Kilifi-Malindi County This Project Was Supported by the German Agency for International Cooperation (GIZ)

Home , Coast Province, Kilifi, Kilifi County, Malindi, Malindi District, Msambweni

FARM MANAGEMENT HANDBOOK OF KENYA

VOL. II

– Natural Conditions and Farm Management Information –

ANNEX: – Atlas of Agro - Ecological Zones, Soils and Fertilising by Group of Districts –

Subpart C2 Coast Province Kilifi-Malindi County This project was supported by the German Agency for International Cooperation (GIZ)

Farm Management Handbook of Kenya

VOL. I Labour Requirement, Availability and Costs of Mechanisation

VOL. II Natural Conditions and Farm Management Information

Part II/A WEST KENYA Subpart A1 Western Province Subpart A2 Nyanza Province

Part II/B CENTRAL KENYA Subparts B 1a/b Rift Valley Province, Northern (except Turkana) and Southern Part Subpart B2 Central Province

Part II /C EAST KENYA Subpart C1 Eastern Province, Middle and Southern Part Subpart C2 Coast Province

VOL. III Farm Management Information - Annual Publications were planned. The idea changed to Farm Managament Guidelines, produced by the District Agricultural Offices annually and delivered to the Ministry in April every year.

VOL. IV Production Techniques and Economics of Smallholder Livestock Production Systems

VOL. V Horticultural Production Guidelines

Publisher: Ministry of Agriculture, Kenya, in Cooperation with the German Agency for International Cooperation (GIZ) VOL. II is supplemented by CD-ROMs with the information and maps in a Geographical Information System. Additionally there will be wall maps of the Agro-Ecological Zones per district group (= the former large districts) for offices and schools. There is also a CD with the maps and the most important information for each district group (now county).

Layout by Ruben Kempf and Mike Teucher, Trier, Germany. Ministry of Agriculture

FARM MANAGEMENT HANDBOOK OF KENYA VOL. II

Annex: - Atlas of Agro - Ecological Zones, Soils and Fertilising by Group of Districts in Coast Province - Subpart C2 Kilifi-Malindi County

by Dr. Ralph Jaetzold Prof. emeritus of Geography, University of Trier / Germany

Helmut Schmidt Former Farm Management Research Officer from the former German Agricultural Team of the GIZ in the Ministry of Agriculture, Nairobi

Dr. Berthold Hornetz Prof. of Agricultural Geography, University of Trier / Germany Dr. Chris Shisanya Prof. of Agroclimatology, Dept. of Geography Kenyatta University, Nairobi Contributions to the 1st Edition by: C.M. Kang´e & J.G.M. Muasya – assessment of farm management data; Dr. Mechthild Kronen – soil requirements list; Prof. Dr. H. Kutsch – computing of crop-water relations for yield probabilities; F.N. Muchena, B.J.A. van der Pouw, W. Siderius and W.G. Sombroek – basic soil maps; H. Ritz – district climate tables; R. Swoboda – execution of Small Farm Survey; C.G. Wenner & S.N. Njoroge – soil conservation; W. Zettelmeyer – computing farm data. Additional Contributions to the 2nd Edition by: Dr. J. Ahenda & P. M. Maluku, KEPHIS; G. Awinyo (GIZ) – as- sisting R. J. & digitizing of soil maps into GIS; Th. Buettel – support by analyzing remote sensing data; M. Fiebiger – rainfall data analysis, probability calculations, yield probabilities by simulation programs; B. Girkens - final computerized drawing of maps in GIS and other maps; Heike Hoeffler – project coordination in GTZ Nairobi; Ph. Karuri – assistance in the Farm Survey; Anna Kaufhold - final computerized drawing of fertiliser maps; Ruben Kempf – typing and layout; Elizabeth Kimenyi & Anne Njoroge – coordination of farm survey; Z. Mairura, Dir. of Farm Business Sub- division; S. N. Maobe (KARI); N. M. Maweu (KARI); Susanne Meissner - water availability & requirement diagrams, typing; M. Mueller – calculation and diagrams of growing periods, ENSO influence; Dr. Anne W. Muriuki & J.N. Qureshi – soil and fertiliser recommendation maps and information; Francis Muthami (GIZ); Dr. Dorothy Mutisya and Dr. J Ochieng – crops and fodder list; Birgit Schmidt – basics for maintaining and regaining soil fertility; Joshua Shivachi & Ch. R. Wambongo– analysing the Farm Survey data using SPSS software; M. Teucher - final computerized drawing of soil and fertilizer maps; Dr. Lusike Wasilwa – horticult. part of the crop list; J. Wieczorek – computeriza- tion of maps in GIS; tables and diagrams. PREFACE TO THE ATLAS The internet and CD versions of the handbook have technically a reduction of details: The most important information, the maps, are due to reduction of the 24 MB to the CD-size of 6 MB, not well readable (esp. formulas of the AEZ Subzones and of the soils). Therefore we prepared additional Atlas- CDs for each group of districts, containing the maps of Rainfall, Agro - Ecol. Zones and Subzones, Soils, anhd Fertilizer Recommendations together with the legends. These maps are produced as pdf-files and can be zoomed for easy reading.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT for the Support to the First Edition In compiling this Handbook, we have relied on the support of many officers from a variety of institutions too numerous to mention, who made available their data and experience. We would like to thank them for their invaluable assistance. I would also like to thank my colleagues, the Research Officers, the District Land and Farm management Officers, for their cooperation, and a special thank you to those who typed the draft edition. Our particular thanks go to Prof. Dr. Ralph Jaetzold, University of Trier, for his selfless support in compiling this handbook and for his assessment of the natural conditions including land and population. His deep understanding of the needs of agricultural extension officers and farmers was a great asset. Our thanks also to Dr. H. Kutsch, University of Trier, who computerized a large and complex amount of information involved in establishing the AEZs. Many thanks also to the staff of the Geographical Department of the University of Trier, Germany, for their major effort in drawing up maps of outstanding quality, the centrepiece of the work.

Helmut Schmidt Farm Management Research Officer Nairobi, May 1982

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT for the Support to the Second Edition In revising this Handbook, various personalities and institutions were relied upon to provide the necessary data required to update the previous data sets. In this regard, we would like to sincerely thank them for their invaluable input in the exercise. Special thanks go to the Ministry of Agriculture staff who undertook the Farm Surveys to elucidate on the fundamental changes that have taken place in farming at the household level. We are indeed very grateful to the people of Germany, who despite their limited financial resources, have continued to support Kenya. Of importance here is the German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ) and the German scientists who have been working for Kenya over the years. Last but not least, thanks to Mr. Reimund Hoffmann, the PSDA Coordinator, Nairobi, whose office ably managed the Handbook revision project.

Prof. Dr. Chris Shisanya Elizabeth Kimenyi Professor of Agroclimatology Assistant Director of Agriculture Dept. of Geography FMD, MOA Kenyatta University, Nairobi Kenya Nairobi, January 2009 Nairobi, January 2009

We want to thank very much also Mr. Zachariah Mairura, Deputy Dir. of Agri-Business Dep., for his engaged support of our inquiries in the districts 2009 and 2010.

Prof. em. Dr. Ralph Jaetzold Prof. Dr. Berthold Hornetz Retired Professor of Geography Professor of Agricultural Geography University of Trier, October 2010 University of Trier, October 2010 PREFACE to the Second Edition

Institutional memory is of paramount importance for planning and development. For any research or agricultural extension to be successful, information on the natural farming potential is equally important.

In an effort to consolidate research - extension work of many years, the first edition of the Farm Manage- ment Handbook (FMHB) of Kenya Vol II (Natural conditions and farm management information), which described the conditions of the Kenyan farming community at that time, was produced in 1982/83. The handbook was in three parts i.e.:

A – for Western Kenya (Western and Nyanza provinces) B – for Central Kenya (Central and Rift Valley provinces). C – for Eastern Kenya (Eastern and Coast provinces)

For more than two decades, the handbook has proved very valuable to researchers, planners, extensionists, developers etc. This is a document that has been sought for enormously and hence the need to revise it in order to accommodate the changes that have taken place in our country since the production of the first edition. Some of these include: changes in the administrative boundaries, opening up of new farming areas due to population pressure, many new crop varieties, etc.

This second edition has been produced on the basis of Provincial administrative boundaries for the six Provinces i.e. Western, Nyanza, Rift Valley, Central, Eastern and Coast. The information will be availed in hard copies and in CD – ROMS to facilitate updating any future changes.

It is not possible to acknowledge the contribution of all the individuals who made this edition a reality but I need to mention the following individuals:

Thanks to the Ministry of Agriculture officers, especially the Farm Management Division officers at the headquarters (Mrs. E.W. Kimenyi, Mr. F.N. Nderitu, Mrs. H.W. Njoroge, Mrs. A.W. Njoroge, Mrs. A. W. Wanyama, Mr. P.T. Karuri and most engaged Mr. Z. Mairura), and the District staff, for their selfless contribution; Prof. Dr. Chris Shisanya, leader of the revision team, for his tireless efforts and guidance; Prof. em. Dr. Ralph Jaetzold for his enormous knowledge on the definition of the agroecological zones and his great contribution to their mapping; George Awinyo (German Technical Cooperation (GTZ) – Private Sector Development in Agriculture (PSDA)) for his expertise and contribution in the area of Geographical Information Systems (GIS).

I also wish to thank the GTZ who have facilitated the production of this edition both financially and by the use of their personnel, specifically the late Prof. Werner van der Ohe who supported the idea of the revision, and Mr. Reimund Hoffmann (GTZ – Team Leader Private Sector Development in Agriculture PSDA), for supporting and taking up the task to completion.

Dr. Wilson Songa, OGW AGRICULTURAL SECRETARY Nairobi, January 2009 KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 1 KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 2

3.4 KILIFI-MALINDI group of DISTRICTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS District Page

3.4.1 Natural Potential (R. Jaetzold et al.) 4 Introduction (R. Jaetzold) 4 Table 1: Rainfall Figures 6 Annual Rainfall Map (R. Jaetzold) 8 Seasonal Rainfall Maps (R. Jaetzold) 9 Table 2: Climate in the Agro-Ecological Zones 11 Agro-Ecological Zones Map (R. Jaetzold) 12 Agro-Ecological Zones and Subzones - Introduction (R. Jaetzold) 13 Agro-Ecological Zones and Subzones (= Legend to the AEZ Map), with Land Use Potentials and Water Availability & Requ. Diagrams (R. Jaetzold, B. Hornetz) 13 Table 3: Cultivation Chances and Risks in the Cashewnut-Cassava Zone 18 Table 4a: Climatic Yield Potential of Seasonal Crops in CL 5 on Fluvisols (B. Hornetz) 22 Table 4b: Climatic Yield Potential of Seasonal Crops in CL 5 on Cambisols (B. Hornetz) 23 Table 5a: Climatic Yield Potential of Seasonal Crops in CL 5 (on Ferralsols B. Hornetz) 25 Table 5b: Climatic Yield Potential of Seasonal Crops in CL 5 on Phaeozems (B. Hornetz) 26 Soil Map (R. Jaetzold, Mike Teucher & KSS) 29 Soil Distribution, Fertility and Major Characteristics (B. Hornetz & W. Siderius) 30 Legend to the Soil Map (KSS) 30

3.4.2 Population and Land (C. A. Shisanya, R. Jaetzold & C. Bureau of Statistics) see the big Vol. C2

3.4.3 Agricultural Statistics (R. Jaetzold & Min. of Agriculture.) see the big Vol. C2

3.4.4 Farm Survey (Min. of Agriculture & C. A. Shisanya) 36 Table 20: Farm Survey Sites Representative of the Typical Agro-Ecological Zones, Subzones and Units in Kilifi and Neighbouring Districts 36 Kilifi and Neighbouring Districts 36 Farm Survey Areas Map (R. Jaetzold) 38 Malindi and Magarini Districts 39 Table 23: Farm Survey Sites in former Malindi District 39

3.4.5 Introduction to the Actual Land Use Systems and to the Potential Intensification by Better Farm Management in Typical Agro-Ecological Subzones (Min. of Agr., C. A. Shisanya & R. Jaetzold) 40 Tables 26 a-i: Increase of Yields by Better Farm Management 42

3.4.6 Fertiliser and Manure Recommendations for Important Agro-Ecological Units 62 Introduction (B. Hornetz, R. Jaetzold & KSS) 62 Map of Imp. Agro-Ecol. Units & Areas of Fertiliser Recommendations (B. Hornetz & R. Jaetzold) 64 KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 3

Tables 27 a-d: Fertiliser and Manure Recommendations (B. Hornetz & KSS) 65 Maps of Fertiliser and Manure Recommendations (R. Jaetzold & M. Teucher) 66

3.4.7 Final Statements (R. Jaetzold & C. A. Shisanya) 73

Note: Numbering of chapters is equivalent to numbering in Farm Management Handbook of Kenya KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 4

3.4.1 NATURAL POTENTIAL

Introduction The average annual rainfall increases slightly from the coast, which has 900-1000 mm, to more than 1100 mm around Gede and east of Kaloleni. It seems that increased precipitation occurs due to the updamming effects on air-masses from the sea of the tall forest of Gede and the coastal hills (see aetzoldJ , 1978, and GTZ, 1977).

There is less rain in the Kilifi depression, the Rare valley, and in the depression between the first range of the coastal hills and the second, larger one. In the rain shadow of this second range, the Kaloleni Hills, there is a sharp decrease in precipitation. In general, the rainfall tends to decrease quickly eastward from the maximum zone with a few exceptions on other hills or ridges like Mangea Hill (300-520 m), or on the Bamba Uplift (310 m). There is another decrease of precipitation north of Malindi which is difficult to explain. Perhaps the flatness of the area is one reason, or the turning of the SE-wind to a direction more parallel to the coast. Land use faces many problems there (see McGowan and Ass., 1977).

As regards rainfall and tree crops, only those areas with more than 1050 mm a year are fairly well suited to coconuts although conditions are not optimal (ideally it should be around 1500 mm). However, coconut palms can be seen from 700 mm average annual rainfall onward, although productivity may be considered worthwhile only when more than 850 mm occur. This depends also on the evaporation ratio and the danger of very dry periods (see map of Agro-Ecological Zones), because in the marginal areas many trees die after about 15 years in heavy drought periods. The damage done to the growing points of the palms by the rhinoceros beetle can be overcome only if enough moisture is available.

Mangoes are a slightly more demanding tree crop. Regular high quality fruit yield may not be possible below 950 or even 1000 mm.

Roughly the same situation prevails with bananas, which ideally require more than 1000 mm (see Map of Annual Rainfall). Citrus fruit also require more than 1000 mm for good results, but top quality cannot be achieved due to high night temperatures (21-24°C). Pineapples also suffer from the high night temperatures (ACLAND 1975, p.143). They may not develop enough acidity and become too big and mushy - the reason a plantation near Kilifi failed (Ngerenyi). In the interior towards Bamba, the nights get cooler (av. 20°C, cool season 18°C), the fruit taste better, and are more the right size because of less rain which is more evenly distributed. This is due to the fact that the long rains decrease from the coast towards the inland, and the short rains increase to a certain extent up to a distance of about 30 km (see maps of seasonal rainfall).

This pattern affects even less demanding crops like cashew nuts and cassava unfavourably (700-1000 mm). The flowering period for cashew nuts is affected by these second rains, causing in wet years poor fruit setting or infestation which leads to low quality nuts. Cassava needs a distinct wet period to form big tubers.

If the second rains start early or continue more or less uninterrupted from the first rains, they often hit the open cotton bolls. For this and other reasons, no good cotton zone exists on the coast. For annual crops, this bimodal rainfall with two peaks can be very difficult, because neither peak is high enough (for instance, around Ganze). The following maps give more information on the problems and the possibilities.

The first rainy season ("Long Rains") starts normally towards the end of March. Near the coast the rains are heavy in April and May, and decrease gradually until October (see Diagrams) in most years without a distinctive end (Table 1). The amount received in the agro-humid period at Kilifi-Kibarani was between 120 and 1 130 mm, so the average is not typical. It is better to consider the probability factor of how much is likely in 10 out of 15 years (see Diagram Kilifi and Map of First Rainy Season).

The second rainy season ("Short Rains") starts indistinctly around the middle of October, and lasts until December or January but with no pronounced end, and variability is high. It is therefore difficult to give a figure for the reliability of rainfall in a well defined agro-humid period, and the map of the second rainy KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 5 season can be only a rough guide. The main problem is that in most areas these rains are normally insufficient for a maize crop. But in El Nino years (announceable by the KMD already in September) there is enough rain for a good "chance cropping". In contrast to the El Nino years, the La Nina (Anti ENSO) years have not only less rainfall, but strong dry winds in June which have a severe negative effect on the maize yields in the first rainy season even in CL 3 because this crop has in June its most sensible tusseling stage to water deficit (see Muti and Kibe, 2009). Therefore, if a La Nina year in the preceeding Short Rains occured which normally continues into the following Long Rains, then it is wise to plant sorghum which is less sensible to a June drought than maize.

References Acland, J.D. (1979): East African Crops, 3rd ed., London German Agency For Technical Cooperation (GTZ, 1977): Development of Settlement Schemes in the Coast Province of Kenya. Report, Department of Settlement, Nairobi Jaetzold, R. (1978): Possibilities of Agricultural Settlements in the Northern Coastal Area of Kenya. GeoJournal 2.3, p. 225-242 McGowan and Associates Pty. Ltd. (1977): Magarini Land Settlement Project, Kilifi District, Coast Province, Kenya. Report, Nairobi Muti, S.M. and A.M. Kibe: The Effects Of East African Low Level Jet On Food Security In Horn Of Africa: A Case Study Of Coastal Region Of Kenya. In: African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 6

TABLE 1: RAINFALL FIGURES FROM SELECTED TYPICAL STATIONS IN KILIFI- MALINDI GROUP OF DISTRICTS HAVING RECENTLY AT LEAST 15 YEARS TABLE 1: OFRAINFALL RECORDS FIGURES FROM SELECTED TYPICAL STATIONS IN KILIFI GROUP OF DISTRICTS HAVING RECENTLY AT LEAST 15 YEARS OF RECORDS

Agro-Ecol. Annual Monthly & seasonal average rainfall in mm No. and Name of Kind of Zone and rainfall altitude Station records Subzone in mm J FMAMJ J A S OND

Average 677 20 11 39 82 130 64 55 52 28 42 89 65 9239000 Hadu CL 5 Reliability* 594 0 0 9 78 85 32 45 21 22 12 41 39 134 m Location (vs/s) + vs Seas. Av. 315 196

9240027 Kamale Prim. CL 5 Average 893 14 11 84 115 168 78 56 55 74 40 128 71 198 m School vs/s i + (vs) Seas. Av. 445 238

9240028 Ramada Prim. CL 4 Average 815 26 4 61 84 210 83 74 44 30 48 103 48 164 m School m/s + (vu) Seas. Av. 512 198

Average 987 18 16 39 135 276 115 84 61 58 73 71 41 9339004 Kilifi, CL 4 Reliability* 857 0 0 13 94 207 77 62 40 30 35 42 16 23 m D.O.'s Office m i (vu) Seas. Av. 649 185

9339008 Kakoneni, CL 4 Average 791 26 11 53 89 156 70 45 40 52 69 83 97 76 m Chief's Camp s i (vs) Seas. Av. 368 249

9339009 Kilifi - CL 4 Average 1045 18 13 53 150 268 122 92 62 63 74 78 52 28 m Kibarani m i Seas. Av. 685 204

Average 768 34 22 32 96 138 67 38 50 38 71 111 71 9339012 Ganze, CL 4 Reliability* 596 15 5 10 47 106 39 26 28 17 18 76 43 177 m Dispensary m/s i (vs) Seas. Av. 333 253

9339013 Chonyi, CL 3 Average 1137 26 21 47 130 265 94 91 75 87 121 102 78 211 m Dispensary m/l i (s) Seas. Av. 628 300

Average 658 24 19 56 81 100 46 26 38 51 52 88 77 9339016 CL 5 Bamba Reliability* 452 7 2 15 49 77 30 18 19 17 23 70 66 241 m (vs/s) + vs Seas. Av. 283 217

1) Average 848 41 17 51 79 165 52 36 46 74 93 120 74 9339017 Mariakani CL 5 Veterinary Reliability* 778 18 6 16 43 117 32 28 29 19 28 84 21 189 m (vs/s) + vs Station Seas. Av. 347 287

Average 806 44 21 60 111 124 53 30 26 55 61 106 115 9339027 CL 5 Baricho Reliability* 691 15 3 39 88 84 21 22 13 11 14 56 95 95 m (vs/s) + vs Seas. Av. 348 282

Average 1101 30 19 36 129 267 116 83 69 65 102 115 70 9339030 Kilifi, Jibana CL 3 Reliability* 952 18 0 14 82 202 88 68 52 36 28 88 41 144 m Dispensary m/l i (s) Seas. Av. 631 287

Average 581 23 12 52 91 79 26 23 21 35 44 106 69 9339034 Chakama, CL 6 Reliability* 529 8 0 27 63 49 12 13 9 9 16 80 61 97 m Chief's Office b r Seas. Av. 222 219 Kilifi, 9339035 CL 4 Average 1085 24 14 38 171 259 144 100 75 63 45 103 50 Takaungu Arab 12 m School m i (vu) Seas. Av. 712 198 9339036 Mtwapa, CL 4 Average 1276 22 18 56 227 299 143 103 77 73 103 103 53 26 m Agromet Stn. m i (vu) Seas. Av. 829 258 Average 1019 35 24 41 125 216 97 75 70 66 96 106 68 9339038 Kaloleni, CL 4 Reliability* 909 9 0 18 76 169 73 59 48 33 42 76 41 236 m Boma m i (vs/s) Seas. Av. 554 270 9339039 Ruruma, CL 3 Average 1083 29 19 56 136 224 93 82 64 84 105 109 82 188 m Chief's Office m i (s/vs) Seas. Av. 591 296 * 66% reliability = this amount will be surpassed in 10 out of 15 years KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 7

