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Home , Coast Province, Eastern Province (Kenya), Kilifi, Kwale, Malindi, Mombasa

THE COAST: A REGIONAL STUDY

Dick Foeken, Jan Hoorweg & RA Obudho

The East African Coast extends from the Horn of (Frazier, 1993). Far north, in the archipelago, Africa to halfway down ; an approxi- the coastline consists again of near-shore islands, mate distance of 3000 km, The semi-desert in bays, creeks and large mangrove forests. is followed by forests, groves, scrub The definition of the Kenya Coast as used in this lands and grasslands interspersed by the estuaries of monograph includes seven districts, Taita Taveta, the large rivers reaching the . In many , , , , lamu and the lower ways the Kenya Coast resembles the rest of the East part of Tana River District (Figure 1.1, p. 4).1 This African Coast more so than the interior of Kenya region covers an area of roughly 150 by 450 km and with its extended savannahs and mountain ranges. accounts for more than 2 million people or about The Kenya Coast is situated immediately south 10% of the national population. of the equator; it covers a distance by air of some The Kenya Coast forms a distinct region of the 450 km while the actual length of the sea front is country. A region is generally defined as "a sub- around 600 km. In the far south there are extensive national division of space, delimited in terms of one mangroves and coral reefs with near-shore Islands. or more criteria" (Simon 1990a: xv). Such criteria can straddles a creek System with natu- be of several kinds: physical delineation, population ral harbours on both sides. Rugged coast follows distribution, economie activities, politica! divisions northwards with the deep water creeks of and socio-cultural characteristics (Sada 1993). The and Kilifi and the shallow Mida creek. The reef ends Kenya Coast meets several of these criteria and is a at Malindi which is halfway up the coast. Along distinct region in this geographical sense. Distance Ungwana Bay, landscape and habitation of the and climate are important factors-, the region is di- Northern Coast change profoundly. The beaches are vided from the rest of the country by an extended long and sandy, open to the sea with rolling break- and dry zone, the Taru desert. The tropical monsoon ers; the narrow coastal plain widens and extends far climate is different from the rest of the country with inland (Hoorweg 1998). The land is sparsely inhab- ited. It consists of dunes and scrub Vegetation, inter- l This definition differs from that of as administrative unit since it includes small parts of rupted by the Tana River delta with wetlands and Eastern and North- while it excludes mangroves and the limestone cliffs of Ras Shaka the rest of Tana River District.

