Kenya State of Coast Report

Kenya State of the Coast Report

Published in 2008 by the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA)

Disclaimer: The designations employed and the presentation of the materials in this document are those of the authors and do not reflect the views of NEMA, NEPAD ReCoMaP or UNEP.

This publication may be reproduced in whole or part in any form for educational purposes and non-profit purposes without special permission from the copyright holder, provided that acknowledgement of the source is made. NEMA would appreciate a copy of any publication that uses this material, or part thereof, as a source.

No use of this publication may be made for the resale or for any other commercial purposes whatsoever, without prior permission in writing from NEMA.

ISBN: xxxxxx

For bibliographic purpose, this document should be cited as follows: Government of Kenya, 2008. Kenya State of the Coast Report: towards the integrated management of Kenya’s coastal and marine resources. UNEP and NEMA, Nairobi. 90 pp.

Participating Institutions

Lead Institution: National Environment Management Authority Main Sponsor: United Nations Environment Program UNEP/Nairobi Convention Secretariat Co-sponsors • New Partnership for Africa’s Development—Coastal and Marine (NEPAD-COSMAR) • Regional Programme for the Sustainable Management of the Coastal Zone of the Countries of the Indian Ocean (ReCoMaP) Institutions and Sources of Information • National Environment Management Authority, P. O. Box 67839-00200, Nairobi, Kenya • Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI), P. O. Box 81651-80100 Mombasa, Kenya • Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean programme (CORDIO) East Africa, 9 Kibaki Flats, Kenyatta Public Beach, P.O. Box 10135-80101 Mombasa, Kenya • Department of Resource Surveys and Remote Sensing, P.O. Box 47146-00100, Nairobi, Kenya • New Partnership for Africa’s Development–Coastal Marine Division (NEPAD–COSMAR) Secretariat, P. O. Box 46270-00100, Nairobi, Kenya • Kenya Wildlife Service, P.O. Box 86797, Mombasa, Kenya • University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197-00100, Nairobi, Kenya

Edited by Daisy Ouya, MS, ELS Design and layout by Irene A. Ogendo and Daisy Ouya

********For further information please contact xxxxxxxxxx ******* Contents [To Format]

Foreword ...... ix Acknowledgements...... x Members of the Task force...... x Executive Summary...... xi Background to the publication...... xiii Acronyms and abbreviations [To complete]...... xiv

The Coastal Environment of Kenya...... 1 1.1 Biophysical setting...... 1 1.2 Climate...... 2 1.3 Geology and geomorphology...... 2 1.4 Drainage and hydrology...... 3 1.5 Oceanography...... 4 1.6 Ecosystem connectivity and human wellbeing...... 5

Coastal Ecosystems...... 7 2.1 Introduction ...... 7 2.2 Coastal terrestrial habitats ...... 8 2.2.1 Coastal Forests...... 8 2.2.2 Sandy beaches and sand dunes...... 8 2.3 Mangrove forests and coastal wetlands...... 9 2.4 Seagrass beds...... 10 2.5 Sediment- and soft-bottom habitats ...... 10 2.6 Rocky shores, hard-bottom habitats and coral reefs...... 10 2.7 Coastal pelagic habitats...... 11

Coastal and Marine Species of Special Concern, and Flagship Species...... 13 3.1 Marine mammals ...... 13 3.1.1 Dolphins...... 13 3.1.2 Whales...... 13 3.1.3 Dugong...... 14 3.1.4 Research, monitoring and conservation efforts...... 15 3.2 Sea turtles...... 16 3.2.1 Species composition...... 16 3.2.2 Research, monitoring and conservation efforts...... 16 3.3 Shoreline birds...... 17 3.3.1 Research, monitoring and conservation efforts...... 18 3.4 Other coastal and marine threatened and/or flagship species...... 18 3.4.1 Angolan Black-and-White colobus...... 19 3.4.2 Tana mangabeys...... 19

Coastal Communities...... 21 4.1 Population...... 21 4.1.1 Population size and distribution ...... 21 4.1.2 Population growth rate ...... 21 4.1.3 Ethnic and cultural diversity...... 22 4.1.4 Migration trends ...... 22 4.1.5 Population impacts...... 23 4.2 Access to social services ...... 23 4.2.1 Education ...... 23 4.2.2 Health care ...... 23 4.2.3 Water resources and sanitation ...... 24 4.2.4 Infrastructure and communication...... 25 4.2.5 Housing...... 25 4.3 Historical and cultural heritage...... 26 4.4 Kaya forests...... 26 4.5 Gender equity...... 28 4.6 Land tenure and use...... 28 4.6.1 Land tenure...... 28 4.6.2 Land use ...... 29 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

4.7 Economic status and resource use ...... 29 4.7.1 Wealth and poverty levels ...... 29 4.7.2 Access to natural resources and use ...... 29 4.7.3 Socio-economic dynamics ...... 30

Economic Activities at the Kenya Coast ...... 31 5.1 Introduction ...... 31 5.2 Coastal tourism ...... 31 5.2.1 Tourism-related activities ...... 32 5.2.2 Socio-economic impacts of tourism ...... 32 5.3 Agriculture ...... 33 5.3.1 Crop Production ...... 33 5.3.2 Irrigation agriculture in the Tana, Umba and Athi-Sabaki floodplains...... 35 5.3.3 Livestock production ...... 35 5.4 Ports and shipping ...... 36 5.5 Mariculture and aquaculture ...... 37 5.6 Fisheries ...... 38 5.6.1 Types of marine fish ...... 39 5.6.2 Aquarium fisheries ...... 40 5.7 Coastal mining ...... 41 5.8 Salt production ...... 42 5.9 Oil and gas exploration ...... 42 5.10 Exploitation of mangrove forests ...... 43 5.11 Industrial development ...... 43 5.12 Occupational/employment structure ...... 44 5.12.1 Economic diversification ...... 44 5.13 Supportive services ...... 44 5.13.1 Road transport ...... 44 5.13.2 Rail transport ...... 45 5.13.3 Air transport ...... 45 5.13.4 Energy ...... 45 5.13.5 Water supply and sewerage ...... 45

Major Threats and Impacts on Coastal and Marine Ecosystems ...... 47 6.1 Introduction ...... 47 6. 2 Fisheries ...... 47 6.2.1 Destructive ﬁshing practices ...... 48 6.2.2 Overﬁshing ...... 49 6.3 Marine pollution ...... 49 6.4 Shoreline change and erosion ...... 50 6. 5 Physical alteration and destruction of habitats ...... 51 6.6 Root causes of degradation and loss of habitats along the coast ...... 53 6.7 Climate change ...... 53 6.8 Invasive species ...... 56

Governance of the Coastal and Marine Environment ...... 57 7.1 Introduction ...... 57 7.2 Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act ...... 57 7.3 The Coast Development Authority (CDA) Act ...... 57 7.4 Sector-based laws ...... 58 7.4.1 Land use planning ...... 58 7.4.2 Tourism ...... 58 7.4.3 Forest Resources ...... 59 7.4.4 Fisheries ...... 60 7.4.5 Ports and harbours ...... 60 7.4.6 Lakes and rivers ...... 60 7.4.7 Agriculture ...... 61 7.4.8 Irrigation ...... 61 7.4.9 Mining ...... 61 7.4.10 Marine resources ...... 61 7.5 Regional and international instruments ...... 61 7.6 Need for integrated coastal and marine legislation and implementation ...... 63 vi Towards an Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources

Management of Coastal and Marine Resources ...... 65 8.1 Introduction ...... 65 8.2 Management tools ...... 66 8.2.1 Environmental impact assessment (EIA) ...... 66 8.2.2 Environmental Audit (EA) ...... 67 8.3 Marine Protected Area (MPA) management ...... 67 8.4 Fisheries management ...... 68 8.4.1 The New Fisheries Policy ...... 69 8.5 Management of tourism development ...... 69 8.6 Forest management ...... 70 8.7 Management of river deltas ...... 70 8.8 Management of coral reefs and seagrass beds ...... 71 8.9 Protection of flagship species ...... 71 8.10 Management of open-sea fisheries ...... 71 8.11 Constraints and limitations to management ...... 72 8.12 Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) ...... 72 Conclusions and Recommendations ...... 75 9.1 Introduction ...... 75 9.2 Recommendations for Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) ...... 76 9.2.1 Political goodwill ...... 76 9.2.2 Specific Legislation ...... 76 9.2.3 Ecosystem restoration ...... 76 9.2.4 Mitigate threats from land-based activities ...... 77 9.2.5 Mitigate threats from unsustainable fisheries ...... 77 9.2.6 Capacity building and financing ...... 78 9.2.7 River basin management ...... 78 9.2.8 Integration of traditional knowledge into resource management ...... 79 9.2.9 Gender Equity...... 79 9.2.10 Housing and infrastructure ...... 79 9.2.11 Groundwater resources ...... 79 9.2.12 Aquaculture ...... 79 9.2.13 Land use planning ...... 79 9.2.14 Agriculture ...... 80 9.2.15 Salt production ...... 80 9.2.16 Oil and gas exploration ...... 80 9.2.17 Shiploading ...... 80 9.2.18 Climate change ...... 80 9.2.19 Marine Protected Areas ...... 80 9.3 Monitoring and evaluation ...... 81 9.4 Conclusion ...... 81

References ...... 83

List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Map of Kenya showing the coastline ...... 1 Figure 1.2 Precipitation distribution in Kenya ...... 2 Figure 1.3 Permanent and seasonal rivers draining into the Kenyan coast ...... 3 Figure 2.1 Major coastal ecosystems ...... 7 Figure 3.1 Dugong and dolphin sites, turtle breeding sites as well as Important Bird Areas (IBAs) along the Kenya coast ...... 15 Figure 4.2 Predicted population density (2015) ...... 22 Figure 4.1 Population growth for six districts in coast province between 1979 and 1999 ...... 22 Figure 4.3 Primary school enrolment in the coastal districts, 2002–2004 ...... 23 Figure 4.4 Spatial distribution of the Mijikenda Kaya forests ...... 27 Figure 5.1 Principal economic activities and their contribution to livelihoods and income for coastal populations ...... 31 Figure 5.2 Trend in ships docking at the Port of Mombasa ...... 36 Figure 5.3. Trends in fish landings in the Kenyan Coast (1996-2003) ...... 39 Figure 5.4 Prawn and fish catches by trawlers in Kenya...... 39 Figure 5.5 Trends in production of mangrove poles in Lamu, Kenya ...... 43 Figure 6.1 Monthly variations in catch effort for different fish categories of the prawn trawlers in Malindi-

vii KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

Ungwana bay ...... 48 Figure 6.2 Maps of the Kenya coast showing (a) population density in 2005 (Source: Balk and Yetman, 2004), and (b) a digital elevation model showing potential vulnerabilities of coastal communities to sea- level rise 55

List of Tables

Table 3.1 Numbers of Globally Threatened species in Kenya’s coastal forests ...... 13 Table 3.2 Some endemic bird species along the Kenyan coast ...... 17 Table 3.3 Coastal and marine Threatened and/or Flagship species in Kenya ...... 18 Table 4.1 Population data for the seven districts in Coast Province in 2002 ...... 21 Table 4.2 Indicators of health services for the seven districts in coast province ...... 24 Table 4.3 Water and sanitation indicators for the seven districts in coast province in 2002 ...... 25 Table 4.4 Post-independence settlement schemes in Kwale, Kilifi and Malindi districts...... 28 Table 5.1 Hotel bed-nights by zone, 1998–2004 ...... 32 Table 5.2 Tourism-related activities ...... 33 Table 5.3 Common food and cash crops at the Coast province ...... 34 Table 5.4 Livestock population at the Coast Province ...... 35 Table 5.4 The top 20 aquarium fish species harvested from Shimoni (March 2004–April 2005) ...... 40 Table 5.5 Area of salt works in Kenya ...... 42 Table 5.6 Number of registered firms by industry in the Coast Province ...... 44 Table 5.7 Employment by sector in urban centres of the Coast province ...... 44 Table 6.1 Causes, impacts, and consequences of degradation and loss of habitats ...... 53 Table 7.1 Summary of Kenya Legislation Relevant to the Management of the Coastal and Marine Environ- ment and Resources ...... 59 Table 7.2 Relevant multilateral environmental agreements signed by Kenya ...... 62 Table 7.3 Marine Protected Areas in Kenya ...... 68

List of Photos

Quarrying of building stone from fossil coral formations in the North Coast ...... 3 An aerial view of Port-Reitz Creek mangroves, Mombasa, during high tide ...... 9 A healthy seagrass bed ...... 10 A healthy coral reef ecosystem ...... 11 Bottlenose dolphin ...... 13 Types of whales ...... 14 A dugong with calf ...... 14 Coastal erosion negatively affects turtle breeding sites ...... 16 Tana mangabey ...... 19 Angolan Black-and-White colobus 19 Siyu Fort in Siyu Old Town, built in the 1860s by the Sultan of Zanzibar in Pate Island...... 26 Giriama grave markers and ancestral figures, ‘Vigango’ that are typical features of Kaya burial sites...... 26 Earthen fish pond at Majaoni-Mtwapa Creek ...... 37 Traditional fishing boats/canoes ...... 38 Traditional fishing gear (basket trap) ...... 39 Some of the destructive fishing gears used at the coast (Left: ringnet; right: Beach seine) ...... 48 Sewage discharge into a mangrove forest at Tudor Creek ...... 49 An eroding shoreline at Gazi after fringing mangroves were removed ...... 50 Mangrove death due to an oil spill at Makupa...... 50 Excavation of beach sand to pave way for house construction ...... 51 Tree felling (left) and charcoal burning in Shimoni forests in South Coast ...... 52 Salt works at Ngomeni in Malindi ...... 52 Flooding displaces thousands of people, destroys crops and property, and causes severe mangrove die-back due to massive sedimentation...... 54

viii Towards an Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources

Foreword

I am delighted to present this pioneering State of the Coast (SOC) report for Kenya. The report describes the coastal environment and its natural resources, the demographics and rich culture of Kenya’s coastal communities, as well as the pressures and threats to environmental health being experienced in the coastal zone. It proposes measures to mitigate or reverse environmental degradation, in order to secure the livelihood-supporting and income-generating functions of the coastal and marine environment, for this and future generations.

Hitherto, information on the country’s coastal and marine environment and related resources has been scattered in diverse documents, making quick reference and difﬁcult. By serving as a one-stop resource, this publication will ﬁll this gap.

Kenya’s coastline, extending from the border with Somalia in the north to the border with Tanzania in the south, is about 600 km long. The marine and terrestrial habitats within the coastal are endowed with rich natural resources, which are of immense economic and cultural value to coastal inhabitants people and the nation at large. These resources, in addition, provide critical ecological services, whose real value has tended to be underestimated. The coastal environment also many industries, thereby signiﬁcantly contributing to the country’s gross domestic product. Due to the real and potential employment opportunities created by shipping and tourism—the two main industries at the coast—the coastal urban population has increased steadily over the years, leading to immense demographic pressure on the natural resource base.

The management of Kenya’s coastal and marine resources has for a long time been undertaken through sectoral approaches by various institutions, often operating under conﬂicting legislations. This lack of a coordinated approach has contributed to overexploitation of resources and environmental degradation.

Under the Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA) of 1999, the government of Kenya envisioned the formulation, through NEMA, of an Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) plan to guide sustainable coastal development. This publication will inform the ICZM process. Furthermore, the production of this volume serves to deliver part of the Kenya’s obligations to the Nairobi Convention for the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Eastern African Region.

The SOC report identiﬁes various root causes of resource overexploitation and environmental degradation, including population pressure, poverty, lack of community involvement in resource management, lack of enforcement of relevant legislations, and sectoral approaches to management, and proposes mitigation measures under an ICZM framework. It is our hope that this report will go a long way towards creating awareness on the status of Kenya’s coastal and marine resources, and improving their management.

NEMA would like to thank the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), through the Nairobi Convention; the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) through its Coastal and Marine Resources sub-program; and the Regional Programme for the Sustainable Management of the Coastal Zone of the Countries of the Indian Ocean (ReCoMaP), for supporting the process of the report’s development. The leadership role of NEMA as the focal institution in this process is commended. The technical expertise and time availed by the national task force in the entire process are also highly appreciated.

Dr. Dorcas Otieno Chair, NEMA Board of Management

ix KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

Acknowledgements

The National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) gratefully acknowledges the ﬁnancial contribution of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)/Nairobi Convention Secretariat; Regional Programme for the Sustainable Management of the Coastal Zone of the Countries of the Indian Ocean (ReCoMaP) and New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) for supporting the production of the State of the Coast Report for Kenya.

We thank Anthony Githitho, David Mirera, Jacqueline Uku, James Mwaluma, David Kirugara, Sam Weru, Nyawira Muthiga, Steve Trott, Gerald Mwatha, Colin Jackson, Oliver Nasirwa, Melita Samoilys, Mary Njonjo and Ibrahim Namunaba for their contribution to the various sections of this report.

The technical support from UNEP/Nairobi Convention team, namely Dixon Waruinge and Ulrika Gunnartz, towards the completion of this report is appreciated. Dr. Johnson U. Kitheka, Environmental Scientist/Project Ofﬁcer of UNEP-GEF WIO-LaB Project reviewed this report and provided comments that were used to prepare an updated version.

Lastly, NEMA wishes to thank the following members of the State of the Coast Task Force for compiling relevant data and information and also preparing various sections of the report.

Members of the Task force

Jared Bosire: KMFRI Julie Church: Unique Eco-Designs Patrick Gang: DRSRS James Kamula: NEPAD COSMAR Secretariat James Kairo (Chairman): KMFRI Ali Mohammed: NEMA/NEPAD COSMAR Akunga Mommanyi: University of Nairobi David Obura: CORDIO East Africa Jacob Ochiewo: KMFRI John Ondari: Kenya Water and Sanitation Program

Dr. Muusya A. Mwinzi Director General, National Environment Management Authority (NEMA)

x xi Towards an Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources

Executive Summary

This State of the Coast Report 2008 is the ﬁrst of its kind in Kenya. It describes the status of Kenya’s coastal and marine environment, demographic and resource-use trends, current impacts and threats to sustainability, and management measures to mitigate and prevent continued environmenal degradation. The document will serve as the foundation for the development of an Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Plan for Kenya.

Chapter 1 describes the biophysical settings of the Kenya coast including coastal geomorphology, oceanography, hydrology and climatic inﬂuences on the various biophysical settings. The geology of the Kenya coast is mainly sedimentary, with a well developed fossil reef complex that is extensively exploited by the building industry. The coastal climate in Kenya is inﬂuenced by the monsoon winds and characterized by two distinct rainy seasons. The long rains occur between March and May, coinciding with South-East monsoons. The short rains occur from October to December, corresponding with the North-East monsoons. Annual average rainfall along the coast varies from about 500–900 mm/year on the northern coast to 1000–1600 mm/ year on the southern coast. Average temperatures range between 24 and 30 °C.

The two main rivers draining into the sea north of Malindi town, Tana and Sabaki, inﬂuence nearshore ecosystems due to their massive freshwater and sediment input. River Tana, with its source in Mt Kenya, is the longest river in Kenya. With a total length of 850 km, it drains a catchment area of about 127,000 km2 and discharges an average of 4,000 million m3 of freshwater and 6.8 million tonnes of sediment annually, with peak ﬂows occurring between April and June and during November/December (Kitheka et al., 2003b–c, 2005). The Athi-Sabaki River has a length of 390 km, and drains a catchment area of about 70,000 km2. The sediment load of the Athi-Sabaki River has increased tremendously from 50,000 tons/year in the 1950s, to the current rates of 5 to 13 million tonnes/year. This increase has been attributed to catchment degradation due to poor agricultural practices and deforestation of its hinterland.

The various marine and ecosystems at the coast, including coral reefs, seagrass beds, mangroves, sandy beaches, sand dunes and terrestrial forests, are discussed in Chapter 2. These ecosystems provide important goods and services, which include important cultural services, as well as livelihoods to local communities. Mangroves, for instance, provide spawning grounds to many commercially important groups of ﬁsh and yield an array of direct products such as ﬁsh, timber, fuelwood and medicines.

Kenya’s coast is also home to numerous Threatened species; 38% of the 159 tree and shrub species; 27% of the 71 birds species, and 5 of 9 mammal species classiﬁed as Threatened occur here. These Threatened species include marine mammals (e.g. whales, dolphins and dugongs), sea turtles, shoreline birds, ﬁshes and terrestrial animal species such as Colobus monkeys. Chapter 3 is devoted to these species of special concern, highlighting their composition, habitats and status.

Chapter 4 is a socio-economic assessment of the coastal communities and how they interact with the environment and its associated ecological services. The coastal population is estimated at 2.5 million, which is 9.0% of the total country’s population. The largest indigenous ethnic group along the coast is Mijikenda, composed of nine sub-tribes. Due to its socio-economic dynamics, the Kenyan coast has over the centuries attracted diverse ethnic and racial groups, with the highest increase in population densities occurring in urban centers such as Mombasa and Malindi. Poverty has become widespread in rural areas of the coastal region, ranging from 30% to 84%. Land tenure has historically remained a contentious issue, with huge tracts of land being owned by absentee landlords and many households living as squatters on the land. This issue hinders sustainable development, since the poor are more likely to engage in resource-use practices that are not sustainable or environmentally friendly. As such, land tenure needs to be addressed to ensure sustainable development and conservation of the environment.

xi xi KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

In Chapter 5 the various economic activities taking place at the Kenyan coast are discussed. Tourism and shipping are the highest contributors to the coastal economy, contributing 45% and 15% respectively. Artisanal fishery lands 95% of the total marine catch, contributing 6% to the coastal economy, and is the main source of livelihood for more than 60,000 households. However, there is growing concern about over-exploitation and the associated declining catch within inshore marine fisheries while the offshore deep sea fisheries have remained largely unexploited by Kenya. The contribution of mining has remained low but is likely to increase once a new titanium mining project in the South Coast starts active production for export. Agricultural production is, however, low because farmers still practice traditional farming methods and in most cases, do not apply appropriate soil and water conservation measures. This has led to land degradation and perennially low crop yields. Consequently, the coastal population depends heavily on agricultural produce from outside the region. Due to unresolved land tenure issues, many of the local people do not have title deeds which they can use as collateral to secure credit for agricultural development.

The challenges facing the sustainable utilization and management of coastal and marine resources are discussed in Chapter 6. Although the coastal region is endowed with rich natural resources, various forms of utilization have exerted considerable pressure on these resources. Destructive practices (e.g. dynamite fishing, forest clearing and land reclamation), pollution from industrial and domestic wastes, inappropriate land-use practices and unregulated development have individually and cumulatively led to resource overexploitation and environmental degradation. In addition, global climate change has led to altered rainfall patterns, droughts, floods, and sea level changes. The cumulative impacts of these factors have been significant physical alterations and degradation of habitats, leading to loss of livelihoods, changes in social structures, loss of cultural heritage and resource-use conflicts. The main drivers of these threats and impacts to coastal resources range from social (e.g. human population pressure), institutional and macro- economic/micro-economic issues; natural phenomena such as the effects of climate change and sedimentation; and institutional, e.g. limited knowledge, lack of technologies for cleaner production, and inadequate natural-resource-management capacity.

A number of institutions are legally mandated to oversee the sustainable management of coastal resources. Section 55 of Environmental Management and Conservation Act (EMCA, 1999) speciﬁcally mandates NEMA to assess, plan and coordinate sustainable management of resources. The legal and institutional frameworks governing the management of Kenya’s coastal and marine resources, as well as international instruments to which Kenya is signatory, are discussed in chapter 7. Chapter 8 reviews the roles of the various institutions currently engaged in this work.

Chapter 9 of the report identiﬁes opportunities that exist in the coastal region of Kenya for socio-economic development, as well as the challenges which need to be addressed to ensure a healthy environment and sustainable management of coastal and marine resources. Some of the interventions proposed include: greater community involvement in resource management, adherence to the physical planning regulations for shoreline development; adoption of appropriate land-use practices to ensure soil and water conservation and improved crop yields to enhance food security; increased government support to coastal and marine conservation programs and application of an ecosystem approach in resource management. All these proposed interventions will be captured in the ICZM Plan currently under formulation.

xii xii xiii Towards an Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources

Background to the publication

Consensus is emerging on the need to manage Kenya’s coastal and marine resources through an integrated, rather than a sectoral fashion. Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) brings all those involved in the development, management and use of the coastal zone within a framework that facilitates the integration of their interests and responsibilities.

This report was compiled by a National Task Force constituted in 2004 by the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), when the Authority initiated steps towards the development of an ICZM policy for Kenya.

The Task Force consultatively worked through a series of workshops, literature searches and personal contacts with key individuals and agencies. Overall, seven consultative meetings and workshops were held. An initiation workshop involved different stakeholders interested in coastal and marine resources in Kenya. This was followed by two full Task Force meetings, where the first draft of the publication was developed. A Task Force sub-committee was established to fine-tune the draft document before it was circulated to reviewers. The reviewers’ comments were addressed by the sub-committee, and the report finalized at a full Task Force meeting. A final stakeholders’ workshop in Mombasa brought together government departments, civil society representatives, community leaders and policy makers to deliberate on the report and decide on a way forward.

This report is the country’s first “one-stop” document detailing the status of coastal and marine resources in Kenya, and the link to human welfare. It reviews the diversity and abundance of natural resources and critical habitats along the Kenyan coast, including coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass beds and marine fisheries, and identifies the major natural and human-induced stresses facing them. In addition, the report addresses long-standing problems and emerging issues concerning the management of the coastal areas in Kenya.