TABLE 1: CONTINUED

Agro-Ecol. Annual Monthly & seasonal average rainfall in mm No. and Name of Kind of Zone and rainfall altitude Station records Subzone in mm JFMAMJJASOND

Giriama St. Average 871 35 21 39 119 176 85 58 62 50 80 89 57 9339041 CL 4 George's High Reliability* 699 2 0 11 63 137 50 39 44 24 33 70 28 250 m School m i (vs/s) Seas. Av. 419 226 9339043 Rabai, Chief's CL 4 Average 1108 21 22 52 154 222 94 96 75 75 100 113 83 188 m Office m i (vs/s) Seas. Av. 618 297 9339045 Jilore Forest CL 4 Average 927 29 14 56 109 181 112 77 54 66 62 82 85 61 m Station m i (vu) Seas. Av. 534 229 9339047 Danisa CL 6 Average 372 14 16 47 46 34 7 3 11 20 36 75 63 163 m (Galana) b r Seas. Av. 127 174 9339048 Mazeras CL 4 Average 1027 27 11 61 123 229 84 85 71 59 78 99 100 95 m Reservoirs m i (vs/s) Seas. Av. 582 277 9339050 Jila Full CL 5 Average 509 12 9 45 41 90 26 19 16 45 62 70 75 192 m Primary School (vs) + (vu) Seas. Av. 176 207 Gotani - 9339055 CL 4 Average 826 20 21 50 93 184 68 53 52 43 71 87 85 Kayafungo, 213 m Chief's Camp s i (vs) Seas. Av. 395 242 9339062 Kambe Ribe CL 3 Average 1219 39 23 58 173 328 115 84 79 52 99 92 78 217 m Chief's Office m i (s/vs) Seas. Av. 757 269 9340000 Malindi CL 4 Average 1043 8 7 36 154 335 158 91 56 51 65 52 31 6 m District Off. m i Seas. Av. 774 147 9340001 Fundisha Salt CL 4 Average 926 4 6 42 132 281 125 85 48 44 62 63 35 2 m Works Ltd. m/s + (vu) Seas. Av. 665 159 9340002 Gede, CL 4 Average 1059 10 11 37 160 281 134 96 70 63 80 65 51 25 m Malindi m i Seas. Av. 708 197 9340005 Malindi, CL 4 Average 1041 9 7 45 151 264 149 93 58 58 82 78 46 34 m Water Supply m i Seas. Av. 702 207 Malindi A.D.C. 9340006 CL 4 Average 1019 4 8 43 155 290 152 93 66 47 69 66 26 Kiswani 29 m Complex m i Seas. Av. 733 160 Average 1106 9 6 31 178 299 153 111 73 55 58 98 35 9340007 Msabaha CL 4 Reliability* 982 1 0 11 151 242 110 79 36 24 13 71 20 23 m Agromet. Stn. m i Seas. Av. 772 191 Average 935 8 9 29 146 276 132 76 60 41 65 63 30 9340009 Malindi Met. CL 4 Reliability* 881 1 0 10 142 227 109 49 36 26 24 22 7 23 m Station m i Seas. Av. 659 158 9340010 Ganda, Chief's CL 3 Average 1050 12 16 51 148 286 158 108 63 47 65 68 29 46 m Camp m/l i (vu) Seas. Av. 750 163 9340011 Merikebuni CL 4 Average 981 5 13 33 132 266 130 101 57 47 73 86 39 37 m Chief's Office m/s + (vu) Seas. Av. 662 198 9340012 Gede Forest CL 4 Average 1127 20 23 69 169 272 140 117 71 75 70 59 42 12 m Station m i Seas. Av. 768 170 A.D.C. 9340014 CL 4 Average 1037 8 4 58 133 283 132 92 70 36 79 80 62 Kiswani 36 m Complex m i Seas. Av. 698 221 Mombasa, Average 967 35 14 45 140 242 81 74 52 54 78 79 73 9439021 CL 4 Port Reitz Reliability* 820 10 0 16 108 169 52 52 35 28 31 44 56 57 m Airport m i (vu) Seas. Av. 508 230 * 66% reliability = this amount will be surpassed in 10 out of 15 years KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 8 KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 9 KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 10 KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 11

TABLE 2: CLIMATE IN THE AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

Agro- Subzone Altitude Annual Annual av. 66% reliability 60% reliability of Ecological in m mean rainfall in of rainfall 1) growing period Zone temp. mm 2) in °C 1st 2nd 1st rainy 2nd rainy Total rainy rainy season season in days 4) season season in days in days in mm in mm CL 3 m/l i s 1100-1200 480-700 200-250 155-175 85-105 240-280 Coconut- m i (s/vs) 1-450 27.0-24.4 1000-1150 400-650 170-220 135-155 75-85 210-240 Cassava Zone m/l i 3) 1050-1230 400-800 50-130 155-175 < 40 - m i 3) 850-1100 320-600 50-130 135-155 < 40 - m i (vs/s) 940-1100 300-650 150-200 135-155 55-75 190-230 m i (vs) 900-1100 320-620 90-200 135-155 40-55 175-210 m/s i (vs) 920-1000 250-380 140-180 115-135 40-55 155-190 CL 4 m/s i 3) 850-1000 300-500 50-140 115-135 < 30 - Cashewnut- m/s +(vu) 1-300 27.0-25.2 850-1100 270-600 80-140 115-135 < 40 - Cassava Zone s/m i (vs) 780-950 220-350 130-180 105-115 40-55 145-170 s/m i + vu 820-1000 220-500 50-150 105-105 < 40 - s/m + vu 800-1000 220-500 60-150 105-115 < 40 - s i (vs) 800-950 220-350 150-180 85-105 40-55 125-160 s i 3) 800-900 250-350 50-130 85-105 < 30 - s/vs i (vs) 700-880 170-270 150-170 75-85 40-55 115-140 CL 5 (s/vs)+(vs) 700-750 180-200 150-160 75-85 40-55 - Lowland s/vs i 3) 750-820 220-260 100-140 75-85 < 30 - Livestock- vs/s + (vs) 1-300 27.0-25.2 730-810 190-230 150-170 55-75 40-55 - Millet Zone (vs/s) + vs 640-810 150-220 150-190 55-75 40-55 - (vs/s) i 3) 650-760 160-200 130-140 55-75 < 40 - (vs) + (vu) 550-750 150-200 80-130 40-50 < 40 - CL 6 Lowland- b r 90-300 27.0-25.2 380-700 100-150 50-130 30-40 20-30 - Ranching Zone

1) Amounts (announcing the drier and wetter part of the subzone) surpassed normally in 10 out of 15 years, falling during the agro- humid period which allows growing of most cultivated plants 2) Only added if rainfall continues at least for survival (>0.2 E0) of most long term crops 3) Intermediate rains follow immediately after first rains. Second rains insignificant 4) Interrupted by a period with water supply between 0.2 and 0.4 E0 (=0.5 PET) for more than 50 days (intermediate rains) KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 12 KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 13

AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES AND SUBZONES

Introduction

The Kilifi Group shows most clearly the typical agro-ecological zonation of the Kenyan Coast Province from the CL 3 = Coconut-Cassava Zone, passing westward the CL 4 = Cashewnut-Cassava Zone, then CL 5 = Coastal Lowland Livestock-Millet Zone to CL 6 = Ranching Zone. The second rainy season is very faible and uncertain at the coast, but increases towards the inland, and is finally there better than the first one, although still very short per average. But if we consider the agrohumid periods in the years when they occur, then they are longer and support different higher yielding crops (see Diagram of Msabaha and the Table of Baricho). These better seasons are connected with the ENSO years and can be forecasted (see Final Statements).

Legend to the Map CL = COASTAL LOWLAND ZONES CL 3 = Coconut - Cassava Zone CL 3 = Coconut-Cassava Zone m/l i (s) with a medium to long cropping season, intermediate rains 1) and a (weak) short one (See Diagram Chonyi) Good yield potential (av. more than 60% of the optimum) 1st rainy season, start norm, m. of April: Short to m. mat. maize like WS 202 (resist. to MSV, drought and low N) 2); m. mat. white sorghum, late mat. sorghum 2); cowpeas, m. mat. pigeon peas like Katum. 60/8; sweet potatoes; m. mat. soya beans; chillies, roselle; almost all vegetables (aubergines, egg plants/brinjals, kales, Chinese cabbage, sweet pepper, pumpkins, onions, sweet and water melons, cucumbers, garlic, okra, spider plant); yam beans (tubers) Whole year: Coconuts, bananas 2), late mat. cassava, bixa, mangoes, pawpaws, avocadoes, sisal, guavas, senna, castor KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 14

Fair yield potential (av. 40-60% of the optimum) 1st rainy season: Rice in seasonal flooded grasslands, maize Coast comp. or PH4; cotton with danger of rain in open bolls, dolichos beans1), simsim1), tomatoes 2nd rainy season, start norm, mid Oct.: E. mat. sorghum; sweet potatoes; green grams, cowpeas; tomatoes Whole year: Citrus3), pineapples3), cashew nuts4), curcuma Poor yield potential (av. 20-40 % of the optimum) 2nd rainy season: Coast comp. maize, Lagrotech early maize Pasture and forage Nearly no grassland. Grazing under coconut trees around 0.7 ha/LU, with Mimosa pudica 0.4 ha/LU5); down to about 0.15 ha/LU feeding Napier or Bana grass and legumes like siratro (Macroptilium atropurpureum) or centro (Centrosema pubescens), and planting horse tamarind (Leucaena tricandria, for browsing) CL 3 = Coconut-Cassava Zone m i (s/vs) with a medium cropping season, intermediate rains, and a (weak) short to very short one Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm, mid April: M. mat. white sorghum; cowpeas1), sweet potatoes; m. mat. soya beans, e. mat. sunflower, roselle, m. mat. bambara groundnuts6)7), nearly all vegetables (see CL 3 m/l i s) Whole year: Mangoes, sisal, avocadoes, bixa, pawpaws, guavas, senna, castor, cassava, pineapples3) Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: Coast comp. and PH4 maize, rice in seasonal flooded grasslands; simsim1), dolichos beans1), late mat. groundnuts6); cotton (with danger of rain in open bolls) 2nd rainy season, start norm, mid O.: Sweet potatoes, green grams, simsim, e. mat. groundnuts6), coriander Whole year: Coconuts6), bananas, citrus, cashew nuts (50-60 %)4) 6) Poor yield potential 2nd rainy season: Coast comp. maize Pasture and forage Around 0.8 ha/LU on sec. savanna of former semi-deciduous tropical forest; down to about 0.2 ha/LU feeding Napier or Bana grass, siratro, centro, and planting horse tamarind (for browsing) CL 3 = Coconut-Cassava Zone m/l i (vs) with a medium to long cropping season, intermediate rains and a (weak) very short one See m/l i (vu), but potential in 2nd rains more reliable, not only chance cropping CL 3 = Coconut-Cassava Zone m/l i (vu) with a medium to long cropping season, intermediate rains, and a (weak) very uncertain one Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm, end of March: Coast comp. and PH4 maize, m. mat. white sorghum; sweet potatoes, cowpeas1), m. mat. soya beans, m. mat sunflower like Kenya Almasi, chillies, roselle; onions, okra, egg plants, aubergines, sweet pepper, kales, garlic, Chinese cabbage, tomatoes, water and sweet melons, cucumbers, pumpkins, zucchini, mchicha Whole year: Cassava, sisal, mangoes, cashew nuts, pawpaws, guavas, senna, castor Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: Rice in seasonal flooded grasslands; dolichos beans1), simsim1); cotton; cabbages Whole year: Coconuts, Boco boco or Zanzibarini bananas, bixa, pineapples3), lemons, limes, grapefruit3), oranges3), avocadoes Poor yield potential (Chance cropping) 2nd rainy season: E. mat. maize and sorghum, cowpeas, tomatoes Pasture and forage Around 1.0 ha/LU on sec. savanna of former semi-deciduous trop. forest; down to about 0.25 ha/LU feeding Napier or Bana grass, stylo (Stylosanthes guyanensis), siratro, centro, and planting horse tamarind KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 15

RELIABLE FIRST RAINY SEASON, UNCERTAIN SECOND RAINY SEASONS: less than 50% with a growing period

Station name Cereal and legumes growing period Dry conditions Precipitation is cumulated Msabaha Agromet. St. = agro-humid period (AHP), during agro-humid period in mm Station no. Altitude AEZ min. 40 days Subzone: 9340007 91m CL 4 (-3) = grass growing period only m i vu

First rainy season and middle rains: Av. end of March - end of September Second rainy season: Av. Oct. - beginning of January years of usable records: 16 1), all with AHP 2) years of usable records: 15 1), 7 with AHP 2)

Chances for the right growing periods: Coast Comp. m. 13 gr. p. of at least 105 days = 81 % of the seasons PH 4 maize 4 gr. p. of at least 85 days = 27 % of all seasons PH 4 maize 14 gr. p. of at least 85 days = 88 % of all seasons E.mat. sorghum 5 gr. p. of at least 80 days = 33 % of all seasons E.mat. sorghum 14 gr. p. of at least 80 days = 88 % of all seasons E.mat. cowpeas 5 gr. p. of at least 70 days = 33 % of all seasons E.mat. cowpeas 15 gr. p. of at least 70 days = 94 % of all seasons Minor millets 6 gr. p. of at least 50 days = 40 % of all seasons

Existential risks: No cereal growing period in a year or more: 0 times = 0 % of the years WATBAL run specifications by B. Hornetz 2) 2 or more consecutive rainy seasons without the min. AHP of 50 d.: 0 times in 15 years ISUM ESUM ELIM OLIM STOCK RE IR No grass growing period in a season: 4 times = 25 % of the seasons j 2,4 2,4 0,4 1 176 0,9 25 No grass growing period in a year or more: 0 times = 0 % of the years v 1,5 1,2 0,2 1 176 0,9 15 rainfall scenario: DISCON

1) valid = no significant gaps in the records 2) AHP = Agro-humid period ~ growing period for cereals and legumes; GGP = grass growing period KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 16

CL 3 = Coconut-Cassava Zone m/l i with a medium to long cropping season and intermediate rains Potential in 1st rainy season almost as in CL 3 m i (vu), in whole year coconuts poor yields, 2nd rainy season almost nothing

CL 4 = C a s h e w n u t - C a s s a v a Zone CL 4 = Cashewnut-Cassava Zone m i or with a medium cropping season, followed by intermediate rains, and towards inland m i (vu) with a (weak) very uncertain 2nd rainy season (See Diagram Kilifi and Table 3)

Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm, end of March/b. of April: PH4 maize, m. mat. sorghum; sweet potatoes; guar, kenaf; sunflower Kenya Almasi, soya beans; Dolichos beans; kales, onions, okra, aubergines, sweet pepper, egg plants, chillies, Chinese cabbage, water and sweet melons, cucumbers, pumpkins, zucchini, mchicha Whole year: Cashew nuts, cassava, sisal, mangoes, castor Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: Coast comp. maize, rice in semi-permanent swamps;cowpeas1),simsim1); cotton, groundnuts (on light soils); tomatoes, garlic Whole year: Pawpaws (50-60 %), senna, bixa Poor yield potential Whole year: Coconuts, bananas Pasture and forage Around 1.5 ha/LU on nat. pasture in coastal semi-deciduous forest-savanna mosaic; down to about 0.25 ha/LU feeding Napier and Bana grass, siratro, centro, mangrove leaves and planting horse tamarind, sisal bogas and cassava (see KARI Mtwapa)

KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 17

DIAGRAM OF GROWING PERIODS IN THE BEST PART OF THE CASHEWNUT- CASSAVA ZONE: showing the prolongation of the first rainy season by middle rains, but there is no reliable second season

Station name Cereal and legumes growing period Dry conditions Precipitation is cumulated Kilifi D.O. = agro-humid period (AHP), during agro-humid period in mm Station no. Altitude AEZ min. 40 days Subzone: 9339004 3m CL 4 = grass growing period only m i (vu)

Rainfall / c.& leg. gr.p. Year January February March April May June July August September October November December Year ENSO-class. ENSO-class. 1st AHP 2nd AHP to August 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 since August mm days mm days A 1930 44 44 61 82 139 143 158 187 215 219 225 gggggggggggg 65 147 191 206 236 273 278 30/31 N 225 110 278 70 N 1931 g 00000000000 45 188 414 424 465 475 491 606 638 651 696 699 727 732 744 g g g g 0 0 0 0 0 31/32 N 744 150 -- N 1932 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 76 97 277 370 426 465 482 565 565 607 626 639 687 714 721 840 841 g 0 g g g g g g 63 32/33 N 841 170 231 50 N 1933 96 231 231 231 0 0 0 0 0 0 g g 133 192 194 196 219 291 326 351 361 363 g 45 103 117 117 g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 33/34 N 363 100 -- N 1934 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 g 59 207 309 404 650 738 747 778 851 864 901 915 947 962 965 981 64 65 79 g 0 0 0 0 0 34/35 N 961 160 -- N 1935 00000000000 54 287 296 460 478 532 577 621 624 638 651 711 765 765 782 830 6 65 73 76 117 117 g 0 g 35/36 N 830 160 117 60 N 1936 g g g g 0 0 0 0 g 111 144 185 237 322 344 368 519 596 637 640 715 717 723 ggggggggggg 112 168 36/37 N 723 140 174 40 N 1937 174 174 0 0 0 0 0 0 87 112 182 264 394 411 441 441 444 510 525 527 g 0 gggggggggggggg 37/38 N 527 120 -- N 1938 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 38 93 114 167 361 530 732 763 770 830 871 928 957 988 988 992 g g 0 0 0 0 0 0 g g g g 38/39 A 992 160 -- A 1939 g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 g g g 42 246 507 556 591 628 687 689 690 0 0 0 0 g g g g g g 31 106 190 190 190 0 39/40 N 690 90 190 50 N 1940 0 0 0 0 0 g 46 82 88 156 282 484 589 644 917 937 940 947 971 976 1019 1034 1106 1120 1126 1161 1172 g 66 138 138 150 g g g 0 40/41 E 1172 210 150 40 E 1941 0 0 0 0 0 0 g g g 39 61 94 221 325 365 394 476 578 598 606 650 667 694 758 793 800 852 12 37 51 67 g g 76 116 130 41/42 E 852 180 161 50 E 1942 161 161 g 0 0 0 31 51 176 181 230 254 408 431 522 541 559 562 603 634 642 650 665 g g g g g g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 42/43 A 665 170 -- A 1943 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 36 40 75 123 134 134 225 267 370 382 461 468 468 00000000000000 43/44 N 468 130 -- N 1944 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 87 171 429 479 480 510 550 552 581 616 659 684 707 726 736 g g 73 237 237 264 277 330 336 338 0 44/45 N 736 150 338 80 N 1945 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 g 28 33 138 399 667 698 732 733 733 0 0 0 0 g g g g g g g 0 g g g g g 0 45/46 N 733 90 -- N 1946 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 51 72 201 393 405 412 g g g g g g 46 73 84 101 376 1 1 43 43 0 0 0 0 0 46/47 N 412 60 -- N 1947 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 46 150 195 719 1060 1082 1130 1154 1167 1176 1176 0 49 100 132 152 161 161 g g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 47/48 N 1176 110 -- N 1948 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 g g 67 88 115 197 240 259 308 367 375 411 433 483 492 496 ggggggggggg 48/49 N 496 150 -- N 1949 g g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 62 81 164 251 253 257 296 297 345 426 449 475 488 488 508 510 546 1 1 38 38 g g g g g 49/50 A 546 170 -- A 1950 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 60 109 124 301 399 427 428 433 477 539 557 624 650 652 665 710 721 736 27 27 41 137 140 145 0 0 0 50/51 Am 736 180 145 60 Am 1951 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 g 182 216 218 374 538 548 548 g 47 92 145 172 181 184 210 217 234 237 44 98 200 208 237 251 254 284 351 51/52 N 548 70 351 110 N 1952 351 351 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 29 86 89 94 144 220 228 228 g g g g g 0 35 53 53 64 0 g g g g g 52/53 Ew 228 80 -- Ew 1953 g g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 89 175 322 527 654 730 733 737 0 47 162 169 235 250 280 305 317 358 10 328 335 346 g g g g g 53/54 N 737 80 346 40 N 1954 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 112 145 223 250 328 348 357 359 416 439 450 450 g g g g g g g 0 0 g g g g g g 54/55 Am 450 120 -- Am 1955 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 g 97 179 207 351 392 492 519 546 568 596 631 634 639 0 0 0 0 0 0 g g g g 0 0 55/56 Am 639 130 -- Am 1956 g g g g 0 0 0 0 g 32 64 186 278 356 418 564 600 603 629 633 665 676 g g g 00000000000 56/57 N 676 130 -- N 1957 57/58 Es Es 1958 58/59 Ew Ew 1959 0 0 0 g g 29 42 105 157 244 249 249 0 g g 59/60 N 249 70 N 1960 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 38 106 211 211 272 377 398 451 489 538 544 563 568 g g g g 0 0 g g g g g 0 0 60/61 N 568 130 -- N 1961 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 g g g g g g g g g 82 212 287 332 341 358 460 518 829 63 79 168 376 408 446 490 525 535 61/62 N 828 90 570 110 N 1962 570 570 g 0 0 0 0 0 32 61 204 221 344 428 430 434 455 484 519 526 534 g g g g g g g g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 62/63 N 534 130 -- N 1963 0 0 0 0 0 0 g g g g 82 263 515 556 556 559 637 716 726 727 g g g g g g g g g g 0 g g g g g 63/64 Ew 727 100 -- Ew 1964 g g g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 g g 31 200 228 265 267 277 293 307 314 336 356 377 379 g 0 0 0 0 0 40 54 85 159 64/65 Aw 379 130 182 60 Aw 1965 182 182 g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 g g 32 86 164 181 293 295 301 g g g g g g g g g 34 45 107 126 232 232 232 0 65/66 Am 301 70 232 70 Am 1966 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 g 55 101 124 198 223 266 424 436 482 567 567 588 593 631 631 g g g g g g g g g g 66/67 N 631 150 -- N 1967 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 68 123 157 266 299 366 444 464 470 474 g g g g g g g 94 2 163 246 314 363 435 435 435 0 67/68 N 474 100 435 80 N 1968 0 0 0 0 0 50 24 36 97 104 125 350 406 497 628 764 787 951 961 1048 1058 1064 1109 1140 1141 1147 0 g g 34 43 165 323 328 328 0 68/69 Em 1147 200 328 60 Em 1969 000000000000 g 34 172 228 228 362 400 423 443 443 g g g 0 0 0 0 0 g g g g 0 0 69/70 Ew 443 90 -- Ew 1970 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 55 85 115 138 138 400 480 507 512 531 541 562 585 596 g g g g g g g g 0 0 0 0 0 0 70/71 Am 596 140 -- Am 1971 000000000000 138 156 198 201 348 367 382 395 444 466 468 476 504 515 g g 0 0 0 0 0 0 g g 71/72 N 515 140 -- N 1972 g g g g g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 43 190 327 333 335 0 g g g g g 56 205 254 258 73 191 209 238 328 328 335 0 0 72/73 Em 335 50 335 70 Em 1973 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 32 132 328 433 501 591 609 652 776 777 780 805 814 859 884 892 892 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 73/74 As 892 170 -- As 1974 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 49 90 101 101 240 270 270 322 385 451 451 451 00000000000000 74/75 Aw 451 120 -- Aw 1975 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 g g 66 89 232 336 367 428 477 542 662 678 693 698 g g 000000000000 75/76 Am 698 120 -- Am 1976 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 143 255 305 315 338 433 452 452 519 580 600 616 618 g 70 106 6 10 0 g g g g g 0 76/77 Ew 618 140 -- Ew 1977 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 g 143 155 191 257 300 303 324 336 340 379 379 428 488 523 526 616 632 54 109 260 300 330 350 361 380 440 77/78 Ew 632 170 451 110 Ew 1978 440 451 0 0 0 0 0 55 86 181 184 348 671 704 732 772 802 1015 1065 1106 1106 1125 1167 1167 1182 1188 1203 5 21 40 127 151 208 280 297 297 78/79 N 1203 200 498 120 N 1979 377 385 498 514 528 g 0 69 79 137 208 216 334 367 648 764 764 764 813 816 859 859 879 885 940 959 967 8 g g g g g g g g 79/80 Ew 967 200 -- Ew 1980 g g 0 0 0 0 0 0 g g g 129 133 201 206 268 268 283 319 364 484 611 684 701 727 729 741 g g g g g g g g g 80/81 N 741 160 -- N 1981 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 64 190 211 271 277 277 400 413 476 499 499 535 557 559 576 588 618 652 686 686 5 101 112 152 152 185 185 313 324 81/82 N 686 200 324 100 N 1982 324 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 62 87 134 298 554 786 910 914 949 1047 1134 1167 1225 1236 1244 g g g 80 55 137 177 185 222 244 247 g 0 82/83 Es 1244 150 247 70 Es 1983 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 42 59 118 243 330 608 764 790 819 870 902 928 969 999 1014 1017 1058 1072 1074 g g g 0 0 0 83/84 Aw 1074 190 Aw 1984 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 189 331 453 557 615 705 747 815 925 940 945 g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 84/85 Aw 945 110 Aw 1985 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 29 29 127 141 347 500 512 512 g 28 70 99 113 124 139 166 176 g g g g g 0 0 0 0 0 0 85/86 N 512 80 -- N 1986 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 g g 90 140 221 224 324 595 601 604 g g g g g g 56 84 100 110 6 g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 86/87 Em 604 80 -- Em 1987 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 49 72 84 181 229 229 292 292 292 0 0 0 57 151 172 172 198 198 6 76 76 g 0 0 87/88 Ew 292 110 -- Ew 1988 0000000000000 g 35 127 157 217 217 237 g g g g g g g g 0 0 88/89 As 237 60 As 1989 89/90 N N 1990 90/91 Ew Ew 1991 91/92 Es Es 1992 92/93 Ew Ew 1993 93/94 N N 1994 94/95 Ew Ew 1995 95/96 Aw no AH cd. 45 46 52 54 55 55 53 50 41 27 17 10 4 2 1 2 5 7 6 8 14 14 21 23 26 28 29 34 34 33 34 38 38 38 39 43 Median rain- 639 278 AHP cd. 9 8 2 2 1 1 4 7 16 30 40 47 53 55 56 55 52 50 50 48 42 42 35 33 30 28 27 21 21 22 20 16 16 15 14 10 fall in AHPs #### 6082 %AHP/val.y. 17% 15% 4% 4% 2% 2% 7% 12% 28% 53% 70% 82% 93% 96% 98% 96% 91% 88% 89% 86% 75% 75% 63% 59% 54% 50% 48% 38% 38% 40% 37% 30% 30% 28% 26% 19% 66% reliab. of 534 231 median AHP rainf. in AHPs 60%-reliable 110 - Martin Mueller 2011 length of AHP 0 0 33 33