3 Foeken, Hoorweg & Obudbo

SUDAN X ETHIOPIA

North . Eastern

\ Central i 'v \

Nairobi

TANZANIA

LEGEND > Coast Province StudyArea International boundary Provincial boundary

Figure 1.1 Coast Province and study area The Kenya Coast 5 the kazkazi and kusi seasons (North-East and economie growth with a spatial perspective. At pre- South-East monsoon, respectively). In terms of his- sent, development and regional development have a torical and social developments, the area is also dis- much broader meaning, "a multifaceted process tinct despite great interna! divisions. whereby the quality of life and 'personality' of indi- For many centuries, the coastal region was the viduals and groups improves" (Simon 1990a: xiv). In most economically developed part of what now con- other words, development differs from mere eco- stitutes Kenya. This was a trading economy, the nomie growth (Omuta & Onokerhoraye 1986). coastal centres serving as trading links between the Recently, the element of control and management immediate hinterland and various trading destina- of resources has come to be included. In 1995, tions. The overseas dhow trade covered the East UNDP defined (human) development as the broad- African Coast as well as the Middle East and present- ening of the options that people have in order to im- day . Many small trading centres flourished prove their livelihoods and determine their future. along the coast of which Lamu, Malindi and Mom- Four years later, human development had simply be- basa are best known. Mombasa ultimately devel- come "the process of enlarging people's choices" oped into the main ; it has the best natural (UNDP 1999:16). Development then embraces all harbour of Kenya, probably the best of the whole social, cultural, economie and politica! aspects of life, East African Coast. quantitative as well as qualitative in nature. With the start of colonial administration in 1895, Regional development concerns physical, infra- little changed at first. Mombasa served as headquar- structural as well as human resources. Early on, ters of the British (Ndua physical resources were seen as the main determi- 1992). In 1901 the railway from Mombasa reached nants of development - factors such as geology, Lake Victoria. A few years later, became the land forms, sous, climate, hydrology, Vegetation and capital, situated inland which is quite unusual for fauna. Infrastructural resources include energy, wa- African coastal states. Subsequently, development ter, transport and Communications as well as factors efforts by the colonial govemment concentrated in- such as housing and distribution networks. Over creasingly on the areas with white settlers in the in- time, human resources have come to be considered terior. The importance of the Kenya Coast was nar- essential; the key variable in this respect is what is rowed to that of Mombasa as a transit point for per- called the quality of the labour force. The latter de- sons and goods. Broadly speaking, the relative ne- pends not only on educational and occupational glect of the Coast continued to present days. Hence, skills, but also on elements such as social customs, despite the apparent wealth along the beaches and the influence of climate on human comfort and en- the presence of Kenya's major port in Mombasa, the ergy, diet and nutrition, as well as health (Omuta & Coast finds itself in a comparatively disadvantaged Onokerhoraye 1986). position compared to central Kenya. REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT Two main approaches to regional development have During the 1960s, regional development and devel- come to be recognised, essentially the difference opment in general were more or less equated with between centralised and decentralised strategies, economie development. Friedmann (1964), for in- conveniently labelled as 'topdown' and 'bottom-up' stance, defined regional development simply as approaches (Obudho 1988; Simon 1990b; Simon Foeken, Hoorweg & Obudho

1992). The 1970s saw a shift in attention towards the During the 1960s, the growth centre or growth rural areas and witnessed the rise of integrated rural pole theory was widely accepted as the basis for re- development programmes. Many of these pro- gional planning in less developed countries. An acti- grammes proved to be only partially successful and vated expansion of certain industrial sectors in se- one of the major objectives, self-sustainability, was lected urban centres would stimulate development hardly ever reached. Consequently, in the 1980s the in the surrounding hinterlands. The positive spread emphasis shifted to "the interdependence and sym- effects were expected to outweigh the negative biosis of the rural and urban" (Baker & Pedersen 'backwash' effects such as the destruction of local 1992: 12). The growth of small urban centres is industries and the ensuing loss of employment. seen as a necessary condition for rural transforma- However, the results of this planning model, by and tion (Baker & Claeson 1990). large, have been disappointing (Bloch 1990; Simon 1990b). In many cases, the growth centres became KENYA AND THE KENYA COAST or remained 'islands' in impoverished environs. Re- Regional development planning in Kenya reflects cent top-down strategies tend to aim at curbing the the above described changes. The 1970s indeed growth of the large metropoles and instead focus on saw a shift from development concentrated in the development of small and intermediate centres. Nairobi and Mombasa, to 'selective concentration' on An example is Kenya's development centre policy nine intermediate urban centres. , , (Nyakaana 1995; Obudho 1988). , and others were designated as One of the major complaints against the growth (industrial) growth centres (Nyakaana 1995). pole strategy was that the poorer groups were not During the 1980s, planning focus shifted further to given special attention (Van der Hoeven 1987). As a achieve a so-called 'rural-urban balance'. Small and reaction, the so-called basic needs policy was devel- intermediate centres were expected to"(...) relieve oped. "Development 'from below' considers devel- the population pressure in the countryside, provide opment to be based primarily on maximum mobili- less congested and populated urban living in the saüon of each area's natural, human, and institutional primate city, (...) increase the modemisation spin-off resources" (Stöhr & Taylor 1981:1-2). The objec- which urban centres provide to the surrounding rural tive is to provide the poor with basic needs, i.e., the areas, and provide a better Integration with the eco- minimum levels of nutrition, safe drinking water, nomy of the rural hinterland" (Obudho, Akatch & shelter, hygiëne, health care and literacy, amongst Aduwo 1988:165). others, with the ultimate aim for the poor not just to Concurrently, the District Focus Policy for Rural survive but to improve their living Situation (Simon Development was launched in 1983. The objectives 1990b). A 'strong' basic needs policy requires that of this policy were threefold, namely to delegate the the poor be central or, in other words, that the poor operational responsibility of rural development to must be empowered. This implies fundamental the districts, to increase productivity and effective- changes in the division of power in the society. At ness in the development process, and to encourage the same time, this is the reason that true basic local development efforts (Obudho et al. 1988). needs strategies are not likely to succeed or that The District Focus Policy entails a hierarchy of devel- they will remain top-down strategies in part (Simon opment committees at respective levels of district 1990b). administration. These committees discuss ongoing The Kenya Coast