This publication is based on the best available scientiﬁc information and local knowledge, and is expected to form a major foundation for the development of an ICZM Plan for Kenya. It will also serve as resource and reference document for government agencies, non-governmental organizations, donors and practitioners involved or interested in the conservation and management of Kenya’s coastal and marine resources.

The implementation of an ICZM process will enable the government of Kenya to improve decision-making processes, enhance community participation, promote local coastal management programmes, and meet the country’s commitments to regional and international instruments such as the Nairobi Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change.

xii xiii xiii KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

Acronyms and abbreviations [To complete]

CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CDA Coast Development Authority CORDIO Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean programme EA EACC East African Coastal Current EAME East Africa Marine Eco-region ECC Equatorial Counter Current EIA EMCA FAO GCRMN Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network

GOOS Global Ocean Observing Systems GEF Global Environment Facility GISP Global Invasive Species Programme GOK Government of Kenya ICAM ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management IOD Indian Ocean Dipole IPCC International Panel on Climate Change IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature KESCOM Kenya Sea Turtle Conservation Committee KFS KMFRI Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute KMNPR Kisite-Mpunguti National Park and Reserve KPA KPA KWS Kenya Wildlife Services LOTC MOTCO MPA Marine Protected Area MTSP Marine Turtle Specialist Group NEMA National Environment Management Authority NEPAD-COSMAR New Partnership for Africa’s Development- Coastal Marine Division NMK National Museums of Kenya

SIDA SST Sea Surface Temperature TARDA UNDP United Nations Development Program UNEP United Nations Environment Program USAID WIO Western Indian Ocean WIOMSA WWF World Wildlife Fund for Nature xiv xiv The Coastal Environment of Kenya 1

1.1 Biophysical setting

Kenya’s coastline extends about 600 km along the seafront, from Somalia’s border at Ishakani in the north (Longitude 1° 41’ S), to Tanzanian’s border at Vanga in the south (Longitude 4° 40’ S) (Figure 1.1)

The definition of the Kenya coast as used in this document includes 7 administrative districts: Kilifi, Kwale, Lamu, Malindi, Mombasa, Taita Taveta and Tana River. The coastal region stretches roughly 150 km inland from the seafront, covering an area of 67,500 km2. This is about 11.5% of the total area of the Republic of Kenya. Kenya’s coastal zone is often classified with reference to the city of Mombasa—the North Coast from Mombasa to Kiunga, and the South Coast from Mombasa to Vanga.

A distinctive feature of Kenya’s coastline is a fringing coral reef running parallel to the coastline, from Vanga to Malindi Bay (UNEP, 1998). Other unique features are the Lamu archipelago with its extensive mangrove forests; Mombasa Island; the southern complex of Gazi Bay; Chale Island; Funzi Bay and Wasini Island (UNEP, 1998). Rivers Tana and Sabaki are the two major rivers draining into the Indian Ocean along Kenya’s coastline.

Kenya’s continental shelf is relatively narrow, generally 5- to 10-km wide, with depths dropping below 200 m in under 4 km of the shoreline. At the mouths of rivers Tana and Sabaki, however, the shelf is signiﬁcantly wider, exceeding 15 km off the northern end of Ungwana Bay. Beyond the continental shelf, the seabed slopes away to depths in excess of 4,000 m. The shelf is sedimentary, dominated by ﬁne sands, silt and mud derived from terrigenous sources (Obura, 2001), with an area of about 19,120 km2, of Figure 1.1 Map of Kenya showing the coastline (Source: KMFRI database)

1 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

which 10,994 km2 is considered trawlable (UNEP, 1998). The continental shelf serves as ﬁshing grounds for thousands of artisanal ﬁshermen living along Kenya’s coastline.

1.2 Climate

The coastal climate of Kenya is inﬂuenced mainly by large-scale pressure systems of the Western Indian Ocean and Monsoon winds. The Monsoons blow from the northeast between December and March and the southeast from May to October, with the 1- to 2-months transition periods characterized by variable and weaker winds.

In addition, the East African Coastal Currents are formed by the northward deﬂection of the Southern Equatorial Current, which ﬂows northwards throughout the year, at higher speeds during the South-East monsoon, and slower during the North-East Monsoon (UNEP, 1998).

Mean annual rainfall along the Kenyan coast ranges from 500–900 mm on the North Coast to 1000–1600 mm in the wetter areas south of Mombasa (UNEP, 1998). Rainfall occurs during two distinct periods; the “long rains” (kusi) between March and May and the “short rains” (kaskazi) usually between October and December (Mutai and Ward, 2000; Camberlin and Philippon, 2002).

Mean minimum and maximum temperatures at the Kenyan coast range between 24°C and 30°C. Mean monthly evaporation ranges from 1650 to 2300 mm/year in the north to 1300 to 2200 mm/year in the south (Figure 1.2). Relative humidity is consistently high throughout the year, peaking at 90% Figure 1.2 Precipitation distribution in Kenya (Source: Hijmans et during the wet months between April al., 2005) and July. There is a marked diurnal change in humidity, particularly in Mombasa, where the moisture content of the air increases from around 60–70% in the afternoon to 92–94% during the night and early morning (UNEP, 1998).

1.3 Geology and geomorphology

The coastal environment of Kenya is set in a passive continental margin, whose evolution was initiated by the breakup of mega continent Gondwanaland in the Lower Mesozoic era. The initial opening of the Indian Ocean was preceded by extensive faulting and downwarping, similar to that observed in the Modern Great Rift Valley of East Africa. These tectonic movements formed a North–South trending depositional basin. During the Mesozoic era, this marine basin was exposed to numerous marine incursions and by the Jurassic period, purely marine conditions are thought to have existed. The coastal ranges such as Shimba and Taita hills that runs parallel to the coastal zone appear to have been uplifted through faulting during this period (UNEP, 1998).

Throughout the Tertiary era, the coastal areas experienced further faulting and extensive continental erosion. In many areas the older Cretaceous deposits were totally removed. The present coastal conﬁguration, however, evolved during the Pleistocene to Recent times, a period

2 Towards the Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources marked by numerous ﬂuctuations in sea level.

Based on the WWF Eastern African Marine Ecoregion approach, most of the coastal area of Kenya from river Tana to the northern parts of Tanzania falls under the Coral Coast sub- region. The area is characterized by a fringing reef running parallel to the shoreline. The area north of the river Tana falls under Northern Monsoon Sub-region, with characteristic upwellings (WWF, 2001).

Because of its evolutionary history, Quarrying of building stone from fossil coral formations in the North the principal rocks observed along Coast the coastal area are sedimentary in origin, and range in age from Triassic to Recent (UNEP, 1998). The Duruma sandstone series, the oldest formation, is represented by the Mariakani and the Mazeras sandstones, which were deposited under sub-aqueous, deltaic, lacustrine or possible neritic conditions that prevailed before the opening of the Indian Ocean. The upper Mesozoic is represented by marine limestone and shales, with occasional horizons of sandstones and Early limestone. Recent rocks comprise mostly marls and limestone, and are represented by the sandstones, clays, conglomerates and gravels such as those found in the Marafa beds. This well developed reef complex, consisting of coral reefs, coral rubble and sandstone, is extensively exploited by the building industry (see Section 5.7 for details).

1.4 Drainage and hydrology

Two main rivers drain into the Indian Ocean in Kenya: River Tana and River Sabaki (Figure 1.3.). River Tana is the longest, originating from Mt Kenya, a distance of about 850 km. It has a catchment area of 127,000 km2 and discharges an average of 4,000 million cubic meters of freshwater and 6.8 million tonnes of sediment, annually, with peak ﬂows occurring between April and June and during November/December (Kitheka et al., 2003a-c, 2005). The river enters the ocean at Kipini in Figure 1.3 Permanent and seasonal rivers draining into the Kenyan coast

3 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

Ungwana Bay. About 30 km from its mouth, River Tana branches and its tributaries proceed to form the Tana Delta.

The Athi-Sabaki River has its origin in the central highlands around Nairobi. When joined by River Tsavo in its lower basin it is known as Galana River. The river enters the ocean north of Malindi Town.

The Athi-Galana-Sabaki system extends 390 km and drains a catchment area of 70,000 km2. The sediment load of the Athi-Sabaki has increased tremendously from 50,000 tonnes/year in the 1950s to the current rates, which range from 5 to 13 million tons/year. This increase has been attributed to catchment degradation as well as an increase in the capacity of the river to transport sediments to the coast (Kitheka et al., 2003a-c; 2005). Current data indicate that the annual sediment load of the Athi-Sabaki River is 5 million tonnes/year and its annual freshwater discharge is 6 million m3/year (Kitheka et al. 2003a-c, 2005)

The high sediment loads in these rivers, caused largely by poor land-use practices upstream, threaten the sustainability of coastal habitats (mangroves, seagrass beds and corals) and the aesthetic quality of beaches, which are a major tourist attraction (cf. Kitheka et al., 2002c; 2003d). An integrated river basin management approach, as proposed in the integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) framework, is needed to address these problems.

Other semi-permanent rivers at the coast include Mwachi, Kombeni, Tsalu, Nzovuni, Mwachema, and Voi, which drain into the coastal region from arid and semi-arid catchments. In the South Coast the major rivers are Ramisi and Umba, discharging about 6.3 million m3 and 16 million m3 of fresh water into Funzi and Shirazi Bays respectively (UNEP, 1998). River Umba is a transboundary river emanating from Usambara Mountains in Tanzania. Smaller rivers at the South Coast include Mkurumuji and Kidogoweni, both entering the sea at Gazi Bay.

There are several lakes at the coast, especially in the Tana Delta. Most are oxbow lakes that are recharged either through ground water seepage or by periodic ﬂooding of the Tana River. Examples are Lakes Shakabobo and Bilisa. Apart from providing water for humans and livestock, the lakes are also important for freshwater ﬁsheries.

Thanks to its geological structure which enhances inﬁltration, percolation and subsequent recharge, Kenya’s coastal region has immense potential for groundwater resources. Most of the rock formations have a shallow water table (between 20 and 30 m), with erratic yields of varying salinity. The highest water quality is found in areas covered with Kibiongoni beds and Magarini and Kilindini sands, e.g. the Tiwi area of the South Coast. Areas covered with Jurassic shales and Pleistocene limestone tend to have low volumes of poor quality water (Munga, 2006).

1.5 Oceanography

There are four oceanic currents influencing Kenya’s coastal waters, namely the East African Coastal Current (EACC), the Somali Current (SC), the Southern Equatorial Current (SEC) and the Equatorial Counter Current (ECC) (UNEP, 1998). When it reaches the African coast at Cape Delgado, the SEC diverges into two currents—the Mozambique Current, which flows southwards, and EACC, which flows northward (UNEP, 1998; Obura, 2001).

The Somali Current and Monsoon winds both influence the distance the EACC travels up the East African coast. During the South-East Monsoon, the EACC joins the Somali Current beyond Malindi and flows northwards to the Horn of Africa. However, during the North-East Monsoon, the EACC reaches only as far north as Malindi or Lamu, where it meets the opposing Somali Current, the only current off the coast of Kenya that seasonally reverses its flow. The meeting of the two currents causes upwelling, which is thought to be responsible for the high productivity in the northern Kenyan coast (UNEP, 1998).

4 Towards the Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources

Sea surface temperatures are highest during the Northeast Monsoon (September–February), averaging 28.4°C (maximum 29°C) and lowest during the Southeast Monsoon (March–May), averaging 26°C (minimum 24°C) (UNEP, 1998; Obura, 2001). Seasonal temperature variations decrease with increasing water depth, with temperatures stabilizing at 6–7 °C and 2.5 °C at 1,000 and 2,000 m depth respectively (Duineveld et al., 1997).

Salinity variation of the EACC waters is low, ranging between 34.5 and 35.4 ppt (UNEP, 1998). This variation is primarily due to heavy rainfall between March and May and the associated terrestrial freshwater runoff, as well as input from rivers. In estuaries and tidal creek systems such as Gazi Bay, Mtwapa, Mwache/Port Reitz and Tudor, it has been shown that there are signiﬁcant seasonal salinity variations, particularly in the inshore waters; in the dry season, salinity can rise to 38 ppt while in the rainy season, it can be as low as 19 ppt (Kitheka, 1996).

The Kenya coast experiences mixed semi-diurnal tides, with approximately two tidal cycles every 24 hours. The reference port for tidal observations in Kenya is Kilindini (Port of Mombasa) where the maximum tidal range generally does not exceed 3.8 m.

1.6 Ecosystem connectivity and human wellbeing

Coastal and marine ecosystems, which include tropical rainforests, estuarine and near-shore areas and the open ocean, are among the most productive, yet most highly threatened ecosystems in the world. These ecosystems provide essential ecological services, support production, and provide livelihood and income-generation opportunities for coastal and inland populations.

For instance, mangrove forests trap sediments from inland areas, reducing siltation of seagrasses and coral reefs. In addition, they serve as buffer zones between land and the sea, as they regulate fresh water output by evapotranspirition systems, protecting corals and coastal forests from high variations in salinity. Coral reefs act as a barrier against strong waves, thereby protecting seagrasses and mangroves. And reef erosion creates sediment for the growth of seagrass colonies in lagoons.

Coastal ecosystems are intrinsically interconnected among themselves and even with more distant ones. The ecological integrity of each ecosystem thus directly and indirectly depends on the status of other ecosystems. These linkages ensure ecological exchanges among the different coastal and marine ecosystems through various biotic and abiotic ﬂuxes. A wide variety of ﬁsh and other marine organisms migrate from one ecosystem to another for breeding and feeding.

Anthropogenic pressures have led to the degradation of marine and coastal resources, putting the very livelihoods of coastal communities in jeopardy. For instance, deforestation and poor land- use practices upstream lead to massive sedimentation downstream, impacting on mangrove, coral and other ecosystems (Kitheka et al., 2002c and 2003d, Bosire et al., 2006). Chapters 4, 5 and 6 of this publication elaborate these threats.

Coastal ecosystems need to be managed in an integrated fashion if they are to continue to support life and human welfare. By providing an updated picture of the status and conditions of coastal and marine ecosystems, and their close link to the wellbeing of people in Kenya, it is hoped that this publication will contribute towards the design of more holistic and rational approaches to environmental management in Kenya.

Coastal Ecosystems 2

2.1 Introduction

Kenya’s coastal ecosystems occupy the western extremity of the tropical Indo-Pacific biogeographic region, and have also recently been classified as part of the Coral Coast of the East African Marine Ecoregion (WWF, 2005). The ecosystems include mangrove swamps, coral reefs, seagrass beds, rocky shores, estuaries, beaches, mudflats, sand dunes and terrestrial habitats, and are closely interlinked (Figure 2.1).

The distribution of ecosystems along the coastline is influenced by coastal geology, hydrology, oceanography, and the characteristics of the continental shelf. Sandy soils and a relatively dry climate have produced a mosaic of coastal-forest, and bushland vegetation at the coast. The hills from south of the Shimba Hills to Malindi block the flow of major rivers to the South Coast, enabling the development of a continuous fringing coral reef, rocky cliffs, white sandy beaches and small mangrove creeks and estuaries. The coast north of Malindi is a wide, flat sandy plain carrying Kenya’s two largest rivers to the coast. The sediment plumes from these rivers provide predominantly soft-substrate habitats, open sandy beaches and river deltas. Figure 2.1 Major coastal ecosystems (Source: KMFRI database)

7 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

The interactions between the north-ﬂowing East African Coastal Current (EACC) and seasonally south-ﬂowing Somali Current (SC) create a temperature gradient of warm to cool from south to north. This affects the productivity of pelagic ecosystems, resulting in lower development of coral reefs in the cooler, nutrient-rich waters of the north, and extensive mangrove, seagrass and suspension-feeding communities towards the south.

These richly biodiverse coastal habitats provide critical socio-economic and ecological services, such as protection from storm surges, and food, wood, fuel, and livelihoods for local communities. Economic activities along the coast range from manufacturing (e.g. salt industries), service provision (e.g. tourism), transportation, ﬁshing (both artisanal and commercial), agriculture and a range of cottage industries. All are based on the coastal region’s rich natural resources.

2.2 Coastal terrestrial habitats

2.2.1 Coastal Forests

Kenya’s coastal forests fall within the northern range of the Zanzibar-Iñhambane coastal forest mosaic, an extensive biogeographical unit stretching from the southern tip of Somalia to the southern coast of Mozambique (White, 1983) and deﬁned by certain ecological, vegetational and climatic characteristics. Owing to its exceptional level of plant endemism, the northern area of the mosaic has recently been reclassiﬁed as the Swahilian Regional Centre of Endemism (SRCE) (Burgess et al., 2004).

As a characteristic of the SRCE, the coastal forests of Kenya are found on a system of low ridges between 100 and 300 m in altitude and with complex, mostly infertile soils. They occur where humidity is high throughout the dry season. They may have a canopy height of up to 7 m, which is lower than the minimum of 10 m generally accepted for typical forest (Burgess and Clark 2000; Clark 2000). Composed mostly of semi-evergreen or evergreen undifferentiated dry forest, the vegetation zone covers about 139,000 ha and forms a mosaic of lowland forest patches, woodlands, bushlands and thickets (Githitho, 2004).

There are a few large blocks of closed forest such as the Arabuko Sokoke (41,000 ha) and the Shimba Hills system (19,260 ha) but most are smaller forest remnants, ranging from 10 to 2000 ha. Many of these smaller patches are the ‘Kaya,’ sacred forests of the Mijikenda communities (see Section 4.4).

Associated woodlands tend to be more extensive, especially towards the north in the Boni and Dodori reserves. The dominant forest tree species are Afzelia quanzensis, Julbernardia magnistipulata, Brachystegia spiciformis, Scorodophleus ﬁscheriii, Dialum holtzii, Hymenea verrucosa, Cynometra spp, and Mimusops spp. Kenya’s coastal forests exhibit high levels of diversity and endemism; Arabuko Sokoke forest, for example, is home to 6 rare and endemic bird species.

2.2.2 Sandy beaches and sand dunes

Sandy beaches are found throughout Kenya’s coast, most notably along parts of the coastline dominated by terrigenous sediment and without fringing reefs, near the Tana and Sabaki rivers and northwards towards Lamu, i.e. from Malindi through Ngomeni and Kipini to Tenewi and Lamu. These areas have high dunes generated by wind-blown sand from the beach. The largest dunes occur along the Tana River Delta, reaching 50 m above sea level, with an area of 1300 km2. Their sand is generally of terrestrial origin, deposited by the river. Sand dunes support a rich diversity of wildlife and other natural resources.

Smaller sandy beaches are found along shorelines dominated by coral reefs, ranging from broad ﬂat beaches bordering the reef lagoons, to small sand pockets in indentations in the intertidal cliff face. On these beaches the sand is generally of marine origin, made from broken down calcium

8 Towards the Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources carbonate coral skeletons, algae and shells. The faunal diversity of sandy beaches is generally low, with productivity varying greatly. The accumulation of washed up seagrass and algae on the beach varies with season and direction and degree of exposure of the beach to waves.

Beaches are important habitats for species such as sea turtles, which lay their eggs in upper- beach environments, as well as shorebirds and migratory birds. However, because they are at the fringe of land and sea and offer easy access to the sea, beaches have become areas of intense economic activity, habitat modiﬁcation and user conﬂicts. This has negative impacts on vulnerable species like sea turtles, which spend parts of their life cycle on beaches.

2.3 Mangrove forests and coastal wetlands

Mangrove forests occur along the coast in the intertidal area between the land and the sea. Landward, mangroves are found adjacent to coastal terrestrial forests, while seaward, they co- exist with seagrass beds and coral reefs.

Kenya’s mangrove forests and coastal wetlands are concentrated on the northern coast around the Lamu archipelago and the permanent Tana/Sabaki River estuaries, with smaller wetlands in the mouths of semi perennial and seasonal coastal rivers on the South Coast, at Shimoni-Vanga, Funzi and Gazi Bays, and Port-Reitz, Tudor, Mtwapa, Kiliﬁ and Mida Creeks. The total area of mangroves in Kenya has been estimated to be between 53,000 and 61,000 ha, with 67% occurring in Lamu District, and 10% each in Kiliﬁ and Kwale Districts. It is estimated that 10,310 ha of mangrove forest have been lost either due to conversion pressure, overexploitation or pollution (Abuodha and Kairo, 2001). All the 9 mangrove species found in East Africa occur in Kenya, with Rhizophora mucronata and Ceriops tagal being dominant An aerial view of Port-Reitz Creek mangroves, Mombasa, during high tide and represented in almost all the mangrove formations. Rarer species are Heritiera littoralis and Xylocarpus moluccensis (Macnae, 1968; Kokwaro, 1985; Dahdouh-Guebas et al., 2000; Kairo, 2001).

A strong zonation of species occurs, controlled by the large tidal regime, with a typical pattern from the sea to land being Sonneratia alba, R. mucronata, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, C. tagal, Avicennia marina, X. granatum, Lumnitzera racemosa and H. littoralis (Dahdouh-Guebas et al., 2002).

Mangrove forests are nutrient-rich environments which promote a variety of food chains, functioning as nursery and feeding grounds for ﬁsh and invertebrates. Many of these species spend part of their life cycle in coral reefs, seagrasses and open waters. Mangrove trees are also important for shoreline stabilization and provide resources for both rural and urban coastal populations. Cut trees are used for building, and as fuel for domestic cooking, charcoal-making, lime production and some industrial uses. It is estimated that 70% of the wood requirements of surrounding communities come from mangrove forests (Wass, 1995). Often, one will ﬁnd degraded mangrove areas recolonized by the giant mangrove fern, Acrostichum aureum as well as by Sueda monoica. Depending on the degree of alteration to the physical environment, recovery of degraded mangrove areas can take a long time, or never occur (Kairo et al., 2001).

9 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

Riverine forests, which depend on ﬂooding from the Tana River, are a unique forest type in the coastal zone, providing habitat for rare species of primates, such as Colobus monkeys. Their extent, however, has been reduced by extensive damming and encroachment of the Tana River’s waters for farming, which has reduced ﬂooding. This is threatening both the forests and the species they harbour.

2.4 Seagrass beds

Seagrasses occur in extensive beds that cover the largest proportion of shallow reef slopes, and form an important habitat for many species living in them and adjacent systems. Twelve seagrass species are found in Kenya, with Thallasondendron ciliatum, which forms monospeciﬁc stands, being the dominant one. Its canopy structure provides habitat for small and juvenile ﬁsh and invertebrates. Other common seagrass species found in Kenya are Halophila ovalis, Halophila minor, Halophila stipulacea, Halodule uninervis, Halodule wrightii, Syringodium isoetifolium, Cymodocea rotundata, C. serrulata, Thalassia hemprichii, Zostera capensis and Enhalus acoroides.

Seagrasses show clear zonation patterns with water depth, sediment structure and exposure to air and sunlight during low tide. Species that are tolerant to exposure are found higher up on the intertidal, while those that cannot withstand exposure occur A healthy seagrass bed submerged in pools of water.

Seagrass beds are important foraging grounds for endangered species such as dugongs and marine turtles, as well as important locations for fish species like rabbitfish, surgeonfish and parrotfish. Various species of shellfish and sea cucumbers are also found in seagrass beds.

2.5 Sediment- and soft-bottom habitats

Sandy sub-tidal habitats dominate the shoreline from Malindi to Lamu, supplied with sediment from the Tana and Sabaki Rivers to the south, and extensive creek systems to the north. Kenya’s soft-substrate communities are not well known, but support signiﬁcant shrimp and bottom ﬁsh populations. There is an an active trawling industry exploiting these habitats, particularly from Malindi northwards to Ungwana Bay, at the mouth of the Tana river.

2.6 Rocky shores, hard-bottom habitats and coral reefs

The Kenyan coastline from Ngomeni southwards, and the islands from Lamu northwards is made up of fossil Pleistocene reef rock formation, resulting in large areas of intertidal reef platform below cliffs of 4–6 m height. The cliffs are in the upper intertidal and exposed to the air for most of the tidal cycle, and thus have sparse biological communities, including resistant algae and lichens, and mobile fauna such as limpets, chitons and crustaceans (Ruwa, 1984; 1996). The rocky platforms below the cliffs are inundated by the tides twice a day, resulting in a strong zonation of fauna and ﬂora. Because of their accessibility at low tide, rocky shores and intertidal platforms have been the focus of numerous ecological and taxonomic studies, as well as exploitation and extraction.

10 Towards the Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources

Kenya’s coral reefs are part of the northern end of the East African Fringing Reef System, decreasing in extent, size and diversity northwards towards and into Somalia. Warm water conditions along the South Coast reflect the predominant influence of the South Equatorial Current and East African Coastal Current, with cooler, more nutrient-rich conditions in the north influenced by the Somali Current upwelling system. In addition, inflows from Kenya’s two largest rivers, the Athi/Galana/ Sabaki and Tana Rivers depress the growth of coral reefs between Malindi and Lamu, due to their high sediment loads. On the southern coast A healthy coral reef ecosystem from Malindi southwards, the fringing reef system is broken at creeks and river mouths, where outflowing fresh water suppresses reef growth.

Coral reef communities in Kenya extend from the sea surface to about 20–25 m depth, limited by low water clarity (visibility of 15–25 m) and a change from rocky to sandy substrates on the continental slope. Where present, however, deeper rocky knolls and relict reefs support corals down to 35 m. Kenyan reefs have around 220 species of scleractinian corals, compared to over 250 species farther south in Tanzania and Mozambique.