First rainy season and middle rains: Av. end of March - end of September Second rainy season: Av. October - January years of usable records: 57 1), 57 with AHP 2) years of usable records: 53 1), 21 with AHP 2)

Chances for the right growing periods: Coast Comp. maize 40 gr. p. of at least 105 days = 70 % of the seasons Coast Comp. m. 4 gr. p. of at least 105 days = 8 % of all seasons PH 4 maize 47 gr. p. of at least 85 days = 82 % of all seasons PH 4 maize 5 gr. p. of at least 85 days = 9 % of all seasons Dwarf sorghum 51 gr. p. of at least 80 days = 89 % of all seasons Dwarf sorghum 7 gr. p. of at least 80 days = 13 % of all seasons E.mat. cowpeas 54 gr. p. of at least 70 days = 95 % of all seasons E.mat. cowpeas 11 gr. p. of at least 70 days = 21 % of all seasons Minor millets 18 gr. p. of at least 50 days = 34 % of all seasons

Existential risks: No cereal growing period in a year or more: 0 times = 0 % of the years WATBAL run specifications by B. Hornetz 2) 2 or more consecutive rainy seasons without the min. AHP of 40 d.: 0 times in 54 years ISUM ESUM ELIM OLIM STOCK RE IR No grass growing period in a season: 4 times = 7 % of the seasons j 2,4 2,4 0,4 1 176 0,9 25 No grass growing period in a year or more: 0 times = 0 % of the years v 1,5 1,2 0,2 1 176 0,9 15 rainfall scenario: DISCON

1) valid = no significant gaps in the records 2) AHP = Agro-humid period ~ growing period for cereals and legumes; GGP = grass growing period KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 18 26 18 22 20 16 19 heavy 27 20 23 21 18 20 medium 29 21 25 24 20 22 Percentage of years with of years Percentage failure total crop light 74 82 78 80 84 81 heavy 73 80 77 79 82 80 medium not calculatable 71 79 75 76 80 78 Percentage of years with of years Percentage at least poor harvest light 65 56 67 62 65 70 66 heavy 63 55 65 60 63 67 65 medium not calculatable 60 63 58 60 65 61 53 Percentage of years with of years Percentage at least fair harvest light 35 55 58 49 55 62 56 44 heavy 30 50 55 47 53 58 53 43 medium 25 45 51 43 46 52 48 39 Percentage of years with of years Percentage at least good harvest light 25 45 49 38 46 55 45 34 heavy 20 40 45 35 41 50 42 32 medium 15 35 40 34 36 43 37 30 Percentage of years with of years Percentage good harvest very light 85 105 120 120 120 150 perennial perennial Veg. Veg. cycle in days (average) CULTIVATION CHANCES AND RISKS IN THE CASHEWNUT-CASSAVA ZONE WITH A MEDIUM CROPPING SEASON AND WITH A MEDIUM CROPPING ZONE THE CASHEWNUT-CASSAVA CHANCES AND RISKS IN CULTIVATION Crop Crop variety or fodder plant Bananas Napier Napier and Bana grass PH4 PH4 maize Coast comp. maize Sunflower Sunflower Kenya Almasi Early mat. beans soya Medium Medium mat. soya beans Cotton TABLE 3: TABLE RAINS (=CL 4 m i) NEAR KILIFI on light, medium and heavy soils INTERMEDIATE with Computer Simulation Programss WATBAL and MARCROP WATBAL Programss B. Hornetz with Computer Simulation Calculations by Source: KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 19

CL 4 = Cashewnut-Cassava Zone m i (vs/s) with a medium cropping season, intermediate rains, and a (weak) very short to short one Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm, end of March: Pot. almost as CL 4 m i but PH4 maize only fair Whole year: Cashew nuts4), mangoes, castor, avocadoes, sisal, pineapples3) (var. Smooth Cayenne recommended) Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: Potential almost as CL 4 m i plus PH4 maize 2nd rainy season, start around m. O.: E. mat. foxtail millet, e. mat. sorghum (~40 %); green grams, cowpeas (fair to poor) Whole year: Cassava, pawpaws, guavas, senna Poor yield potential 2nd rainy season: Lagrotech early maize; e. mat. soya beans: sweet potatoes9) Whole year: Coconuts, bananas, citrus Pasture and forage About 1 - 1.5 ha/LU; down to about 0.2 ha/LU feeding Napier and Bana grass, siratro, centro, and planting horse tamarind CL 4 = Cashewnut-Cassava Zone m i (vs) with a medium cropping season, intermediate rains, and a (weak) very short one Very small, potential in 1st rainy season almost as CL 4 m i + (vs/s) but better for cotton, 2nd rainy season: E. mat. foxtail millet, e. mat. Gadam sorghum, green grams and cowpeas poor CL 4 = Cashewnut-Cassava Zone m + (vu) with a medium cropping season and a (weak) very uncertain one Very small, potential see Kwale Group of Districts CL 4 = Cashewnut-Cassava Zone m/s i (vs) with a medium to short cropping season, intermediate rains, and a (weak) very short one

Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm, end of March: M. mat. sorghum: cowpeas1), dolichos beans, sweet potatoes; simsim1), e. mat. soya beans 60%), m. mat. bambara groundnuts6)7), guar; onions, okra, aubergines, egg plants, sweet pepper, garlic, chillies, water melons, cucumbers, pumpkins Whole year: Avocadoes, sisal, castor, pineapples3) (Smooth Cayenne), e. mat. cassava Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: Coast comp. (50 %) and PH4 maize (50-60 %), rice in semi-perm, swamps; cotton, safflor, sunflower, groundnuts6); Chinese cabbage, tomatoes, pigeon peas Whole year: Cashew nuts4), m. mat. cassava, mangoes, pawpaws, senna Poor yield potential 2nd rainy season, start norm, end of O./b. of N.: E. mat. sorghum; green grams, cowpeas, sweet potatoes9) Whole year: Coconuts, orange, lemons Pasture and forage About 1.5 - 2 ha/LU on cleared woodland (clearing necessary because of tsetse fly); down to about 0.3 ha/LU feeding Bana grass, centro, butterfly pea (Clitoria ternatea), Macrotyloma, and planting horse tamarind and saltbush (Atriplex nummularia) CL 4 = Cashewnut-Cassava Zone m/s i with a medium to short cropping season followed by intermediate rains Potential in 1st rainy season and whole year almost as CL 4 m/s i (vs) but PH4 maize, cashew nuts and cassava better (nearly 60 %), 2nd rains nothing. Stocking rates about 10 % lower; drought stress may be too high for butterfly peas CL 4 = Cashewnut-Cassava Zone m/s + (vu) with a medium to short cropping season and a (weak) very uncertain one Potential almost as CL 4 m/s i but cowpeas and simsim planted towards the end of 1st rainy season have only poor yields KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 20

CL 4 = Cashewnut-Cassava Zone s/m i (vs) with a short to medium cropping season, intermediate rains, and a (weak) very short one Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start indistinctly b. of April: E. mat. sorghum var. Gadam, e. mat. rice Nerica 10 & 11 in mbugas, e. mat. bulrush/pearl millet (bristled variety Kat/PM1); green grams, cowpeas1) and simsim1) (both good to fair yields) Whole year: Perennial castor, sisal Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: E. mat. maize like PH4; black grams, dolichos beans; e. mat. bambara groundnuts, groundnuts; sweet potatoes; e. mat. soya beans (on h. and m. soils); onions, tomatoes, chillies, eggplants, okra, green and red sweet pepper, aubergines, garlic, water melons, cucumbers, pumpkins; e. mat. cassava like Shibe or Tajirika 2nd rainy season, start indistinctly Oct.: E. mat. sorghum var. Gadam, e. mat. millets (both grain crops have fair to poor average yields); green grams (~ 40 %), chick peas (on heavy black soils), cowpeas for spinach Whole year: Cashew nuts, mangoes, pineapples3) Poor yield potential 1st rainy season: Beans 2nd rainy season: E. mat. maize like Lagrotech; cowpeas Pasture and forage Around 2 ha/LU on woodland (tsetse if not cleared); feeding Bana grass, centro, butterfly pea, sisal bogas, cassava & planting horse tamarind down to about 0.3 ha/LU CL 4 = Cashewnut-Cassava Zone s i (vs) with a short cropping season, intermediate rains, and a (weak) very short one (See Diagram Kakoneni) Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. m. April: E. mat. sorghum, e. mat. bulrush/pearl millet (bristled var.); cowpeas1), green grams, simsim (June/July-Aug./S.,~ 60 %); chillies (Long Red Cayenne recommended), luffa gourds Whole year: Mangoes, castor, sisal, physic nut (Jatropha) KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 21

Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: E. mat. maize like PH4, finger millet; dolichos beans, e. mat. soya beans; sweet potatoes; groundnuts and bambara groundnuts; onions, tomatoes, red and green sweet pepper, okra, eggplants, drought resistant cassava 2nd rainy season, start indistinctly m. Oct.; E. mat. foxtail millet; green grams and simsim (fair to poor), cowpeas (also for spinach) Whole year: Cashewnuts, pawpaws, pineapples3) Some marginal crops with poor yield potential 2nd rains: E. mat. maize like Lagrotech, local maize, sweet potatoes9) Pasture and forage More than 2 ha/LU on woodland; feeding Bana grass and legumes like siratro down to about 0.35 ha/LU (m. soils on free draining land) and planting horse tamarinds (also on mbuga edges). Tsetse flies near rivers or thickets. Sisal bogas and cassava as add. forage CL 4 = Coastal Lowland Livestock-Millet Zone s/m + vu with a short to medium cropping season, and a second very uncertain one Small areas, potential almost as CL 4 m/s + i less about 10 %, but cashew nuts very marginal, cowpeas and simsim (planted towards the end of 1st rainy season) too

CL 5 = Coastal Lowland Livestock-Millet Zone CL 5 = Coastal Lowland Livestock-Millet Zone s i + (vu) with a short cropping season, followed by intermediate rains, and a weak very uncertain one Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start normally mid April: E. mat. sorghum, e. mat. pearl millet (bristled var.); chick peas (late planted on h. bl. soils); luffa gourds Whole year: Buffalo gourds (on sandy soils)10), Marama beans10) Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: Cowpeas and grams (May-Aug.); e. mat. groundnuts, e. mat. bambara groundnuts, e. mat. soya beans; onions Whole year: Drought resistant cassava, castor, physic nut (Jatropha) KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 22

Poor yield potential 1st rainy season: E. mat. maize Pasture and forage More than 2.5 ha/LU on dry acacia bushland; down to about 0.5 ha/LU on art. pasture of buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris) and feeding hay or silage of Mauritius bean vines during dry season, Gao tree pods, and planting saltbush as fodder shrub. Mangrove leaves

TABLE 4a: CLIMATIC YIELD POTENTIALS OF SEASONAL CROPS 1) in CL 5 (vs/s) + vs (calc. for station 9339027 Baricho with locally dominating Fluvisols, AA 1)

First rainy season Second rainy season (start end of March till beg. of May) (start end of October till November) Estim. Total Estim. Total Yield average crop average crop Potential Crop variety yield (kg/ failures Crop variety yield (kg/ failures (in % of ha) 2) out of 10 ha) 2) out of 10 Optimum) seasons seasons Very good (80-100 %) Good (60–80 %) Hog millet (Jodhpur) 610 3 Fair Proso millet (Serere I) 1190 2 (40-60 %) Moth beans (Jodhpur) 710 2 Green grams (KVR 22) 440 2 Hog millet (Jodhpur) 420 3 Foxtail millet (Ise 285) 1160 2 Proso millet (Serere I) 710 3-4 Bulrush millet Foxtail millet (Ise 285) 770 3 (Serere Comp. II) 1130 2 Bulrush millet Pearl millet (Kat/PM 1, (Serere Comp. II) 920 3 bristled var.) 760 2 Pearl millet (Kat/PM 1, Finger millet (Ekalakala) 780 3 bristled var.) 760 3 Sorghum (2KX 17) 820 3 Sorghum (IS 8595) 880 3 Sorghum (IS 8595) 1070 2 Poor Tepary beans 290 (4) Sorghum (Serena) 720 3 (20–40 %) Cowpeas (MTW 63, MTW Tepary beans 470 2 610) 580 (4) Cowpeas (MTW 63, MTW Moth beans (Jodhpur) 480 3 610) 900 3 Green grams (KVR 22) 300 3 Cowpeas (ICV II) 690 3-4 Green grams (KVR 26) 310 3 Green grams (KVR 26) 420 2 Green grams (KS 2010) 360 (4) Black grams 390 2 Black grams 410 3 Dolichos beans (Kat/DL-3) 590 3 Mung beans (Kat Dengu 26) 330 3 Pigeon peas (Kat/Mbaazi 3) 340 3 Dolichos beans (Kat/DL-3) 660 (4) Chick peas 410 2 Pigeon peas (Kat/Mbaazi 3) 370 (4) Mung beans (Kat Dengu 26) 470 2 Chick peas 410 3 Bambara groundnuts (N-Cameroon) 370 3 Groundnuts (Makulu Red) 580 3-4

1) Only crops listed with total crop failures (TCF) generally less than 33 % (acc. to calculations with MARCROP model of Hornetz, 2001; see Methodology in Annex). Figures in brackets () mean that yield potentials are more than 20 % of optimum although TCF are more than 33 % (3 out of 10 years). Yield potentials of some crops in the second rainy season are higher than in the first rainy season due to differences in the years analyzed: For the first season 23 years were used whereas for the second season only 17 years were analyzed (particularly some of the drier years in the 1970-ies were missing in the second season; therefore, the yield potentials in the second season seem to be much higher). 2) Well manured, fertilized and protected. Water loss as surface runoff is stopped by contour ridges. KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 23

TABLE 4b: CLIMATIC YIELD POTENTIALS OF SEASONAL CROPS 1) in CL 5 (vs/s) + vs (calc. for station 9339027 Baricho with locally dominating Cambisols, Uc TA)

Hog millet (Jodhpur) 850 0 Bulrush millet Proso millet (Serere I) 1550 0 (Serere Comp. II) 2020 0 Foxtail millet (Ise 285) 1580 0 Pearl millet (Kat/PM 1, Bulrush millet bristled var.) 1380 0 (Serere Comp. II) 1840 1 Finger millet (Ekalakala) 1650 0 Pearl millet (Kat/PM 1, Sorghum (2KX 17) 1740 0 bristled var.) 1380 1 Sorghum (IS 8595) 1920 0 Finger millet (Ekalakala) 1750 1 Sorghum (Serena) 1610 0 Sorghum (2KX 17) 1840 1 Tepary beans 690 1 Sorghum (IS 8595) 1750 1 Dolichos beans (Kat/DL-3) 1250 0 Sorghum (Serena) 1540 1 Pigeon peas (Kat/Mbaazi 3) 860 0 Fair Tepary beans 550 2 Groundnuts (Makulu Red) 1310 0 (40-60 %) Cowpeas (MTW 63, MTW 610) 1140 2 Cowpeas (ICV II) 940 2 Moth beans (Jodhpur) 890 1 Green grams (KVR 26) 620 1 Black grams 740 1 Dolichos beans (Kat/DL-3) 1450 1 Pigeon peas (Kat/Mbaazi 3) 740 1 Chick peas 740 1 Mung beans (Kat Dengu 26) 670 1 Bambara groundnuts (N-Cameroon) 460 2 Groundnuts (Makulu Red) 1210 2

Maize (PH 1) 1520 3 Maize (PH 1) 1470 2 Poor Sorghum (White) 1580 1 Sorghum (White) 960 1 (20–40 %) Soyabeans (Magoye) 1380 2 Soyabeans (Magoye) 1030 2 Soyabeans (TGX 1869/1893) 1540 2 Soyabeans (TGX 1869/1893) 1150 2

1) Only crops listed with total crop failures (TCF) generally less than 33 % (acc. to calculations with MARCROP model of Hornetz, 2001; see Methodology in Annex). Although the 2nd rainy season is shorter, it is more reliable. Yield potentials of some crops in the second rainy season are higher than in the first rainy season due to differences in the years analyzed: For the first season 23 years were used whereas for the second season only 17 years were analyzed (particularly some of the drier years in the 1970-ies were missing in the second season; therefore, the yield potentials in the second season seem to be much higher). 2) Well manured, fertilized and protected. Water loss as surface runoff is stopped by contour ridges. KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 24

CL 5 = Coastal Lowland Livestock-Millet Zone s/vs i (vs) with a short to very short cropping season, intermediate rains and a (weak) very short one Almost the same as above less about 5% from yield expectations in 1st rains and from stocking rates. Second rains see CL 5 s i (vs)