development activities and new initiatives. Plans pass chapters will show. through each committee and each level of adminis- ttation sets priorities that are passed on to the next. MONOGRAPH SET-UP The District Development Committee takes a cen- This monograph has two objectives. Firstly, it is a tral position and has decision-making power. study of a distinct region that is important in its own Although the policy indeed manages to realise grass- right. Secondly, it covers the main trends and effbrts roots participation, the procedures are cumbersome at development of the region. The emphasis is on and it takes long for an initiative to pass through the information for the genera! reader as well as Infor- system (Groothuis 1999). At present, 'rural-urban mation for development workers, government offi- balance' is regarded as the main objective of regional cers and planners, students and researchers. development policy. With this strategy, the govern- Part I of the book consists of this introductory ment attempts to implement a combination of a top- chapter and Chapter 2, which gives a short overview down and a bottom-up approach with the aim to of the development of the region in a national con- overcome the weaknesses of the respective ap- text. Meilink (2)3 shows that coastal development, proaches (Fair 1990). both economically and socially, went hand in hand The Kenya Coast is a pronounced example of the with increasing regional inequalities. growth pole model of regional development. Apart Part II covers the genera! background. The physi- from Mombasa, no 'intermediate urban centres' cal characteristics and the existing infrastructure are have been designated. There has not been any con- reviewed byFoeken (3). The main part of the region certed effort or planning for the development of this is relatively dry, with a high Variation in amount of part of the country by successive governments. rainfall. The Coast has the highest percentage of Since Independence the centre has been dominated low-potential land of the country, with the exception by up-country groups and there has been an under- of North Eastern Province. The weiter parts along representation of ministerial positions given to the coastline are densely populated and are more coastal representatives. Not surprisingly, the Coast developed in terms of infrastructure. A separate has also taken a relatively marginal position in re- chapter is devoted to marine resources. Aloo (4) de- spect to the distribution of investments and services scribes the highly productive ecosystems of the as the different chapters will make clear, although coastal zone that are important as a source of food, the picture is often complex. building materials, employment and (foreign) eam- It is generally accepted that the coastal region ings in the form of tourism. The chapter by Tole (5) suffers from a chronic lack of development. Some is concerned with environmental problems. Many of writers are of the view that "the Coast has moved to these are specific to the Coast, particularly those af- a marginal position" and that "the Coast appears the fecting the reefs, sea shores and mangroves as well most deprived region"2 but at closer examination as those associated with beach tourism. Waka- indicators are equivocal and this will be an important jummah (6) describes the population dynamics in subject of discussion. Development projects, past terms of birth rates, mortality and migration charac- and ongoing, have usually been of a limited scale al- teristics. There is ayouthful age structure, an elon- though some have not been without success as later gated population distribution following the coastline,