Dominant coral species include the massive reef-building coral Porites lutea and other Porites spp., regionally dominant species such as Galaxea astreata, and a broad diversity of species in the genera Acropora, Pocillopora, Favia, Favites and others (Hamilton and Brakel, 1984). Primary reef fish families include the herbivorous parrotfish (Scaridae) and surgeonfish (Acanthuridae), as well as predators such as snappers (Lutjanidae), sweetlips (Haemulidae) and groupers (Serranidae). North of Lamu, a mixing of species from the Red Sea/Gulf of Aden is evidenced by the changing patterns of coral abundance, and the presence of some fish species not seen farther south, such as the coral species Porites nodifera, P. columnaris, an undescribed Coscinaraea species and the angelfish Apolemichthys xanthotus (Hamilton and Brakel, 1984).

Coral reefs are among the most productive of all marine ecosystems, providing a habitat for numerous species, including turtles, dugong, whale sharks and others. Their essential ecosystem services, such as protecting the coastline from ocean waves, and high biodiversity and productivity make them the target of many uses, but also numerous threats.

Coral reefs support the coastal artisanal fishery, dominated by local and migrant fishers using hand- or wind-powered boats (such as local dhows and dugout canoes) and fishing gear adapted from traditional gears, including basket traps, spears (both hand and powered), nets and handlines. As a result of extensive exploitation with little regulation, and the use of destructive fishing techniques, the reefs in Kenya have been generally over-fished and are suffering degradation (see Section 5.6).

2.7 Coastal pelagic habitats

Beyond the continental shelf, at depths ranging from 200 m and beyond, is the pelagic zone, where productivity is limited by light and nutrients. Primary and secondary productivity in this zone is heavily inﬂuenced by the monsoons, being lower during the rough SE Monsoon and higher during the calmer NE Monsoon.

Primary and secondary plankton productivity is higher at the continental shelf compared to offshore (Mwaluma, 1995; 1997), as a result of nutrient enrichment of shelf waters by heavy surface runoff during the SE Monsoon from the major rivers Tana and Sabaki, and the southward

11 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

ﬂow of upwelled water from the Somali Current system to parts of northern Kenya. During the NE monsoon lower current speeds and higher salinities provide a comparatively stable environment for enhancing production at the shelf.

Large schools of migratory pelagic stocks abound in the offshore waters of Kenya during the SE monsoon period. These include tuna, skipjack, travelly, sardinella, mackerels, marlins, sailfish and swordfish (Fondo, 2004). Reproduction in pelagic and demersal (bottom-dwelling) fish is highest during the SE Monsoon period (Fondo, 2004). Distinct seasonal changes in finfish catches in Kenya have been observed, with the calm NE monsoon allowing more effective operation of the pelagic fishery, particularly for non-powered vessels. However, only about 18% of the total marine production in Kenya is from the pelagic fishery, while just 6% comes from deep sea game fishing (Fondo, 2004).

Both Kenyan and foreign-owned vessels carry out offshore fishing in Kenyan waters, the latter under license. However, surveillance of the pelagic fishery is a major problem, and it is difficult to get accurate information on catches by foreign-owned licensed vessels. It is also likely that unlicensed fishing vessels poach within Kenya’s territorial waters and exclusive economic zone (EEZ).

12 Coastal and Marine Species of Special Concern, and Flagship Species 3

Kenya’s rich coastal biodiversity encompas- Table 3.1 Numbers of Globally Threatened species ses locally, regionally and globally important in Kenya’s coastal forests (source: CEPF, 2003) species, including Threatened or Vulnerable Number of Species listed by species (Mombasa MPA Management Plan, Taxonomic Group IUCN Red Data Book status Total 2001). The coastal zone habours 38% of the CR EN VU 159 species of trees and shrubs, 27% of the 71 Mammals 1 4 4 9 species of birds, and 55% of the 9 species of Birds 2 6 2 10 mammal classiﬁed as Threatened (Mombasa MPA Management Plan, 2001). At least 105 Amphibians 1 2 3 species listed in the IUCN Red Data Book Gastropods 3 3 are found in Kenya’s coastal forests (Table Plants 5 11 64 80 3.1). Total 8 25 72 105 3.1 Marine mammals CR = Critically Endangered; EN = Endangered; VU = Vulnerable

Approximately 34 of the estimated 76 species of cetaceans (dolphins and whales) and 4 species of serenians (dugongs) worldwide are known to occur in the Western Indian Ocean (WIO) region (Carwardine, 1995; Richmond, 1997). Few systematic studies on these marine mammals have been carried out along the Kenyan coast (KWS, 1996), but whales, dolphins and dugongs have been recorded.

3.1.1 Dolphins

According to the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS, 1996), 3,036 dolphins individuals from 5 species have been positively identiﬁed off the Kenyan coast. These include the Bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus), the Common dolphin (Delphinus delphis), the Indo-Paciﬁc Humpback dolphin (Sousa chinensis), the Spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris), and the Spotted dolphin (Stenella attenuata). Distribution is even along the coast, but the Common, Cottlenose and Spinner dolphins were the main species in the Diani-Shimoni area. Groups of dolphins in deeper waters off the reef edge are a major tourist attraction.

3.1.2 Whales

Eight species of Baleen whales, 2 of Sperm whales and 13 of Toothed whales occur in the WIO region (Richmond 1997). In Kenya three Baleen whale species have been sighted: Bryde’s whale (Balaenoptera Bottlenose dolphin

13 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

edeni) (one beached individual), Humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) and Minke whale (B. acutorostrata).

The Humpback whale is the most common; local ﬁshermen have reported this whale (known as Chongoe in Kiswahili) destroying their gill nets. Kenya is, in fact, thought to be part of the migration route for the Humpback whale, but apart from rapid surveys done by the KWS in 1994, 1996 and 2001, the movements, breeding and feeding habits of whales have not been fully researched. However, it has been established that Humpback whales visit Kenya’s northern coast from their southern wintering grounds with very young calves, where they feed for a period in waters off the Kenyan coast, mainly in Lamu, before returning to their feeding grounds in the South Antarctic. It is also thought that a northern population enters Kenya from the Gulf of Oman, and after breeding, Types of whales returns to the Gulf.

3.1.3 Dugong

Dugongs live in warm, shallow waters and sheltered bays and lagoons less than 5 m deep. They feed primarily on seagrasses. Their distribution is thus dependent on that of seagrass beds, particularly from the family Hydrocharitaceae (Husar, 1978; WWF, 2004). In Kenya large dugong herds were commonly reported before the 1960s and a herd of 500 dugong was seen in 1967 off the South Coast. Presently, the exact number of dugong in Kenya is not known (WWF, 2004). Ten and 6 dugongs were counted in the Lamu Archipelago in northern Kenya in 1994 and 1996, respectively (KWS, 1996). The most important dugong habitats in Kenya are considered to be the Kiunga Marine National Reserve (KMNR); Dodori and Mongoni Creeks and Siyu Channel of the Lamu Archipelago; the Tana River Delta in northern Kenya, and Gazi- Msambweni-Shimoni in the South Coast (Figure 3.1). The spatial separation between sightings in the north and south suggests the presence of two small, discrete populations in Kenya. Dugongs are targeted for their meat and oil, and sometimes caught as by-catch or for illegal trade, which A dugong with calf threatens their population.

14 Towards an Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources

Figure 3.1 Dugong and dolphin sites, turtle breeding sites as well as Important Bird Areas (IBAs) along the Kenya coast (Source: KMFRI database)

3.1.4 Research, monitoring and conservation efforts

Not much research has been conducted in Kenya on marine mammals. The surveys done so far have been sporadic, due to lack of adequate funding and follow up.

The few dugong monitoring and conservation efforts in Kenya include activities by • Eden Wildlife Trust in the South Coast, since 1992 (www.edentrust.org) • WWF/KWS conservation and development efforts in and adjacent to the Kiunga Marine National Reserve, since 1997 to date (www.panda.org) • KWS led aerial surveys, questionnaires and Environ-ment Days, since 1994.

Public awareness efforts on marine mammals, particularly the dugong, have been led by the KWS with support from regional and international conservation agencies.

15 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

3.2 Sea turtles

Sea turtles have a complex lifecycle: eggs are laid and hatched on beaches, post-hatchlings are pelagic, sub-adults reside in developmental habitats, while adults live in adult foraging grounds. At different times in their life cycle, most turtle species will migrate between different foraging grounds, which are often hundreds of kilometres apart, and also migrate from these foraging grounds to offshore nesting beaches during their reproductive season.

Sea turtles are known to live up to 70 years or more, and their pre- reproductive period is between 25– 35 years. Females nest every 2 to 3 years and lay egg once to six times in a nesting season, depending on their maturity. Each nesting site is species- Coastal erosion negatively affects turtle breeding sites speciﬁc, and 60–180 eggs are laid at each nesting, yet only one out of a thousand of these survive to become adults and reproduce. Interestingly, sea turtles return to nest at the site they hatched.

Due to their complex lifecycle, migratory habits and physiology, sea turtles and their habitats have long been under threat from humans (Mortimer 2001). They are threatened by direct harvesting/ﬁshing, trapping as by-catch in various ﬁshing gear and by destruction of their foraging and nesting grounds due to poor shoreline management.

3.2.1 Species composition

Five of the world’s 7 species of sea turtles are found in Kenyan ocean waters. These include the Green (Chelonia mydas), Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), Loggerhead (Caretta caretta), Olive Ridley (Ledpidochelys olivacea), and Leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) turtles. All 5 species are on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals (IUCN, 1996), with the Hawksbill and Leatherback listed as Critically Endangered and the Green, Loggerhead and Olive Ridley as Endangered. All three of the Endangered sea turtles forage and breed on Kenya’s beaches.

3.2.2 Research, monitoring and conservation efforts

Kenya is signatory to the Marine Turtle Strategy and Action Plan for the Western Indian Ocean (WIO), which outlines key issues in marine turtle conservation at national and regional levels, and sets out actions for their conservation, appreciation and sustainable utilization (Humphrey and Salm, 1996). In Kenya, sea turtle conservation efforts are site-speciﬁc, as well as national and regional (Wamukoya, 1997). Of the 600-km Kenyan coastline, approximately 200 km is beach, and potential turtle rookery area.

Sea turtle research, monitoring and conservation efforts in Kenya are led by 6 sea turtle conservation groups. These groups comprise sea turtle conservationists in different capacities, including individuals, hoteliers, local community groups, NGOs and government institutions. They work under the umbrella of the Kenyan Sea Turtle Conservation Committee (KESCOM), a membership organization founded in 1993 to promote community participation in the conservation of sea turtles. It operates under the patronage of Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS), the Fisheries Department, Coast Development Authority (CDA), National Museums of Kenya (NMK) and the Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI).

16 Towards an Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources

Key activities to improve research, Table 3.2 Some endemic bird species monitoring and conservation along the Kenyan coast measures, conducted under the Species Description auspices of the KWS, sea turtle A rare and elusive bird known only from the lower Tana Tana River Cisticola conservation groups and KESCOM, River. Only 6 or 7 specimens have ever been found, (Cisticola restrictus) include: and it has not been detected for around 30 years • Addressing research and Forest or Sokoke A fairly common bird from the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest monitoring needs for sea Batis (Batis mixta south to Shimba Hills. turtle conservation and ultima) management; Known only from the Kilifi-Sabaki area of the Kenyan • Building capacity for sea coast, mostly in the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest. Regularly observed in the Sokoke, but never between January turtle conservation, research Clarke’s Weaver and March. There are no breeding records. Its annual (Ploceus golandi) and management; disappearance for 3 months may indicate that it • Strengthening community breeds away from the Sokoke Forest. It is classified as participation in sea turtle Endangered because of its restricted range.

research, management and Fischer’s Turaco Found in coastal areas of southern Somalia, Kenya conservation; and (Tauraco fischeri) and northern Tanzania. In Kenya present all along the • Integrating sea turtle Other names: Black- coast where suitable forest is present and inland along research and management crested Turaco the Tana River as far as Garsen. with sustainable ﬁsheries Endangered because of its very restricted range, management. Sokoke Scops-Owl this small owl was discovered in 1966. It inhabits the (Otus ireneae) Arabuko-Sokoke Forest near the Kenyan coast and Other names: possibly the lowlands of the Usambara Mountains of As a result of these efforts, between Morden’s Scops-Owl Tanzania. It may also be present in the Mundane range 1995 and 2006 approximately 70,000 north of Sokoke. nests were successfully protected Forbes-Watson’s Only known from Yemen, Somalia and Kenya. A or relocated and 800,000 hatchlings Swift (Apus berliozi) scarce, non-breeding visitor in Kenya, near forests on Other names: successfully released. In addition the southern half of the coast. some 1,736 nesting females and Berlioz’s Swift, releases from gill nets have been Watson’s Swift tagged. A coastal lark of dry, open country, found in Somalia Malindi Pipit and Kenya. In Kenya it is restricted to the northern (Anthus melindae) coast from Malindi North and inland along the Tana 3.3 Shoreline birds River Delta in areas of short grass subject to flooding

There are numerous families of Restricted to the coastal forests of Kenya and Tanzania, in Kenya it is found in the Arabuko-Sokoke Sokoke Pipit birds from a great diversity of forest and possibly in the nearby Shimba hills. It may (Anthus sokokensis) species all along the coastline of already be extinct in Tanzania and is endangered in mainland Eastern Africa, the WIO Kenya because of its very restricted range. Island States and the open ocean. East Coast Akalat A lowland bird of Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique and (Sheppardia These may be grouped into three Malawi. Quite common in the Arabuko-Sokoke forest gunningi) and also found at Rabai, Shimoni, the Shimba Hills and descriptive categories: shoreline Other names: the lower Tana River in Kenya. Classed as Vulnerable predators (such as the grey herons, Gunning’s Robin, because of its small range and threats to its forest Gunnings Akalat, black headed heron, great white- habitat. egret, yellow-billed egret, little Eastern Akalat egret, sacred ibis and hadada The Amani Sunbird is unique to coastal woodland in Kenya and Tanzania. Its main location is in Kenya’s ibis), true seabirds (such as gulls, Amani Sunbird Arabuko-Sokoke forest and even there it is scarce. Its (Anthreptes terns, bobbies and gannets) and only other location in Kenya is the Marafa forest near pallidigaster) wading birds (such as plovers and Malindi. Classified as Endangered due to its restricted sandpipers). Among these are birds range. that are endemic to Kenya’s coastal Source: UNEP WCMC fact sheet area, many of them endangered (Table 3.2).

Of the 1,100 bird species recorded in Kenya, 41% are found along the coastal strip. Nearly all these species breed in the north temperate, boreal or arctic zones and migrate southwards in great numbers during the European winter from October to March (Dowsett, 1980; Evans and Davidson, 1990).

17 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

Table 3.3 Coastal and marine Threatened and/or Flagship Shorebirds are coastal resident or species in Kenya migratory waterbirds and waders. Conservation Genus-species/ Many species occur along key Name status Where found Family in Kenya stopover areas of Africa, depending on these specific coastal areas Juveniles born in for their survival. They frequent shallow, mangrove Sharks Carcharhinidae None areas; adults in mudflats, tidal creeks often lined offshore reefs and with mangroves, narrow recesses deep oceanic waters in the coastline, estuaries, saltpans Rhinocodon Entire coastline Whale shark None and rocky cliffs. Common groups typus beyond the reef slope include terns, herons, egrets, storks, Humphead Cheilinus None Off-shore reef areas ibises, spoonbills, flamingos, plovers wrasse undulatus and larger waders. They tend to Deep waters – below Ceolocanth congregate in estuaries, creeks, 1000 m saltpans, mangroves and beaches, Hippocampus Inner shore seagrass Seahorses None kuda areas particularly along the mainland coast (IUCN, 2005). Some species use Coconut crabs Birgus latro None Mpunguti Island these areas as breeding and feeding Inner shore and off Spiny lobsters Palinuridae None grounds; for others they are winter- shore reefs ing bases and essential stopovers on Inner shore and off Groupers Serranidae None shore reefs journeys from the northern Tundra to the southern Cape. However, their Reef flats and sandy Triton Shell Charonia tritonis None areas migratory patterns are not yet fully understood.

The major threat to both resident and migrant bird species of Kenya is the degradation and loss of habitats on which the birds depend, due to habitat conversion, changing land-use practices and pollution.

3.3.1 Research, monitoring and conservation efforts

Because of their high position in certain food chains, ease of identiﬁcation, stable taxonomy, longevity, ecological versatility, and relatively well-known ecology and behaviour, birds serve as useful biological indicators for monitoring environmental stresses globally.

In this regard, several environmental research projects on shoreline birds have been undertaken along the Kenyan coast, led by ornithological experts from the National Museums of Kenya and Birdlife International. In addition, annual monitoring is undertaken throughout Kenya during the month of November, when the birds are migrating south.

3.4 Other coastal and marine threatened and/or ﬂagship species

Kenya’s coastal forests are part of the Eastern Africa Coastal Forests covering a stretch between southern Somalia and Mozambique that is listed as a Global Biodiversity Hotspot. This is one of the smallest of the 25 Global Biodiversity Hotspots recognized by Conservation International, and ranks top among the areas with high density of endemic plant and vertebrate species (Myerset al., 2000; Conservation International, 2005). It is also considered to be the hotspot most likely to suffer the greatest plant and vertebrate extinction for a given loss of habitat, and one of 11 ‘hyperhot’ priorities for conservation investment (Brooks et al., 2002). Within this hotspot, Kenya’s forests host at least 105 Globally Threatened species (Table 3.3), of which 64 are found in the Kwale forests (CEPF, 2003). Shimba Forest is overwhelmingly the most important, with 56 Threatened species. Ten of 18 target forests are Important Bird Areas.

18 Towards an Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources

3.4.1 Angolan Black-and-White colobus

The Angolan Black-and-White colobus (Colobus angolensis) is one of four species of Black-and-White colobus monkeys found in sub-Saharan Africa (Groves, 2001; Grubb et al., 2003). These primates have a discontinuous distribution through the southern highland (Eastern Arc Mountains), coastal and gallery forests of southern and eastern Tanzania into south-eastern Kenya (Kingdon, 1997; Groves, 2001; Grubb et al., 2003).

A survey done in 2001 at the Shimba Hills National Reserve counted 73 Colobus apalliatus groups. The total population size in the reserve was estimated at 2,436 individuals (Anderson, 2001).

3.4.2 Tana mangabeys Angolan Black-and-White colobus Forests along 60 kilometers of the lower Tana River of the Kenyan coast provide habitats for one of the world’s top 25 most highly endangered primates—the Tana mangabey (Cercocebus galeritus). There is no current accurate estimate of the Mangabey population, but a 1994 census estimated a population of 1,000–1,200. Mangabeys exhibit ecological ﬂexibility, but behavioral data come from only a few groups. Their forest habitat has been severely degraded since the 1990s, with estimates indicating that 30% of it has been cleared. The mean number of mangabey groups per forest is positively correlated with forest area and density of trees, and this loss of forest habitat is directly damaging to mangabey populations. Mangabey–human conﬂict has increased over time, with mangabeys raiding crops, being trapped or chased by dogs.

Tana mangabey

Coastal Communities 4

4.1 Population

4.1.1 Population size and distribution

Human population in Kenya’s coastal region is relatively large compared to other regions inthe country, with much of the population concentrated around urban centres. According to the 1999 population and housing census (GOK, 1999), the population of coast province was 2,491,000, equivalent to about 8% of the national population. This represented an increase of 54% from the 1989 census, when coastal population stood at 1,621,918. Of the total residents in the region, some 25% live in the city of Mombasa, another 7% live in other urban centres while the remaining 68% live in rural areas.

Population distribution at the coast is largely inﬂuenced by rainfall, altitude, agro-ecological area and administrative policy (Hoorweg et al., 2000). Most of the coastal urban centres are located in the vicinity of estuaries, mangrove swamps and coral lagoons. As such, the rapid growth in population places signiﬁcant pressure on coastal ecologies and their resources.

4.1.2 Population growth rate

The Coast Province’s annual population growth rate in 1999 was 3.5%, compared to 3.1% during the 1989 population and housing census (GOK, 1999). According to the 1989 census, Tana River District had the highest population growth rate (4%), followed by Mombasa District (3.9%), while Taita-Taveta district had the lowest (2%).

In 2002 the population of the Coast province was estimated to be around 2.7 million (Table 4.1). By international standards, a population growth rate of over 3% is considered high. The

Table 4.1 Population data for the seven districts in Coast Province in 2002 Demographic Taita Mombasa Malindi Lamu Kwale Kilifi Tana River Total profiles Taveta

Population Size 741,086 305,143 72,686 536,114 597,354 259,889 200,326 2,712,598 Total # of Males 405,374 154,304 37,553 260,029 283,702 129,937 100,343 1,371,242

Total # of Females 335,712 150,839 35,133 276,085 313,652 129,952 99,983 1,341,356

Female/Male Ratio 82.82 97.75 93.56 106.17 110.56 100.01 99.64 97.82 Youthful Population 186,386 71,489 15,512 119,017 118,304 54,998 45,498 611,204 (15–25) Population Growth 3.60% 3.90% 3.05% 1.70% 3.40% Rate - - - Population density 2,896 36 332 65 125 40 5.5 3,499.50 (persons per sq km)

Urban Population 585,543 136,826 17,130 78,035 189,227 96,658 17,086 1,120,505 Source: GOK, 2002: Coast Province Profile (Unpublished data); -, missing value

21 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

high population growth rate in Mombasa district (Figure 4.1) is attributed in part to migration of people from other parts of the country in search of employment or business opportunities (GOK, 1999).

4.1.3 Ethnic and cultural diversity

The coastal population in Kenya Figure 4.1 Population growth for six districts in coast province between is culturally heterogeneous, 1979 and 1999 (Data source: GOK, 2005) with the largest indigenous ethnic group being the Mijikenda, composed of nine sub-tribes, namely Giriama, Digo, Rabai, Duruma, Kauma, Chonyi, Kambe, Ribe and Jibana. Other indigenous coastal ethnic groups are the Taita, Pokomo, Bajuni, Orma, Sagala and Swahili. Due to its accessibility and socio-economic dynamics, which offer great opportunities for livelihoods and leisure, the Kenyan coast has over the centuries, in addition, attracted many different ethnic and racial groups (UNEP, 1998).

4.1.4 Migration trends

Over the last century, the Coast province has received a signiﬁcant number of migrants from other parts of the country, which accounts in part for the observed long-term population trends. Labour migration of people into the province can be traced as far back as 1909, when people from Central and Nyanza provinces moved in large numbers to Mombasa and coastal plantations. The number of migrants into the coastal region increased from about 222,000 between 1969 and 1979 to 275,000 during the following decade. The main recipient districts for migrants have been Mombasa and Kiliﬁ (GOK, 1999).

Most of those who have migrated into the coast province in the last 20 years have been from Eastern, Nyanza, Western and Central Provinces. Eastern Province was a leading origin with 86,739 migrants, followed by Nyanza Province with 62,404 migrants to the coast in 1989. In 1989 alone, Mombasa and Kiliﬁ received 266,131 and 42,164 migrants respectively. Out of a total of 421,935 migrants into the Coast province in 1989, 16,441 came from outside Kenya. About 1,252 of the migrants were not registered. Mombasa district has also received the highest number of foreign immigrants (GOK, 1999) in the province.

Present-day migration to the Figure 4.2 Predicted population density (2015) (Source: KMFRI database) coastal region is mainly spurred by

22 Towards the Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources employment opportunities, the growth of the tourism industry and access to social facilities, among other factors. Figure 4.2. shows the predicted population density along the Kenyan coastline by the year 2015.

4.1.5 Population impacts

Most of the coastal urban centres in Kenya are situated in the vicinity of estuaries, mangrove swamps and coral lagoons. The rapid human population growth rates recorded, combined with existing poor resource management has led to rapid degradation of the coastal environment. Impacts include over-exploitation of nearshore ﬁsheries, degradation of mangrove areas, shorelines change and cultural erosion. The high population growth also places direct, signiﬁcant pressure on services like housing, healthcare and education.

4.2 Access to social services

The Kenya Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper of 2001–2004 identiﬁes poor delivery of social services as one of the key causes of poverty in Kenya. A survey conducted in 2005 by the Ministry of Planning and National Development on poverty prevalence in various parts of the country (GOK, 2005) showed that 56% of the country’s population lived on less than a dollar a day. The level of per capita income, health, access to education, safe water and basic infrastructure was found to be very low, especially in rural areas. Up to 57.1% of coastal residents were classiﬁed as “very poor” (living on less than a dollar a day). The interaction between the poor and the environment has resulted in undesirable consequences that have accelerated not only poverty levels but also the rate of environmental degradation throughout the country.

4.2.1 Education

The Coast Province remains one of the lowest-literacy regions in the country. According to government statistics, both Kwale and Kiliﬁ districts had the highest primary school enrolment rate between 2002 and 2004 (Figure 4.3). In the same period, Lamu and Taita Taveta districts’ enrolment rates continued to lag behind the other districts, although there was a slight improvement in the latter. The low enrolment rate is attributed mainly to poor facilities and infrastructure, lack of trained teachers, and early marriage of girls, particularly in Figure 4.3 Primary school enrolment in the coastal districts, 2002–2004 the rural areas. (Source: GOK, 2005)

Overall, literacy levels are low in the Coast province, but are higher in urban than in rural areas. A signiﬁcant disparity in literacy is found between men and women, with that of women being much lower. Kiliﬁ, Tana River and Kwale Districts have the highest disparities between men and women (Hoorweg et al., 2000).