FAR FROM THE COAST (40 km) THE SHORT RAINS ARE MORE RELIABLE AND PRONOUNCED

Station name Cereal and legumes growing period Dry conditions Precipitation is cumulated Baricho = agro-humid period (AHP), during agro-humid period in mm Station no. Altitude AEZ min. 40 days Subzone: 9339027 67m CL 5 = grass growing period only vs/s i vs

Rainfall / c.& leg. gr.p. Year January February March April May June July August September October November December Year 1st AHP 2nd AHP 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 mm days mm days 1951 51/52 1952 52/53 1953 53/54 1954 54/55 1955 55/56 1956 56/57 1957 57/58 1958 58/59 1959 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 g 158 208 235 235 235 g g g g g g g g g g 0 0 0 0 0 77 111 211 268 278 59/60 235 50 278 60 1960 278 0 0 0 0 0 0 36 37 130 153 167 255 255 287 319 335 340 g g g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 g g g g g g g 60/61 340 110 -- 1961 g 000000000000000000 58 80 126 126 127 171 198 573 113 119 203 344 398 474 565 597 603 61/62 573 80 685 120 1962 685 685 685 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 g g g g g 000000000000000000 35 73 124 62/63 -- 148 50 1963 126 148 g g 0 0 37 102 108 127 169 257 329 383 388 388 g g g g 00000000000 70 140 164 186 277 63/64 388 100 341 80 1964 340 340 341 g g 0 0 67 86 175 176 177 0 0 g g g g 000000000000000 33 70 183 64/65 177 50 198 50 1965 198 198 g 0 0 0 0 0 g g g g g g 57 60 136 136 136 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 66 74 229 252 264 273 g g 65/66 136 50 273 60 1966 0 g g g g 0 0 55 76 82 143 182 186 203 311 311 323 368 368 g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 g 188 200 233 307 308 308 66/67 368 120 308 60 1967 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 g g g g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 g g g 81 247 248 297 g 73 328 344 367 571 587 587 g 67/68 -- 587 70 1968 0 0 0 0 0 45 44 94 128 173 190 330 353 441 527 588 592 627 627 660 665 g g g 0 0 0 0 g g g 57 104 173 173 190 68/69 665 150 190 50 1969 gggggggggggg 0000000000000000000 153 208 221 221 g 69/70 -- 221 40 1970 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 33 39 121 143 175 197 203 g 00000000000000 g 32 60 85 133 70/71 203 70 133 60 1971 133 133 000000000000000000000000000000 29 55 79 147 71/72 -- 288 70 1972 288 288 288 376 376 g 0 0 g g 56 294 321 366 419 419 419 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 81 81 33 98 113 126 145 145 208 247 266 72/73 419 70 293 110 1973 293 293 g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 36 75 196 237 266 288 451 520 520 520 551 551 571 584 625 625 643 8 60 60 119 136 216 293 293 293 73/74 643 170 293 90 1974 74/75 1975 00000000000 42 83 124 124 124 0 g g g g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 75/76 124 50 1976 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 g g g g g g g g g g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 g g g g 0 76/77 -- 1977 00000000000000 g g g g g 29 29 75 136 136 136 165 170 32 60 140 140 140 0 0 28 122 77/78 310 130 167 50 1978 122 167 167 g 0 30 21 39 122 163 203 313 397 431 438 445 g g g g g g g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 g g g 78/79 445 100 - - 1979 g 39 143 152 195 225 2 54 81 102 139 146 163 190 347 407 407 410 g g g 000000000000 57 67 123 79/80 410 120 123 50 1980 123 123 g g g g g 0 g g g g g g g g g 0 0 0 0 250 403 428 428 g g g 0 0 80/81 428 40 1981 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 47 323 375 450 450 450 495 495 536 596 596 596 00000000000 81/82 596 120 1982 82/83 1983 83/84 1984 84/85 1985 85/86 1986 0 0 0 0 0 0 61 93 157 195 254 270 293 488 658 658 658 00000000000000 38 73 199 321 431 86/87 658 110 431 70 1987 431 431 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 108 144 218 298 376 407 452 452 452 498 536 566 585 640 640 640 0 0 0 0 87/88 585 130 1988 88/89 1989 89/90 1990 90/91 no AH cd. 14 14 20 23 23 22 20 16 16 15 12 10 11 11 10 10 15 17 19 20 20 20 20 19 19 19 20 21 19 19 18 13 12 9 9 11 Median rain- 410 278 AHP cd. 11 11 5 2 2 3 5 9 9 10 13 15 14 14 15 15 10 86555566654667 12 13 16 16 14 fall in AHPs 6582 4957 %AHP/val.y. 44% 44% 20% 8% 8% 12% 20% 36% 36% 40% 52% 60% 56% 56% 60% 60% 40% 32% 24% 20% 20% 20% 20% 24% 24% 24% 20% 16% 24% 24% 28% 48% 52% 64% 64% 56% 66% reliab. of 368 190 median AHP rainf. in AHPs 60%-reliable 70 60 Martin Mueller 2011 length of AHP 7 7 8 8

First rainy season: Av. end of March - end of September Second rainy season: Av. end of Oct. - begining of January years of usable records: 24 1), 19 with AHP 2) years of usable records: 19 1), 17 with AHP 2)

Chances for the right growing periods: Coast Comp. maize 9 gr. p. of at least 105 days = 38 % of the seasons Coast C. maize 2 gr. p. of at least 105 days = 11 % of all seasons PH 1 maize 11 gr. p. of at least 85 days = 46 % of all seasons PH 1 maize 3 gr. p. of at least 85 days = 16 % of all seasons Dwarf sorghum 12 gr. p. of at least 80 days = 50 % of all seasons Dwarf sorghum 4 gr. p. of at least 80 days = 21 % of all seasons V.e.mat. cowpeas 14 gr. p. of at least 60 days = 58 % of all seasons V.e.m. cowpeas 11 gr. p. of at least 60 days = 58 % of all seasons Minor millets 18 gr. p. of at least 50 days = 75 % of all seasons Minor millets 17 gr. p. of at least 50 days = 89 % of all seasons

Existential risks: No cereal growing period in a year or more: 2 times = 8 % of the years WATBAL run specifications by B. Hornetz 2) 2 or more consecutive rainy seasons without the min. AHP of 50 d.: 2 times in 24 years ISUM ESUM ELIM OLIM STOCK RE IR No grass growing period in a season: 1 time = 4 % of the seasons j 2,4 2,4 0,4 1 304 0,9 25 No grass growing period in a year or more: 0 time = 0 % of the years v 1,5 1,2 0,2 1 304 0,9 15 rainfall scenario: DISCON

1) valid = no significant gaps in the records 2) AHP = Agro-humid period ~ growing period for cereals and legumes; GGP = grass growing period KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 25

TABLE 5 a: CLIMATIC YIELD POTENTIALS OF SEASONAL CROPS 1) in CL 5 vs/s i (vs) (calc. for station 9239000 Hadu Location with locally dominating Ferralsols)

First rainy season Second rainy season (start end of March till beg. of May) (start end of October till November) Estim. Total Estim. Total Yield average crop average crop Potential Crop variety yield (kg/ failures Crop variety yield (kg/ failures (in % of ha) 2) out of 10 ha) 2) out of 10 Optimum) seasons seasons Very good (80-100 %) Good (60–80 %) Fair (40-60 %) Hog millet (Jodhpur) 560 2 Hog millet (Jodhpur) 490 (4) Proso millet (Serere I) 1000 1 Proso millet (Serere I) 750 (4) Foxtail millet (Ise 285) 950 2 Foxtail millet (Ise 285) 780 (4) Bulrush millet Tepary beans 310 (4) (Serere Comp. II) 1220 2 Cowpeas (MTW 63, MTW Pearl millet (Kat/PM 1, 610) 510 (5) bristled var.) 840 2 Moth beans (Jodhpur) 390 (4) Finger millet (Ekalakala) 1030 (4) Green grams (KVR 22) 240 (4) Sorghum (IS 8595) 1160 2 Green grams (KVR 26) 260 (4) Sorghum (Serena) 880 (5) Mung beans (Kat Dengu 26) 270 (4) Tepary beans 360 3 Bambara groundnuts Cowpeas (MTW 63, MTW (N-Cameroon) 200 (5) Poor 610) 740 (4) (20–40 %) Moth beans (Jodhpur) 600 1 Green grams (KVR 22) 380 1 Green grams (KVR 26) 480 2 Green grams (KS 2010) 530 2 Black grams 520 (4) Mung beans (Kat Dengu 26) 490 2 Dolichos beans (Kat/DL-3) 920 3 Pigeon peas (Kat/Mbaazi 3) 510 3-4 Chick peas 520 (4) Soyabeans (Magoye) 700 (4) Soyabeans (TGX 1869/1893) 780 (4) Bambara groundnuts (N-Cameroon) 290 3-4 Groundnuts (Makulu Red) 700 (5)

TABLE 5 b: CLIMATIC YIELD POTENTIALS OF SEASONAL CROPS 1) in CL 5 vs/s i (vs) (calc. for station 9239000 Hadu Location with locally dominating Phaeozems)

First rainy season Second rainy season (start end of March till mid of April) (start end of October till mid of November) Estim. Total Estim. Total Yield average crop average crop Potential Crop variety yield (kg/ failures Crop variety yield (kg/ failures (in % of ha) 2) out of 10 ha) 2) out of 10 Optimum) seasons seasons Very good (80-100 %) Good (60–80 %) Foxtail millet (Jodhpur) 790 1 Foxtail millet (Jodhpur) 740 (4) Hog millet (Jodhpur) 790 1 Hog millet (Jodhpur) 650 3 Fair Proso millet (Serere I) 1230 1 Proso millet (Serere I) 1150 (4) (40-60 %) Foxtail millet (Ise 285) 1320 1 Moth beans (Jodhpur) 760 1 Green grams (KVR 22) 480 1 Green grams (KS 2010) 640 2 Maize (PH 1) 1150 3-4 Foxtail millet (Ise 285) 1100 3 Bulrush millet Bulrush millet (Serere Comp. II) 1390 2 (Serere Comp. II) 930 (4) Pearl millet (Kat/PM 1, Pearl millet (Kat/PM 1, bristled var.) 950 2 bristled var.) 620 (4) Finger millet (Ekalakala) 1300 3 Finger millet (Ekalakala) 780 (4) Sorghum (2KX 17) 1360 3 Sorghum (2KX 17) 820 (4) Sorghum (IS 8595) 1320 2 Sorghum (IS 8595) 890 (4) Sorghum (Serena) 1130 3-4 Sorghum (Serena) 760 (4) Poor Tepary beans 460 2 Tepary beans 370 (4) (20–40 %) Cowpeas (MTW 63, MTW Cowpeas (MTW 63, MTW 610) 930 2 610) 690 (4) Green grams (KVR 26) 500 2 Moth beans (Jodhpur) 580 3 Black grams 560 3 Green grams (KVR 22) 360 3 Mung beans (Kat Dengu 26) 500 2 Green grams (KVR 26) 350 3 Dolichos beans (Kat/DL-3) 1000 3 Mung beans (Kat Dengu 26) 390 (4) Pigeon peas (Kat/Mbaazi 3) 560 3 Black grams 350 3 Chick peas 560 3 Dolichos beans (Kat/DL-1) 480 3 Soyabeans (Magoye) 1070 3-4 Pigeon peas (Kat/Mbaazi 3) 360 3 Soyabeans (TGX 1869/1893) 1190 3-4 Chick peas 350 3 Bambara groundnuts Bambara groundnuts (N-Cameroon) 350 3 (N-Cameroon) 290 (4) Groundnuts (Makulu Red) 820 (4)

CL 5 = Coastal Lowland Livestock-Millet Zone (vs/s) + vs with a (weak) very short to short cropping season and a very short one (See Diagrams Baricho and Tables 4 a&b) Good yield potential 2nd rainy season (on CAMBISOLS): Foxtail millet (ISE 285) Proso millet (Serere I), hog millet (Jodhpur); cowpeas (MTW 63 & 610), green grams (KVR 26), black grams, chick peas, mung beans (Kat Dengu 26) Whole year, best planting time mid April: Buffalo gourds(on sandy soils)10), Marama beans10) Fair yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. b. of April: V. e. mat. sorghum (var. see Table 4a), e. mat. pearl millet (bristled var.); chick peas (on h. bl. soils), cowpeas, green and black grams (May - Aug.), mung beans, dolichos beans, e. mat. bambara groundnuts; onions 2nd rainy season, start norm, end of Oct.: Pearl millet (bristled var.); more crops on diff. soils see Tables 4 a&b, also for the other seasons Whole year: Sisal, drought resistant cassava (fair to poor), castor, Jatropha Poor yield potential 1st rainy season: E. mat. maize like PH1 2nd rainy season: E. mat. bulrush/pearl millet (bristled var.), e. mat. sorghum, e. mat. maize (half plant pop. density recommended) Whole year: Mangoes, ye-eb nuts8) Pasture and forage Around 4 ha/LU on sclerophytic evergreen bushland (partly tsetse infested), around 2 ha/LU in mbugas; down to about 0.6 ha/LU on Buffel grass pastures and feeding vines of Mauritius or Marama beans, and planting saltbush and Mesquite as fodder shrubs

CL 5 = Coastal Lowland Livestock-Millet Zone s/vs i with a short to very short cropping season followed by intermediate rains Potential almost as CL 5 s i less about 5 - 10% in yields and 10 - 20% in stocking rates. Mangrove leaves KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 28

CL 5 = Coastal Lowland Livestock-Millet Zone vs/s i (vs) with a very short to short cropping season, intermediate rains, and a (weak) very short one (See Diagram Mariakani and Tables 5 a&b)) Good yield potential Whole year: Buffalo gourds (on light soils)10), Marama beans10) Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: Proso and foxtail millet, green grams, moth beans 2nd rainy season: Proso and hog millet Whole year: Sisal, drought resistant cassava (fair to poor), castor Poor yield potential 1st rainy season: See Tables 5 a&b 2nd rainy season, start norm, end of O.: E. mat. maize like Lagrotech or PH1, v. e. mat. sorghum, e. mat. bulrush/pearl millet (bristled var. Kat/PM1 or PM2 = grain usable at dough state); green grams. More crops see Tables 5 a&b Pasture and forage Almost as s i (vs) less about 10% CL 5 = Coastal Lowland Livestock-Millet Zone (vs/s) i with a (weak) very short to short cropping season followed by intermediate rains Small and unimportant. Potential see Tana Group of Districts. Jatropha fair

CL 5 = Coastal Lowland Livestock-Millet Zone (vs) + vu with a (weak) very short cropping season and a very uncertain second one Fair to poor yield potential 1st rainy season11): E. mat. sorghum, v. e. mat. foxtail millet, e. mat. bulrush/pearl millet (bristled var. Kat/PM1); cowpeas, green and black grams, v. e. mat. bambara groundnuts Whole year: Buffalo gourds (on light soils)10), Marama beans10), sisal, castor, ye-eb nuts 12), neem trees Poor yield potential Whole year: Cassava Pasture and forage Small-leaved bushland predominating, about 3-5 ha/LU, stocking rates better if there are planted Gao trees on good soils for pods, Mesquite and saltbush on most free draining places for add. browsing

CL 6 = Coastal Lowland Ranching Zone CL 6 = Coastal Lowland Ranching Zone b r with bimodal rainfall No rainfed crops average better than poor results except buffalo gourds, Marama beans and ye-eb nuts. Cattle, sheep and goats on undestroyed short grass savanna mixed with small leaved bushland need more than 5 ha/LU; saltbush and Mesquite to plant for add. browsing, especially in dry years. Gao trees (Acacia albida) for pods on good (alluvial) soils

NOTES 1) Crops in the intermediate rains are interplanted or relay-planted already at the end of the first rainy season 2) Only fair results on light soils 3) No top qualities 4) Danger of spoiled nuts by second rains 5) Ref.: FOX, J.W. and CUMBERLAND, K.B. (1962): Western Samoa. Christchurch, New Zealand 6) Not on heavy soils 7) Gives reasonable yields also on poor soils 8) M. mat. varieties on m. and heavy soils, e. mat. var. on light soils 9) Necessary to cultivate to keep plant material for next season. To get better results, if possible, plant on ridges in swampy places 10) Eatable seed and after some seasons tubers too, still experimental 11) At least one of the two rainy seasons will have a very short growing period for crops in 6 or more years out of 10 12) Cordeauxia edulis from Somalia KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 29 KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 30

SOIL DISTRIBUTION, FERTILITY AND MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS

The transition from the sedimentary or non-dissected erosional plains to the coastal plains is gradual. Between these plains and the beach, a zone of uplands and plateaus gives rise to escarpments and higher relief intensity. The underlying geology is described as sedimentary rocks of various properties, ranging from consolidated sand, silt and clay to limestone exposures. Along the coast itself coral rock forms the soil parent material. Extensive alluvial plains are found along the Galana (Sabaki) river, and along some tributaries of the Tana.

Going from west to east the soils occur in a broad SW-NE orientated pattern, more or less parallel to the coastline. This is due to the fact that the underlying geology is mainly derived from marine sediments, which were deposited at various stages of geological history in much the same way as is still happening at the moment. Most of the sediments are derived from weathering products of the Basement System rocks, which occur extensively in the hinterland.

In the sedimentary plains (Ps) of the Kilifi District Group, soil units PsO3 and PsO1 are extensive. These soils and those of unit PsO2 developed on "sealing loam" plains and they are of low fertility, partly even sodic or saline.

On the coastal uplands, soil units UcK7, UcSC2, UcT1/UcTA and UcO3 occur. Soil units UcK7, UcSC2 and UcO3 are of low fertility, but unit UcT1/UcTA is moderately to highly fertile.

In the Kilifi Group of Districts, plateau soils such as units UcE2, UcE1/UcS1 and UcL2 occur. Units UcE2 and UcE1/UcS1 are infertile, but soils of unit UcL2 are of a moderate to high fertility.

From the uplands down to the lower coastal plains, map units PnF1, PnKT2, PnK1, PnKT1 abd PnS3 are found which are soils on non-dissected plains (Pn). Apart from PnKT1 of high fertility, they are of low or low to moderate fertility.

LEGEND TO THE SOIL MAP

1 Explanation of the first character(physiography)

H Hills and Minor Scarps (hilly to steep; slopes predominantly over 16%; relief intensity up to 100 (Minor Scarps) to 300 m (Hills)

F Footslopes (at the foot of Hills and Mountains; gently undulating to rolling; slopes between 2 and 16%; various altitudes)

Uc Coastal Uplands

Pn Non-Dissected Erosional Plains Non-dissected Erosional Plains (very gently undulating to undulating; slopes between 0 and 8%; various altitudes)

Pd Dissected Erosional Plains

Ps Sedimentary Plains

PC Coastal Plains

Pf Sedimentary Plains of Large Alluvial Fans KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 31

A Floodplains and River Terraces (almost flat to gently undulating; slopes between 0 and 5%; various altitudes; seasonally flooded or ponded)

D Dunes

T Tidal Flats and Swamps

W Badlands

Z Lake-side Beach Ridges (very gently undulating; slopes between 2 and 5%; altitude approximately 1200 m)

2 Explanation of second character (lithology) A Recent Alluvial Sediments from various sources E (A)Eolian Sediments (cover sands) F Gneisses Rich in Ferromagnesian Minerals and Hornblende Gneisses J Lagoonal Deposits K Siltstones KT Complex of Siltstones and Shales L Limestones and Calcitic Mudstones O Plio-Pleistocene Bay sediments S Sandstones, Grits and Arkoses T Shales U Undifferentiated Basement System Rocks (predominantly Gneisses) X Undifferentiated or Various rocks

3 Soil descriptions

HL 1 Somewhat excessively drained, shallow, dark grey, firm, moderately calcareous, stony clay: orthic RENDZINAS, lithic phase

HS 1 Well drained, shallow, brown, friable, rocky and stony, sandy clay loam: eutric REGOSOLS, lithic phase

FL 1 Well drained, very deep, dark reddish brown, slightly calcareous clay, with a slightly to moderately sodic deeper subsoil: chromic LUVISOLS, sodic phase

FS 1 Excessively drained, very deep, reddish yellow, loose, sand to loamy sand: luvic ARENOSOLS; with ferralic and albic ARENOSOLS

UcE 1 Well drained, very deep, dark red to strong brown, very friable, sandy clay loam to sandy clay, with a topsoil of fine sand to sandy loam: rhodic and orthic FERRALSOLS

UcE 2 Well drained, very deep, red to dusky red, very friable, sandy clay loan to clay, with a topsoil of loamy sand to sandy loam: rhodic FERRALSOLS

UcK 1 Somewhat excessively drained, very deep, light brown to yellow, loose to very friable, fine sand to loamy fine sand; in places with lamellae of clay accumulation: albic and luvic ARENOSOLS KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 32

UcK 2 Well drained, deep to very deep, red to yellowish brown, firm, sandy clay loam to clay, underlying 20-50 cm loamy fine sand to sandy loam: chromic and orthic LUVISOLS; with orthic ACRISOLS

UcK 4 Well drained, shallow, dark brown to dark yellowish brown, friable to firm, fairly stony and fairly rocky, fine sandy clay loam to clay: eutric CAMBISOLS, lithic phase; with orthic LUVISOLS

UcK 7 Well drained, deep, dark brown to yellowish brown, firm, sandy clay loam to clay, with a topsoil of loamy very fine sand to sandy loam; in places with an abrupt transition to a sodic deeper subsoil: orthic LUVISOLS; with solodic PLANOSOLS

UcK 8 Moderately well drained to imperfectly drained, deep to very deep, pale brown to grey, mottled, firm, sandy loam to clay: gleyic LUVISOLS and ACRISOLS

UcL 2 Well drained, very deep, red to dark reddish brown, friable, clay loam to clay; in places rocky: dystric NITISOLS and chromic ACRISOLS