2 These citations are given by Meilink, Chapter 2, p.12 Cross-references to other chapters are given by name and are from Geist and Livingstone, respectively. of author and chapter number, both in italics. f oefeen, Hoorweg & Obudbo and in ethnic terms the province is the most hetero- difficulties in the supply of agricultural inputs. The geneous of Kenya. The review by Obudho (7) de- poor rural infrastructure, in general, also works scribes how urbanisation in the region is concen- against rural industrialisation and enterprise develop- trated almost exclusively in Mombasa. This mono- ment. Masai (14), in the chapter on regional indus- directed character has resulted in problems of un- trialisation, regards the government efforts at dis- employment, lack of infrastructural facilities and en- persion of industry to have been largely unsuccess- vironmental hazards. ful. Tourism is an important sector of the national Part III offers an historical background with em- economy. But Sindiga (15) argues that, although a phasis on political and socio-cultural developments. major part of the tourism sector is directed towards Middleton (8) in his chapter on the peoples of the the Coast, its importance for the regional economy is region describes the respective Bantu speaking minor. The backward linkages in respect of local groups as well as the largely forgotten Cushite mi- agriculture and employment are weak. Ikiara (16) norities. He gives most attention to the Swahili who reports how formal employment is concentrated in for a long time had a dominant role in commercial, the service sector which reflects the low level of in- political, cultural and social aspects. Cooper (9) treats dustrialisation in the region. the colonial history: the establishment of British rule Part V deals with human resources. Eisemon (17) on the Kenya Coast which meant a fundamental discusses the causes of the educational marginaliza- change in the Organisation of space and society. It tion in the region. He describes the resistance of the resulted in major transformations of social relations, Muslim population to western education and the religieus affiliation and ethnic boundaries. Wolf (10) neglect by local councils. Other important human re- traces the recent political history. Ethnically, the re- sources that pose constraints are health conditions gion is diverse and politics are characterised by pa- and nutrition. Boerma &Bennett (18) discuss the tronage along ethnic lines. The Coast has not been existing health infrastructure with particular attention an influential force in the national arena since to fertility, matemal and child care. The mortality and Independence. Sperling (11) reviews the relation of morbidity of the major illnesses at the Coast are also religion and coastal society; how African traditional reviewed. Klaver & Mwadime (19) discuss food religion, and Christianity have developed his- availability and food adequacy in a region which is torically and interacted with each other. only 50% food self-sufficient, and the existing levels Part IV deals with economie resources. Agricul- of energy and nutriënt intake and consequent nutri- ture is the mainstay of the coastal economy and is re- tional status. Gender aspects of development are viewed by Waaijenberg (12). On the whole, agricul- discussed byMitullah (20) who argues that there ture is poorly developed mainly due to low and irre- are large disparities between men and women in gulär rainfall and low soil fertility. Yields of the main terms of social, economie and political standing due food crops - maize, cassava, legumes, vegetables - to low levels of education and cultural beliefs and are low in comparison with other parts of the coun- practices. try. Commercial farming is constrained by marketing Part VI consists of a number of case studies in facilities, reviewed by Dijkstra (13). Firstly, there development that were brought together partly by are the long distances as a result of the stringlike choice, partly by opportunity. The reviews of land habitation; secondly, there is the poor condition of settlement by Hoorweg (21) and dairy development many rural access roads; and finally, there are the by Leegwater & Hoorweg (24) are examples of rural The Kenya Coast

development, successful to some extent. The re- (25). Mombasa links important Inland and maritime gional settlement schemes initiated over the past 30 transport Systems and the performance of the port is years nearly all had difficult starts but will eventually determined by economie growth as well the quality settle about 135,000 people. Dairy development in of management. Kilifi District is an example of a successful sector, Part VII presents a concluding chapter about the due to a combination of favourable factors. Housing kind of changes that will be needed for future de- is reviewed byMacoloo (22) and water supply by velopment. It summarises the preceding chapters Krhoda (23). They describe attempts to improve and reviews the potential and limitations for devel- important infrastructural components that had only opment. The chapter concludes with a discussion of limited success over time. Housing conditions of regional priorities. most people are poor and homelessness in Mom- Finally, two further sections are included, one basa remains high. Rural water supply can hardly with recent facts and figures on economie and social meet demand and modern water supply already indicators, the other with a comprehensive biblio- poses a major bottleneck. Finally, port development graphy on social sciences for the years 1890-1998. is given special attention in the chapter by Hoyle

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