4.2.2 Health care

Poor health and disease at the Kenya coast are inﬂuenced by a number of factors associated with poverty, infrastructure and the environment. Low levels of adult literacy, and adherence to traditional health care compound the situation (UNEP, 1998).

23 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

Table 4.2 shows the status of the health infrastructure at the Coast province. High medical costs hamper the use of modern health services in most of the province. In Kwale district, for instance, high costs hamper the use of modern health facilities for 10–30% of the population (GOK, 1994). As a result, more than 40% of coastal dwellers visit traditional healers as a ﬁrst option. Utilization of traditional medical practitioners has been found to be higher in families where the mother has no formal education. The impact of traditional herbal medicine on the environment has not been studied; this should be established, with a view to promoting sustainable resource-use strategies.

Table 4.2 Indicators of health services for the seven districts in coast province Taita Tana Health indicator Mombasa Malindi Lamu Kwale Kilifi Taveta River Doctor:patient ratio (GOK) 1:3,000 1:19,502 1:36,343 1:82,690 1:100,000 1:41,000 1:95,500

No. of health facilities 211 83 5 57 73 44 57 No. of hospitals 9 3 1 - 2 3 2 No. of nursing homes and h/centres 19 2 - 5 5 7 5 No. of dispensaries 183 24 - - 21 22 36 Average distance to Health centre 0.5 km 1.5 km 5 km 30 km 5 km 10 km 50 km

Source: GOK, 2002; - missing value

4.2.3 Water resources and sanitation

The main sources of fresh water in rural areas at the coast are ground water, surface water and roof catchments. Mombasa island and district has the highest number of households with access to piped water supply, while Lamu has the lowest. Table 4.3 gives a summary of access to water and sanitation in the 7 districts of the coast province.

Water demand in the coastal region has been growing rapidly over the years. The demand estimated for 1995, for instance, was about 200,000 m3 /day and was projected to rise to 280,000 m3 /day by 2010 and 380,000 m3/day by 2020 (World Bank, 1996). The water supply system has been overtaken by demand, which has increased rapidly in concert with the growth of the tourism industry and irrigation schemes. The main uses of water are domestic (which accounts for 35% of the total water demand), livestock, irrigation and industry. To address water shortage, complementary water sources such as communal boreholes, roof catchments, dams and wells are common. There is need, however, for the quantity of groundwater to be assessed, and this information to be used for its management.

Increasing pollution from domestic sewage and solid waste is the most severe pollution challenge in coastal Kenya, particularly at hotspots located in and around the main urban centers such as Mombasa. Over 65% of the Coast Province has no sewerage system and is served by septic tanks, soak pits and pit latrines. In Mombasa district, for instance, wastewater management is not adequate and only 10% of the population is connected to the sewage system. Individual houses have pit latrines while most institutions dispose their wastewater in soak pits, which contributes to groundwater pollution. Areas served by sewerage systems, however, also contribute to environmental degradation because treatment works are not operational and the sewage is disposed directly into the sea, threatening public health and marine life.

The situation is compounded by the fact that Kenya does not yet have any efﬂuent standards for discharge into the sea, and most water projects have been implemented without due consideration of sanitation and other complementary infrastructure. The main causes of the poor urban water systems in coastal regions include poor planning, mismanagement and lack of technical expertise (World Bank, 1996).

24 Towards the Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources

Table 4.3 Water and sanitation indicators for the seven districts in coast province in 2002 Taita Tana Water and Sanitation Mombasa Malindi Lamu Kwale Kilifi Taveta River Total no. of h/holds 183,540 52,164 15,006 92,594 90,311 57,635 36,177 No. of h/holds with access to 163,913 26,822 1,500 23,026 7000 24,000 1,717 piped water No. of h/holds with access to 19,627 25,303 1,050 62,286 65,000 26000 9,717 potable piped water No. of Wells 152 595 380 524 700 131 103

No. of protected springs 1 49 0 67 39 85 0 No of boreholes 61 33 19 - 160 115 27 No. of dams 0 35 19 6 70 13 8 No. of h/holds with roof 409 78 500 641 165 13,400 203 catchments Average distance to nearest 1 3 1 1 7 1 1.22 potable water point (in Km) Source: Republic of Kenya, 2001, GOK, 2002; -, missing value

4.2.4 Infrastructure and communication

Despite the government having undertaken a number of policy measures to develop infrastructure and services for human settlement since the 1970s, very little progress has been made in their implementation. Among the policy measures developed to address infrastructure and service provision include the Growth Centre Policy; Rural Trade and Production Centre Strategy; District Focus for Rural Development; and Slum Upgrading.

Even in areas where infrastructure has been built applying the above policies, the expected result has not occurred. For instance, the Growth Centre Policy has failed to redirect human settlement away from Nairobi and Mombasa cities. A result of the ineffective implementation of these policies has been the continued poor state of infrastructure in many areas, including coastal rural areas (NEMA, 2004).

Most rural areas at the coast are served by a dilapidated and narrow road network, in contrast with urban centres such as Mombasa, Kilifi and Kwale, which are well served by both classified and non-classified roads. The road networks are generally concentrated around important industrial and commercial centres. Kwale District has the longest road network of 1129.6 km, followed by Mombasa, which has 109.6 km. The bulk of the road network in Kilifi is mainly unclassified and seasonal. The same situation is found in Lamu, Tana River and Taita Taveta districts. Inadequate repair and maintenance, and uncoordinated and unplanned development on road reserves have worsened the road networks in the region.

The Coast Province is also served by a railway line from Mombasa to Nairobi, branching at Voi to serve Taita Taveta township. The railway is used to ferry passengers and cargo from the port of Mombasa.

Mombasa has the main Airport in the coast region, Moi International Airport, serving both international and domestic air trafﬁc. Other smaller airports are in Malindi, Lamu and Ukunda, while some smaller towns in the province have airstrips.

4.2.5 Housing

Most communities in the Coast Province build houses using mangrove poles, coral rubble, palm thatch and clay. Due to high poverty levels and poor development of infrastructure, most rural

25 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

houses are not connected to modern amenities such as piped water, electricity and a sewer system (GOK, 2002). In most urban centres, the demand for housing has outstripped supply, leading to the spread of slum and squatter settlements without clean water supply or sewerage. While rapid urbanisation and poverty are the main causes of this scenario, the situation is aggravated by inappropriate and ineffective regulatory frameworks, limited access to affordable ﬁnance, high construction costs and inaccessibility to affordable, serviced land.

As the demand for low-cost housing increases in the coast region, especially in the urban centres, new ways of providing housing need to be sought. Better methods need to be devised to maximise the scarce amount of land available for housing, while improvements to informal settlements and slums need to include provision of clean running water, solid waste management systems and sewer services, as a means to avoid ground water pollution.

4.3 Historical and cultural heritage

The coast province has numerous historical and archaeological sites, including old mosques, tombs, mounds and walls of ancient city houses, many them linked with the development of the Swahili culture in East Africa.

A number of these centres, such as Mombasa Old Town Conservation (MOTCO) and Lamu Old Town Conservation (LOTCO) areas, have Siyu Fort in Siyu Old Town, built in the 1860s by the Sultan of Zanzibar been designated Conservation Areas in Pate Island. and are managed by the National Museums of Kenya. Several of the historical and archaeological sites, e.g. the Siyu Fort, have been declared National Monuments under the National Museums and Heritage Act (2006) of the Laws of Kenya.

These cultural and historical sites serve as important tourist attractions. However, only a few of them, such as the Fort Jesus in Mombasa, have been well marketed.

Today, some of the early trading settlements, including Mombasa, Giriama grave markers and ancestral ﬁgures, ‘Vigango’ that are typical Lamu, Kiliﬁ and Malindi, have features of Kaya burial sites. become important modern business centres.

4.4 Kaya forests

Among the natural resources found along the entire coastal province are unique indigenous forests known as Kaya (Fig. 4.4). The Kaya forests are highly biodiverse, and have high cultural signiﬁcance to the Mijikenda people, who consider them sacred, and have use them for

26 Towards the Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources

Figure 4.4 Spatial distribution of the Mijikenda Kaya forests (Source: KMFRI database) traditional religious and spiritual ceremonies for centuries (Blackett, 1994). This cultural and spiritual value of the forests has contributed to their conservation over millennia. Furthermore, the Kaya have recently spurred the growth of forest tourism in the coastal region.

Surprisingly however, until recently, the nine Mijikenda sub-tribes and the Kaya forests received little attention from anthropologists and naturalists. While their fascinating history has recently been well documented, many aspects of Mijikenda culture are still unknown, and only a few major botanical studies been conducted on the Kaya forests (Lehmann and Kioko, 2005).

Traditional knowledge has been crucial for the conservation of Kaya forests, with their treasure trove of plant, animal and fisheries resources. But with the conversion of many of the coastal people to Christianity and Islam, the cultural and spiritual significance of the forests is being eroded, threatening their very survival. If the continued existence of Kaya forests is to be achieved, it is important to integrate traditional knowledge into resource management, planning and scientific research.

27 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

4.5 Gender equity

Gender equity at the Kenyan coast hinges heavily on the religious, cultural and economic dynamics of the different communities that inhabit the region. Deep-rooted religious, traditional and cultural values militate against gender equity with regard to opportunities for equitable sharing of household and societal responsibilities, inheritance, employment, etc. For instance, 48.6% and 42% of men work in the formal and informal sectors respectively; the corresponding ﬁgures for women are 34.8 and 55.1% respectively (Hoorweg et al., 2000), indicating that men have greater access to livelihood activities than women.

Because of the gender disparities that exist at the coast, women have not been fully integrated in the environmental management process. For example, women are generally under- represented in the community-based organisations (CBO) that have been established to deal with environmental issues. This is signiﬁcant, as the two main occupations of women at the coast—farming and cooking—rely completely on natural resources. Cooking requires fuelwood or charcoal, which are already scarce, yet women lack the awareness and decision-making power to make changes in their energy use. Traditional farming techniques, which can be degrading to the environment, continue to be used even as farmland becomes increasingly scarce and depleted. Women’s involvement in environmental CBOs and NGOs, as well as their involvement in decision-making in these and at the household level, is critical for improved natural resource management at the coast.

4.6 Land tenure and use

4.6.1 Land tenure

By the end of the 18th century there were three main population groups at the Kenya coast, namely the Arabs, Swahili and Mijikenda. The ﬁrst two were mainly concentrated in the towns and the lands adjacent to the coastal strip. The Mijikenda majority were living more inland or working as labourers on the Arab–Swahili plantations. This meant the Mijikenda were disadvantaged in land ownership (Kanyinga, 2000). Table 4.4 Post-independence settlement schemes in Kwale, Kiliﬁ and Malindi districts At independence in 1963, the protectorate Settlement Starting No. Plot size Size (ha) scheme date plots (ha) status of the coastal strip was separately negotiated and the government agreed to Kijipwa 1982 350 350 1.0 uphold all titles. There was no action by the Magarini 1978 60,000 4,000 6.0/12.0 government to resettle the locals who had Mtondia 1962 3,000 235 4.8 settled on these lands but were regarded as Mtwapa 1969 3,986 607 4.8 squatters, even though some had lived there

Ngerenyi 1968 5,236 950 4.8 for more than a generation (Kanyinga, 2000).

Tezo/Roka 1962 6,500 1,357 4.8 In the years following independence, however, Vipingo 1974 1,052 260 4.0 the policy objective of the government has Diani 1978 728 446 2.0 been to resettle the landless through settlement

Golini 1985 290 102 2.0 schemes, to cope with the problem of squatters and bring unused tracts of land into use. The Mbuguni 1978 2,400 787 2.4 necessary steps towards land distribution Sabharwal 1968 120 20 4.8 such as registration and adjudication are still Tembo 1968 202 26 4.8 in progress. By 1985, 13 settlement schemes Springs had been created in Kwale and Kiliﬁ districts Ukunda 1968 607 123 4.8 (Table 4.4), and similar efforts had started in Source: Various reports from the Department of Settlement Lamu district. Despite these efforts, however,

28 Towards the Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources today most of the land along the coastal strip is owned by absentee landlords, and many of the indigenous people continue to live as squatters (Kanyinga, 2000).

The land tenure system in the coastal region has had a bearing on the conservation of the environment and its resources. Without land tenure, many households show little concern for the application of appropriate farming technologies or long-term sustainability. They often apply slash-and-burn farming, since it is cheaper and easier. This type of farming makes even the remaining pieces of coastal forests vulnerable.

4.6.2 Land use

Land use in the coastal region falls into four main categories: livestock ranches in the hinterland, agricultural settlement schemes, private land along the coastline, and un-delineated government land. Livestock ranches cover 50% of the total available rural land, while agriculture occupies 25%. Tana River district has the most agricultural land (8,550 km2) followed by Kwale district with 7,313 km2. Mombasa has just 140 km2 of agricultural land, the lowest in the province (Kanyinga, 2000).

Conservation areas as a form of land use constitute a large portion of government land in the hinterlands of the coast province. These areas include National Parks and Reserves (e.g. Shimba Hills National Reserve and Tana River Primate Reserve), which support a high diversity of ﬂora and fauna. They form important parts of the coastal ecosystems and major tourist destinations. The threats and challenges facing these areas are discussed in Chapters 2 and 6 of this publication.

4.7 Economic status and resource use

4.7.1 Wealth and poverty levels

A government survey carried out in 2002 found that poverty levels range from 30% in Bura in Tana River District to 84% in Ganze in Kilifi district (GOK, 2002). This high level of poverty does not augur well for the coastal environment, since the poor are more likely to resort to unsustainable resource-use practices. For instance, the increase in the number of artisanal fishermen in the near-shore fishery has led to overexploitation, as evidenced by decreases in daily catch size (McClanahan & Mangi, 2001). Because many artisanal fishermen in the coastal region are not able to afford fishing gears with which to fish offshore, some have resorted to more destructive fishing techniques that produce a higher short-term yield but have disastrous effects on long-term productivity and biodiversity (Fisheries Department, 2005).

It is noteworthy that, as a general trend, poverty leads to over-use and destruction of natural resources, where short-term livelihood goals are pursued at the expense of long- term environmental sustainability. There is need to ensure that environmental concerns are integrated into development planning and that development plans lead to empowerment of local communities to engage in sustainable livelihood activities.

4.7.2 Access to natural resources and use

Access to marine living and non-living resources has historically been open to the local coastal communities. However, due to the prevailing land tenure system, private shorefront developers and hotels have in many areas displaced or blocked local people’s access to the sea (Kanyinga, 2000). This has created conflicts between developers and local fishermen. There is, therefore an urgent need to map out all beach access points, and to put in place measures to secure unhampered access to the sea and fish landing beaches for fishermen and the public.

29 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

The development of unplanned urban settlements in marginal lands, and poor enforcement of the Land Planning Act at major tourist development centres along the shoreline, have caused loss of vegetation cover in many areas. Numerous sea walls have been erected at major tourist development centres to control shoreline erosion. This impact is most severe at Malindi Bay, Mombasa inshore water areas and Diani (UNEP/GPA and WIOMSA, 2004). These challenges to coastal zone management need to be addressed through forward-planning and strict enforcement of the relevant legislation.

As the demand for coastal resources continues to increase, there is need to adopt an integrated management plan for the coastal region. Communities living adjacent to natural resources have an important role to play in the management of these resources, and they should therefore be involved fully in decision-making.

4.7.3 Socio-economic dynamics

In the coastal region, the main livelihood activities are ﬁshing, mangrove harvesting, and tourism along the coast, while in the hinterland subsistence farming and livestock rearing (pastoralism) are the major occupations.

The economy in the urban centres derives mainly from maritime and harbour activities, tourism and commerce. Tourism, in particular, depends heavily on the rich biological diversity and health of the environment. Increasing human pressure and associated unsustainable practices threaten natural resources. Degradation of coral reefs and mangrove forests, for instance, has reduced nearshore ﬁsheries productivity and accelerated coastal erosion (see Chapter 6). This in turn impoverishes the livelihoods of local people in the affected areas (GOK, 2002).

Industrial development, which was for many years conﬁned to Mombasa district and its environs, is now expanding towards the rural coastline and hinterland in other coastal districts (GOK, 2002). It is hoped that this trend, together with the development of eco-tourism, improvement of coastal and upcountry agricultural practices, intensiﬁed mining activities, and enhanced access to social services in rural areas will work in concert to curb the high rate of migration from rural to urban areas. Slower migration would serve to ease the pressure on service delivery in the few developed urban centres, and make coastal environmental management more facile.

30 Economic Activities at the Kenya Coast 5

5.1 Introduction

Kenyan’s economy is heavily dependent on natural resources, and in the coastal region this is especially true. Natural resources drive agriculture, shipping, tourism, ﬁshing and mining, among other industries that form the backbone of the Coast Province’s economy.

The principal economic activities at the coast are: tourism (45%), ports and shipping (15%), agricultural industry (8%), ﬁsheries (6%), agriculture (5%), forestry (4%), and mining (2%) (UNEP/FAO/PAP/CDA, 2000; McClanahan et al., 2005a). The formal economy of the coast province is thus anchored on the service and industrial sectors (CDA, 2004, Figure 5.1). The informal sector, with vehicle repair shops, second-hand clothing stalls, fruit and vegetable vending, shoe- shine and repair, hair and beauty palours, etc., also provides livelihood to a signiﬁcant Figure 5.1 Principal economic activities and their contribution proportion of the coastal population. to livelihoods and income for coastal populations 5.2 Coastal tourism

Tourism has been growing steadily in Kenya since independence from British rule in 1963, and over time has become one of the country’s leading sectors, employing thousands of people. Foreign exchange earnings from tourism have increased rapidly since 1989, earning KSh 28.1 billion in 1994. However, from 1995 the sector declined, recording earnings of KSh 17.5 billion in 1998. The major slump that occurred in 1998 was attributed to several factors, including civil clashes in Likoni, Mombasa in 1997, which elicited adverse coverage by the international media; damage to infrastructure caused by the El Niño rains of 1997/1998; the terrorist bombing of the American Embassy in Nairobi in 1998, and competition from countries with a similar product, especially countries in southern Africa, the Caribbean and South East Asia (Republic of Kenya, 1999).

The main tourist attractions at the coast are its warm climate; friendly people; magniﬁcent sandy beaches; marine and parks and reserves; terrestrial game parks and reserves and an intriguing cultural and historical setting which blends unique old Arab towns and ruins of 16th-century Portuguese settlements with a rich traditional culture and modern developments (Republic of Kenya, 1999; Sindiga, 2000; UNEP/GPA and WIOMSA, 2004; Government of Kenya, 2005).

31 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

Before 1998, tourism was a leading foreign exchange earner in Kenya. It contributed 9.2% to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), supported 560,000 people in both the formal and informal sectors and accounted for 18% of all of Kenya’s export and foreign currency earnings (UNEP/ GPA and WIOMSA, 2004). Income from tourism-related economic and business activities is an important and reliable source of revenue to the central government and local authorities.

Between 1998 and 2004, coastal tourism contributed between 52% and 68% of the total tourism earnings in Kenya (Government of Kenya, 2005).

The government is in the process of developing a policy for the tourism sector. In addition, several strategies that have been implemented to boost tourism in the recent past, including: • Formation of Kenya Tourism Board (KTB) to champion the development of the tourism industry. • Opening of tourism ofﬁces in foreign countries to market the country as a tourist destination. • Successfully sourcing for funds from the European Union to effectively market the industry. • Establishment of a Tourist Police Unit, to improve security for tourists. • Strengthening the capacity of resource managers in the management of coastal wildlife and marine resources. • Rehabilitation of roads leading to and within parks. • Continuing to improve and diversify the products on offer to tourists.

These strategies have resulted in increased tourist arrival and earnings both nationally and in the Coast Province in particular. The province currently has about 306-registered star-rated facilities with 34,903 beds. Hotel bed-nights increased rapidly between 1998 and 2004; for instance, 2004 recorded a 43.8% increase in bed nights from 2003 (Table 5.1). Local tourism has also increased greatly in recent years.

Table 5.1 Hotel bed-nights by zone, 1998–2004 (‘000) Zone 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Coastal-Beach 1,505.3 1,625.2 2,065.2 1,438.2 2,171.8 1,269.6 1,883.5 Other 109.1 73.9 85.8 136.1 108.2 36.5 29.4

Coastal Hinterland 43.9 48.7 76.3 56.6 44.9 60.9 52.9

Total Occupied in Kenya 2,813.0 2,951.0 3,687.8 2,764.10 3,479.4 2,605.9 3,791.5

Coast Province Contribution (%) 58.9% 59.2% 60.4% 59% 67.6% 52.4.0% 52% Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, 2005

5.2.1 Tourism-related activities

The tourism industry at the coast has spurred other economic activities through forward and backward linkages. Safari tour companies, curio vendors, boat operators, entertainment spots, salons and boutiques, sport ﬁshing, snorkelling and diving all depend primarily on the tourism industry (Table 5.2).

Tourism-related activities offer employment opportunities for coastal dwellers and generate revenue for the local authority and central government. The tourism sector is an important buyer of produce and products from the agricultural and livestock sectors. It also supports income-generating community initiatives such as the René Haller Park in Mombasa, and the Mwaluganje Elephant Sanctuary in Kwale.

5.2.2 Socio-economic impacts of tourism

32 Towards the Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources

Table 5.2 Tourism-related activities The development of coastal Type of business Activity tourism has resulted in clusters of Collect tourist from the airport to the hotels, beach hotels within one kilometre Safari Tour Companies national parks, and tourist attraction sites, among of the shoreline which are served other places and back to the Airport. with access roads, electricity, water Guide the tourists during their tours in coastal and other basic infrastructure. towns such as Mombasa, Malindi and Lamu, However, local people’s settle- Tour guides as well as during tours to the National Parks. ments have generally remained This is usually done by freelance tour guides or employees of the tour companies. without these services. In addition, Sell carvings, shells and other ornaments mainly the indigenous coastal people Curio vendors along the beach and at tourist shopping centres. (especially the Waswahili) are not significantly involved in Own boats, which are hired by tourists for Boat operators transport to the Coral Reefs/Gardens, in the ownership or employment within marine parks to view marine life. the tourism industry (Peake, 1989; Sindiga, 1996; Sindiga, 2000). This Include discotheques, casinos, water parks, and Entertainment venues amusement centers located near or within beach lack of significant benefits from hotels. a thriving tourism industry at their doorstep has often resulted Located within hotels or at the nearby shopping centres, offering hairdressing and beauty services Beauty salons and boutiques in complaints from local people. and selling wrappers, vitenge and various Tourism has also had profound decorative cultural items. socio-economic impacts in the Mainly undertaken by tourists in deep sea, with Sport fishing predominantly Muslim coastal the catch being sold to the tourist hotels. towns, especially Mombasa and Snorkelling Mainly undertaken by tourists in coral reef areas. Malindi. The increase in social Undertaken by tourists to view underwater Diving problems such as school drop- sceneries and aquatic life. outs, drug use and peddling, petty crime, family disputes and prostitution is often linked to tourism (Sindiga, 2000).

5.3 Agriculture

Agricultural activities within the coastal zone produce food and non-food products at subsistence and commercial levels. Depending on environmental and rainfall conditions, food-crop, cash- crop and livestock farming is practised.

5.3.1 Crop Production

The average farm size at the Kenyan coast is 6–8 ha. Most farms are characterized by low- intensity cropping dominated by maize. Tree crops (cashewnuts, coconuts, citrus and mangoes) occupy about 50% of the arable land. Sugarcane farming in South Coast collapsed in 1988, but research has revealed that the crop can also do well in the Tana delta.

Cassava, sweet potatoes, maize, coconut, cowpeas and rice are grown widely in the coast province, mainly in irrigated areas, marshes, and ﬂoodplains. Vegetables and tropical fruits such as citrus, mangoes, bananas, pineapples and watermelons are grown for both subsistence and export. Cashew nuts, bixa and sisal are grown mainly for export. Coffee is increasingly becoming popular among small-scale growers in the higher-altitude areas of Kwale and Taita Taveta districts.

Maize, cassava and rice are the main food crops in Kwale District, while tree crops like coconut, cashew nuts, bixa, citrus and mangoes are the main cash crops. Maize is the staple food crop and is grown throughout the district at subsistence level. Cassava, being more drought-tolerant, is produced on a small-scale by almost every household in Kwale district (Republic of Kenya, 1997c).

33 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

Table 5.3 Common food and cash crops at the Coast province Mombasa District, on the other

Food crops Cash crops hand, is heavily urbanized with very little agricultural activity. coconut, cashew nuts, bixa, Kwale maize, cassava and rice Most of the farming in Mombasa citrus and mangoes District takes place in Kisauni and Mombasa (mostly maize, cowpeas, fruits coconut, cashew nut, simsim Likoni Divisions, mostly in small Kisauni and Likoni and vegetables (sesame) and sunflower land holdings. Maize, cowpeas, diisions) fruits and vegetables are grown maize, cowpeas and Coconut, cashew nuts, Kilifi for food. Coconut, cashew nut, cassava mangoes and citrus fruits simsim and sunﬂower are also maize, cowpeas and Coconut, cashew nuts, Malindi cultivated as cash crops, but on a cassava mangoes and citrus fruits limited scale. The continued rise maize, cowpeas, simsim, cotton, bixa, cashew nuts, in the population of Mombasa Lamu cassava, greengrams, coconut, mangoes and citrus pegion peas and bananas fruits reduces the amount of land available for farming (Republic of Kenya, 1997d).

