. 48, issue 12, pp. 1481-1607.

5 SECTION 8 GLOSSARY