UcO l Well drained to moderately well drained, deep to very deep, yellowish red to light yellowish brown, firm, sandy clay loam to clay, predominantly underlying 20 to 100 cm fine sand to sandy loam: orthic LUVISOLS and ACRISOLS; with ferralic ARENOSOLS

UcO 2 Moderately well drained to imperfectly drained, moderately deep to very deep, light yellowish brown to olive grey, very firm, very firm, sandy clay loam to clay; in places mottled: gleyic and ferric LUVISOLS, partly sodic phase, and gleyic SOLONETZ

UcO 3 Imperfectly drained to poorly drained, moderately deep to deep, dark yellowish brown to light olive brown, firm to very firm, moderately calcareous, sandy clay to clay, with a humic topsoil; predominantly moderately sodic and in places saline: mollic SOLONETZ; with orthic RENDZINAS and verto-luvic PHAEOZEMS

UcS l Excessively drained to somewhat excessively drained, deep to very deep, reddish yellow to pale brown, loose to very friable, coarse sand to loamy coarse sand; in places with lamellae of clay illuviation: ferralic, luvic and albic ARENOSOLS

UcS 2 Well drained, very deep, red to yellowish red, friable to firm, sandy clay loam to clay; predominantly underlying 20-60 cm coarse sand to sandy loam: ferralo-chromic LUVISOLS and ACRISOLS, with orthic ACRISOLS

UcSC l Complex of: - unit UcSl - unit UcS2 and: Somewhat excessively drained to moderately well drained, shallow, very rocky and stony soils of varying consistency and texture: LITHOSOLS, eutric REGOSOLS, and eutric and vertic CAMBISOLS, partly lithic phase

UcT l Well drained to moderately well drained, moderately deep to deep, yellowish red to light olive brown, very firm, cracking clay; in places imperfectly drained, mottled and/or calcareous: chromic VERTISOLS and vertic and gleyic LUVISOLS KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 33

UcTA Association of: well drained to imperfectly drained, shallow to moderately deep, yellowish brown to very dark grey, firm to very firm clay; on dissected parts: eutric CAMBISOLS, partly lithic phase and: imperfectly drained, deep, dark grey to olive grey, very firm clay, with a humic topsoil and a sodic deeper subsoil; on interfluves: verto-luvic PHAEOZEMS, sodic phase; with vertic CAMBISOLS, sodic phase

UcXC Complex of: well drained to moderately well drained, moderately deep, reddish brown, friable to very firm, sandy loam to clay loam; partly with a humic topsoil and/or a sodic subsoil: undifferentiated LUVISOLS; with verto-luvic PHAEOZEMS

UcK 7-PsO1 Complex of: - unit UcK7 and: - unit PsO l

PnFl Well drained, deep to very deep, dusky red to dark red, friable sandy clay: rhodic FERRALSOLS

PnK l Well drained, very deep, brown, friable to firm, sandy clay loam to clay, with a sodic deeper subsoil; in places with a very thick topsoil of loamy sand to sandy loam; slightly dissected plain: orthic LUVISOLS, sodic phase

PnKT l Imperfectly drained, moderately deep to deep, dark greyish brown, very firm, cracking, sandy clay to clay; with a strongly calcareous and moderately sodic deeper subsoil: verto-luvic PHAEOZEMS, sodic phase,

PnKT 2 Well drained, shallow, dark reddish brown to very dark brown, firm,fine sandy clay loam to clay: eutric CAMBISOLS, lithic phase, with LITHOSOLS

PnS 3 Well drained, deep, red, firm, sandy clay loam to clay: chromic LUVISOLS

PdUC 2 Complex of: well drained, shallow to moderately deep, dark red to yellowish brown, non-calcareous to moderately calcareous, friable to firm, stony sandy clay loam, over petrocalcic material or quartz gravel: calcic CAMBISOLS, lithic or petrocalcic phase; with chromic LUVISOLS

PdXC Complex of: well drained, shallow, dark reddish brown to strong brown, non-calcareous to moderately calcareous, firm, stony and gravelly loam to sandy clay loam, partly over petrocalcic material: chromic CAMBISOLS to orthic LUVISOLS, lithic or paralithic phase; with calcic CAMBISOLS, petrocalcic phase

PsF l Well drained, deep to very deep, red to dark reddish brown, friable to firm, sandy clay to clay, in places over pisocalcic material; on sheetwash, lacustrine and fluviatile sediments: ferric and chromic LUVISOLS; with calcic LUVISOLS KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 34

PsO l Imperfectly drained to poorly drained, deep, greyish brown, extremely firm, slightly calcareous, moderately saline, moderately sodic, cracking clay, with a very thin topsoil of sandy clay loam: gleyic SOLONETZ, saline phase

PsO 2 Imperfectly drained, deep, brown, very firm, moderately calcareous, moderately saline, moderately sodic, clay loam, with a thin topsoil of strongly sealing sandy clay loam: luvo-orthic SOLONETZ, saline phase

PsO 3 Imperfectly drained, moderately deep to deep, brown, extremely firm, slightly to moderately calcareous, moderately sodic, clay loam, underlying a topsoil of sealing sandy loam: luvo-orthic SOLONETZ and solodic PLANOSOLS

PcJ l Somewhat excessively drained to well drained, very deep, yellowish red to yellowish brown, loose to very friable, medium sand to loamy medium sand, 80 to 120 cm thick, overlying more than 60 cm sandy loam to sandy clay loam: albic and ferralic ARENOSOLS

PcJ 2 Imperfectly drained, deep to very deep, very dark greyish brown to olive brown, mottled, firm to very firm, sandy clay to clay; moderately calcareous and moderately saline and sodic throughout or in deeper subsoil: luvo-orthic SOLONETZ, saline phase and vertic LUVISOLS, saline-sodic phase

PcJ 3 Well drained, very deep, red to dark yellowish brown, loamy medium sand to sandy loam; in places shallow over coral limestone: ferralic and dystric CAMBISOLS

PcJ 4 Well drained, very deep, dark red to strong brown, firm, sandy clay loam to sandy clay, underlying 30 to 60 cm medium sand to loamy medium sand: chromic and ferralo-orthic LUVISOLS

PcJC Complex of: very deep soils of varying drainage condition, colour, consistency, texture and salinity: albic ARENOSOLS, orthic FERRALSOLS, gleyic LUVISOLS, solodic PLANOSOLS and pellic VERTISOLS

PcL l Well drained, shallow to moderately deep, red to dark reddish brown, friable, rocky, loam to sandy clay loam: LITHOSOLS; with ferralic CAMBISOLS, lithic phase

PcL 2 Well drained, moderately deep to deep, dark red to yellowish red, friable, sandy clay loam to sandy clay, underlying 20 to 40 cm loamy medium sand; in places shallow over coral limestone: ferralo-chromic LUVISOLS to ACRISOLS, with rhodic FERRALSOLS

PcL 3 Imperfectly drained, deep, greyish brown, mottled, firm, slightly calcareous, non-saline to slightly saline, slightly sodic, sandy clay loam, abruptly underlying a thick topsoil of friable loamy sand: solodic PLANOSOLS

PfOC Complex of: well drained to imperfectly drained, very deep, reddish brown to grey, firm clay soils of varying calcareousness, salinity and sodicity, in many places with a strongly sealing topsoil; with inclusions of well drained, very deep, brown, loose, loamy sand; levee complex: luvo-orthic SOLONETZ, saline phase; with solodic PLANOSOLS, saline phase, chromic VERTISOLS, saline-sodic phase and cambic ARENOSOLS KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 35

AA 1 Well drained to imperfectly drained, very deep, brown to dark brown, friable, micaceous, slightly calcareous, sandy loam to clay loam; in places with a saline-sodic deeper subsoil: eutric FLUVISOLS

AA 5 Imperfectly drained to poorly drained, very deep, dark reddish brown to dark greyish brown, firm to very firm, cracking clay; in many places mottled and with a calcareous, saline and sodic deeper subsoil: chromic VERTISOLS, saline-sodic phase

AA 6 Imperfectly drained, very deep, dark brown, firm, strongly calcareous, moderately saline, strongly sodic clay, with a topsoil of sandy clay loam: calcic LUVISOLS, saline-sodic phase

AA 7 Poorly drained, very deep, very dark grey, very firm, moderately calcareous, slightly saline, slightly to moderately sodic, cracking clay: pellic VERTISOLS, saline-sodic phase D l Excessively drained to well drained, very deep, brown to pale brown, loose, slightly to strongly calcareous, medium sand to loamy medium sand: cambic ARENOSOLS and calcaric REGOSOLS

T Very poorly drained, very deep, olive to greenish grey, soft, unripe, excessively saline, moderately to strongly sodic, loam to clay; in many places with sulfidic material: thionic FLUVISOLS, saline phase and gleyic SOLONCHAKS

W Excessively drained, brown, very firm, strongly sodic, gravelly clay loam to sandy clay of varying depth; strongly eroding and strongly sealed: undifferentiated SOLONETZ

Z l Well drained, very deep, red, very friable, sandy clay loam: rhodic FERRALSOLS

Z 2 Moderately well drained, very deep, dark brown to reddish brown, firm to very firm, often moderately sodic, sandy clay loam, underlying a thick topsoil of friable loamy sand; in places shallow over coral rock: ferralo-chromic/orthic ACRISOLS, sodic phase; with solodic PLANOSOLS

Notes for definitions (of underlined words): mollic Nitisols and chromo-luvic Phaeozems: soils are equally important mollic Nitisols, with chromic-luvic Phaeozems: Nitisols are prevalent in places: in < 30% of the area in many places: in 30-50% of the area predominantly: in > 50% of the area deeper subsoil: below 80 cm

3.4.2 POPULATION AND LAND see main Volume Coast Province

3.4.3 AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS see main Volume Coast Province KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 36

3.4.4 FARM SURVEY

TABLE 20: FARM SURVEY SITES IN KILIFI AND NEIGHBOURING DISTRICTS Representative of the Typical Agro-Ecological Zones, Subzones and Units

District No. in Agro-Ecological Unit 2004 Kenya AEZone Subzone Soil Unit Farm Survey Sites Kaloleni Division, Jibana Location, 190 CL 3 m/l i (s) UcS 2 Nyalani Sub-location Kikambala Division, Mtwapa Location, 191 CL 3 m/l i PcJ 4 Kidutani Sub-location Vitengeni Division, Vitengeni Location, Kilifi 192 CL 4 s i (vs) UcK 7 Madamani Sub-location Kaloleni Division, Mariakani Location, 193 CL 5 (vs/s) + (vs) UcK 2 Mitangoni Sub-location Bamba Division, Mitangani Location, 194 CL 5 (vs) + (vu) PsO 1 Mikamini Sub-location

Farm Survey in Kilifi and Neighbouring Districts (Kilifi County)

The Farm Survey (FS) was carried out during the year 2004 in five sites covering AEZs CL 3, CL 4 and CL 5 (Table 20, p.52). The data collected during 2004 FS on various agricultural aspects are presented in Tables 21 a-e while the cropping patterns are reported in Tables 22 a-e. The average farm size per household in Kilifi county ranged from 2.13 ha in Nyalani to 4.19 ha in Kidutani (Tables 21 a-e). This is a reasonable piece of land per household that when effectively utilized should translate into high yields and improved income. With the exception of Mikamini (CL 5), all the other sites have land allocated also to permanent crops and pasture. Mitangoni (CL 5) and Mikamini have the highest average land per household for annual crops because of low yields, while Nyalani (CL 3) has the highest average land per household for permanent crops. No land for pasture and fodder was reported in Mikamini because there is still common land, while in Nyalani where land is scarce, households have an average of 0.53 ha allocated to pasture and fodder crops. The rest of the sites have an average of more than 1.5 ha of land allocated to pasture. Multiple cropping is a common practice in Kilifi with sites such as Nyalani, Madamani and Kidutani recording a cropping diversity of 8.3, 7.4 and 6.4 cultivars, respectively.

The most common annual crops in Kilifi are maize, beans, cowpeas, green grams and cassava. In most of the study sites, these crops are grown during the long and short rains growing seasons. Tomatoes are also grown in Kidutani (CL 3) during long and short rains. In all the sites, land under cultivation for annual crops is more during the March-May season than the October- December season. During the first rainy season, the average farm in Mikamini had the largest land area under cultivation (2.49 ha) while one in Kidutani had the least area (1.10 ha) under cultivation. The same sites have the highest area (Mikamini 2.46 ha) and the lowest area (Kidutani 0.44 ha) under cultivation during the short rains, but the difference to the first season is near the coast much bigger. Coconuts, mangoes and citrus fruits are the main perennial crops in AEZs CL 3 and CL 4. No perennial crops were reported in the two sites of AEZ CL 5 (Mitangoni and Mikamini). Dairy and zebu cattle are kept in Kilifi group of districts in varied numbers in most of the AEZs. The average number of dairy and zebu cattle per household was highest in Mikamini (CL 5) and least in Madamani.

It was notable that farmers in Mikamini and Mitangoni do not cultivate perennial crops because there is not enough rain for the common ones, and incidentally these two sites have the highest number of dairy and zebu cattle per household, implying livestock is a major source of income. It was observable that dairy cattle are not kept in Mitangoni (CL 5) while zebu animals are not kept in Kidutani (CL 3). Sheep and goats are found in at least every household, with Mikamini (21.8) and Mitangoni (19.0) having the highest number per household. The high number of livestock in Mikamini does not commensurate with the land available where no land is spared for livestock. The TLU value derived from total land is lower: dairy-5.8 and zebu- 13.7. This KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 37 implies farmers in Mikamini have most of their land under cultivation, leaving no room for grazing despite the high number of livestock which graze mainly on common land but this is already overgrazed. The scenario is no better in the sites such as Nyalani, Madamani and Mitangoni where farmers have spared land as grazing land. It is clear that the carrying capacity of land is exceeded, calling for a shift in the current practice. Although dairy farming is common in all sites except Mitangoni, the percentage of improved cattle is only highest in Kidutani (63%) while nearly half (53%) of the cattle are improved in Mitangoni.

The percentage (Avg. 1, Tab. 21 a-e) of improved cattle in Nyalani, Madamani and Mikamini is fairly high (91%, 66% and 100%), but the percentage of all the respondents (Avg. 0) is very low: 18%, 15% and 10%, respectively. This implies very few households are keeping dairy animals but instead the majority are keeping zebu cattle. It would be helpful for the few farmers keeping dairy animals to concentrate on dairy farming and discard zebu keeping in an attempt to improve TLU ratio and maximize on returns.

With the exception of Kidutani, no use of chemical fertilizer was reported in the Kilifi group of districts. Most of the cultivated land in Madamani (73.5%) was under improved seed varieties. While in Nyalani, only 45% of the cultivated land was under improved seeds. Use of manure is very much on a limited scale, except in Madamani. These illustrated that use of modern farm inputs is very low, a factor that would limit yields. It would significantly help is households scaled up use of manure since most keep livestock.

Tables 21 a - e: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS see main Volume Coast Province Tables 22 a - e: CROPPING PATTERN see main Volume Coast Province KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 38 KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 39

Malindi and Magarini Districts

The farm survey of 2004 was carried out in three AEZs and four sites of the former greater Malindi district as shown in Table 23. The three AEZs were CL 3 (Msabaha), CL 4 (Madina) and CL 4-5 (Fundi Issa) and CL 5 (Baricho). The data collected during the 2004 FS on various agricultural aspects are presented in Tables 24 a-d, while the cropping pattern results are presented in Tables 25 a-d. Average land holding per household is good, with the least average of 2.47 ha in Fundi Issa and highest average of 11.53 ha in Madina. A comparison of land allocation for annual crops and perennial crops show that farmers in three of the four sites allocate more land for the former. In Msabaha (CL 3)however, annual crops occupy an average of 0.951) ha against perennial crops on 1.45 ha (mainly mangoes, coconuts and cashew nuts). Farmers in Msabaha and Fundi Issa have part of their land (0.85 ha and 0.67 ha respectively) for pasture and fodder. Farmers in Madina and Baricho have no specific land set for pasture and fodder despite the relatively higher number of zebu and sheep/goats they keep. It means there still must be common land.

Despite the high cropping diversity (of between 4.5 and 6.2) in Malindi, most of these crops are cultivated during the first rainy season. Crops for this first growing season in Malindi are maize, beans, cowpeas, green grams and cassava. In Msabaha and Fundi Issa, maize is the only crop identified by respondents, cultivated during the second rainy season. At Madina and Baricho, which are further inland, additional crops during the second rains are cowpeas, green grams and cassava. Total land areas cultivated (in the sample of 30 farmers) during the first rains range from 60 ha at Msabaha to 80.95 ha at Fundi Issa (Table 25 a & b). Like in most parts near the coast of Kenya, much less land is cultivated during the second rains which are faible and unreliable there. Thus, Msabaha and Fundi Issa have as low as 4 ha (0.13 resp. 0.14 ha per farm) while Madina and Baricho have relatively more land cultivated (av. 1.16 ha & 1.73 ha per farm, respectively) but still less the cultivated land area compared with the first rainy season season. Perennial crops in Malindi District are cashew nuts, coconuts, mangoes and pineapples, cultivated on a fair acreage at Msabaha (av. 1.54 ha per farm) and Baricho (1.17 ha).

Zebu and sheep/goats are kept in all the sites. The average number of zebu animals per household is fairly high in Madina (12.0) and Fundi Issa (7.5). The average number of goats/sheep per household is equally high, ranging from 7.7 at Msabaha to 18 at Baricho. Dairy farming appears not to be common in Malindi and only limited to AEZ CL 3, represented by Msabaha. Even at Msabaha, only 20% of the total livestock are improved cattle. Total Livestock Unit (derived from pasture land area) for both zebu and sheep/goat is low. For Madina and Baricho where no land is allocated for permanent pasture and fodder, the situation is critical given the high number of livestock average per household, grazing and browsing on already overgrazed communal land. With the exception of improved seeds, use of inputs such as chemical fertilizer, manure and insecticides is virtually non-existent.

TABLE 23: FARM SURVEY SITES IN FORMER MALINDI DISTRICT Representative of the Dominating Agro-Ecological Zones, Subzones and Units

District No. in Agro-Ecological Unit Farm Survey Sites 2004 Kenya AEZone Subzone Soil Unit Malindi Division, Gede Location, Msabaha 195 CL 3 m/l i PcJC Sub-location Magarini Division, Fundi Issa Location, Fundi 196 CL 4-5 s/m i (vu) PcL 3 Issa Sub-location Malindi Marafa Division, Mafara Location, Madina 197 CL 4 s i (vs) UcO 3 Sub-location Marafa Division, Bungale Location, Baricho 198 CL 5 (vs/s) + vs UCTA Sub-location

1) 0.92 ha is written in Table 24a, but in 25a it is 2.0 ha, a strange error or some mixed crops? Tables 24 a - d: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS see main Volume Coast Province Tables 25 a - d: CROPPING PATTERN see main Volume Coast Province KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 40

3.4.5 INTRODUCTION TO THE ACTUAL LAND USE SYSTEMS AND POTENTIAL INTENSIFICATION BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN TYPICAL AGRO- ECOLOGICAL SUBZONES

In order to realize the main task of the farm management, a question targeting specifically the inputs used by farmers and resultant increase in yields was included in the Small Farm Survey questionnaire that was conducted. In each survey area the purposively sampled 30 farmers were divided into 3 groups: one group applying low inputs, a second one medium inputs, and a third one high inputs. The difference between these groups shows the amount of yields that can be realistically achieved by the farmers practicing better farm management. The column with the yield potential finally shows figures under optimal soil conditions, water supply, crop husbandry and pest control, which is the ultimate goal of any farmer.

More detailed information can be found together with calculations of profitability in the Farm management Guidelines of each district. The tables found here are not yet correlated with the relevant and most suited Agro-Ecological Units, which are necessary for the calculation of expected yields and the amount of inputs. The amount of fertiliser per soil unit is described in MURIUKI &QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual, KARI 2001. For more details, see Chapter 3.2.6. In terms of aerial expanse, the dominant zones in which field data were collected from in the Malindi Group of Districts are: CL 3, CL 4 and CL 5. An additional important reference material is “Small Holder Farming Handbook for Self-employment”. First published in 1997 by Information Research and Communication Centre (IRACC) & Marketing Support Services Ltd, Nairobi.

KILIFI GROUP OF DISTRICTS

Subzone CL 3 m/l i (s) of the Coconut-Cassava Zone

This is the Coastal Lowland Coconut-Cassava Zonewith a medium to long cropping season, intermediate rains, followed by a (weak) short cropping season as found in Jibana Location, Nyalani Sub-location, in Kaloleni Division. The dominant soil type is well drained, very deep, red to yellowish red, friable to firm, sandy clay loam to clay; predominantly underlying coarse sand to sandy loam: ferralo-chromic LUVISOLS and ACRISOLS, with orthic ACRISOLS. The annual average rainfall amount is between 1100 – 1200 mm. The first rainy season can expect more than 480 – 700 mm* in 10 out of 15 seasons; the middle rains and second rainy season > 200 – 250 mm. The 60% reliability of the growing periods during the 1st and 2nd seasons is 155 - 175 and 85 – 105 days, respectively. *

A major feature of agriculture in this coastal zone and in this Subzone in particular has been the rapid change from sorghum and millet production to maize, cassava, cowpeas and rice production over the course of the last century (Table 25a). Maize has become the dominant staple while sorghum and millets have disappeared from the area. Average yields however, are far below the potential of the region and low production levels create serious food deficits. Improved maize production techniques are key to resolving these deficits. Over the years, new technologies, such as new varieties and fertilizer have been introduced. Adoption has, however, remained low especially for fertilizer near zero(Tables 24a & 26a). Despite the above average natural conditions, Table 26a gives the poorest picture of all zones 3 and 4. Manure given is less than 1 t/ha (compare Table 24 a) Agriculture is still the main activity of the subzone. Mixed cropping is practiced in all areas within the subzone. Both tree and annual crops are grown and intercropping is common. This combination varies from place to place but in general, there is a decrease in the number of trees as compared to annual crops from the coast to the hinterland in the west. Although annual crops can generate income, they are usually produced primarily for human consumption and only sold if there is a surplus or sudden need for cash. Maize, cassava, cowpeas, green grams, sweet potatoes, and rice are major crops; pigeon pea, beans, bananas, and vegetables are minor crops. Maize is the most important annual staple crop. Current maize yields in this subzone CL3 are estimated between 0.5 t/ha to 1.5 t/ha although they may be as low as 0.3 t /ha during the short (minor) rainy season (Table 26a). KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 41

Cassava is a subsidiary staple in this subzone and is increasingly becoming an important cash crop. It is regarded as an important security crop because of its tolerance to drought, ability to give reasonable yields on poor soils, low external input and labor requirements, and the option of harvesting over a long period after the first season. The next most important annual crop is cowpea. However, even though cowpea is also drought tolerant, it is very vulnerable to pests and diseases, which often leads to very low yields.