In Kiliﬁ and Malindi Districts, about 90% of the population depends heavily on agriculture. The main food crops there are maize, cowpeas and cassava. Since cassava is more tolerant to drought, it has proved to be an important food crop in most of the drier areas of the districts. Coconut and cashew nuts are the principal cash crops, and are grown widely. Other cash crops grown in Kiliﬁ District include mangoes, citrus, pineapples and bananas. Mangoes and pineapples are grown mainly in Malindi district. In Lamu district, approximately 60% of the population depends on agriculture. Farming is done mainly on small holdings with an average farm size of 4 ha per household. The main food crops include maize, cowpeas, simsim, cassava, greengrams, pegion peas and bananas. The major cash crops are cotton, bixa, cashew nuts, and coconuts. Mangoes and citrus fruits are also grown, but on a smaller scale (Republic of Kenya, 1997a).

Agroforestry, involving the intercropping of coconut and cashew nut trees with maize, beans, simsim and cassava, is also practiced, especially during the early stages of tree establishment (UNEP, 1998). During the dry season when the inter-crops have been harvested, cattle are brought in to graze among the trees. With this system, the income from cashew nuts and dairy is higher than that from cashew nut trees alone.

The relatively higher-agricultural-potential areas, which constitute only 30% of the total coastal area, are intensively farmed. High rates of population growth have driven farmers to encroach into marginal lands. Traditional shifting cultivation and slash-and-burn farming are widespread, causing adverse impacts on some fragile ecosystems and biodiversity. The challenges posed by these farming practices have not been adequately countered with better soil conservation and water-use methods, among other mitigation measures.

The coastal zone has the potential to be self-sufﬁcient in food production, but this has not been realized due to over-reliance on rain-fed agriculture. Furthermore, farmers but have continued using traditional farming techniques and rarely use agricultural inputs like fertilizers. Poor tillage and non-application of appropriate soil and water conservation measures compound the situation, resulting in poor yields.

Land tenure is also a serious issue for the farmers at the coast, since most of the land has not been adjudicated. Most of the farmers lack title deeds that they could use as collateral to obtain credit to improve their farming practices. Poor infrastructure also makes it difﬁcult for farmers to take their produce to the market at the right time. In general, producer prices of agricultural produce are also very low, which serves as a disincentive for farmers who would modernise or expand their scale of operation if prices were better.

34 Towards the Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources

5.3.2 Irrigation agriculture in the Tana, Umba and Athi-Sabaki ﬂoodplains

Irrigation agriculture is practiced in the Tana, Umba and Athi-Sabaki River floodplains. Rice is the main crop in the Tana and Umba River floodplains. Irrigation in the Umba floodplain is done and controlled by the local community while in the Tana floodplain it is managed by the Tana and Athi River Development Authority (TARDA), a state corporation. Cultivation of crops on the Tana and Athi-Sabaki floodplains is highly prone to salinity; important food crops such as bananas, rice and maize cannot grow well in saline soils, and yields fall rapidly in areas where seawater intrudes into the soils.

There has been an insigniﬁcant abstraction of water for irrigation in the last 14 years in the Bura, Hola and Tana Delta irrigation schemes, following their collapse. However, there are plans to re-commission these schemes (GOK, 2003). If they are re-launched, it is expected that the Tana Delta irrigation scheme will be one of the major abstractors of waters from the Tana River (GOK-TARDA, 1982a-c), in addition to the Mwea-Tebere, Bura and Hola irrigation schemes. However, the costs of re-launching the collapsed schemes are expected to be extremely high, as the construction of irrigation facilities would have to start afresh. The Athi-Sabaki River does not undergo signiﬁcant water abstraction for irrigation (GOK, 1992).

5.3.3 Livestock production

Livestock production is a signiﬁcant contributor to the coastal economy. Of the 85 major ranches within the Coast Province, about 25 are currently operational. Livestock rearing is mainly concentrated on the marginal lands of the coastal region, which make up 69% of the total area. Overall, Tana River district has the highest livestock population in the province, followed by Kwale and Kiliﬁ/Malindi districts, which also have large herds of cattle, sheep and poultry (Table 5.3).

The main challenges faced by the livestock farmers are frequent droughts, poor management, wildlife invasions, pests and diseases, inadequate infrastructure, poor marketing of ranch products, and insecurity.

The pastoral communities in Tana River district graze large herds of cattle in the lower ridges of the Tana River basin. During droughts, the pastoralists graze right inside the Tana Delta’s wetlands. Cattle from around the country, some from as far as the North-Eastern Province, are brought to the delta during the dry season. The seasonal increase in the number of cattle grazed in the Tana delta wetlands raises the issue of the carrying capacity of the wetland.

Table 5.4 Livestock population at the Coast Province Population Area in District Cattle Sheep Goats Camels Poultry Pigs Density sq kms Mombasa 2,896 230 6,734 2,321 9,442 - 246,500 - Kwale 60 8,295 243,285 71,192 138,735 - 1,664,318 1152 Kilifi/Malindi 125 12,530 223,380 62,718 158,052 - 1,014,300 244 Taita/Taveta 40 17,128 81,000 45,000 180,000 - 210,000 600 Tana River 5.5 38,466 450,000 260,000 390,000 25,000 120,000 - Lamu 12 6,167 35,000 9,000 42,000 - 105,000 - Total 82,816 1,039,399 450,731 918,229 25,000 3,360,118 1,996 Source: CDA 2003, Republic of Kenya, 2001 ; - no data

Variations in rainfall patterns and vegetation types in the district have resulted in different areas sustaining different types of livestock. In general, cattle, goats and poultry are kept in all the divisions. Marginal areas also have bee-keeping activities (Republic of Kenya, 1997b). For 35 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

example, in Samburu, Kinango and the low-potential areas of Msambweni Divisions, the rearing of beef cattle, sheep and goats is common, as is bee-keeping. Other parts of the district support poultry, dairy, sheep, and beef cattle (Republic of Kenya 1997c). In Lamu District, traditional pastoralists keep large herds of cattle, sheep and goats, while smallholders rear mainly poultry and rabbits, and maintain beehives. In Kiliﬁ district, livestock is reared in the low-potential semi-arid areas of Ganze, Marafa, and Magarini.

Currently, exotic and cross-breed cattle are reared mainly in high- and medium-potential areas. Small-scale farmers are also increasingly practising zero-grazing of dairy cattle here.

The two major firms that undertake large-scale dairy farming in the Kilifi district are Kilifi Plantation and Hussein Dairy Farming, with cattle populations of more than 600 and 300 respectively. Kilifi Plantation is found within 3 kilometers of the shoreline while Hussein Dairy is located within 5 kilometers from the shoreline.

In Mombasa District, poultry farming is dominant since it requires minimal land area (Republic of Kenya, 1997d).

5.4 Ports and shipping

Maritime transport of goods and passengers accounts for 15% of the economy of the Kenyan coast. Mombasa Port at Kilindini is not only the largest sea port in Kenya, but also one of the largest and most important ports along the entire East African Coast. It is an integral component of the entire country’s economy (Hoyle, 2000). The Port serves the country and landlocked neighbouring countries such as Uganda, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of Congo (Hoyle, 2000) and Southern Sudan. It is connected to the world’s major ports, with over 200 sailings per week to Europe, North and South America, Asia, the Middle East, Australia and the rest of Africa. The total number of ships docked and cargo trafﬁc handled at the Mombasa Port increased steadily between 2001–2004, a trend that is likely to continue (Figure 5.2).

In addition to the Port of Mombasa, the much smaller Old Port, located at Tudor Creek, also in Mombasa, has remained active and is important for handling smaller vessels. Other small ports, spread along the Figure 5.2 Trend in ships docking at the Port of Mombasa entire coastline, are located at Shimoni, Kiliﬁ, Mtwapa, Kipini, Vanga-Funzi area, Lamu and Malindi. Lamu has been used for dhow trade for over 2000 years (Hoyle, 2000; UNEP/GPA and WIOMSA, 2004). All these ports are managed by the Kenya Ports Authority.

Of the ships docking at Mombasa Port, an average of 40% are container-specialized, 22% general dry cargo, 18% bulk oil tankers, 3% passenger ships and the remaining 12% other ships. Total import of cargo also has been on increase over the years, with 2004 recording an increase of 19.8% over the 2003 levels. Exports increased by 14.2% during the same period. Container trafﬁc went up by 24.5% to stand at 380,353 in 2004 compared to 305,427 in 2003 (GOK, 2005).

Since the capacity of the current container terminal at the port of Mombasa has remained ﬁxed over a long period of time, the volume of containers being received has increased beyond the port’s capacity. The Kenya Ports Authority has embarked on a plan to expand and modernize its container terminal.

36 Towards the Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources

The Kenyan coastal area is bordered offshore by a busy tanker route from the Middle East to various global destinations. It is estimated that 50 ships of various types are in major shipping lanes off the coast of Kenya at any given time. Up to 9 of these are likely to be oil tankers with capacities ranging from 50,000 to 250,000 tonnes. Although most of this trafﬁc passes more than 250 nautical miles offshore, tar balls originating from bilge discharges and tank washings do occasionally reach the Kenyan coast.

5.5 Mariculture and aquaculture

Because of the falling productivity of near-shore fisheries along the Kenyan coast, mariculture is being considered as the best alternative source of income for coastal artisanal fishing communities, who are not able to exploit the deep water fisheries due to limited fishing equipment. Considering the existing opportunities for aquaculture development and the increasing demand for fish in local, national and international markets, there is need to promote sustainable farming of both freshwater and marine species.

There are three types of mariculture which could be undertaken on the Kenyan coastal environment, namely pond culture on land behind mangroves, suspension culture (cage and raft) in sheltered waterways that are of sufﬁcient depth, and rack culture in the shallow intertidal areas (Tychsen, 2006). However, hydrologic conditions and other factors make large areas of mangroves in Kenya unsuitable for pond culture; only 7.3% of the total mangrove area in Kenya (i.e. 3,950 ha out of 54,000 ha) is suitable for the development of brackish-water shrimp farming (Tiensongrusmee, 1991; Kairo and Dahdouh-Guebas, in press), for instance.

The initial mariculture project at the coast of Kenya was a 60-ha shrimp farm that was constructed at Ngomeni, using funding from FAO (UNEP, 1998). The shrimp culture was established in 1987 with a production potential of 525 kg per hectare per year. Its potential attracted interest from the private sector. Apart from the Ngomeni prawn farm, the area under mariculture has been increased by 12.2 ha since late 2005 (Mirera, 2006; 2007).

Mud crab culture has been attempted by Kwetu at Mtwapa, Wasini Women’s Group in the South Coast and Tsunza Conservation and Management Group in Mombasa (Mwaluma, 2002). Studies on mud crab farming indicate that low-cost pens that are integrated in mangroves do not require any capital inputs and can exist as long as labour is available.

The current mariculture systems used in Kenya are small earthen ponds and drive-in mud crab cages. Pen culture has also been used (Mwaluma, 2002; Mirera, 2008). Acadja Net Enclosures utilizing mangrove pools (Rasowo, 2004) and down ponds emulating mangrove pools, are preferred for community projects, because they are cheap and easy to manage.

Aquaculture was introduced in Kenya after the First World War, and by 1992, freshwater species, especially tilapia, were being farmed in more than 250 ha of pond area (Rasowo, 1992). Since that time a large crocodile farm (Mamba Village) has been established in Nyali, Mombasa, and another one at Kikambala.

Earthen ﬁsh pond at Majaoni-Mtwapa Creek

37 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

Aquaculture development has also focused on finfish (milkfish and mullet), and in some cases the polyculture of fish and shrimps (Mirera, 2008). The Shirazi Oyster Group, with the help of Japanese Overseas Cooperation, has attempted oyster culture. However, the project experienced a setback from lack of market caused by a decline in the tourism industry in the late 1990s.

Overall, fish species that are suitable for aquaculture include tilapia and catfish for freshwater bodies, and milkfish for marine or brackish waters. Other suitable species include shrimp, oysters and mud crabs. Seaweed farming is another option.

While pursuing the development of mariculture and aquaculture in Kenya, is worth noting and learning from experiences in South East Asia and Latin America (Naylor et al., 2000a, 2000b; Paez-Osuna, 2001; Erftemeijer, 2002), where signiﬁcant environmental problems have arisen from large-scale shrimp culture.

5.6 Fisheries

Traditionally, Kenyan coastal communities have depended on fisheries and mangrove exploitation. Kenya is endowed with a rich inshore marine fishery, with the most productive fishing areas being the North Kenya Banks (including Lamu, Kiunga, Kizingitini and Faza), Malindi-Ungwana Bay, which covers the Sabaki Estuary and Tana River Delta, and the Funzi- Vanga complex (Ruwa et al. 2003). Most fishing takes place along the reef, with mainly reef- and seagrass-associated fish species being exploited, while a few prawn trawlers harvest shrimp in the shallow waters of Ungwana Bay (UNEP 2006).

Artisanal fishermen, using simple fishing vessels and gears such as gillnets, shark nets, hook and line, beach seines, spear gun and traditional traps (especially basket traps), exploit the inshore fishing grounds (McClanahan & Mangi, 2004; Ochiewo, 2004; McClanahan et al., 2005b). Artisanal fishing in inshore waters is labour-intensive, providing employment and livelihood to thousands of households. Currently it is estimated that over 10,000 fishermen are directly engaged in artisanal fishing along the Kenya coastline (Ochiewo, 2004). Artisanal fishermen land at least 95% of the marine catch and over 60,000 coastal people depend on these fisheries (UNEP, 2006); the remaining 5% is caught by the commercial trawlers. Since fishery is a common-property resource, fishing effort has increased with the increase in the number of artisanal fishermen over the years.

Fish catches from inshore waters are determined by the level and quality of effort that is applied in the fishery and the abundance of fish stocks, among other factors (Ochiewo, 2004a, b). Fishing effort in the deep sea is constrained by a number of factors, including inadequacy of information on fisheries potential, little institutional support for fisheries development, lack of investment interest in the fisheries sector (due to the perceived poor returns from fisheries), malpractices in the fish market, and the use of inefficient traditional canoes. In addition, fishing is difficult during the South- East Monsoon (April–August) when the sea is rough due to strong winds. Furthermore, infrastructure for the marine fisheries sector is inadequately developed.

As with other common-property Traditional ﬁshing boats/canoes resources, ﬁshermen may generally

38 Towards the Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources lack a sense of ownership in the marine environment or its sustainability. As a result, the Kenyan reef fishery is showing signs of over-exploitation (Ochiewo, 2004), and yields from the lagoonal reef fisheries have been on the decline (McClanahan & Mangi, 2001). The decline has been attributed to an increase in fishing effort and competition for dwindling stocks (McClanahan et al., 1997; Glaesel, 1997, 2000; McClanahan & Mangi, 2004). The fishing techniques Traditional fishing gear (basket trap) introduced in the past few decades, such as trawling, the use of seine nets and spear guns, may have also contributed to the decline (McClanahan et al., 1997; McClanahan & Mangi, 2004). Traditional elders disapprove these fishing methods, and their use has been a source of conflicts.

The overall annual catch landings from the marine sector (Figure 5.3) declined between 1998 and 2000. After 2000, there was a gradual increase between 2000 and 2003 but the levels never reached those of 1998 (Fisheries Department, 2004). It has, however, been observed that actual fish catches may be much higher than those recorded, because many fish landing sites are not accessible to data collectors. Furthermore, fish landing times vary, making data collection difficult even in the accessible sites.

On the other hand, fish landings from trawlers (Figure 5.4) increased between 1997 and 2004. However, prawn catches from trawlers have been fluctuating, with peaks recorded in 1998 and 2001. The peak in 1998 was associated with the El-Niño phenomenon while the 2001 peak may have been due to increased fishing effort.

5.6.1 Types of marine ﬁsh

Various categories of marine fish Figure 5.3. Trends in fish landings in the Kenyan Coast (1996-2003) (Source: Fisheries department, 2004) are landed in Kenya, including demersal and pelagic species, sharks and rays, crustaceans, molluscs and deep sea/big-game fish. Demersal coral-reef- and seagrass-associated fish species are more dominant (McClanahan & Mangi, 2004) in inshore waters. Of the demersal fish families, scavengers (Lethrinidae) and rabbit fish (Signidae) each make up about 20% of the catch. The two are followed by parrotfish Figure 5.4 Prawn and fish catches by trawlers in Kenya (Scaridae) and snapper (Lutjanidae),

39 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

which form between 6% and 8%. Sharks and rays make up around 21% of the landings, while pelagic species account for less than 15%. Crustaceans, which account for less than 10% of the total catch, are mostly prawns. Molluscs (squid, octopus and oysters) and bèche-de-mer account for only 2.5% of the total catch.

Prawn trawling in the Malindi-Ungwana Bay has been going on since the 1970s, bringing in foreign currency. However, it has resulted in habitat and community modification with loss of income for subsistence fishermen. Prawn trawling has also resulted in serious conflicts between the trawler operators and artisanal fishermen (KMFRI, 2003).

Little domestic fishing is conducted outside the reef area. Some foreign vessels from Europe have instead been licensed by the Kenya government to fish for tuna with purse-seine gear. For example, 38 foreign purse seines were licensed in 2002 and 36 in 2003 to fish for tuna in offshore waters. Although there is inadequate information on fish stocks, it is known that there are underexploited fisheries resources in the waters outside the reef.

Since the marine fisheries sector in Kenya has remained underdeveloped, its output accounted for only 3.2% of the 179,106 tonnes landed in 2002 and 5.3% of the 147,665 tonnes landed in 2003 (Republic of Kenya, 2005), with about 95% being produced from freshwater sources, the bulk from Lake Victoria. Swamps and freshwater lakes in Lamu district and the floodplains of River Tana also support freshwater fisheries.

5.6.2 Aquarium ﬁsheries

The aquarium fishery in Kenya is Table 5.4 The top 20 aquarium fish species controlled by the conditions in the export harvested from Shimoni (March 2004–April 2005) market. Kenya ranks among the top % of total exporters of marine aquarium fish in the Species collected Western Indian Ocean region (Okemwa fish et al., 2006). Kenya’s aquarium fishery has 1. Allard’s anemonefish, Amphiprion allardi 10.4 involved the collection of 50,000–200,000 2. African pygmy angelfish, Centropyge acanthops 9.0 individuals (Wood, 2001; Okemwa et al., 3. Rainbow wrasse, Halichoeres iridis 7.4 2006). The aquarium fishery in Kenya is 4. Palette surgeonfish, Paracanthurus hepatus 6.1 highly competitive, with conflicts between the exporters arising over both established 5. Lyretail anthias, Pseudanthias squampinnis 5.3 clients (market) and fish collectors. Between 6. Striped sailfin tang, Zebrassoma veliferum 4.9 2004 and 2005, there were 145 licensed 7. Beautiful prawn goby, Cryptocentrus aurora 4.2 marine aquarium fish collectors working 8. Fire dartfish, Nameteleortris magnifica 4.0 full time. These collectors were either 9. Skunk anemonefish, Amphiprion akallopisos 3.7 employed or contracted by 8 companies 10. Vermiculate wrasse, Macropharyngodon bipartitus 3.2 licensed to export marine aquarium fish. Most of the aquarium fish caught in 11. Pink flasher, Paracheilinus carpenterri 3 Kenya is exported to 15 countries: the UK, 12. Two-stripe goby, Valencienna helsdingenni 2.5 USA, South Africa, Hong Kong, Germany, 13. Midas blenny, Ecsenias midas 2.3 France, Japan, Netherlands, Austria, 14. Exquisite wrasse, Cirrhilabrus exquisitus 2.2 Israel, Denmark, Poland, Hungary, Italy, 15. Vanderbilt’s chromis, Chromis vanderbilti 2.1 and Romania. Generally, aquarium fish collectors target juveniles because they are 16. Twotone chromis, Chromis dimidiate 1.5 more colourful and easier to handle and 17. Bluestreak cleaner wrasses, Labroides dimidiate 1.4 airfreight (Wood, 2001). 18. Volitans lionfish, Pterois volitans 1.3 19. Emperor angelfish, Pomacanthus imperator 1.3 Approximately 192 aquarium fish 20. Indian Dascyllus, Dascyllus carneus 1.3 species belonging to 35 families are being harvested and exported from Kenya; the Total Number of fish individuals: 12,355 77 most commonly exported species include Source: Okemwa et al., 2006. 40 Towards the Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources anemonefish, angelfish, wrasses, surgeonfish, gobies, and blennies (Table 5.4). The key species targeted by aquarium fish collectors are not targeted for food fisheries except for two species from the Lutjanidae family (Lutjanus kasmira and L. sabae), one species from the Signidae family (Siganus stellatus) and one species from the Serranidae family (Cephalopholis sp.). A variety of marine invertebrates are also harvested for export.

The supply chain in the aquarium fishery is simple, with fish collectors selling their catch directly to exporters without going through middlemen. The volume of exported aquarium fish fluctuates seasonally, with higher exports during the North-East Monsoon.

5.7 Coastal mining

Various types of minerals are found at the Kenyan coast. Some of these occur in signiﬁcant quantities, but only a few are being exploited. Mineral deposits that occur in economic quantities include salt, coral rocks, titanium, pyrochlore, barites, gypsum, iron ore and clay. Lesser minerals are apetite, galena, and manganese.

Extensive imestone deposits occur along the coastal area from the Tanzanian border in the south to Malindi in the north. A 70-m-thick and 4–8-km-wide band of limestone runs parallel to the coast. Older limestone units occur further inland in the north of Malindi but only a few isolated exposures of limestone are found between Malindi and Lamu. The limestone deposits that occur in the area north of Lamu have not been mapped. Exploitation of limestone is already widespread and is governed by local variation in the limestone texture, composition and demand.

Sand and limestone are currently being mined without supporting legislation. Both are non– renewable resources, and if their mining continues unabated, environmental degradation of a wide area is likely to occur.

Since the early 1950s, limestone has been used for cement manufacture in the Bamburi area of Mombasa. Cement production is now one of the major industries on the Kenyan coast, employing over 700 workers directly and many more people indirectly; e.g. those employed by input and hardware shops that sell cement. Coral limestone, the basic raw material for cement production, is excavated in shallow, heavily mechanized, opencast mines adjacent to the factory. Weathered shale and iron ore are also required as secondary raw materials for the production of cement. Shale is available in large quantities in the Mombasa area, and is mined in open pits near Nguu Tatu, west of Bamburi (Republic of Kenya, 1997d). Iron ore is obtained from Kiliﬁ. Small quantities of pozzolana and gypsum, which are also needed in the cement production process, are mined in small quantities in Kiliﬁ, with the rest being imported. In Tiwi, limestone is used to manufacture lime (Republic of Kenya, 1997c; UNEP 1998).

Coral rocks that are excavated and shaped into coral blocks for building are available in large quantities in Manda Island of Lamu district. The production of coral blocks currently meets local demand in Lamu District, providing a livelihood to many people employed as excavators of building blocks and in the construction industry (Republic of Kenya, 1997a). Coral blocks are also mined at Roka, Bofa and Mtondia in Kiliﬁ District. Coral blocks are in great demand in Malindi and Mombasa (Republic of Kenya, 1997b).

Sand, an important building material, is mined in many areas along the Kenyan coast, including Tiwi in Kwale District, Mazeras and Junda on the Kisauni side of Tudor creek and Ngomeni. Silica sands used for glass manufacture are mined in Arabuko Sokoke in Kiliﬁ District and in the Msambweni area of Kwale District. Clay, which is used for brick manufacture, is mined in the Port Reitz area of Mombasa (Republic of Kenya, 1997c, Republic of Kenya, 1997d, UNEP, 1998). Ballast is mined at Kokotoni along the Mombasa–Nairobi road in Kiliﬁ District. It is used for construction works in Mombasa and other towns in the Coast Province. The rare-earths,

41 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

niobium and iron ore resources exist in the Mrima Hills of Kwale District. These are not being not exploited, however, since the area is a nature reserve (Republic of Kenya, 1997c).

Sand exploitation has had detrimental effects, including endangering indigenous forests and degrading ecosystems (Republic of Kenya 1997b).

A new coastal development project in Kenya has identified mineral sands as a source of titanium ore (UNEP, 2006). The Titanium Mining Project in South Coast is set to raise the profile of mining in the coastal region, to become one of the most important activities. It is projected to elevate the contribution of the mining sector to the GDP from 1% to 3%. The Canadian-registered company Tiomin plans to mine heavy mineral sands in Kwale starting 2008. Other titanium mining companies have expressed their interest in exploring the heavy mineral deposits in the North Coast, Malindi and Kilifi. There is also increasing interest in other mineral occurrences like lead, copper and zinc around Mkangombe in Kwale District.

5.8 Salt production

Salt production takes place adjacent to the mangrove areas north of Malindi at Gongoni and Fundissa. There are extensive salt pans at the Gongoni-Kurawa area. It has been estimated that these salt pans produce over 170,000 tonnes of salt annually (UNEP, 1998). Extensive clearing of the mangroves in the Ngomeni swamps has occurred to pave way for the construction of salt pans. Presently, there are eight operational salt works in Kenya, occupying more than 7,922 ha of tidal swamps between Ngomeni and Kurawa (Table 5.5). To date, solar salt production is expanding to other areas such as Lamu, and the impact is expected to be more severe. Considering the current status and the projected trends, large-scale salt Table 5.5 Area of production has contributed to land use changes in mangrove areas, salt works in Kenya with corresponding loss of mangroves and creation of discontinuous Area patches of forest in Kenya. Conversion of mangroves into salt pans has Company (ha) also resulted in contamination of freshwater tables through increased Tana 380 salinity.

Kurawa 1 800 There is high potential for increased salt production in Lamu district, Kurawa 2 1300 since the Nkunumbi area of Mpeketoni Division has salt deposits in Kristalline 1200 economically viable quantities, so far unexploited (Republic of Kenya, Malindi 664 1997). If this is to be to be pursued, however, it will be necessary to adopt environmentally friendly approaches. In this regard, pond construction Kensalt 2264 should, where possible, be located behind the mangroves, to ensure Source: Yap and Landoy, that the mangroves are left intact. Such a setup would beneﬁt the salt 1986; Abuodha and Kairo, 2001; Kairo and Dahdouh- producers, since the mangroves would serve as windbreakers for the salt Guebas (in press) ponds. Furthermore, efﬂuents from the salt ponds should be directed to the sea to safeguard mangroves from excessive salinity.

5.9 Oil and gas exploration

Oil and gas exploration is continuing along the Kenyan coast (EIA, 2005; UNEP, 2006). Analysis of hydrocarbon potential, however, is difficult from the limited data available. However, the most promising areas along the Kenya coast would be the Lamu Basin and the Malindi area. Good source rocks and reservoir rocks for hydrocarbon deposits have been observed along the Kenya coast, with conditions becoming more favourable offshore. There are interests in the offshore Lamu Basin, with an Australian firm venturing into sinking initial exploratory wells about 70 km off the Lamu coast (Tychsen, 2006). The firm has committed to using an environmentally friendly oil production technology, and if the initial explorations are successful, Kenya could soon be drilling oil. Another firm is also conducting assessments in the Malindi Bay to establish whether the oil deposits there in economically viable quantities.

42 Towards the Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources

The National Oil Corporation (NOC) supervises oil and gas exploration activities at the Kenya coast. It will be important that sound environmental management procedures are observed, as provided for in the Environmental Management and Coordination Act and other professional regulations, to mitigate any likely pollution from exploration or eventual drilling. The government should also ensure that bilateral agreements made with prospecting companies beneﬁt the local people and the country at large.

5.10 Exploitation of mangrove forests

Mangroves have been exploited in Kenya for generations, but are currently threatened by over-exploitation (UNEP, 1998; Abuodha and Kairo, 2001). Coastal dwellers have traditionally exploited the products of the mangrove swamps as well as various parts of mangrove trees. Poles and timber for building boats and houses, ﬁrewood, salt, tannin, dyes, charcoal, food as well as medicinal herbs (Rawlins, 1957; Kokwaro, 1985; Kairo, 2001) are all obtained from mangrove forests.

Historical records show that as early as 200 BC mangrove poles were an important item of commerce between East Africa and the desert countries of Arabia (Rawlins, 1957). By the 1970s, Kenya was exporting some 34,000 scores of mangrove poles to Somalia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia (FAO, 1991; Kairo & Dahdouh-Guebas, 2005) until this export was stopped in 1982 by a Presidential ban aimed at stemming overexploitation. As a result, mangrove pole production fell signiﬁcantly from 1990. The export ban has not been lifted, but potential exists for the sustainable exploitation and commercialisation of mangrove produts (Kairo et al., 2002). This would, however, need to be preceded by a national mangrove management Figure 5.5 Trends in production of mangrove poles in Lamu, Kenya plan, which is currently lacking. (Source: Kairo and Dahdouh-Guebas, 2005)

5.11 Industrial development

Kenya’s coastal region has experienced a rapid increase in industrial development in the last 6 years due to the emphasis being placed on industrial development at the national policy level. Industrial development has also been accelerated by incentives for African countries to trade with the US, under the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) initiative. Consequently, many textile industries have been established in export processing zones (EPZs) at the coast, especially in Mombasa and Kiliﬁ districts. Many industries in the region are engaged in primary production and agro-processing for export, as well as local consumption. These industries include cashew husking works, pineapple canneries, rice mills, and processing facilities for coconut and other crops such as coffee, groundnuts and sisal. Other industries include cement manufacturing, steel rolling mills, iron smelting and oil reﬁnery.

The categories of industries in the Coast province and the number of registered ﬁrms in each category are presented in Table 5.6. Despite overall increased industrial development, some ﬁrms have closed down or relocated to other parts of the country in response to high costs of production and the impacts of market liberization under the Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) implemented in the country during the early 1990s.

43 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

Table 5.6 Number of registered firms Very few industries in the province have facilities for by industry in the Coast Province effluent treatment before disposal. Many use septic Registered Firms Number tanks/soakage pits, vertical drains or discharge their Bakery products 12 untreated effluents directly into the sea. The negative environmental impact of rapid industrialization being Cement lime and quarrying 11 seen in the coast province is a cause for concern. Chemicals, paints, plastics and rubber 22 Food, malt and soft drink 18 5.12 Occupational/employment Generation of electricity 4 structure Grain mill products 10

Metal products 20 The 1999 Population and Housing Census shows that the economically active population (people aged 15– Petroleum and cooking oil refining 4 64 years) in the Coast province rose from 744,246 to Printing and publishing 11 1,100,080 (a 48% increase). Some 928,170 people were Pulp, paper and board 6 engaged in various economic activities in both rural Sawmills and timber products 6 and urban areas. Of these, 281,646 were in rural areas, employed mainly in the primary production sectors Ship-building and repairs 2 of the economy like agriculture, ﬁsheries, forestry and Soap, perfume and cosmetics 6 mining, and 355,725 people were in urban areas, of Textiles, knitting and weaving 31 which only a third were women. Table 5.7 shows the Vegetable and animal oil 15 distribution of employment by sector in the urban areas of the province. Other 7

Total 185 Source: Coast Development Authority Table 5.7 Employment by sector in urban centres of the Coast province 5.12.1 Economic diversiﬁcation Total Sector Percentage Number

Many households are engaged in more Agriculture/forestry 2,134 0.6 %

than one economic activity, in an effort Mining/quarrying 2,491 0.7% to diversify their sources of income. For instance, many small- and medium-scale Manufacturing 67,232 18.9% businesses are operated by people who Construction 13,873 3.9% are employed elsewhere but have invested Wholesale/restaurants and hotels 57,983 16.3%

and employed other people to work for Transport/communication 66,876 18.8% them. Several such small- and medium- scale enterprises have received support Finance, insurance/real estate 29,525 8.3% from the government and some NGOs Community, service/personal services* 111,698 31.4% currently promoting micro-, small- and Electricity/water 3,913 1.1%

medium-scale enterprise development. Total 355,725 100% *Employment in the community, service industry and personal services includes employment in the public service and domestic help. Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, 2004 5.13 Supportive services

The above economic activities are supported by essential infrastructure services. Road, air and railway transport, energy, freshwater supply and sanitation are essential for the development of economic activities. In the Coast Province infrastructure has remained largely inadequate, but there are efforts to improve it.

5.13.1 Road transport

Road transport plays a central role in the development of all sectors of the economy. It is estimated that over 70% of all container trafﬁc into and out of the port of Mombasa is conveyed

44 Towards the Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources by road. Similarly, the majority of Kenyans travel by road. The road transport sector has also employed thousands of people, working in various capacities.

5.13.2 Rail transport

Rail transport is the second-most-important transport mode after road. It is particularly important for transporting bulky goods from the Mombasa Port to the hinterland. The railway network in Mombasa is concentrated in the industrial areas, railway depots and port warehouses.

5.13.3 Air transport Air transport supports the development of tourism, transportation of high-value exports and perishable goods and promotion of regional integration. Moi International Airport in Mombasa handles both domestic and international ﬂights. The airport has a capacity of 30 light aircraft at a time.

5.13.4 Energy

The development of industrial, commercial and agricultural sectors depends on the availability of energy. The main sources of energy in Kenya are petroleum fuels, electricity, wood fuel, charcoal, and, to a lesser extent, solar, wind, ethanol, coal and biogas. Petroleum fuels and hydro- electricity are currently the major sources of energy for industrial and commercial establishments. The distribution of electricity in the Coast Province is still concentrated in urban centres.

5.13.5 Water supply and sewerage

The main sources of freshwater at the Kenyan coast are the Tiwi boreholes, Mzima springs in Taita-Taveta, Marere springs and Baricho treatment works at Sabaki River. About 80% of the population of Mombasa, 50% of Kiliﬁ, 52% of Malindi, and 57% in Taita Taveta has access to piped water. Efforts have been made to meet the freshwater deﬁcit through boreholes, dams, wells, and ponds. Of the entire Coast Province’s population, 11% has access to well water, 10.7% to stream/river water, 9.2% to pond water; 6.4% to borehole water and 5.8% to dam water (Republic of Kenya, 2000).

Wastewater treatment at the coast of Kenya is presently inadequate. Only 30% of the population of Mombasa Island and 15% of the population of the Mombasa Mainland West is connected to sewerage services; the rest is either served by septic tanks or cesspits, including pit latrines. Over 65% of the coastal population is served by pit latrines, around 6% has a water closet and just 2% has a ﬂush toilet. More than 25% of the population has no provision for sewerage facilities whatsoever. These proportions are lower than national averages, where 6% of the population has a ﬂush toilet and 16% has no provision for sewerage services whatsoever (Republic of Kenya, 2001).

Major Threats and Impacts on Coastal and Marine Ecosystems 6

6.1 Introduction

Kenya’s coastal area is endowed with diverse natural resources, which support livelihoods and economic development. In the recent decades, however, most of Kenya’s coastal ecosystems have come under intense over-exploitation, with the environment showing clear signs of damage and degradation. Anthropogenic pressures such as physical alterations and land-use changes have led to erosion, siltation, and hydrologic modiﬁcations, resulting in damage to or loss of coastal and marine habitats. Events related to climate change, such as droughts, ﬂooding, massive sedimentation and elevated sea-surface temperatures, have also contributed to habitat degradation, especially of coral reefs (Wilkinson, 2000; Obura, 2005) and mangroves (Kitheka et al., 2002; Bosire et al., 2006).

Continuous assessment and monitoring of the marine and coastal environment is required, in order to generate data that will inform rational management. Understanding coastal ecological processes, ocean dynamics and the impacts of natural and human-induced changes is fundamental to the management and restoration of coastal ecosystems and habitats. Without data, accurate estimates of human and natural impacts to coastal habitats cannot be made, which poses a major challenge to planning and management of coastal ecosystems.

The institutional and ﬁnancial capacity necessary for sustained ecosystem monitoring in Kenya remains low (Okemwa and Odido, 2000). This has hampered the realization of national commitments to monitor and assess the condition of ﬁsheries, forests, marine protected areas (MPAs) and other natural resources in the country. However, regional and global science networks such as Global Ocean Observing Systems (GOOS) (Okemwa and Odido, 2000), the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) and the Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean (CORDIO) programme (Salm et al., 1998; Obura, 2005) are improving the monitoring capacity of Kenya and the Eastern Africa region. The monitoring is implemented through institutional user partnerships with diverse funding and responsibilities.

This chapter highlights the various threats exerting pressure on the coastal environment and resources, and their impacts. The root causes and consequences of these threats and impacts are also discussed.

6. 2 Fisheries

Both artisanal/subsistence and commercial fishery takes place along the coast of Kenya. Artisanal fishery is spread throughout the entire coastline, while commercial fishery is concentrated at specific sites, such as Malindi and Ungwana Bays (see Chapters 2 and 5). Fisheries productivity is dependent on the health of the various ecosystems, key among these mangrove forests, coral reefs, estuaries, seagrass beds, and beaches, which provide breeding/nursery grounds and food resources for marine life. These associated ecosystems must be managed sustainably if the fisheries resources are to be sustainable. However, continuing habitat degradation, destructive fishing practices and the ever-increasing extractive pressure threaten these fisheries, and thereby

47 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

the livelihoods of local communities and the national economy. Some of the threats facing marine ﬁsheries in Kenya are discussed below.

6.2.1 Destructive ﬁshing practices

These include dynamite fishing, the use of small-mesh-size nets and seine nets, prawn trawling and other destructive practices such as trampling by fishermen. Although the use of beach seines (local name ‘juiya’), spear guns (bunduki) and plant poisons (sumu) has been banned, they are still in use (Ochiewo, 2004). The use of spear guns in coral reefs and ring-nets in shallow inshore/lagoonal waters is spreading rapidly particularly in the Gazi, Msambweni, and Vanga, where these methods are predominantly used by migrant fishermen. For instance in the Frame survey of 2006, 560 beach seines were recorded along the Kenyan coast, compared to 294 in 2004, representing an increase of 91% over a period of just 2 years (Fisheries Department, 2006). These destructive fishing practices have led to conflicts between the older, indigenous fishermen, who are more conscious about the destruction caused by these methods to the fishing environment, and the youthful majority that is mostly concerned with immediate short-term gains.

Some of the destructive ﬁshing gears used at the coast (Left: ringnet; right: Beach seine)

Gill nets used in deeper waters frequently result in large quantities of by-catch of non-target species. Endangered species of marine life such as dugongs, dolphins and turtles are also caught and killed in gill nets. The use of small-mesh-size nets indiscriminately catches juveniles and unwanted ﬁsh. The use of recommended mesh sizes, and turtle exclusion devices (TEDs) can mitigate these effects, but effective enforcement

180 500 of these regulations is required Prawns for success. 160 Retained Discards 140 Prawn trawling in the 120 Ungwana Bay has been going on since the 1970s, bringing 100 in vital foreign currency, but [illegible] 80 it has also resulted in habitat Xxx

60 [illegible on original] and community modification, with the destruction of other 40 Xxx fisheries and loss of income for 20 subsistence fishermen (KMFRI, 0 0 May–01 Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan–02 2002). Prawn trawling has also Month resulted in conflicts between Figure 6.1 Monthly variations in catch effort for different fish categories of the trawl operators andartisanal prawn trawlers in Malindi-Ungwana bay. (Source: KMFRI, 2002) fishermen, leading to concerns

48 Towards the Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources on issues of inter- and intra-generational equity (GEF, 2002). By-catch is also a big problem in the prawn ﬁshery and it has been observed that for every kilogram of prawns landed, 7.6 kilograms of by-catch and 5.8 kilograms of discards are produced (Figure 6.1; KMFRI, 2002). The development of appropriate by-catch reducer devices has been proposed to address the problem of incidental capture of juvenile ﬁsh and to reduce the quantity of bycatch.

6.2.2 Overﬁshing

There is inadequate capacity to regulate the activities of commercial ﬁshing vessels operating within Kenya’s exclusive economic zone. Much Illegal, Unregulated and Unreported (IUU) ﬁshing is therefore taking place in the area, with far-reaching effects on stock sustainability (EAME, 2003), and unchecked destruction of marine habitats. The inadequate capacity to carry out surveillance and monitoring contributes greatly to the current status.

The population of artisanal fishermen in marine waters has grown steadily from an estimated 7,500 in the mid-1990s to 9,017 in May 2004 and 10,276 in May 2006. These fishermen operate within 2–5 nautical miles due to lack of suitable vessels to venture into deeper waters, leading to overfishing of the inshore waters (Fisheries Department, 2005). Low returns from fishing and lack of credit have been major hindrances to the fishermen’s acquiring crafts suitable for deeper waters.

6.3 Marine pollution

Land-based pollutants arising from agricultural activities in the hinterland, domestic and industrial waste from urban settlements, and storm water run-off are major sources of pollution to the marine environment (Munga, 1993). The emerging economic processing zone (EPZ) at the coast is another likely source of pollutants to the environment. The mushrooming of many informal settlements in urban centres (especially Mombasa) and dysfunctional sewerage systems have exacerbated the problem of sewage pollution. Direct discharge of domestic sewage from many point sources into mangrove forests or the open sea is not uncommon, especially at Tudor and Mtwapa Creeks. The underlying root causes of marine pollution in Kenya are population pressure, poverty and inequality, inappropriate governance, inadequate knowledge and awareness, and inadequate ﬁnancial resources for infrastructure development and upgrading. Major sectors contributing to marine pollution in Kenya include urban and coastal developments, coastal agriculture, processing industries, mining, transportation and energy.

Sewage discharge into a mangrove forest at Tudor Creek

49 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

Oil spills originating from oil tanker accidents, and hazardous waste from petroleum reﬁneries and shipping activities also pose considerable threats to the coastal and marine environment. These diverse pollutants impact various habitats, including coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass beds, beaches and ground water aquifers along the coast. An oil spill at Makupa in 1988 caused the death of 10 ha of mangrove forests; by 2001 no recovery had been observed (Abuodha and Kairo, 2001). More recently, an oil spill at Kipevu Oil Terminal affected 234 ha of the mangroves at Port Reitz (Kairo Mangrove death due to an oil spill at Makupa (Source: J. Kamau) et al., 2005). With a large volume of tanker trafﬁc passing 250 nautical miles offshore, maritime transportation, in particular, represents a major pollution risk to Kenya’s marine environment. Pollutants originating from ship discharges and tank washings are common on the shores, but the full impacts of these activities are as yet unknown.

Many industries along the coast do not treat their efﬂuents and as a result, some toxic chemicals, including heavy metals, are discharged into the marine environment. The sisal-processing factories in Vipingo area of the North Coast likely discharge both solid and liquid waste into the sea through run-off. This pollutants increase the biological oxygen demand (BOD) of the water, with negative impacts to marine habitats.

6.4 Shoreline change and erosion

As human activities along the coastal strip expand, there is distinct pressure on the shoreline. The loss of coastal land and associated infrastructure through coastal erosion is a recurrent and widely reported problem in the Western Indian Ocean region (UNEP, 1998; UNEP-GPA, 2004). Shoreline erosion poses a continuous threat to infrastructure, necessitating expensive engineered coastal protection measures and sometimes even the abandonment of hotel developments (Kairu and Nyandwi, 2000). Coastal shoreline change causes destruction to ﬁshing grounds, ﬁsh landing sites, beaches, turtle nesting areas, and properties adjacent to the shoreline. Ground water quality in wells and boreholes also declines due to increased intrusion of salt water into underground aquifers.

Studies of erosion “hotspots” in Kenya have identiﬁed a range of causal causative factors of shoreline change along the coast. These include increased storm surges related to sea- level rise (UNEP, 2005), damming and land-use changes in the hinterland (Kitheka et al., 2004, Snoussi et al., 2007), sand-mining in streams discharging to the shore, resulting in declines in the natural replenishment of beach sand (Grifﬁths, 1987, Shaghude et al., 1994, Masalu, 2002), and inappropriate adjoining coastal An eroding shoreline at Gazi after fringing mangroves were removed protection structures (Kairu, 1997). (Source: Dahdough-Guebas et al., 2004)

50 Towards the Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources

In Diani, hoteliers and residents have observed shoreline changes of up to 10 m in the last 10 years (Ballot et al., 2006). Between 1976 and 2003, due to sedimentation processes, the shoreline in Malindi receded by about 500 m (Kairu, 2003). The increased discharge of terrigenous sediments into the coast has also caused shoreline changes and habitat modiﬁcation in the Athi-Sabaki estuary in Malindi (Kitheka et al., 2003, 2005, Arthurton et al., 2006). Excavation of beach sand to pave way for house construction (D. Munga) Construction of sea walls for coastal protection has aggravated the problem of shoreline change, as evidenced by continued erosion and accretion. Additionally, sea walls obstruct turtles from reaching nesting grounds, thus threatening their populations (GEF, 2002).

In violation of set-back guidelines laid down in physical planning regulations, coastal infrastructure is increasingly being sited on low-lying areas vulnerable to shoreline change, leading to sediment erosion and accretion. Removal of natural barriers like mangroves also exacerbates shoreline change. A lack of clear legal deﬁnition of the area and extent that should be considered as a beach in Kenya, and lack of or ambiguous guidelines to govern and control the erection of structures along the shoreline has compounded the situation, with many tourist facilities being built very close to or encroaching on beaches. Appropriate coastal planning and development under an enforced ICZM plan would help remedy this situation.

6. 5 Physical alteration and destruction of habitats

The transformation and destruction of marine and coastal habitats is a major problem affecting the coastal region of Kenya. These transformations range from dredging of waterways, deforestation, over-exploitation of living resources, diversion of freshwater flows, and construction of ports and jetties, tourist resorts and housing developments. Global climate change, which is a cross- cutting concern attributed to human activities, has led to abnormal rainfall patterns, droughts, floods and sea level changes. Some of the socio-economic impacts of these transformations include reduced fish catches, increased coastal erosion, loss of aesthetic value, and reduced income from tourism. This has caused loss of employment opportunities for local communities, changes in social structures, loss of cultural heritage and resource-use conflicts.

Land-use changes along the coast and its hinterland have had major impacts on the coastal environment. Poor land use practices, for instance, have caused the sediment load from the Sabaki river to increase to 2.0 million tonnes annually, with far-reaching ecological and economic consequences to the coastal environment; this massive sedimentation at the Sabaki River mouth prevents mangrove growth. Coral reefs and seagrass beds in the adjacent areas have also been smothered by sediments. Some beach hotels, e.g. Lawfords and Blue Marlin, have lost their beach frontage due to continued beach accretion. The aesthetic value of the beach along the Malindi Bay has been reduced, making it less attractive for the development of tourist hotels, which represents a loss of revenue to the country (GEF, 2002).

New settlements have increased the demand for natural resources and consequently led to the encroachment and overexploitation of resources in coastal areas. Buffer vegetation in environmentally vulnerable areas, e.g. close to shorelines and steep topographies, has been cleared to make way for unplanned and unregulated human settlements, degrading the natural environment. Major terrestrial forest areas affected by such settlements include Arabuko Sokoke, 51 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

Tree felling (left) and charcoal burning in Shimoni forests in South Coast (Source: GVI Kenya, 2007)

the Shimba Hills, Boni Dodori and Lamu forests. Timber extraction and charcoal production are among the greatest threats to habitats in this region. Weak management capacity within government and communities is another serious issue (CEPF, 2007). Expansion of economic activities, e.g. the dredging of the Lamu channel to provide additional port and harbour facilities, initially interfered with the hydrology in the area leading to defoliation of Salt works at Ngomeni in Malindi affected mangroves. However, most of the mangroves along the channel are now recovering. Salt extraction and overexploitation have also contributed to mangrove degradation in Ngomeni area. These activities threaten the indigenous ﬂora and endemic fauna found in these forests.

Estuaries have also been modiﬁed, resulting in reduced ecosystem goods and services from these biotopes. Several immediate causes have been identiﬁed as having direct pressure on Kenyan estuaries. These include poor agricultural practices in the river basin and marginal areas, keeping of large herds of livestock and forest degradation upstream. These unsustainable practices have resulted in the loss of vegetation, exposing the soils to erosion. As a consequence, increased turbidity in the Tana and Sabaki estuaries is being recorded. Increased sediment loads have resulted in siltation, which has led to a decline in water quality and the accretion of the shoreline, as seen in the Malindi Bay (GEF, 2002).

Emerging economic opportunities like mining are expected to cause profound reductions in faunal diversity, and habitat degradation and transformation in the coastal region. The proposed titanium mining project will have a high impact on indigenous plant diversity and ethnobotanical resources, since vegetation will need to be removed before mining can commence.

The planned shiploading facility at Shimoni will also lead to habitat loss, and this forest fragmentation will likely result in great loss of biodiversity (Coastal and Environmental Services, 2000). Accidental oil spills and siltation from dredging activities will also likely cause habitat loss. It will therefore be critical that the Environmental Management Plan is adhered to in terms of rehabilitation and remedial measures, in order to mitigate habitat and biodiversity loss.

52 Towards the Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources

6.6 Root causes of degradation and loss of habitats along the coast

The root causes of the loss and modiﬁcation of habitats are related to population pressure, poverty and inequality, low levels of education, cultural attitudes, and poor governance (Table 6.1). Poor governance manifests itself in a range of management problems and deﬁciencies, and generates threats from forest encroachment, overexploitation of resources, unplanned and unregulated tourism, haphazard coastal development and illegal mining, among other activities.

Table 6.1 Causes, impacts, and consequences of degradation and loss of habitats Root causes Impacts Consequences

Social drivers •Increase in population •Poor regeneration capacity •Loss of cultural heritage •Lack of alternative livelihood •Loss of biomass •Loss of revenue •Cultural attitudes •Increased resource conflict •Loss of livelihood •Increase in commodity prices •Loss of system productivity •Increased poverty •Lack of education and awareness •Habitat fragmentation •Community alienation/marginalization

Economic drivers •Loss of biotic integrity and •Habitat fragmentation •Land transformation for agriculture; salt works, etc. threat to biodiversity •Increased erosion and sedimentation, •Water abstraction •Invasive species •Deterioration of water quantity/quality •Increased market demand •Disease outbreaks •Decline in harvestable resources •Foreign markets and international trade •Loss of revenue •Loss of aesthetic value •Tourism development •Increased poverty

•Increase rainfall and flooding •Loss of biotic integrity and •More frequent droughts Climate change and natural phenomena threat to biodiversity •Drying of rivers •Increased greenhouse gases •Reduced biomass •Diseases •Increased sea surface temperature •Loss of revenue •Coral bleaching •Increased poverty •Loss of tourism opportunities

Governance •Little understanding of the values of ecosystem services •Inadequate financial mechanisms and support at all •Unsuitable exploitation of living •Decline in harvestable levels resources resources •Inappropriate/outdated legislation •Undervaluation of ecosystem services •Decreased revenue •Insufficient public involvement •Limited ability to think beyond •Increased conflicts •Poor enforcement of legislation immediate needs •Increased poverty •Inadequate data to support sustainable utilization •Diminishing livelihoods •Inadequate implementation of available regulatory instruments

Source: GEF, 2002; King, 2004

6.7 Climate change

Climate change threatens the very survival of species and integrity of ecosystems worldwide, on which all life on earth depends (King, 2004). The combined effects of elevated emission of greenhouse gases from industries and rapid deforestation (which compromises the inherent role of forests as carbon sinks) have aggravated the phenomenon. According to the International Panel of Climate Change (IPCC), the global annual carbon dioxide concentration growth rate was larger during the last 10 years (1995–2005 average: 1.9 ppm per year), than it has been since the beginning of continuous direct atmospheric measurements (e.g., the 1960–2005 average was 1.4 ppm per year) (IPCC, 2007). The use of fossil fuels and unsustainable land-use practices, particularly deforestation of tropical habitats, have been the major drivers of this unprecedented rise in greenhouse gases, suggesting an unequivocal link between human activities and climate change (IPCC, 2007). This has consequently led to increased precipitation in some areas, with other regions experiencing severe droughts.