Tree cultivation is very common and covers a large area in zones CL3, and it is an important source of regular income. Major tree crops are coconuts, cashew nuts, citrus, Bixa, and mangoes. Trees grow easily without much labor input and the fruits are sold for cash. Coconuts are the most important tree crop in this subzone until recently; now farmers in Kilifi district rank Bixa as the number one cash crop. Some farmers rent out trees for a yearly fee to tenants who are entitled to harvest all the fruits during the season.

Tree crops are estimated to contribute over 65% of farm produce value in zone CL3. Distance from markets and the small number of marketing outlets are a major constraint to agricultural income generation. Poor infrastructure, perishable farm produce, lack of organized marketing, and the small number of middlemen in the area also mean that agricultural prices and consequently farm income, are low. Several commodities are handled through formal markets where prices and conditions are regulated by the government. They include maize, rice, sugar cane, cashew nuts and Bixa. These markets are dominated by large purchasing organizations such as the National Cereals and Production Board, Kenya Cashew Nuts Limited, and Kenya Bixa Limited. Cooperatives, middlemen, and end-users are licensed buying agents for these organizations. Since the deregulation of cereal markets in the 1990s, however, food crops like maize and rice are mostly handled through informal markets (influenced only minimally by regulations) and where prices tend to be lower than in formal markets. Informal markets also handle vegetables and fruit, cassava, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, mangoes, bananas and papayas.

* According to the position of the place in the subzone KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 42

TABLE 26a: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) CL 3 m/l i (s), UcS 2 Subzone: m/l i (s), Soil Unit: UcS 2 Survey Area 190 (Nyalani) AEZ: CL 3 COCONUT – CASSAVA ZONE Sub-zone: m/l i (s) (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season 155-175, 2nd rainy season 85-105 days) Crop Yields3) Unit with predom. Soil: UcS 2 = well drained very deep ferralo-chromic LUVISOLS and ACRISOLS and Inputs nd rainy season: >200 – 250 mm in at least Reliable rainfall: st rainy season> 480 – 700 mm in at 2 1 10 out least 10 out of 15 years of 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level 4) 5) 6) II= III= AEU Maize local I= low II= med. III= high AEU Pot. I= low 4) 5) 6) monocropped med. high Pot. Yields3) kg/ha 500 500 Fertiliser7): - - N kg/ha * * - - P2O5 kg/ha - - K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha 1 1 Hybrid maize Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha - - Maize hybrid intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

NOTES: 1)Source: Interview of 30 farmers (if possible 10 in each level) 2004 by Divisional and Field staff 2)Figures of these cereals growing periods should be reached or surpassed in 6 out of 10 years; growing periods may be considered longer due to immediately following second rainy season by middle rains. Then the second growing period is shorter than the given figures 3)Achieved average yields with average rainfall 4)Farmers with medium inputs 5)Farmers with high inputs of Fertiliser, insecticides, soil and water conservation 6)Potential yield according to crop list and local climate of this Agro-Ecological Unit if soils are optimally fertilized, plus optimal crop management 7)Fertiliser applications are averaged at 20 % of pure nutrient *Agroecological unit potential for local maize variety not yet established KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 43 KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 44

Subzone CL 3 m/l i of the Coconut–Cassava Zone

This is the Coastal Lowland Coconut-Cassava Zone with a medium to long cropping season and intermediate rains 1) located in Mtwapa Location, Kidutani Sub-location, in Kikambala Division. The dominating soil type in this subzone is the well drained, very deep, dark red to strong brown, firm, sandy clay loam to sandy clay, underlying medium sand to loamy medium sand: chromic and ferralo-orthic LUVISOLS. The annual average rainfall amount is between 1050 – 1230 mm*. The first rainy season can expect more than 400 – 800 mm* in 10 out of 15 seasons; the middle rains and second rainy season > 50 – 130 mm*. The 60% reliability of the growing periods during the 1st and 2nd seasons is 155 - 175 and < 40, respectively.

A major feature of agriculture in this coastal zone and in this subzone in particular has been the rapid change from sorghum and millet production to maize, cassava, cowpeas and rice production over the course of the last century (Table 25b). Maize has become the dominant staple while sorghum and millets have disappeared from the area. The reason is not only loss by birds but also the inferior social status of backwardness of sorghum and millet eaters. Average yields of maize however, are far below the potential of the region and their low production levels create serious food deficits. Improved maize production techniques are key to resolving these deficits. Over the years, new technologies, such as new varieties and fertilizer have been introduced. Adoption has, however, remained low especially for fertilizer (Table 24b). Agriculture is still the main activity of the subzone. Mixed cropping is practiced in all areas within the subzone. Both tree and annual crops are grown and intercropping is common. This combination varies from place to place but in general, there is a decrease in the number of trees as compared to annual crops from the coast to the hinterland in the west due to decreasing rainfall. Although annual crops can generate income, they are usually produced primarily for human consumption and only sold if there is a surplus or sudden need for cash. Maize, cassava, cowpeas, green grams, sweet potatoes, and rice are major crops; pigeon peas, beans, bananas, and vegetables are minor crops. Maize is the most important annual staple crop. Current maize yields in this subzone CL 3 are estimated between 0.5 t/ha to 1.5 t/ha (av. 0.6 t/ha) although they may be almost nothing during the short (minor) rainy season (Table 26b).

Tree cultivation, which is very common and covers a large area in zones CL 3, is an important source of regular income. Major tree crops are coconuts, cashew nuts, citrus, Bixa, and mangoes. Trees grow easily without much labor input and the fruits are sold for cash. Coconuts are the most important tree crops in this subzone until recently; now farmers in Kilifi district rank Bixa as the number one cash crop. Some farmers rent out trees for a yearly fee to tenants who are entitled to harvest all the fruits during the season.

Tree crops are estimated to contribute over 65% of farm produce value in zone CL 3. Distance from markets and the small number of marketing outlets are a major constraint to agricultural income generation. Poor infrastructure, perishable farm produce, lack of organized marketing, and the small number of middlemen in the area also mean that agricultural prices and consequently farm income, are low. Several commodities are handled through formal markets where prices and conditions are regulated by the government. They include maize, rice, sugar cane, cashew nuts and Bixa. These markets are dominated by large purchasing organizations such as the National Cereals and Production Board, Kenya Cashew Nuts Limited, and Kenya Bixa Limited. Cooperatives, middlemen, and end-users are licensed buying agents for these organizations. Since the deregulation of cereal markets in the 1990s, however, food crops like maize and rice are mostly handled through informal markets (influenced only minimally by regulations) and where prices tend to be lower than in formal markets. Informal markets also handle vegetables and fruit, cassava, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, mangoes, bananas and papayas.

* According to the position of the place in the subzone 1) In some places toward inland a weak very uncertain second growing period can be added. KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 45

TABLE 26b: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) CL 3 m/l i, PcJ4 Subzone: m/l i, Soil Unit: PcJ4 Survey Area 191 (Mtwapa) AEZ: CL 3 COCONUT – CASSAVA ZONE 2) st nd Crop Yields3) Sub-zone: m/li (Periods in days : 1 rainy season 155-175, 2 rainy season < 40) and Inputs Unit with predom. Soil: PcJ4 = well drained very deep ferralo-orthic LUVISOLS Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season >400 – 800 mm in at 2nd rainy season: >50 – 130 mm in at least 10 out least 10 out of 15 years of 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level 4) 5) 6) II= III= AEU Maize local I= low II= med. III= high AEU Pot. I= low 4) 5) 6) monocropped med. high Pot. Yields3) kg/ha 600 600 8) Fertiliser7): N kg/ha - - * * P2O5 kg/ha - - K2O kg/ha - - Manure t/ha 2 9) 2 9) Hybrid maize Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize hybrid intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

NOTES: 1)Source: Interview of 30 farmers (if possible 10 in each level) 2004 by Divisional and Field staff 2)Figures of these cereals growing periods should be reached or surpassed in 6 out of 10 years. 3)Achieved average yields with average rainfall 4)Farmers with medium inputs 5)Farmers with high inputs of Fertiliser, insecticides, soil and water conservation 6)Potential yield according to crop list and local climate of this Agro-Ecological Unit if soils are optimally fertilized, plus optimal crop management 7)Fertiliser applications are averaged at 20 % of pure nutrient 8)Climatically unbelievable figure, or maize is planted towards the end of the first rainy season using remaining soil moisture. 9)Unreliable figure, in Table 24 b manure is not mentioned. *Agroecological unit potential for local maize variety not yet established KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 46

Subzone CL 4 s i(vs) of the Cashewnut–Cassava Zone

This is the Coastal Lowland Cashewnut-Cassava Zone with a short cropping season, intermediate rains and a (weak) very short cropping season as found in Vitengeni Location, Madamani Sub-location, in Vitengeni Division. The dominant soil of this subzone is the well drained, deep, dark brown to yellowish brown, firm, sandy clay loam to clay, with a topsoil of loamy very fine sand to sandy loam; in places with an abrupt transition to a sodic deeper subsoil: orthic LUVISOLS; with solodic PLANOSOLS. The annual average rainfall amount is between 800 – 950 mm*. The first rainy season can expect more than 220 – 350 mm* in 10 out of 15 seasons and second rainy season > 150 – 180 mm*. The 60% reliability of the growing periods during the 1st and 2nd seasons is 85 – 105 and 40 – 55 days, respectively.

The indigenous cereals were sorghum and millet, both of which are drought-resistant resp. drought-evading, and therefore well suited for the unreliable and low amounts of rainfall. Since the end of the last century, however, sorghum and millet have almost entirely been replaced by maize. Compared to sorghum and millet, maize has a higher production potential, is less vulnerable to diseases and pests (especially bird attacks), and is more easily prepared for consumption. On the other hand, maize is quite vulnerable to both water deficits and surpluses, while it requires a well drained soil with a good supply of nutrients. Due to the usually low, short and unreliable rainfall, together with the low fertility of soil and lacking fertiliser application (Table 26c), yields vary from low to almost nil over the years. Yields are 100 – 1,000 kg/ha, 600 kg/ha on average (Table 26c), which is very low compared to other regions of Kenya,

Weeds are serious competitors regarding nutrients, light and space, especially in the early life stages of the maize. If not properly removed, they can cause considerable yield reductions. A special problem is formed by Striga spp. (witchweed), a parasite which attaches to the root system of the maize. Most common pests affecting maize yields are the stalk borer and the army worm, while major diseases are white leaf blight and rust.

Indigenous root crops were several types of yam, which are not popular any more. More common nowadays is cassava, a crop which was hardly grown before the mid-nineteenth century. Cassava is relatively drought resistant, has a good yield potential on poor soils, and is resistant to pests and weeds. Moreover, it requires little labour and does not show a peak in labour demand. The crop can remain in the field throughout the season, so that it can function as a reserve crop. However, compared with maize, the protein content is very low. The cassava in this subzone has been infected with the mosaic virus, which causes considerable yield reductions. Average yields of cassava count are about 1-5 kg of tubers per plant. Another root crop is the sweet potato, which is grown by only a few farmers.

Pulses are commonly grown, although always in small quantities. Most common pulses are beans, cow peas, pigeon peas and green grams, but also groundnuts and bambara nuts are grown incidentally. Some of these pulses, especially cowpeas and green grams, are rather drought resistant. Due to the ability to fix nitrogen in the soil, pulses can be useful if intercropped with maize. Most pulses are vulnerable to insect damage, which often lead to a failure of making pods.

* According to the position of the place in the subzone KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 47

TABLE 26c: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) CL 4 s i(vs), UcK 7 Subzone: s i(vs), Soil Unit: UcK 7 Survey Area 192 (Madamani) AEZ: CL 4 CASHEWNUT – CASSAVA ZONE Sub-zone: si(vs) (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season 85-105, 2nd rainy season 40-55 days) Crop Yields3) Unit with predom. Soil: UcK 7 = well drained, deep, dark brown to yellowish brown orthic LUVISOLS and Inputs nd rainy season: >150 – 180 mm in at least 10 Reliable rainfall: st rainy season >220 – 350 mm in at 2 1 out least 10 out of 15 years of 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level

4) 5) 6) II= III= AEU Maize local I= low II= med. III= high AEU Pot. I= low 4) 5) 6) monocropped med. high Pot. Yields3) kg/ha 600 600 Fertiliser7): N kg/ha - -

P2O5 kg/ha - - K2O kg/ha - - Manure t/ha - - Hybrid maize Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize hybrid intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

Subzone CL 5 (vs/s) + vs of the Lowland Livestock–Millet Zone

This is the Coastal Lowland Livestock-Millet Zonewith a (weak) very short to short cropping season and a very short one as found in Mariakani Location, Mitangoni Sub-location, in Kaloleni Division. The dominant soil of this subzone is the well drained, deep to very deep, red to yellowish brown, firm, sandy clay loam to clay, underlying loamy fine sand to sandy loam: chromic and orthic LUVISOLS; with orthic ACRISOLS. The annual average rainfall amount is between 640 – 810 mm*. The first rainy season can expect more than 150 – 220 mm in 10 out of 15 seasons and the second rainy season > 150 – 190 mm. The 60% reliability of the growing periods during the 1st and 2nd seasons is 55 – 75 and 40 – 55 days, respectively.

Cattle kept in this subzone belong to the small East African Zebu type. This type of cattle is relatively well adapted to the local environment. However, these cattle are not in optimal conditions. During the dry seasons, the animals have to face the harsh circumstances, and trek long distances in search of pasture and water. An ever recurring problem has been rinderpest, which regularly reduces herd sizes. Other troublesome diseases are east-coast fever, foot-and-mouth disease and trypanosomiasis which is transmitted by the tsetsefly. Most of the cattle suffer from lack of minerals, leading to geophagia (earth eating).

* According to the position of the place in the subzone KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 49

TABLE 26d: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) CL 5 (vs/s) + vs, UcK 2 Subzone: (vs/s)+ vs, Soil Unit: UcK 2 Survey Area 193 (Mitangoni) AEZ: CL 5 LOWLAND LIVESTOCK – MILLET ZONE Sub-zone: (vs/s) + vs (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season 55-75, 2nd rainy season 40-55 days) Crop Yields3) Unit with predom. Soil: UcK 2 = well drained, deep to very deep, red to yellowish brown orthic LUVISOLS and Inputs nd rainy season: >150 – 190 mm in at least 10 Reliable rainfall: st rainy season >150 – 220 mm in at 2 1 out least 10 out of 15 years of 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level

4) 5) 6) II= III= AEU Maize local I= low II= med. III= high AEU Pot. I= low 4) 5) 6) monocropped med. high Pot. Yields3) kg/ha 400 400 Fertiliser7): N kg/ha - -

P2O5 kg/ha - - K2O kg/ha - - Manure t/ha - - Hybrid maize Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha - Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize hybrid intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

NOTES: 1)Source: Interview of 30 farmers (if possible 10 in each level) 2004 by Divisional and Field staff 2)Figures of these cereals growing periods should be reached or surpassed in 6 out of 10 years. 3)Achieved average yields with average rainfall 4)Farmers with medium inputs 5)Farmers with high inputs of Fertiliser, insecticides, soil and water conservation 6)Potential yield according to crop list and local climate of this Agro-Ecological Unit if soils are optimally fertilized, plus optimal crop management 7)Fertiliser applications are averaged at 20 % of pure nutrient *Agroecological unit potential for local maize variety not yet established KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 50

Subzone CL 5 (vs) + (vu) of the Lowland Livestock-Millet Zone

This is the Coastal Lowland Livestock-Millet Zone with a (weak) very short and a (weak) very uncertain cropping season as found in Mitangani Location, Mikamini Sub-location, in Bamba Division. The dominant soil of this subzone is the imperfectly drained, deep, grayish brown, extremely firm, slightly calcareous, moderately saline, moderately sodic, cracking clay, with a very thin topsoil of sandy clay loam, called gleyic SOLONETZ. The annual average rainfall amount is between 550 – 750 mm*. The first rainy season can expect more than 150 – 200 mm* in 10 out of 15 seasons and second rainy season > 80 – 130 mm. The 60% reliability of the growing periods during the 1st and 2nd seasons is 40 - 50 and < 40 days, respectively.

The rains are very unreliable and the average cropping season is very short, less than 55 days. Therefore, this subzone consists mainly of ranch land. Crop production should be restricted to drought-resistant resp. drought-evading crops only. Attempts to grow maize usually results in very low yields or total crop failure (Table 26e). The averages of 200 kg/ha are the lowest of the Small Farm Survey of 2003/04! The gleyic Solonetz aggravates the problem of insufficient moisture for crops.

* According to the position of the place in the subzone KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 51

TABLE 26e: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) CL 5 (vs/s) + (vu), PsO 1 Subzone: (vs/s) + (vu), Soil Unit: PsO 1 Survey Area 194 (Mikamini) AEZ: CL 5 LOWLAND LIVESTOCK – MILLET ZONE 2) st nd Crop Yields3) Sub-zone: (vs/s) + (vu) (Periods in days : 1 rainy season 40-50, 2 rainy season < 40 days) Unit with predom. Soil: PsO 1 = Imperfectly drained, deep, greyish brown gleyic SOLONETZ and Inputs Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season >150 – 200 mm in at 2nd rainy season: >80 – 130 mm in at least 10 out least 10 out of 15 years of 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level 4) 5) 6) II= III= AEU Maize local I= low II= med. III= high AEU Pot. I= low 4) 5) 6) monocropped med. high Pot. Yields3) kg/ha 200 200 Fertiliser7): N kg/ha - -

P2O5 kg/ha - - K2O kg/ha - - Manure t/ha - - Hybrid maize Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize hybrid intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

NOTES: 1)Source: Interview of 30 farmers (if possible 10 in each level) 2004 by Divisional and Field staff 2)Figures of these cereals growing periods should be reached or surpassed in 6 out of 10 years. 3)Achieved average yields with average rainfall 4)Farmers with medium inputs 5)Farmers with high inputs of Fertiliser, insecticides, soil and water conservation 6)Potential yield according to crop list and local climate of this Agro-Ecological Unit if soils are optimally fertilized, plus optimal crop management 7)Fertiliser applications are averaged at 20 % of pure nutrient *Agroecological unit potential for local maize variety not yet established KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 52

MALINDI GROUP OF DISTRICTS

Subzone CL 3 m/l i of the Coconut-Cassava Zone

This is the Coastal Lowland Coconut-Cassava Zonewith medium to long cropping season and intermediate rains as found in Gede Location, Msabaha sub-location, in Malindi division. The dominant soil type is a complex of very deep soils of varying drainage condition, colour, consistency, texture and salinity: albic ARENOSOLS with orthic FERRALSOLS, gleyic LUVISOLS, solodic PLANOSOLS and pellic VERTISOLS. The annual average rainfall amount is between 1050 – 1230 mm. The first rainy season can expect more than 400 – 800 mm* in 10 out of 15 seasons, and second rainy season > 50 – 130 mm*. The 60% reliability of the growing periods during the 1st and 2nd seasons is 155 - 175 and < 40 days, respectively.

A major feature of agriculture in Malindi district has been the rapid change from sorghum and millet production to maize, cassava, cowpeas, green grams, ground nuts over the course of the last century (Table 25a). Maize has become the dominant staple while sorghum and millets have disappeared almost completely from the district. Average maize yields however, are far below the potential of the region and low production levels create serious food deficits. Improved maize production techniques are the key to resolving these deficits. Over the years, new technologies, such as new varieties and fertilizer have been introduced. Adoption has, however, remained low especially for fertilizer application to the soil (Table 24a & 26f). Agriculture is still the main activity of the subzone. Mixed cropping is practiced in all areas within this subzone. Both tree and annual crops are grown and intercropping is common. This combination varies from place to place but in general, there is a decrease in the number of trees as compared to annual crops from the coast to the hinterland in the west due to less rain there. Although annual crops can generate income, they are usually produced primarily for human consumption and only sold if there is a surplus or sudden need for cash. Maize, cassava, cowpeas, green grams, ground nuts and bananas are the major crops; vegetables and beans, though not reported, are minor crops in this subzone. Maize is the most important annual staple crop, even though yields have remained low over time for the reasons aforementioned earlier. Current maize yields in this subzone CL 3 are estimated between 0.5 t/ha to 1.5 t/ha although they may be as low as 0.25 t /ha during the short (minor) rainy season (Table 26f).

Cassava is a subsidiary staple in this subzone and has increasingly becoming an important cash crop. It is regarded as an important security crop because of its tolerance to drought, ability to give reasonable yields on poor soils, low external input and labor requirements, and the option of harvesting over a long period after the first rainy season. The next most important annual crop are cowpeas. However, even though cowpea is also drought tolerant, it is very vulnerable to pests and diseases, which often leads to very low yields.