Emerging scientiﬁc information indicates that the 1997/78 and 2006 heavy rains in Kenya, previously thought to have been caused by El-Niño (Kitheka et al., 2002, Bosire et al., 2006), were

53 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

actually caused by a global climate change phenomenon known as the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) (Saji et al., 1999, Overpeck and Cole, 2007). This IOD is a coupled oscillation in ocean– atmosphere conditions, as a result of cool sea surface temperatures (SST) off Sumatra, the most westerly of Indonesia’s principal islands, and warm SST in the Western Indian Ocean, which led to heavy rains in the latter and drought in the former.

During this IOD phenomenon in 1997/78 as well as in 2006, ﬂooding and massive sedimentation caused extensive damage to infrastructure off the Kenyan Coast and inland, and impacted diverse natural resources. There was extensive mangrove die-back in a number of areas along the Kenyan coast. Mwache Creek, a peri-urban mangrove forest in Mombasa, experienced mangrove death covering about 500 ha, while in the Lamu archipelago extensive die- back of mangroves was reported in Dondori creek due to siltation (Kairo et al., 2002). In addition, the 1997/8 El-Niño caused 50–80% mortality of coral reefs due to bleaching, following an abrupt rise in sea water temperature (Obura, 2001).

Whereas the response of coral reefs to this natural catastrophic phenomenon in the Western Indian Ocean has been well documented (Wilkinson et al., 1999, Wilkinson, 2000, Obura, 2005), not much has been done to document the resilience of mangrove and other related ecosystems to climate change. The socio-economic impacts of climate change to local communities have not been assessed either, and it is likely that livelihoods have been affected by the decline in harvestable resources from marine and coastal ecosystems. For instance, die-back of mangroves along Mwache creek led to massive siltation of the channel serving the port of Mombasa. To counter this sedimentation problem, the Kenya Ports Authority (KPA) incurred huge expenses for dredging, leading to high operational costs, and a reduction in the port’s proﬁtability.

Land-use practices like shifting cultivation, over-grazing, deforestation upstream and poor tillage, From Top: Flooding displaces thousands of people, destroys crops and property, and causes severe mangrove die-back due to massive which aggravate soil erosion and sedimentation sedimentation downstream, have

54 Towards the Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources

Figure 6.2 Maps of the Kenya coast showing (a) population density in 2005 (Source: Balk and Yetman, 2004), and (b) a digital elevation model showing potential vulnerabilities of coastal communities to sea-level rise (source: Maina, J., unpublished data) compounded climate-change-related impacts on coastal ecosystems. Additional research is thus urgently required to provide information on the relationship between climate change and habitat degradation, in order to facilitate planning and mitigation.

Climate change will place coastal populations and infrastructure at risk from sea-level rise and coastal storms. Low-lying areas, particularly the Tana Delta, will be the most affected by sea- level rise (Figure 6.2). Food security, rural livelihoods, human health, physical infrastructure and water resources rank high among climate change vulnerability concerns along the coast and the country in general. These are already becoming perennial problems in many parts of the country. Much of the research suggests that climate change will exacerbate vulnerabilities in these areas, adding to the substantial challenges of poverty reduction and sustainable development.

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change entered into force in 1994, with a major objective being to achieve the stabilization of greenhouse gas emissions and to identity national adaptation strategies. Among other recommendations, Article 4 of the Convention commits nations to develop integrated plans for coastal zone management as part of their adaptation strategies. To prevent climate change from eroding the beneﬁts of development, there is need for a strategy that incorporates management of risks associated with climate change into broader development programs.

By putting into perspective the areas likely to suffer the most from the impacts of climate change, and recommending the required actions, it is hoped that this publication will contribute towards Kenya’s National Climate Change Action Plan.

55 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

6.8 Invasive species

Invasive species, also called alien, exotic, or non-indigenous species, are native to a particular area or region but have been introduced elsewhere either by accident or on purpose, signiﬁcantly colonising their new home. Invasive species are found in all taxonomic groups, including viruses, fungi, lower and higher plants, invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. Introduced species often ﬁnd no natural enemies in their new habitat and therefore spread easily and quickly. While some species have invaded habitats on their own, human movements have dramatically increased the diversity and scale of invasions by exotic species (MacDougall & Turkington, 2005)

Some examples of invasive species issues along the coastal area of Kenya include Prosopis juliﬂora, a plant that grow mostly in the drier parts of the North Coast, and the Indian house crow (Corvus splendens), now found in most urban areas of the coast. These two species have become a menace, and efforts to eradicate them are proving difﬁcult.

As a signatory to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Kenya is collaborating with the Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP) to actualise Article 8 (h) of the CBD, which emphasizes the prevention of the introduction, and control or eradication of those alien species which threaten ecosystems, habitats or species. A survey and sampling of ballast water has been done at Mombasa port and taxonomic analysis is currently going on in South Africa for species identification, determination and classification. The process is initially covering only the lower taxa (e.g. diatoms) and does not include higher taxa (e.g. fish and crustaceans).

56 Governance of the Coastal and Marine Environment 7

7.1 Introduction

There exists in Kenya a Framework Environmental Law—the Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act (EMCA)—as well as various other sector-based laws that are relevant to the coastal and marine environment. Kenya is signatory to various international and regional instruments related to the coastal and marine environment. This chapter describes both of these, and their application to the coastal and marine environment.

7.2 Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act

Until 1999, the rules and regulations governing Kenya’s coastal and marine environment were scattered in numerous sector-based statutes. The institutions mandated to deal with the sector had overlapping roles, and many had limited competencies. However, in 1999, Kenya enacted the Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act (No. 8 of 1999) (EMCA), which came into effect on 14 January 2000. The Act makes direct reference to the coastal and marine environment (s.55) and inland waters and wetlands (s. 42). The Act established key environmental institutions, including the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA).

The EMCA provides for the protection and conservation of marine ecologies (s. 54) and the coastal zone (s. 55). The concept of marine protected areas (MPAs) is captured under ss.54 and 55(1). The MPA management tool is, therefore, legally grounded in the EMCA. Moreover, section 55, inter alia, institutionalises integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) as a tool for the protection and preservation of the coastal and marine environment. This section empowers the minister responsible for the environment to declare a particular area a Protected Coastal Zone. It also obliges NEMA, “in consultation with relevant lead agencies, to carry out a survey of the coastal zone and based on this, to prepare an “Integrated National Coastal Zone Management Plan” (s. 55 [2]). This Plan is to be reviewed from time to time, “not exceeding every two years” (s. 55[3]).

The minister responsible for the environment is empowered by the Act, “in consultation with the relevant lead agencies,” to issue “appropriate regulations to prevent, reduce and control pollution or other forms of environmental damage in the coastal zone (s. 55 [6] of EMCA).” These environmental regulations include Impact Assessment and Audit Regulations, 2003; Waste Management Regulations, 2006; and Water Quality Regulations, 2006.

Although the EMCA is relatively recent and therefore largely untested, it provides an important model of framework legislation and institutional arrangements.

7.3 The Coast Development Authority (CDA) Act

The Coast Development Authority Act (Cap 449) provided for the establishment of an Authority to plan and coordinate the implementation of development projects in (the) whole of the coast province and the EEZ and for connected purposes. The Coast Development Authority (CDA) was

57 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

created through this Act, mandated with coastal zone development and governance, including coastal planning and co-ordination of developments. Part I of the Act, inter alia, deﬁnes the CDA’s jurisdictional area as the whole of the Coast Province and the “development area” as “that part of the Coast Province within Lamu, Mombasa, Kiliﬁ, Tana River, Kwale and Taita Taveta districts, including the southern half of Garissa District and the EEZ”

7.4 Sector-based laws

Kenya’s socio-economic activities and processes, and its policy statements, legislations and corresponding institutions, are largely sector-based. These deal with, among other issues relevant to the coastal and marine environment, land-use planning; building and conservation regulations; marine transport regulations and licensing of various activities such as tourist establishments, aquaculture projects, port facilities and services, etc.

7.4.1 Land use planning

There are several legislations dealing with land tenure, land use and planning. These govern important coastal zone sectors such as tourism, ports, mining, agriculture, mangrove exploitation, and land reclamation. A set of laws exists which vest title or ownership of land in the state/ government or other public entities such as local authorities, while others vest title in private owners or developers. Kenya’s land tenure legislation, however, remains very complex.

The Land Planning Act (Cap 303), makes provision for the use and development of land as specified. According to the Act and its detailed subsidiary legislation, no developments are permitted without appropriate application made and consent given by the relevant planning authority. This applies also to coastal and marine activities such as development of tourist establishments, ports, mines, river flows and even the harvesting of mangroves. Most of this authority is delegated to local authorities in their areas of jurisdiction. Thus is established a system of controlled developments, and penalties for non-compliance. The law specifies conditions for the grant of consent (Rule 16 of the Subsidiary Rules). There is an elaborate mechanism for enforcement of planning control (Part V). These planning requirements also apply to government and other public entities, except where there are specified exemptions.

The Land Acquisition Act (Cap 295) deals with the compulsory acquisition of land for the beneﬁt of the public (subject to compensation), while the Land Control Act (Cap 302) controls transactions in agricultural land; the Act establishes Land Control Boards whose consent is required for transactions in such land. The Local Government Act (Cap 265) protects trust land vested in local authorities, and the Agriculture Act (Cap 328) deals with soil conservation and agricultural land use.

7.4.2 Tourism

The laws regulating of the tourism sector include the Tourist Industry Act (Cap 385), Tourism Industry Licensing Act (Cap 381), Tourist Development Cooperation Act (Cap 382) and Wildlife Conservation and Management Act (Cap 376). These regulate tourism-related activities in Kenya, with a view to mitigating tourism-related pressure on ecosystems, preserving community structure, sustaining productivity and conserving biodiversity.

The physical development of tourist establishments is governed by land-use and planning legislations. Because of its high economic value to the country’s GDP, legal, institutional and policy instruments in Kenya encourage the development and expansion of tourism in the coastal and marine areas. However, there is no legislation as yet which addresses or regulates the aesthetic and social aspects of tourism developments and the impact these might have on the coastal and marine environment (FAO/UNEP, 1984).

58 Towards the Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources

7.4.3 Forest Resources Table 7.1 Summary of Kenya Legislation Relevant to the Management of the Coastal and Marine Environment and Resources Until recently, the legislation dealing with coastal forest resources (mainly Year Act Enacted/ Title of law mangroves), was the Forests Act (Cap. Revised 385), in addition to the laws on land tenure, land use and planning elaborated 303 1986 Physical Planning Act above, and the relevant provisions of the 312 1977 Continental Shelf Act EMCA. In 2005 a revised Forests Act was 391 1979 Kenya Ports Authority Act the enacted, repealing the previous one 295 1983 Land Acquisition Act (Cap 385). The Forests Act of 2005 makes general provisions for the establishment, 409 1983 Lakes and Rivers Act creation, and management of all forests 389 1983 Merchant Shipping Act in Kenya. The Act directly controls forest 376 1985 Wildlife Conservation and Management Act activities and transactions, with the minister and the Kenya Forest Service 318 1986 Agriculture Act (KFS) being vested with wide-ranging 347 1967 Irrigation Act powers. 308 1986 Petroleum (Exploration and Production Act

306 1987 Mining Act The new Forest Act provides for an orderly system of protection of forests 382 1988 Kenya Tourist development Corporation Act as well as rational exploitation of timber 302 1989 Land Control Act and other forest products, including 381 1990 Tourist Industry Licensing Act coastal forest resources. 378 1991 Fisheries Act The earliest legislation of mangroves as 443 1991 Tana and Athi Rivers Development Authority Act Forest Reserves was made in 1895. Under 1992 Coast Development Authority Act 449 the new Forest Act, mangrove forests are 2005 Forests Act gazetted as forest reserves, and placed under the protection of the KFS. 1998 Local Government Act 265 1999 Environmental Management and Coordination Act

Under Kenya’s framework environmental 2002 Water Act law, the minister in charge of the 371 Maritime Zones Act environment may declare mangrove areas “protected coastal zones” (s. 55). Alternatively, or in addition, under s. 48 of the EMCA, the director-general of NEMA, following consultation with the forests authorities, may enter into contractual arrangements with a private owner of any land for the purpose of registering such land as forestland.

It is estimated that less than 50% of all coastal forests in Kenya have been granted some form of protection. These protected areas are mostly those categorised as ‘closed forest’ rather than ‘woodland’ or other classes. Under the 2005 Forest Policy, there were 14 Forest Reserves in Kenya, which included the larger forest areas managed by the KFS. There were 4 National Reserves under the Kenya Wildlife Services (KWS) and 40 National Monuments, under the mandate of the National Museums of Kenya (NMK); the Kaya forest patches are classiﬁed as National Monuments. Numerous forest patches and woodland areas covering a total area of over 65,000 ha have no legal protection, and most are on local authority trust lands.

Another relevant legislation for mangroves is the Wildlife (Conservation and Management) Act (Cap 376) in as much as the protection of wildlife is tied to that of their natural habitats and ecosystems. The conservation and protection of wild fauna and ﬂora is often concurrent and mutually beneﬁcial.

59 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

7.4.4 Fisheries

The Fisheries Act vests significant authority in the Director of Fisheries and accords a minimal role to communities. The limited reference made to fisherfolk in the Act relates especially to regulations associated with harvesting and trading fish, with no mention for the role of the fisherfolk in resource management. However, some informal arrangements carried over from past traditional practices, although weakened over time, still persist and are promoted by the Department. For example, community leaders have in many instances retained traditional authority over the use of landing sites by fishermen. A draft Fisheries policies is awaiting cabinet approval (see Section 8.4.1).

7.4.5 Ports and harbours

The Kenya Ports Authority Act (Cap. 391) vests the responsibility of operation and management of Kenya’s ports in the Kenya Ports Authority (KPA), a statutory corporation. The Authority has power to (a) construct any wharf, pier, landing or any other work deemed necessary; (b) control the erection and use of wharves in any port or approaches to such port; and (c) construct new ports. This is an important mandate, considering that Mombasa Port is one of the biggest and busiest in the eastern coast of the Indian Ocean, with a very large hinterland reach. The land-use and planning legislations reviewed above also apply to ports and harbours.

Maritime-zones legislations include the Maritime Zones Act No. 6 of 1989 (Cap 371), which designates Kenya’s maritime boundaries and vests ownership and control in the Republic of Kenya in accordance with relevant international law; and the new Water Act, 2002 (Cap 371).

Recently, additional new legislations and institutions for the regulation of the maritime sector as a whole have been drafted and proposed. The new legislative proposals include a revised Merchant Shipping Bill 2004; a Marine Pollution Control Bill 2004; and the recently enacted Kenya Maritime Authority Act, 2005. The latter replaced the Executive Order of June 2004, through which the Kenya Maritime Authority (KMA) was established.

7.4.6 Lakes and rivers

The Water Act of 2002 deals with the conservation and controlled use of water resources (mainly inland waters), while the Lakes and Rivers Act (Cap 409) regulates dredging and use of steam vessels on certain lakes and the rivers (including Tana and Athi) that drain into the Indian Ocean along Kenya’s coast. Also relevant to river and river-basin management is the Tana and Athi Rivers Development Authority Act (Cap 443), which provides for the establishment of the Tana and Athi Rivers Development Authority (TARDA) to advise on the institution and coordination of development projects in the Tana River and Athi River basins and related matters. This includes the planning and development of the two rivers’ basins and resources.

However, the legal status of estuaries and deltas remains controversial, as they cut across several jurisdictions (riparian, forest, marine, coastal zone) and harbor abundant resources. There is little effective legal protection except under protected-area or forest-reserve regulations. The 1971 Ramsar Convention could be a primary instrument for the conservation of these ecosystems at the national level. In this regard, an application for appropriate Ramsar designation of the Tana Delta is under preparation.

On the other hand, all intertidal zones are public, meaning that no beaches in Kenya are privately owned. However there is no single or speciﬁc legal instrument that relates to beaches, representing a weakness in the law.

60 Towards the Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources

7.4.7 Agriculture

The Agriculture Act (Cap 318) of the Laws of Kenya was enacted in 1963, and has undergone successive amendments over the years. The Act is relevant to issues related to land-based sources of coastal and marine pollution and degradation. The Agriculture Act deals mainly with soil conservation and agricultural land use in general. It does not expressly provide for the use of fertilizers and chemicals, and thus these are not effectively regulated by any government department. Given that agricultural chemicals and fertilizers are used on large-scale farms in Mombasa, Kiliﬁ and Lamu, and that the coast province is an important horticultural producer in the country, the lack of regulation of chemicals and fertilizers under the Agriculture Act constitutes a gap in the law.

7.4.8 Irrigation

The Irrigation Act (Chapter 347) deals with the use of rivers for irrigation. The Act establishes the National Irrigation Board as a corporate body and deﬁnes its functions and powers. The Board is a statutory corporation directly controlled by the line ministry. The Irrigation Act is currently under review, within the framework of the national irrigation policy development. The EMCA, 1999, is explicit (s. 42) that damming or interference with rivers, unless properly authorized by the Director General of NEMA following an environmental impact assessment, is prohibited.

7.4.9 Mining

The Mining Act (cap 306) provides the legal and institutional framework for mining in Kenya.

7.4.10 Marine resources

There are two Acts that protect marine resources within the country’s geographical jurisdiction: the Maritime Zones Act and The Continental Shelf Act (Cap 312). The Maritime Zones Act gives the government of Kenya control of marine resources situated within Kenya’s territorial waters and exclusive economic zone (EEZ). Kenya’s territorial zone and EEZ extend 12 nautical miles and 200 nautical miles respectively. In these zones the government has rights similar to those applicable on terrestrial environments, including the rights to exploit and develop marine resources and conduct research. The Continental Shelf Act was enacted in 1975 and accords the government rights in respect of the management and exploitation of natural resources of the continental shelf situated within Kenya’s territorial waters. Such rights include the exploitation of ﬁsheries resources and the conduct of scientiﬁc research.

7.5 Regional and international instruments

The increasing complexity and interconnectedness of global environmental issues has necessitated closer cooperation in resolving environmental problems at the international and regional levels. The global environment agenda has expanded rapidly since the 1972 Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment, resulting in many Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) that cover diverse aspect of the environment including the atmosphere, chemicals and waste, biodiversity, and oceans, seas and water. MEAs are the main method available under international law for countries to work together on global environmental issues. Kenya has remained an active participant in most of the post-Stockholm initiatives, many of which have relevance for the marine environment. To date, Kenya has signed and/or ratiﬁed a number of international Conventions, Protocols and Agreements relevant to the coastal and marine environment (Table 7.2).

61 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

Table 7.2 Relevant multilateral environmental agreements signed by Kenya National Focal Name of Convention Focus Area Institution African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Natural Resource Kenya Wildlife Services Resources, 1968 (as revised in 2003). Conservation Convention On Wetlands (Ramsar Convention), 1971 Wetlands Kenya Wildlife Services UNESCO Convention Concerning The Protection Of The World National Museums of Culture and Heritage Cultural And Natural Heritage (1972) Kenya Washington Convention On International Trade In Endangered Trade Kenya Wildlife Services Species (CITES, 1973) Bonn Convention On The Conservation Of Migratory Species Of Wildlife Kenya Wildlife Services Wild Animals (CMS, 1979) UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 1982 Oceans Governance Attorney General’s Office London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (1972) Dumping at Sea Ministry of Transport Protocol to the Convention on Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Waste and Other Matter (1996) International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, Ship-based Pollution Ministry of Transport as amended in 1978 (MARPOL 1973/78) International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response Oil Pollution at Sea Ministry of Transport and Cooperation (1990)

Convention for the Protection, Management and Development of National Environment Coastal and Marine the Marine and Coastal Environment of the East African Region Management Authority Conservation with its Protocols (Nairobi Convention, 1985) (NEMA)

Vienna Convention For The Protection Of The Ozone Layer Ozone Layer Ministry of Environment Supplemented By The 1987 Montreal Protocol On Substances That Protection and Natural Resources Deplete The Ozone Layer (1985)

Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement of Ministry of Environment Hazardous Waste Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (1989) and Natural Resources

Bamako Convention on the Ban of the import into Africa and Ministry of Environment the Control of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Waste and Natural Resources Hazardous Wastes within Africa (1991)

Ministry of Environment Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) Biodiversity and Natural Resources United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Ministry of Environment Climate Change (UNFCCC 1992) and Natural Resources United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD, Ministry of Environment Desertification 1994) and Natural Resources Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPS), Ministry of Environment Chemicals 2001 and Natural Resources

Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure Ministry of Environment for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Chemicals and Natural Resources Trade (1998)

Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Marine Environment NEMA Environment from Land Based Activities (1995)

International agreements and programmes help to galvanise focus and political attention on the environment, while providing the basis for international and regional cooperation. One of the most important international processes was the 1992 Rio Summit, which culminated in Agenda 21: The Global Agenda for Sustainable Development in the 21st Century.

Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 contains far-reaching and extensive recommendations for the management of the marine and coastal environment. The Chapter provides frameworks for rational and long-term sustainable use and protection of ocean and coastal-zone resources, as

62 Towards the Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources well as principles of food security, maritime safety, environmental security, and investment safety. The calls for action in Agenda 21 were reinforced 10 years later in the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, adopted in 2002 at the World Summit on Sustainable Development.

Unfortunately international processes have not been sufﬁcient to reverse the trend of serious environmental and resource degradation problems of the world. There is a need for domestication and actual implementation of the international instruments at the national and local levels.

The EMCA (1999) has to a large extent attempted to translate provisions of international agreements, though implementation remains slow. Many of the maritime agreements such as the International Convention for Prevention of Pollution at Sea (MARPOL 73/78) and the London Convention are yet to be domesticated. The current Merchant Shipping Act (Cap 389) has been in existence for over 30 years and is therefore outdated and does not make provision for the implementation of international conventions such the International Convention on the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS).

Greater effort will be required to ensure consistency between global commitments and actual national-level implementation to realize poverty reduction and sustainable development goals.

7.6 Need for integrated coastal and marine legislation and implementation

The large number of statutes reviewed above leads in certain cases to duplications, overlaps, inconsistencies, and a system of very weak penalties (except perhaps for the newly enacted EMCA, 1999). It is, for example, not clear whether the framework legislation supersedes the sectoral laws in certain respects.

In addition, the country lacks sufficient technical and financial capacity to implement the relevant framework and sectoral laws. Training and recruitment of personnel, acquisition of equipment and facilities, and more budgetary and other resources are required, if the implementation of the various legislations is to be achieved. Other constraints hampering the effective and timely implementation of existing laws include relatively low political goodwill, manifested by a general apathy to coastal and marine issues; low public awareness and education concerning coastal and marine issues; and multiplicity and overlaps in the many sectoral laws, without a proper coordinating mechanisms. The absence of a specific law on the coastal and marine environment and resources compounds the issue.

It is necessary to work towards a speciﬁc coastal and marine legislation, incorporating many of the issues already existing in the many sectoral laws and in the EMCA, 1999, relevant international and regional conventions, including those dealing with land-based sources and activities impacting coastal ecosystems. Such a law would serve to consolidate existing laws relevant to the coastal and marine environment and resources; create a better coordinating mechanism; and establish new rules, standards and institutions.

Management of Coastal and Marine Resources 8

8.1 Introduction

Prior to the enactment of the Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act (EMCA) in 1999, the National Environment Secretariat (NES) co-ordinated environmental activities under the auspices of the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. Established established in 1974 by a presidential directive (Act No. 5 of 1969), the NES was under the Ofﬁce of the President, until it was transferred to the Ministry of Environment in 1979. The Secretariat chaired the Inter-Ministerial Committee on Environment (IMCE), a government discussion forum on environment-related matters. Other relevant institutions included the Presidential Commission on Soil Conservation and Afforestation (1981), with a focus on soil and water conservation and review of existing legislation relating to the same; and the Provincial Administration within the Ofﬁce of the President.

Among the key institutions created under the EMCA is the National Environment Council (NEC), a policy organ chaired by the minister in charge of the environment, with a wide variety of stakeholders. The NEC is responsible for policy formulation; the setting of national goals, objectives and priorities for the protection of the environment; and the promotion of co-operation among public developments, local authorities and other stakeholders (s. 5).