Tree cultivation, which is very common and covers a large area in subzone of CL3 and is an important source of regular income. Major tree crops are coconuts, cashew nuts, citrus, Bixa, and mangoes. Trees grow easily without much labor input and the fruits are sold for cash. Coconuts were the most important tree crop in this subzone until recently; now farmers in Malindi district rank mangoes as the number one cash crop.

Two types of mangoes are grown in Malindi district and this subzone in particular: the local and the exotic or improved varieties. The latter are usually grafted on local mangoes and are grown for the export market. Most local varieties tend to have high fibre content, commonly referred to as “stringy”, and this characteristic makes them unpopular for fresh consumption. The local mango varieties are usually left to grow naturally without much crop husbandry. At the farm-level, key constraints faced by farmers are the lack of clean planting material, inadequate technology, the length of the production cycle and inadequate post-harvest handling facilities. Concerning planting material, there is a generalized shortage of grafted seedlings. Hence, farmers tend to use inferior, low yielding seedlings. Farmers do not have knowledge on improved production technology, and there is little or no use of fertilizers and pesticides. Pests – mainly the mango seed weevil and fruit fly – and diseases – mainly anthracnose and powdery mildew – are also major problems . Some fruit trees are so tall and big such that spraying is only not viable but also impossible. Farmers often lack motorized pumps for effective pest and disease control. Coupled with this, is poor crop management practice, which leads to flower and fruit fall. KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 53

Farmers suffer from poor post-harvest handling techniques, leading to significant losses, which affect returns to the farmer and traders. Furthermore, farmers do not have good storage facilities available at the farm level, and this forces them to sell their product immediately after harvest. No collective bargaining takes place on the price, and each farmer interacts individually with the trader and other buyers, often receiving prices well below reigning market prices. At the marketing stage, a major constraint is the poorly developed transport infrastructure, such as the bad road conditions that serve production areas which further contribute to post-harvest losses and a deterioration of quality leading to low selling prices. In many districts, transport and shipping costs are in fact prohibitive, both within and outside the country. Supply is not well organized with collection, grading and packing facilities and, therefore, farmers are not able to separate higher quality fruits to be remunerated accordingly. Moreover, farmers often lack the necessary information on alternative marketing possibilities and on alternative product uses, such as drying, and other options for value addition. Traders themselves often suffer from poor access to credit, which makes it difficult for them to finance their operations. In regard to exports, inadequate post-harvest/husbandry control, wrong varieties for sea freight, inadequate sea freight facilities and high air freight costs are among the major constraints. Moreover, the need to comply with the EUREGAP and traceability standards, which are necessary to enter the EC market, constitute a further problem. Exporters themselves often suffer from price instability in international markets and from stiff competition from other countries like India, Pakistan, Brazil, Mexico and Costa Rica. These competitors offer higher quality varieties at lower prices, due mainly to lower shipping costs.

Finally, concerning processing, major constraints are the insufficient plant capacity and organization of supplies. Currently, less than 1 percent of mangoes produced in Malindi are processed. The better quality fruits are exported, and processors are left with fruits of the lowest quality. Seasonal production is only enough to supply factories for seven months of the year. On the consumption side, the price of natural mango juice is too expensive for domestic consumers, who mostly consume cheaper products and indigenous varieties. Relatively cheaper imported mango juices are available from Mauritius, South Africa and Egypt. These countries enjoy preferential tariffs under the regional trade agreement, Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA). Further competition comes from locally manufactured, chemically sweetened mango flavoured soft drinks.

Stakeholders in the industry could look at ways to improve exports of fresh fruit through better quality control and management of the value chain. Given that a sizeable quantity of fruits does not normally meet export standards, other utilization must be examined. In the immediate future, the development of processed products seems to offer the best market opportunities to this end, particularly for export, given that shipping and handling costs are lower for processed products. In the longer term, capacity building of farmers on crop husbandry, technological application and overall farm management are key to the development of the chain. Improvement in extension provided to mango farmers is required. The need to improve plant breeding is required particularly for hybrid and improved varieties. In some areas, better quality could be achieved by adapting existing varieties, but developing new locally-adapted varieties in the long run should be explored. Defining the needs and implementing priorities of infrastructural development must be carried outto support the sub-sector. In the area of physical infrastructures, particular emphasis should be given to storage facilities and to transportation. Concerning institutional infrastructures, the development of adequate credit facilities and other services required by the supply chain and setting up collective farmers’ bodies, responsible for marketing and for the interaction with other stakeholders in the chain, must be examined.

Tree crops are estimated to contribute over 65% of farm produce value in zone CL3. Distance from markets and the small number of marketing outlets are a major constraint to agricultural income generation. Poor infrastructure, perishable farm produce, lack of organized marketing, and the small number of middlemen in the area also mean that agricultural prices and consequently farm income, are low. Several commodities are handled through formal markets where prices and conditions are regulated by the government. They include maize, rice, sugar cane, cashew nuts and Bixa. These markets are dominated by large purchasing organizations such as the National Cereals and Production Board, Kenya Cashew Nuts Limited, and Kenya Bixa Limited. Cooperatives, middlemen, and end-users are licensed buying agents for these organizations. Since the deregulation of cereal markets in the 1990s, however, food crops like maize and rice are mostly handled through informal markets (influenced only minimally by regulations) and where prices tend to be KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 54 lower than in formal markets. Informal markets also handle vegetables and fruit, cassava, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, mangoes, bananas and papayas.

* According to the position of the place in the subzone KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 55

TABLE 26f: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) CL 3 m/l i, PcJC Subzone: m/li, Soil Unit: PcJC Survey Area 195 (Msabaha) AEZ: CL 3 COCONUT - CASSAVA ZONE Sub-zone: m/li (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season 155-175, 2nd rainy season < 40 days) Crop Yields3) Unit with predom. Soil: PcJC = complex of albic ARENOSOLS, orthic FERRALSOLS, gleyic LUVISOLS, and Inputs solodic PLANOSOLS and pellic VERTISOLS Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season >400 – 800 mm in at 2nd rainy season: >50 – 130 mm in at least 10 out least 10 out of 15 years of 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level

4) 5) 6) II= III= AEU Maize local I= low II= med. III= high AEU Pot. I= low 4) 5) 6) monocropped med. high Pot. Yields3) kg/ha 800 250 Fertiliser7): N kg/ha - -

P2O5 kg/ha - - K2O kg/ha - - Manure t/ha 2 1 Hybrid maize Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize hybrid intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

NOTES: 1)Source: Interview of 30 farmers (if possible 10 in each level) 2004 by Divisional and Field staff 2)Figures of these cereals growing periods should be reached or surpassed in 6 out of 10 years. 3)Achieved average yields with average rainfall 4)Farmers with medium inputs 5)Farmers with high inputs of Fertiliser, insecticides, soil and water conservation 6)Potential yield according to crop list and local climate of this Agro-Ecological Unit if soils are optimally fertilized, plus optimal crop management 7)Fertiliser applications are averaged at 20 % of pure nutrient KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 56

Subzone CL 4-5 s/m i + vu of the Cashewnut–Cassava Zone

This is the Coastal Lowland Cashewnut-Cassava Zone with a short to medium cropping season, intermediate rains and a very uncertain cropping season as typified by Fundi Issa Location, Fundi Issa Sub-location, in Magarini Division. The dominating soil is imperfectly drained, deep, greyish brown, mottled, firm, slightly calcareous, non-saline to slightly saline, slightly sodic, sandy clayloam, abruptly underlying a thick topsoil of friable loamy sand: solodic PLANOSOLS. The average annual rainfall amount is between 820 – 1000 mm*. The first rainy season can expect more than 220 – 500 mm* in 10 out of 15 seasons and second rainy season > 50 – 150 mm*. The 60% reliability of the growing periods during the1 st and 2nd seasons is 105 – 110 and < 40, respectively. Cultivation in the 2nd rainy season starts early to get remaining soil moisture and some intermediate rains.

In this subzone, maize growing still dominates both seasons, despite its negligible yields due to the short growing periods prevalent in the area (Table 26g) and inadequate application of farm inputs (Table 24b & 26g). Other crops grown during the first rainy season include: beans, cowpeas, green grams and cassava. This crop mix of drought tolerant crops is a response to the drought conditions that frequently occur in this subzone. With frequent maize crop failure, food security is a major challenge in this subzone. It is unfortunate that farmers have abandoned the growing of drought tolerant millets and sorghum that dominated the indigenous farming system in the last century

The permanent cash crop grown in this subzone are cashewnuts. Cashew is one of the most popular tree nuts in Malindi district and world markets because of its competitive price, long shelf life, relatively low fat content and excellent flavour. The global market for nuts is projected to grow at an annual rate of at least 5% over the next five years. The main reason is that nuts are regarded as a healthy source of protein and are being consumed in increasing quantities in both developed and developing countries. A market survey carried out by Kenya Horticultural Development Programme (KHDP) in 2005 also showed that the local and regional demand for Kenyan cashew is growing at an even faster rate. This provides a great income opportunity for many thousands of farming families on the Coast, who have cashew trees growing on their small farms.

However, cashew nuts production has been decreasing in the area due to: 1) diseases mainly powdery mildew, 2) disorganized marketing environment and 3) loss of local processing capacity due to closure of the only processing plant. With few other income options, many areas where cashews are grown like in this subzone are now the poorest in coastal Kenya and are experiencing recurrent food insecurity. The quickest way to increase incomes for cashew farmers and ensure food security problems is to increase productivity of cashew trees (and reopening of the processing plant). Improved production practices could result in a doubling of current production and a doubling of current farmers’ incomes.

* According to the position of the place in the subzone KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 57

TABLE 26g: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) CL 4-5 s/m i + vu, PcL 3 Subzone: s/m i + vu, Soil Unit: PcL3 Survey Area 196 (Fundi Issa) AEZ: CL 4-5 CASHEWNUT – CASSAVA ZONE 2) st nd Crop Yields3) Sub-zone: s/mi + vu (Periods in days : 1 rainy season 105-110, 2 rainy season < 40 days) Unit with predom. Soil: PcL 3 = imperfectly drained solodic PLANOSOLS and Inputs Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season >220 – 500 mm in at 2nd rainy season: >50 – 150 mm in at least 10 out least 10 out of 15 years of 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level

4) 5) 6) II= III= AEU Maize local I= low II= med. III= high AEU Pot. I= low 4) 5) 6) monocropped med. high Pot. Yields3) kg/ha 400 400 Fertiliser7): N kg/ha - -

P2O5 kg/ha - - K2O kg/ha - - Manure t/ha 1 1 Hybrid maize Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize hybrid intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

NOTES: 1)Source: Interview of 30 farmers (if possible 10 in each level) 2004 by Divisional and Field staff 2)Figures of these cereals growing periods should be reached or surpassed in 6 out of 10 years. 3)Achieved average yields with average rainfall 4)Farmers with medium inputs 5)Farmers with high inputs of Fertiliser, insecticides, soil and water conservation 6)Potential yield according to crop list and local climate of this Agro-Ecological Unit if soils are optimally fertilized, plus optimal crop management 7)Fertiliser applications are averaged at 20 % of pure nutrient *Potential not yet determined under the agroecological unit KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 58

Subzone CL 4 s i (vs) of the Cashewnut–Cassava Zone

This is the Coastal Lowland Cashewnut-Cassava Zone with a short cropping season, intermediate rains and a (weak) very short cropping season as typified by Mafara Location, Madina Sub-location, in Marafa Division. The dominating soil is imperfectly drained to poorly drained mollic SOLONETZ; with orthic RENDZINAS and verto-luvic PHAEOZEMS. The average annual rainfall amount is between 800 – 950 mm*. The first rainy season can expect more than 220 – 350 mm* in 10 out of 15 seasons and second rainy season > 150 – 180 mm*. The 60% reliability of the growing periods during the1 st and 2nd seasons is 85 – 105 and 40 – 45 days, respectively.

Due to the low reliability of the rains and the short cropping season, drought-evading and drought-tolerant crop varieties should be cultivated. In general, the short rains are almost inadequate for the cultivation of annual crops. The indigenous cereals were sorghum and millet, both of which are drought-resistant and therefore well suited for the unreliable and low amounts of rainfall. Since the end of the last century, however, sorghum and millet have almost entirely been replaced by maize. Compared to sorghum and millet, maize has a higher production potential, is less vulnerable to diseases and pests (especially bird attacks), and is more easily prepared for consumption. On the other hand, maize is quite vulnerable to both water deficits and surpluses, while it requires a well drained soil with a good supply of nutrients. Due to the usually low and unreliable rainfall, together with the low fertility of soil and inadequate fertiliser application (Tables 24c & 26h), yields vary from low to almost nil over the years. Yields are on average 200 – 500 kg/ ha (Table 26h), which is very low compared to other regions of Kenya,

Indigenous root crops are the several types of yam, which are not popular any more. More common nowadays is cassava, a crop which was hardly grown before the mid-nineteenth century. Cassava is relatively drought resistant, has a good yield potential on poor soils, and is resistant to pests and weeds. Moreover, it requires little labour and does not show a peak in labour demand. The crop can remain in the field throughout the season, so that it can function as a reserve crop. However, compared with maize, the protein content is very low. The cassava in the Subzone has been infected with the mosaic virus, which causes considerable yield reductions. Average yields of cassava count are about 1-5 kg of tubers per plant. Another root crop is the sweet potato, which is grown by only a few farmers.

Pulses are commonly grown, although always in small quantities. Most common pulses are beans, cow peas, pigeon peas and green grams, but also groundnuts and bambara nuts are grown incidentally. Most of these pulses, especially the latter two, are rather drought resistant. Due the ability to fix nitrogen in the soil, pulses can be useful if intercropped with maize. Most pulses are vulnerable to insect damage, which often lead to a failure of making pods.

* According to the position of the place in the subzone KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 59

TABLE 26h: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) CL 4 si(vs), UcO 3 Subzone: s i (vs), Soil Unit: UcO 3 Survey Area 197 (Madina) AEZ: CL 4 CASHEWNUT – CASSAVA ZONE Sub-zone: s i (vs) (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season 85-105, 2nd rainy season 40-55 days) Crop Yields3) Unit with predom. Soil: UcO 3 = imperfectly drained mollic SOLONETZ with orthic RENDZINAS and Inputs nd rainy season: >150 – 180 mm in at least 10 Reliable rainfall: st rainy season >220 – 350 mm in at 2 1 out least 10 out of 15 years of 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level

4) 5) 6) II= III= AEU Maize local I= low II= med. III= high AEU Pot. I= low 4) 5) 6) monocropped med. high Pot. Yields3) kg/ha 500 200 Fertiliser7): N kg/ha - -

P2O5 kg/ha - - K2O kg/ha - - Manure t/ha 2 - Hybrid maize Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize hybrid intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha NOTES: 1)Source: Interview of 30 farmers (if possible 10 in each level) 2004 by Divisional and Field staff 2)Figures of these cereals growing periods should be reached or surpassed in 6 out of 10 years; growing periods may be considered longer due to immediately following second rainy season by middle rains. Then the second growing period is shorter than the given figures 3)Achieved average yields with average rainfall 4)Farmers with medium inputs 5)Farmers with high inputs of Fertiliser, insecticides, soil and water conservation 6)Potential yield according to crop list and local climate of this Agro-Ecological Unit if soils are optimally fertilized, plus optimal crop management 7)Fertiliser applications are averaged at 20 % of pure nutrient *Potential not yet determined under the agroecological unit

However, cashew nuts production has been decreasing in the area due to: 1) diseases mainly powdery mildew, 2) disorganized marketing environment and 3) loss of local processing capacity due to closure of the only processing plant. With few other income options, many areas where cashews are grown like in this Subzone are now the poorest in coastal Kenya and are experiencing recurrent food insecurity. The quickest way to increase incomes for cashew farmers and ensure food security problems is to increase productivity of cashew trees. Improved production practices could result in a doubling of current production and a doubling of current farmers’ incomes. KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 60

Subzone CL 5 (vs/s) + vs of the Lowland Livestock–Millet Zone

This is the Coastal Lowland Livestock-Millet Zonewitha (weak) very short to short cropping season and a very short one as typified by Marafa Division, Bungale Location, Baricho Sub-location. The dominating soil is an association of eutric CAMBISOLS and verto-luvic PHAEOZEMS. The average annual rainfall amount is between 640 – 810 mm*. The first rainy season can expect more than 155 – 220 mm* in 10 out of 15 seasons and second rainy season > 150 – 190 mm*. The 60% reliability of the growing periods during the 1st and 2nd seasons is 55 – 75 and 40 – 55 days, respectively. *

The rains are very unreliable and cropping season is short, less than 55 days. Therefore, the zone consists mainly of ranch land. Crop production should be restricted to drought-resistant crops only. Attempts to grow maize usually results in very low yields or total crop failure (Table 26i). Other drought tolerant crops grown include: cow peas, green grams and cassava. No farmer reported growth the drought tolerant millet, which is well suited for such precarious environments.

In many parts of Kenya and in this subzone in particular, smallholder farmers are being compelled by policy and markets to diversify their traditional export crops, whose potential for growth remains uncertain. Alternative agricultural activities are needed which offer higher returns to land and labour, offer the expectation of future growth, and which are suitable for adoption by the resource-poor smallholder farmers who continue to dominate local production. Market-oriented dairy production may fill this need for some smallholder producers in this area. The reasons for promoting dairy research have fundamentally to do with improving the opportunities and welfare of smallholder farmers and the consequent effects on agricultural development. The avenues of this impact are several: 1) There is good potential for increased demand and higher real prices for dairy products, 2) dairying can lead to increased levels and stability of income generation for local farmers and 3) dairying can increase employment in rural areas both directly and indirectly through supply of inputs and locally produced household items, and through increases in rural capital accumulation. Other impacts may be either positive or negative, including the impact on women in the household in terms of income generation and access, and labour demands and allocation. Similarly, the impacts of intensive dairy development on the poorest households may be indeterminate. Finally, dairying can have positive impacts on soil fertility maintenance in intensive mixed cropping systems, a role that may grow with intensification.

In conclusion, the livestock-millet zone in Malindi district represents a difficult and risky environment for smallholder dairy production, yet one with access to two principal and rapidly growing urban markets, Mombasa and Malindi. These markets offer smallholder dairy producers in this subzone, actual or potential, large margins for their milk. However, these markets and their environs also offer many other opportunities for the investment of smallholders’ scarce capital. Many of these investment opportunities require smaller initial investment than dairy cattle, are less constantly demanding of family labour, require fewer specialist skills and are less risky. Of particular importance to increasing the adoption of dairy amongst smallholders will be ensuring the effective delivery of the infection and treatment method of immunisation against East Coast fever, or the delivery of the next-generation technology. Notwithstanding these reservations, dairy production and marketing has large potential for direct financial returns and indirect benefits for crop production. It is therefore likely that as smallholder agriculture in the coastal lowlands intensifies in response to human population pressure, dairying will become an important enterprise for a significant number of resource-poor families.

* According to the position of the place in the subzone KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 61

TABLE 26i: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) CL 5 (vs/s) + vs, UCTA Subzone: (vs/s) + vs, Soil Unit: UCTA Survey Area 198 (Baricho) AEZ: CL 5 LOWLAND LIVESTOCK – MILLET ZONE Sub-zone: (vs/s) + vs (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season 55-75, 2nd rainy season 40-55 days) Crop Yields3) Unit with predom. Soil: UCTA = association of eutric CAMBISOLS and verto-luvic PHAEOZEMS and Inputs nd rainy season: >150 – 190 mm in at least 10 Reliable rainfall: st rainy season >155 – 220 mm in at 2 1 out least 10 out of 15 years of 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level

4) 5) 6) II= III= AEU Maize local I= low II= med. III= high AEU Pot. I= low 4) 5) 6) monocropped med. high Pot. Yields3) kg/ha 400 400 Fertiliser7): N kg/ha - -

P2O5 kg/ha - - K2O kg/ha - - Manure t/ha - - Hybrid maize Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha * P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize hybrid intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertiliser7): N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

NOTES: 1)Source: Interview of 30 farmers (if possible 10 in each level) 2004 by Divisional and Field staff 2)Figures of these cereals growing periods should be reached or surpassed in 6 out of 10 years. 3)Achieved average yields with average rainfall 4)Farmers with medium inputs 5)Farmers with high inputs of Fertiliser, insecticides, soil and water conservation 6)Potential yield according to crop list and local climate of this Agro-Ecological Unit if soils are optimally fertilized, plus optimal crop management 7)Fertiliser applications are averaged at 20 % of pure nutrient *Potential not yet determined under the agroecological unit KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 62

3.4.6 FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPORTANT AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNITS

The Fertiliser Use Recommendation Project of the GTZ (FURP) from 1986 till 1992 had 3 trial sites in the former Kilifi District. Mtondia Tezo north of Kilifi Town in Agro-Ecological Zone (AEZ) CL 4 (on chromic Luvisols) is representing a coastal strip of about 80 km length from Kilifi Town north to Fundisa. The less fertile soils are associated with albic and ferralic Arenosols, orthic Ferralsols, Planosols and Vertisols. They have developed from lagoonal deposits of the Kilindini sands. The soils of the coastal plains south of Kilifi Town down to Mombasa are similar to those of the north coast and should be represented by the FURP site at Mtwapa CARS (CL 3, CL 4). They are dominated by a mixture of albic and ferralic Arenosols, orthic Ferralsols and Lithosols, which have developed on lagoonal deposits of the Kilindini sands and the Coral reef limestone. These soils are continuing to the south through Mombasa down to Msambweni and Lunga Lunga. Their inherent fertility is generally low, in some parts extremely low, which is shown by the FURP results of Mtwapa CARS (see Table 27b). However, this FURP trials are not reflecting the soil fertility status of the whole area because the site under experimentation was exploited by permanent cultivation for more than 25 years without any compensation with fertilizers! Thus, other sites might be quite different. Very poorly drained thionic Fluvisols and Solonchaks are occuring in the mangrove swamps of the district group around the Mtwapa and Kilifi creeks and at the northern coastal strip of the DG north of Ngomeini. A third FURP trial site is located near Lutsangani, SW of Ganze. This mbuga site contains chromic Vertisols (associated with ferralic and albic Arenosols) and is representing the mbuga parts of the semiarid area (CL 4, CL 5) between Ganze and Bamba. The soils possess a moderate to low fertility and have developed on cover sands of the Magarini sands. Almost 15 km west of the shoreline of the Indian Ocean (CL 4, CL 5) and in the arid west of the district group (CL 6) strips of very fertile verto-luvic Phaeozems –developed on shales of the Maji-ya-Chumvi beds and the Taru carbonaceous shales- can be found next to less fertile and poorly drained Planosols and Solonetz of the Marafa beds as well as less fertile Acrisols and Arenosols of the Mazeras and Mariakani sandstone (near Kaloleni and Mariakani, CL 3, CL 4, CL 5). Fertile Fluvisols are occurring in the bottomlands of the Galana River. Recommended rates of fertiliser in an Agro-Ecological Unit (AEU) increase towards the wetter subzones and decrease into the dry ones if the soil unit extends there (see small maps). In the areas settled by smallholders, zones CL 3, CL 4 and CL 5, we have tended to lower the rates due to the low financial base of the smallholder farmers. If the system could be put in place to give the starter fertiliser on credit, repayable with part of the money obtained from harvest, then higher rates would be used by the farmers. The optimum can be calculated from the yield functions in MURIUKI & QURESHI (2001)1. In the long run the optimal amount and enough manure must be given to maintain the nutrient content. Some quantities for this can be seen in Chapter 3.1 under the ‘General Remarks’ section. Higher application rate recommendations are given in the Smallholder Farming Handbook of the IRACC and MSS, Nairobi 1997, but the economic investment and risk is too high for the small farmers. The mentioned rural credit system for the inputs could help a lot. Where scientific sources for quantifying the rates are lacking, some conclusions can be drawn from the difference of inputs and yields between the low and high production levels of the Farm Survey 2004. An empty column in the recommendation tables denoted as “Other Nutrients Recommended” does not mean that there is nothing to be done but it is because of lack of trial data. Symptoms of deficiencies and methods of addressing these can be found in MURIUKI & QURESHI (2001), Table 1&2, p.22-23. FURP trials at Mtondia Tezo near Kilifi Town showed that all crops responded positively to the application of N and P (Table 27a). However, it must be pointed out that soil fertility of the sandy soils is quite low due to low soil moisture capacity, a low CEC, a high leaching rate of nutrients and a low pH. The micronutrients that are not included in the fertiliser become exhausted very fast too. Manuring almost up to the full return of the extracted nutrients is a must in order to have a stable agrobiological system for continuous sustainable production2. The application of Farm Yard Manure (FYM) leads to a stabilization, even to a slight increase of crop yields as well as to an improvement of org. C, pH and important nutrients (like P and Mg) in the long run; this is also positive for nitrogen mineralization and the improvement of soil physical quality (e.g. water storage capacity and plant available soil water, infiltration, aeration) and of the biological parameters. Therefore, 5 tons of manure can be recommended per ha in the district group (see Table 27a). Similar results were obtained by the FURP trials at Kichakasimba in the KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 63 neighbouring Kwale district group representing parts of the Kilifi area (see Table 27c). Crops at the FURP site at Lutsangani (Table 27d) with the mbuga soils did not respond to the application of P fertilizer due to a high natural content of P in the soil. Therefore, maintenance of soil fertility should be more effective by applying FYM, because this will lead to an improvement of the humus content as well as of the physical structure of the soil, the CEC and the nutrient pool. Cultivation of cowpeas and simsim as relay crops (late in the long rains) is recommendable. Gross margin (GM) calculations however reveal that with current market prices (gross income for crops minus variable costs) the cultivation of maize and sorghum (as a mono- and intercrop) is less worthy than horticultural crops (like onions, kales, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, water melon, brinjals, capsicums), under rainfed and/or irrigated conditions in AEZ CL 3 and CL 4; cassava in CL 4 as well as tree crops like mango and citrus (mainly in CL 3 and CL 4) are also much more profitable due to better market prices, even for farmers who are not able to apply fertilizers, biocides and water on a high level (see e.g. FARM MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES OF KILIFI DISTRICT, 2010-2011; FARM MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES OF MALINDI DISTRICT, 2011; FARM MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES OF KALOLENI DISTRICT 2010-2011). In the drier areas of the coastal hinterlands (CL 5) best results of GM can be obtained by dairy cows and poultry (in particular egg production) (e.g. FARM MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES OF KINANGO DISTRICT, 2010). Therefore, farmers in the district group should be advised not to rely too much on staple crops like maize and sorghum as cash crops.

______1 MURIUKI, A.W. & QURESHI, J.N.: Fertiliser Use Manual.- Nairobi, KARI 2001 2 Southern China has parts with similar soils to Coast Province and stabilized productivity there for hundreds of years by returning the kitchen waste as well as human and animal excrements to the fields. The organic material could be used together with the urea for biogas production first to reduce the hygienic and energy problems. Ecosan toilets are a solution for households to produce manure. KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 64 KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 65

TABLE 27a: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNITS of the Coconut-Cassava Zones CL 3 m/l i, CL 3-4 m/l i and the Cashewnut-Cassava Zones, CL 4 m i, CL 4 m/s i and CL 4 m/s + vu; Soils Pc J1, Pc J3 8, Pc J4, Pc JC, Pc L2, Uc E1, Uc E2

Maize (Coast 1877 + 8.1 N + 0.15 75 N, 50 P2O5 1170 Composite) NP (50 N, 25 P2O5) 2

Maize (Coast Comp.) & 2470 + 12.2 N + 75 N, 50 P2O5 1600 1 cowpeas (local var.) 0.12 NP (maize) (50 N, 25 P2O5) 668 + 4.1 P 2 (cowpeas) - 3

Maize (Coast Comp.), 2891 + 3.9 P 75 N, 50 P2O5 200 (maize)

Sorghum (Seredo) & 2470 + 17.1 N + 4.3 75 N, 50 P2O5 1500 P (sorghum) Simsim (local var.) 4 377 + 6.2 N – 0.06 50 N 160 N2 (simsim) Second rainy season 5

Sorghum (Seredo) 1275 + 0.11 NP 75 N, 50 P2O5 410 Permanent crop Coconut 6 0.9 kg CAN per tree and year

Sources: m u r i u k i , A.W. & q u r e s h i , J.N.: Fertiliser Use Manual.- Nairobi 2001, p. 144-145/148-149, and conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004; Information Research and Communication Centre (IRACC): Small Holder Farming Handbook for Self Employment.- Nairobi 1997, p. 101-102; KARI (Ed.): Fertilizer Use Recommendations. Vol. 1, Coastal Districts.- Fertiliser Use Recommendation Project (FURP), Nairobi ca. 1995. AEU of the trial site is underlined. 1 Cowpea as a relay crop is planted in May/June/July (FURP, p. 7/12). 2 Lower limit of application (FURP, p. 11). 3 Yield response to P application should be tested; relay planted cowpeas seem to be the cheapest source of N (by N fixation) (FURP p. 11). 4 Within this experimental module 3 maize (2 years) and sorghum (3 years) are followed by simsim in the second rainy season (FURP, p. 7). Higher yields of maize during the first 2 years of experimentation (compared to the longer experimentation period –see module 1-) seemed to be caused by the extreme decrease of soil fertility during continuous cropping over 5 years (FURP, p. 9). 5 It is recommended to limit the application of fertiliser to the first rainy season due to unreliable and low rainfall in the second rainy season (FURP, p. 11); this might be responsible for the low response of sorghum to N and P applications. 6 Yields in areas with 750-1000 mm of rainfall: 15-20 nuts per tree (IRACC, p. 102). 7 Application of well composted farm yard manure (FYM) is necessary to stop the continuous loss of organic carbon in the sandy soils; a good content of org. C contributes most to the CEC in those soils and improves the moisture storage capacity of the stratum (FURP, p. 9). 8 In large areas the soils are very sandy and possess a low humus content, a low CEC, a low moisture storage capacity, low

Ca and SO4 as well as moderate P contents; applied nutrients are leached quickly (FURP, p. 6). 9 Contents of P, N, org. C and cations (in particular micro nutrients) should be tested/monitored regularly (MURIUKI/ QURESHI, p. 144). *The actual conversion into the real nutrient content can be seen in Annex table I, p. 37. KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 66 KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 67

TABLE 27b: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNITS of the Coconut-Cassava Zone CL 3 m/l i, the Cashewnut-Cassava Zones CL 4 m i, CL 4 m + vu and the Livestock- Millet Zone CL 5 s/m + vu; Soils Pc J1, Pc J3, Pc J4 1, Pc JC, Pc L2, Uc E1, Uc E2

Recommended Average Yield Average Yield Other Crop varieties and Av. Exp. Yield + Fertiliser Increase if this Increase if 5t/ Nutrients Season Response-curve Rates Rate is Applied ha Manure are Recommended kg/ha kg/ha * kg/ha Applied 6 First rainy season Maize (Coast Composite, 756 + 10.5 N + - 3 - Pwani Hybrid) 7 3.7 P Maize (Coast Comp., 898 + 11.4 N + 6.2 - 3 - 300 Pwani Hybrid) 7 & P (maize) cowpeas (local var.) 2 453 – 0.02 N2 + 3.1 - 3 - P (cowpeas) Napier grass 7118 + 86.2 N – - 3 - 0.75 N2 Second rainy season 4 Sorghum (Seredo) 1008 + 0.06 N2 - 3 - Napier grass 7118 + 86.2 N – - 3 - 0.75 N2 Permanent crop Coconut 5 0.9 kg CAN per tree and year

Sources: m u r i u k i , A.W. & q u r e s h i , J.N.: Fertiliser Use Manual.- Nairobi 2001, p. 144-145/148-149, and conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004; Information Research and Communication Centre (IRACC): Small Holder Farming Handbook for Self Employment.- Nairobi 1997, p. 101-102; KARI (Ed.): Fertilizer Use Recommendations. Vol. 1, Coastal Districts.- Fertiliser Use Recommendation Project (FURP), Nairobi ca. 1995. AEU of the trial site is underlined. 1 The inherent soil fertility of the trial site at Mtwapa CARS was extremely low (FURP, p. 14): contents of org. C, N, P and exchangeable Ca were even lower than at Mtondia-Tezo (see Table 15a, Kilifi Group) due to the fact that the site did not receive any mineral or organic fertilizers since it had been cleared in 1960 (FURP, p. 11). Therefore, the results of the trial site are not representative for large areas; the soil fertility status of each field can vary according to the time period under cultivation, cultivation techniques, crops grown etc. (FURP, p. 15). 2 Cowpea as a relay crop is planted in May/June/July (FURP, p. 7/12). 3 Responses of crops to N and P applications are so low (due to the exhaustion of the other nutrients) that it is considered as uneconomic. Only if prices for maize at the market are too high, farmers are advised to apply fertilizers in order to meet the

food demand of their families; in this case rates of up to 50 kg/ha N and 25 kg/ha P2O5 are recommended (FURP, p. 15) and manure. 4 A green manure crop could be planted as an alternative in the second rainy season for the purpose of being incorporated into the soil (FURP, p. 14). 5 Yields in areas with 750-1000 mm of rainfall: 15-20 nuts per tree (IRACC, p. 102). 6 Contents of P, N, org. C and cations (in particular micro nutrients) should be tested/monitored regularly (MURIUKI/ QURESHI, p. 144). 7 Coast Composite was planted for 5 years (1987-1991), Pwani Hybrid for 1 year (1992). *The actual conversion into the real nutrient content can be seen in Annex table I, p. 37. KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 68 KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 69

TABLE 27c: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNITS of the Coconut-Cassava Zone CL 3 m/l i & m i (s/vs) and the Cashewnut-Cassava Zone CL 4 m/s + (vs/s); Soil Uc S2 1

Maize (Coast Composite, 1644 + 33.6 P- 0.44 50 N, 50 P2O5 1460 lime Pwani Hybrid) 8 P2 + 0.35 NP

Maize (Coast Comp., 1099 + 12.8 N + 50 N, 50 P2O5 2350 400 “ Pwani Hybrid) 8 & 55.2 P – 0.42 P2 cowpeas (local var.) 2 (maize) 279 + 17.5 P – 0.12 - 3 - P2 (cowpeas)

Finger millet (local var.) 1368 + 39.8 P – 25-50 P2O5 780-1120 “ 0.35 P2 + 0.15 NP Second rainy season

Maize (Coast Composite, 959 + 33.6 P- 0.41 50 N, 50 P2O5 1400 “ Pwani Hybrid) 8 P2 + 0.3 NP 2 Sorghum (Seredo) 934 + 14 P- 0.1 P 50 P2O5 450 “ Cowpeas (local var.) 209 + 11.5 P – 0.1 25-50 P2O5 230-320 “ P2 Simsim (local var.) 80 + 2.4 P – 0.02 P2 - 4 - “ + 0.01 NP Permanent crop Coconut 5 0.9 kg CAN per “ tree and year

Sources: m u r i u k i , A.W. & q u r e s h i , J.N.: Fertiliser Use Manual.- Nairobi 2001, p. 148-149, and conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004; Information Research and Communication Centre (IRACC): Small Holder Farming Handbook for Self Employment.- Nairobi 1997, p. 101-102; KARI (Ed.): Fertilizer Use Recommendations. Vol. 1, Coastal Districts.- Fertiliser Use Recommendation Project (FURP), Nairobi ca. 1995. AEU of trial site is underlined. 1 The moisture storage capacity of the Acrisols (developed on Shimba grits) is moderate to low (FURP, p. 18); therefore, moisture conservation measures should be carried out to improve the availability of soil moisture and consequently increase responses to fertilizers (MURIUKI/QURESHI, p. 148). CEC, org. C and available P of these particular soils are low, Ca very low; N-losses due to leaching is high (FURP, p. 18); pH decreased within a continuous cultivation period of 4 years by more than 10 % (FURP, p. 20) –this can be attributed to the very low content of Ca in the soil (liming !). 2 Cowpea as a relay crop is planted in May/June/July (FURP, p. 18). 3 P-fertilization should be tested (FURP, p. 4). 4 Not economical due to low response. 5 Yields in areas with 750-1000 mm of rainfall: 15-20 nuts per tree (IRACC, p. 102). 6 Organic fertilizers should be applied regularly in seasons with adequate soil moisture (to enhance decomposition) to increase CEC, humus content/org. C, N and other essential nutrients (MURIUKI/QURESHI, p. 148). 7 Contents of P, N, org. C and cations (in particular Mg, K, Ca) as well as pH should be tested/monitored regularly (MURIUKI/QURESHI, p. 148). 8 Coast Composite was planted for 5 years (1987-1991), Pwani Hybrid for 1 year (1992). *The actual conversion into the real nutrient content can be seen in Annex table I, p. 37. KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 70 KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 71

TABLE 27d: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNITS of the Cashewnut-Cassava Zones CL 4 m i (vs/s), CL 4 m/s i (vs), CL 4 s/m i (vs), CL 4 s i (vs) and the Livestock-Millet Zones CL5 s/vs i (vs), CL 5 (vs/s) + (vs); Soil Uc S1 1

Recommended Average Yield Average Yield Other Crop varieties and Av. Exp. Yield + Fertiliser Increase if this Increase if 5t/ Nutrients Season Response-curve Rates 7 Rate is Applied ha Manure are Recommended kg/ha kg/ha * kg/ha Applied 1 8 First rainy season Maize (Coast Composite, 2314 + 21 N 75 N 1580 Pwani Hybrid) 9 Maize (Coast Comp., 2021 + 39.1 N – 25-50 N 4,5 800-1240 500 Pwani Hybrid) 9 & 0.29 N2 + 0.16 NP (maize) cowpeas (local var.) 2 620 (cowpeas) - 6 - Maize (Coast Composite, 1368 + 26.1 N + 75 N 5 1950 Pwani Hybrid) 3, 9 6.2 P Second rainy season Maize (Coast 831 + 35.9 N - 0.23 75 N 1400 Composite) N2 Cassava (local var.) 13400 - 6 - Simsim (local var.) 139 - 6 -

Sources: m u r i u k i , A.W. & q u r e s h i , J.N.: Fertiliser Use Manual.- Nairobi 2001, p. 144-145, and conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004; Information Research and Communication Centre (IRACC): Small Holder Farming Handbook for Self Employment.- Nairobi 1997, p. 101-102; KARI (Ed.): Fertilizer Use Recommendations. Vol. 1, Coastal Districts.- Fertiliser Use Recommendation Project (FURP), Nairobi ca. 1995. AEU of trial site is underlined. 1 At the experimental site chromic Vertisols are dominating (mbugas); therefore, problems are more of a physical nature: the soil becomes very hard when it is drying and very sticky during rainfall, with rather narrow moisture content during cultivation. Application of farm yard manure (FYM) and other measures will lead to an improvement of the humus content and the physical structure with a better range of plant available soil moisture and an increase of CEC, N, org. C etc. (FURP, p. 17-18; MURIUKI/QURESHI, p. 144). 2 Cowpea as a relay crop is planted in May/June/July (FURP, p. 15). 3 During the second rainy season simsim (1988, 1990) or cassava (1989, 1991) are following maize as a crop (module 3; FURP, p. 15). 4 Lower amounts of N application are necessary due to N fixation by the relay crop. 5 Response of maize to P application was rather inconsistent and low (FURP, p. 17). 6 No significant response to N and P applications; simsim showed very low yields and does not seem to be suited to this site (FURP, p. 18) –this crop needs free draining soils. 7 P application might become necessary in future if the P content of the soil will reach a critical value after some years of cultivation (maintenance fertilization in the long run; FURP, p. 17). 8 Contents of P, N, org. C and cations should be tested/monitored regularly (MURIUKI/QURESHI, p. 144). 9 Coast Composite was planted for 3 years (1988-1990), Pwani Hybrid for 2 years (1991-1992). *The actual conversion into the real nutrient content can be seen in Annex table I, p. 37. KILIFI - MALINDI GROUP 72 KILIFI-MALINDI GROUP 73

3.4.7 FINAL STATEMENTS

The recommendations for the Kilifi Group of Districts are almost the same as for the Kwale Group because the Agro-Ecological Zones are similar and the market possibilities in towns or tourist ressorts are near, too. Therefore there is also here more scope for the necessary incomes by growing vegetables and fruits than by the former cash crops. Cotton with an expectation of 1 700 KSh of income per ha is disappointing and therefore disappearing here compared with 169 128 KSh possible with onions per acre (see Table 15). The high returns per manday in horticulture seem to offer a chance to go in big production with labourers. But then the market will be flooded and the prices paid to the producer drop. It is better if many small farmers do some horticulture and sell privately in the markets or join a cooperative for marketing. Also the necessary composting and other soil care for sustainable productivity is easier in small scale enterprises. The tree crops must be maintained too although they promise less cash income but they are necessary for braking the sea- wind which causes some rain by uppiling the air-masses.

Market-oriented dairy production may fill the need for some smallholder producers in this area. The reasons for promoting dairy research have fundamentally to do with improving the opportunities and welfare of smallholder farmers and the consequent effects on agricultural development. The avenues of this impact are several: 1) There is good potential for increased demand and higher real prices for dairy products, 2) dairying can lead to increased levels and stability of income generation for local farmers and 3) dairying can increase employment in rural areas both directly and indirectly through supply of inputs and locally produced household items, and through increases in rural capital accumulation. Other impacts may be either positive or negative, including the impact on women in the household in terms of income generation and access, and labour demands and allocation. Similarly, the impacts of intensive dairy development on the poorest households may be indeterminate. Finally, dairying can have positive impacts on soil fertility maintenance in intensive mixed cropping systems, a role that may grow with intensification.

In conclusion, the livestock-millet zone from Kwale to Malindi district represents a difficult and risky environment for smallholder dairy production, yet one with access to two principal and rapidly growing urban markets, Mombasa and Malindi. These markets offer smallholder dairy producers, actual or potential, large margins for their milk. However, these markets and their environs also offer many other opportunities for the investment of smallholders' scarce capital. Many of these investment opportunities require smaller initial investment than dairy cattle, are less constantly demanding of family labour, require fewer specialist skills and are less risky. Of particular importance to increasing the adoption of dairy amongst smallholders will be ensuring the effective delivery of the infection and treatment method of immunisation against East Coast fever, or the delivery of the next-generation technology. Notwithstanding these reservations, dairy production and marketing has large potential for direct financial returns and indirect benefits for crop production. It is therefore likely that as smallholder agriculture in the coastal lowlands intensifies in response to human population pressure, dairying will become an important enterprise for a significant number of resource-poor families. Almost 400 000 KSh are needed for a family with 5 children (see Table 22 in Kwale Group of Districts). Even with vegetables and fruits it is almost impossible to raise this money. The answer is to have less children and not trying to send one to university (fees 120 000/- and other costs) but to teach them intensive agriculture. Kenya will need more food than academics in the future.

There is an increasing other problem caused by the growing population: The land shortage will force people to settle in the non-agricultural Ranching Zone CL 6. If they avoid overgrazing to maintain the productivity of the vegetation and improve the "chance cropping" by requesting the Kenya Met. Dept. if an ENSO- season is coming (especially for the 2nd rains),1) than they have a chance.2)3)

1) See EWS Bulletin, Sept. 2010 Taita Taveta District,p.2&13.ENSO Index in July, Aug., Sept. below 1.05 2) Shisanya, Chris A.: Chances and Risks of Maize and Bean Growing in the Semi-Arid Areas of South-East Kenya During Expected Deficient, Normal and Above Normal Rainfall of the Short Rainy Seasons.-Mat. zur Ostafrika-Forschung, Heft 14. Geograph. Gesellschaft Univ. of Trier 1996. 3) See Annex, Chapter 1.2.3