The EMCA (s. 7) also established the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), mandated to exercise general supervision and co-ordination over all matters relating to the environment, and to be the principal instrument of government in the implementation of polices relating to the environment.

In addition, Provincial and District Environment Committees appointed by the Minister (s. 29), are large and representative of both public and private stakeholders’ interests. They are mandated with overseeing the proper management of the environment within their respective provincial or district domains (s. 30).

The institutional arrangements for the ports sector are deﬁned in the Kenya Ports Authority (KPA) Act. There is minimal, if any, non-State intervention in the administration or regulation of the ports sector. The line Ministry of Transport and Communications exercises general oversight of the KPA. However, the Kenya Maritime Authority (KMA) has been recently established to monitor, regulate and coordinate activities in the maritime industry. In this regard, KMA handles the administration and enforcement of the Merchant Shipping Act and other legislation relating to the maritime sector.

The Tana River and Athi River Development Authority (TARDA) was established under the Cap 443 of the Laws of Kenya, as an authority to advice on the institution and co-ordination of development projects in the area of the Tana and Athi River basins and related matters. The National Irrigation Board (NIB) was established as a corporate body, with functions and powers deﬁned under the Irrigation Act (Cap 347).

65 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

Over time, additional institutions capable of cutting across administrative jurisdictions have been created. These include the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) in 1989 and various Regional Development Authorities. The Coast Development Authority (CDA) was created in 1990, with the mandate to, inter alia, carry out surveys and studies, and co-ordinate and plan coastal development activities to ensure sustainable utilization of coastal resources, including those within the exclusive economic zone (EEZ). The deﬁned functions of the CDA include planning for the development of the coastal area, initiating project activities identiﬁed from such planning, and developing an up-to-date long-range development plan for the Area. It is noteworthy that technically, NEMA is not included in the composition or mandate of the CDA.

8.2 Management tools

8.2.1 Environmental impact assessment (EIA)

Environmental impact assessment (EIA) was ﬁrst made a requirement in the Kenyan statutes under the Physical Planning Act of 1996, but since environmental management was not the core mandate of the Physical Planning Department, there was limited enforcement of the requirement. Indeed, until the enactment of the EMCA, EIA remained largely an optional practice undertaken by few large-scale donor-funded projects. Since the enactment of the EMCA in 1999, however, EIA has become a powerful decision-making tool in environmental management.

The EMCA requires the submission of study reports to help determine whether or not a proposed project will have adverse impacts on the environment. In general, all projects that are “out of character” or of a scale “not in keeping with the surrounding”, as well as any that involve major changes in land use, are required to undergo EIA before their commencement.

EIA is currently the core activity of NEMA and the main tool available to the Authority for environmental management. A Department of Compliance and Enforcement has been set up to oversee compliance with all the provisions of the Act. The Department is currently generating signiﬁcant revenue for NEMA from EIA and other fees.

Importantly, the EIA process has also provided a direct role for interested and affected members of the public to participate in the management of the environment. The Act requires the Authority to publicise EIA reports in order to allow the public to make written or oral submissions on EIA reports. To facilitate the process and to ease public access, copies of EIA reports are made available at the offices of the Provincial Director of Environment, the District Commissioner, and the District Environment Officer. This has afforded an opportunity for the public to contribute to and participate in national environmental management. It was in this spirit of public participation that several large-scale coastal projects, such as the titanium mining project and offshore oil exploration, received significant public review.

The EIA provisions have been further elaborated, with NEMA gazetting additional EIA Regulations in 2003. The regulations clarify the EIA process, and carry guidelines on the content, structure and presentation of EIA reports. In 2006, NEMA published regulations speciﬁc to Water Quality (Legal Notice No. 120) and Solid Waste (Legal Notice No. 121).

Proper application and enforcement of EIA provisions and related regulations could address many of the coastal and marine environmental degradation issues highlighted in this publication. For instance, a more stringent enforcement of the Section 42 of the EMCA would be necessary to minimise the physical alteration and destruction of habitats, pollution, and destructive practices. The Section prohibits drainage, excavation, deposition or introduction of living species into a wetland (including the coastal zone) as well as the erection, reconstruction, placement, alteration, removal, or demolition of “any structure or part of any structure” without an approved EIA.

It is hoped that as EIA gains greater public awareness and acceptance, the country will realise more sustainable development of the coastal and marine environment.

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8.2.2 Environmental Audit (EA)

While EIA is a management tool for new projects, the EMCA (1999) also provides for environmental audit (EA), a compliance monitoring and evaluation tool to gauge how well existing projects/facilities perform with respect to compliance with environmental standards and regulations. The Act requires existing facilities that could have negative environmental impacts to undertake an EA every 12 months.

The EA involves an appraisal of production systems, environmental regulatory frameworks, environmental health and safety measures, and sustainable use of natural resources. In addition, an EA examines internal control mechanisms to mitigate negative impacts, and any sensitization policies adopted to create environmental awareness among workers and users of the facility. The EA enables NEMA to determine how well operators conform to statements made in their EIA study reports, and identify measures put in place to mitigate any effects not contemplated in the EIA study.

NEMA began to enforce the EA requirements in 2004 after the Authority publicised relevant provisions of the Act and demanded submission of EA reports by the end of that year. There was a good response, with upwards of 5,000 EA reports submitted. Most of the tourism establishments at the coast complied and presented detailed assessments of their operations. In subsequent years, compliance has continued to improve, with more projects submitting EA reports.

The EA has enormous potential to assist in good environmental governance. It is expected that NEMA carefully studies submissions and veriﬁes them, through physical inspections of facilities by gazetted environmental inspectors. In such instances, the Authority would, wherever necessary, institute corrective measures to be reviewed again in the subsequent year. However, due to capacity limitations, few reviews or validation exercises take place, except in crisis situations when an issue has generated widespread concern from the public. Moreover, public input to the EA process is limited, as the Act does not require the Authority to publish the audit reports it receives.

Over time, the application of the EA tool is expected to help address the many challenges being experienced in the coastal and marine environment.

8.3 Marine Protected Area (MPA) management

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are areas that are designated to protect and conserve marine resources, as a means to addressing the declining global state of marine biodiversity and ﬁsheries. Throughout the world, MPAs have come to be regarded as effective tools for the management of marine biodiversity, populations of exploited species and overall health of the oceans. With the establishment of the Malindi/Watamu Marine Park and Reserve in 1968, Kenya became one of the ﬁrst African countries to establish a MPA. Today, Kenya has 9 MPAs (Table 8.1).

MPAs are provided for in the Wildlife Conservation and Management Act (1989). The actual level of protection within MPAs varies with whether the MPA is a reserve or a park.

In marine reserves, the Wildlife Act allows some extractive activities, such as ﬁshing using traditional methods, while prohibiting others such as drilling for oil or gas. Marine parks, on the other hand, are completely protected from all extractive activities. Under the Act, all biological resources within a park are protected, and no removal or disturbance of any living or non-living marine resource is permitted, except as necessary for monitoring or research to evaluate management effectiveness. Marine parks are sometimes called ‘ecological reserves’ or ‘no-take areas’.

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Table 7.3 Marine Protected Areas in Kenya Within Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), no Size Year of Name of MPA construction is allowed within 30 m of the high (km2) establishment water mark, to protect critical habitats such as Kiunga MNR 600 1980 turtle nesting sites. However, enforcement of Malindi MNP 6.3 1968 restrictions on development on land adjacent to beaches has been very poor, with many Watamu MNP 32 1968 examples of construction below the high tide Malindi MNR 177 1968 line, especially in urban areas and within Mombasa MNP 10 1986 MPAs.

Mombasa MNR 200 1986 Due to decreased human disturbance within Diani MNR 75 1993 MPAs, increases in the abundance, diversity Kisite MNP 28 1978 and productivity of marine organisms have Mpunguti MNR 11 1978 been recorded. Several studies in Kenya have also indicated spillover effects, with size and MNP: Marine National Park; MNR: Marine National Reserve abundance of exploited species increasing in areas adjacent to MPAs.

MPAs in Kenya have remained relatively small, in the face of increasing pressure from a growing population, which might require reconsideration in the future. Another aspect of concern in MPA management is the fact that in most cases, the boundaries of the MPAs begin from the water mark, leaving out adjacent and interlinked ecosystems such as the mangroves. New approaches elsewhere in the world promote the establishment of a network of MPAs that encompasses the diversity of marine habitats, in order to afford greater resilience to the ecosystem and provide greater protection for marine communities.

8.4 Fisheries management

The Fisheries Department is the primary agency responsible for fisheries management and development in Kenya. The principal legal instrument applied by the Department is the Fisheries Act (Cap 378) and its various subsidiaries. The Kenya Marine Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI) was established as a parastatal, through the Science and Technology Amendment Act (Cap 250), to undertake research in marine and freshwater fisheries, aquaculture, environmental and ecological studies, and marine research, including chemical and physical oceanography. This research is aimed at generating information and data that will guide the country in undertaking sustainable exploitation, management and conservation of its fisheries and aquatic resources, as a means to achieving food security, poverty reduction, and creation of employment. The Fisheries Department and KMFRI have sometimes fallen under different ministries, resulting in the lack of a coordinated agenda for the two, closely related bodies.

The Fisheries Act provides for measures aimed at ensuring stocks sustainability, trade-related issues and environmental conservation, including the restriction of destructive practices and protection of breeding areas. Illegal practices prohibited by the Act include use of under-size nets, beach seining, the use of spear guns and dynamite fishing, among others. The Fisheries Department is also the Competent Authority (CA) in fish and fishery matters in Kenya. It is responsible for the development and enforcement of fish handling standards that minimize post-harvest losses. The lack of enforcement capacity within the Fisheries Department, however, limits the effectiveness of these interventions. The large-scale export-oriented private sector is organized under the Kenya Fish Processors & Exporters Association (AFIPEK). This association has helped in self-regulation, marketing and interfacing with the government. However, no national organizations for local artisanal fishermen and/or small- and medium-scale traders exist, and as such, their voices remain unheard.

Other public institutions involved with ﬁsheries activities are: regional development authorities under the Ministry of Regional Development, the Ministry of Environment and Natural

68 Towards the Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources

Resources, universities and public laboratories. There are also several civil and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) working in the sector, especially on stock access and conservation issues. It would be advantageous for these organizations to coordinate their activities, and include other stakeholders in the ﬁshery sector.

The current Act vests significant authority in the Director of Fisheries and accords a minimal role to communities. The limited reference made to fisherfolk in the Act relates specifically to regulations associated with harvesting and trading fish, with no provisions for their role in the resource management. However, some informal arrangements carried over from past traditional practices, although weakened over time, still persist and are promoted by the Fisheries Department. For example, in many instances, community leaders have retained traditional authority over the use of landing sites by fishermen.

However, the lack of supervision of ﬁshing areas is a major problem. Inadequate resources (patrol boats, trained personnel), limited understanding of coastal and marine resources, processes and opportunities, inadequate legislation, lack of or poor enforcement, and fragmented institutional arrangements and overlapping jurisdictions are among the reasons for this situation.

8.4.1 The New Fisheries Policy

The fisheries sector has operated without a fisheries policy since independence, a factor that has limited management and research effectiveness, and discouraged investment in the sector. A draft Fisheries Policy (2005) awaiting cabinet approval seeks to redress the situation and provide an effective and coordinated approach to fisheries activities. A robust and well-regulated fisheries sector could contribute significantly to the country’s development, poverty-alleviation and wealth-creation strategies.

The overall objective of the draft Policy is to “create an enabling environment for a vibrant fishing industry providing optimal and sustainable benefits, alleviating poverty, and creating wealth, taking into consideration gender issues”. The draft Policy addresses most aspects of fisheries management and development, including environmental conservation, regional cooperation, research, surveillance and monitoring, social responsibility and governance.

The draft Policy recognises the role of local communities, the private sector, and the civil society in the management of fisheries. It encourages community participation in resource management and aims at institutionalizing co-management in the utilization and management of fisheries resources through, inter alia, the establishment of Beach Management Units. The Fisheries Department will be required to prepare specific fishery management plans for various fisheries, involving stakeholders. The draft Policy further promotes the use of indigenous knowledge alongside accurate scientific information, to improve management.

8.5 Management of tourism development

Tourism planning and development, which encompasses coastal zone planning and development, falls under the Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife. The strategic direction for Kenya’s tourism has generally been geared heavily towards tourism development, with more emphasis placed on the number of visitors than on the sustainability of the industry.

A National Tourism Master Plan developed in 1996 laid out the general strategy for tourism development, providing for objective approaches to the realization of the targets for tourism development, including conservation of tourism resources. However, the Plan has largely remained unimplemented, due to inadequate coordination among the many sectors impacting on tourism.

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The Master Plan gives special recognition to the coastal environment, with one out of its three volumes dedicated to coastal tourism. Of the 8 principal tourism regions identiﬁed in the Plan, 2 are coastal—the Coast Region and Tana Basin.

A draft Tourism Policy Framework developed in 2003 provides the most recent guiding principles for tourism development in the country. The overall aim of the Policy is to ensure that tourism becomes a key vehicle for job creation, poverty reduction and wealth creation in line the country’s economic development agenda. The policy promotes tourism development based on environmentally, socially and economically sustainable practices, while taking into account the values and beliefs of the people of Kenya. A core principle is the recognition that government, communities and the commercial sector must work together to ensure a sound future for Kenya’s tourism industry.

Private-sector involvement and voluntary initiatives have been a common feature of Kenya’s tourism for a long time. There exists a number of umbrella tourism-related organizations that play key role in the decisions affecting the industry. The Eco-tourism Society of Kenya (ESOK) is a voluntary organization that creates awareness among the hotel industry and local people on the concept of ecotourism and develops the capacity of local people to participate in ecotourism. The Society has an eco-rating scheme for rewarding best practices in sustainable tourism. Other umbrella organisations include the Kenya Hotel and Caters Association, Kenya Association of Tour Operators, and the Mombasa and Coast Tours Association.

8.6 Forest management

Mangrove forests at the Kenyan coast have been under the management of both the Kenya Forest Service (KFS) and Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) under different laws, regulations and jurisdictions, leading to confusion in enforcement and management. The situation is further exacerbated by interests from fisheries (marine environment and fishing grounds) and tourism departments. As the Act’s implementing agency, NEMA attempts to rationalize the responsibilities and interests of different government stakeholders in the implementation of the Environmental Management and Conservation Act (EMCA, 1999). Local communities are involved in one way or other in managing mangrove forests. The Draft Forest Policy (2005) attempts to link all these aspects and give effective direction in the management of mangroves. Co-management of mangroves has been strengthened, with a greater role for local communities, their immediate beneficiaries.

Mangroves are the first marine ecosystem in Kenya in which active restoration is being attempted. In Gazi, a research–community partnership has established restoration plots over 10 years, with research into benefits that can be obtained during restoration, such as promoting ecotourism and thinning trees and using these for fuel and/or construction. An economic analysis of replanted mangroves has estimated the net income from a 12-year-old plantation to be approximately US$ 3000/ha/yr (Kairo and Caroline, 2007). Such information can be used to persuade the government to invest in mangrove reforestation. Currently there is approximately 100 ha of replanted mangrove at Gazi Bay, but the activity’s scaling up is needed if it is to have a significant management function countrywide.

8.7 Management of river deltas

The Tana Delta is the only estuary that comes under a consistent management umbrella, as it falls under the KWS. It has high conservation and biodiversity value. Nevertheless, it is not a protected area and is not actively managed as such. Other estuarine areas are essentially unmanaged.

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8.8 Management of coral reefs and seagrass beds

Coral reefs in Kenya are managed as Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) under the Wildlife Conservation and Management Act. Six marine reserves and parks have been designated and are managed by the Kenya Wildlife Service. Malindi and Watamu MPAS were the first MPAs to be established in Africa, in 1968. Generally, MPAs have been successful in excluding fishermen and shell collectors, but less so at curbing late night poaching. Coral reef fisheries outside of protected areas are covered by the Fisheries Act, while Marine Reserves are also restricted to traditional fishing methods. The proposed Fisheries Policy (2005) will include significant improvements for regulating coral reef fisheries.

Seagrass beds are not cited directly under any legal instrument. Like coral reefs, seagrass beds in MPAs are protected by the KWS. As the dominant habitat of shallow-reef systems, seagrass beds provide the main habitat for many ﬁsheries species, and therefore are affected by ﬁsheries legislation.

8.9 Protection of ﬂagship species

Among the ﬂagship species in need of protection is the whale. Kenya, alongside South Africa, supports the moratorium on whaling in the Indian Ocean, and supports efforts to promote improved management of the Indian Ocean Whale Sanctuary.

The sea turtle is another flagship species in Kenya, and the maritime zones of Kenya are a sea turtle and marine mammal sanctuary. Legislation that protects sea turtles and marine mammals include the Fisheries Act (Cap 378) of 1989 and the Wildlife (Conservation and Management) Act (Cap 376). Turtles are protected from hunting and harassment under the revised Fisheries Act, Cap 378 of 1991. The Act prohibits any person or vessel in Kenyan waters to fish sea turtles. In 2001, a number of restrictions were declared, including seasonal restrictions on trawling, the need for an approved turtle excluder device (TED) on trawlers, and a ban on the use of monofilament nets, seine nets, harpoons and spear guns (Kenya Gazette notice no. 7565).

Under the Wildlife (Conservation and Management) Act, only two species of sea turtles, Green turtle (Chelonia mydas) and Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), are mentioned as protected animals and categorised as a national trophy. The Act prohibits dealing in or being in possession of a “live or dead turtle, its ﬂesh or tissue, bone, claw, egg, skin or tooth, whether processed or changed by an act of man, unless with special permission from an authorizing agency”.

The dugong is also mentioned in the Wildlife (Conservation and Management) Act, Cap 376 (revised edition 1985) as a protected species.

8.10 Management of open-sea ﬁsheries

The major threats to marine life in Kenya’s pelagic waters include poaching and overfishing by foreign-owned vessels, oil pollution from transiting tankers, piracy from neighboring countries, dumping, discharge from ships (as a result of pumping out ballast and bilge water), insufficient data relating to offshore fisheries, and lack of clear legislation specifically directed towards coastal resource management. Therefore, the management of Kenya’s coastal resources and the pelagic zone needs to be strengthened by empowering the institutions that are mandated to carry out patrols and research. Facilitation is needed in the form of financial resources and training of personnel. There is also need to review and update existing legislation and policy to better secure the resources.

Moreover, as the demand for coastal resources increases, there is a need to adopt sustainable interventions such as integrated management plans for the coastal region. Communities living

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adjacent to natural resources have an important role to play in the management of the resources and should therefore be involved at all levels of decision-making. Such community involvement will contribute to the sustainable management of natural resources and their conservation.

8.11 Constraints and limitations to management

The main constraints and limitations to the functioning of the various national institutional arrangements dealing with the coastal and marine environment include the lack of or inadequate ﬁnancial and technical resources. Low funding affects the capacity of these institutions to create and sustain technical and other capacities necessary for carrying out their mandates.

Another key constraint relates to overlapping and uncoordinated jurisdictions. Most of the institutions with a stake in coastal zone management fall under different ministerial or sectoral disciplines, such as water, agriculture, transportation, regional development, local government, energy and others. This multiplicity, in the absence of adequate coordination mechanisms, makes it difﬁcult to give focused attention to the coastal and marine environment and other resources. The fact that there is no single ministry or agency with dedicated or core competency to deal with coastal and marine issues clearly is an important limitation.

Moreover, by virtue of largely government control, the institutions lack adequate participation from the private sector, civil society, donors and others. This means that the institutions may be working in parallel or at cross-purposes with other key stakeholders, thus undermining any efforts to have a more consolidated and consultative approach towards the development, protection and conservation of the coastal and marine environment in Kenya.

8.12 Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)

Integrated coastal zone area management (ICZM), also referred to as integrated coastal area management (ICAM), has grown conceptually and operationally, particularly since its inception in the USA in the early 1970s. The concept and practice of ICZM is gaining widespread acceptance as a management system and vehicle for rational and sustainable utilization of coastal zone resources.

In Kenya, the genesis of ICZM can be traced to 1993/94 following a Regional Workshop and Policy Conference on ICAM for Eastern Africa held in 1993 in Arusha, Tanzania. Kenya participated in this ministerial-level conference, whose key recommendation was the establishment and development of ICZM as a vehicle for guiding the multiple use and sustainable development of the coastal zones of the region.

Kenya’s ICAM agenda was spearheaded by the then newly established Coast Development Authority, which formed an ICAM Secretariat to coordinate coastal zone development issues. An interministerial ICAM Steering Committee was also formed, initially under the chairmanship of the Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI).

The initial phase of ICAM, including the operations of the Secretariat, was supported by donors, particularly the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) through the Coastal Resources Centre of the University of Rhodes Island (CRC-URI). Other donors were the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA), UNEP and FAO. The initial phase entailed an interactive learning and participatory process at a pilot site, the Nyali–Bamburi– Shanzu Area of Mombasa. The major outcome of this ﬁrst phase was the development of a guiding policy document entitled “Towards Integrated Management and Sustainable Development of Kenya’s Coast: Findings and Recommendations for an Action Strategy in the Nyali–Bamburi–Shanzu Area”. The document was presented at the First National ICZM Workshop held in Mombasa, in November 1995.

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This was followed by a second planning and implementation phase, which extended the proﬁling to other parts of the coast and included the development of project proposals to address some of the concerns identiﬁed in the previous phase. The activities of the second phase culminated in the 2nd National ICAM workshop held in Mombasa, in August 1999. ICZM was subsequently piloted in 2000 in the Diani–Chale area of South Coast through the support of IUCN, the World Conservation Union.

ICZM is now institutionalized in Kenya through the EMCA (1999), which provides for the preparation of “an Integrated National Coastal Zone Management Plan” based on detailed survey of coastal resources and uses.

This State of the Coast Report has been prepared in compliance with the provisions of the Act (EMCA, Sec 55), which mandates NEMA to prepare an ICZM plan, and review such a plan every 2 years. An ICZM Policy Steering Committee has been constituted by NEMA to oversee the preparation of the ﬁrst ICZM Plan, with a draft ICZM policy expected to be completed by 2008.

The goal of the ICZM Strategy is “to guide the sustainable management and equitable use of coastal and marine resources of Kenya” with the following speciﬁc objectives: 1. To ensure that ecological values of the coastal zone are fully integrated into coastal resource use planning and management; 2. To conserve and manage critical coastal ecosystems, habitats and species; 3. To improve the knowledge base for sustainable coastal zone management; and 4. To develop and support education and information programmes to promote coastal zone conservation, protection and management.

It is expected that the implementation of the ICZM strategy will minimise the resource-use conﬂicts experienced, and greatly improve coastal zone management.

Conclusions and Recommendations 9

9.1 Introduction

Kenya’s coastal region has a wealth of both living and non-living resources, which support livelihood and economic development, in addition to providing ecosystem goods and services within the region and beyond. These resources include mangrove and terrestrial forests, coral reefs, seaweeds, seagrass beds, lagoons, coastal dunes, ﬂoodplains, freshwater and saltwater marshes, sandy beaches, rocky shores, and the open ocean. They support human life, rich and diverse ﬁsheries, bird life, marine mammals, sea turtles, and myriad other living species. The coastal region is also rich in minerals such as salt, coral rock, titanium, pyrochlore, gypsum, barites, iron ore and clay.

The region’s natural resources drive maritime trade, tourism, ﬁsheries, agriculture, mining and other industries that form the economic backbone of the Coast Province and the country in general.

Owing to this heavy dependence on natural resources, the rapid growth in population and expansion of various economic sectors at the coast and countrywide have led to over-exploitation, environmental degradation and resource-use conﬂicts.

Among the most frequently encountered pressures on coastal and marine living resources are • Over-exploitation; • Loss and modification of habitats; • Destructive fishing practices; • Encroachment from human settlement, including urban and tourism development; • Uncontrolled development of beach-fronts, blocking beach access routes to fishermen, and • The effects of climate change.

These factors cumulatively impact negatively on coastal communities and country at large, as indicated by increased coastal erosion, reduced ﬁsheries production, shortages of timber for building and other uses, and loss of biodiversity and aesthetic quality of the environment.

The root causes for the resources over-exploitation and environmental degradation being witnessed include the following: • poverty and inequality in resource allocation and distribution; • lack of alternative livelihoods for coastal inhabitants; • low level of education and scant awareness of environmental issues among coastal populations; • gender disparity, with women having little participation in environmental management decisions; • declining respect for traditional resource-management systems; • inadequate legislative and policy frameworks and macro-economic policies; • inappropriate land tenure systems; • inadequate institutional and ﬁnancial capacity for enforcement of regulations and surveillance;

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• limited private-sector and civil-society commitment to environmental concerns; and • climate change.

Knowledge gaps exist on key aspects of coastal ecosystems, their goods and services and interaction with human activities along the coast. Reports and databases on coastal and marine resources are often scattered across different sources, which makes them unusable for management.

A key challenge is to systematically harmonize and monitor key indicators (including socio- economic and environmental indicators), as a means of ensuring that standards set in policies and development strategies are adhered to. Monitoring provides a basis for informed decision- making in line with national vision and goals, as well as international obligations. In addition to monitoring, the spatial distribution of the identiﬁed issues, which often spans several ecologies, should be elucidated through systematic analyses of resource-utilisation patterns and related threats and impacts thereof.

9.2 Recommendations for Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)

Sectoral approaches to addressing issues related to the coastal and marine environment have not yielded the desired results. Notable examples include measures aimed at stopping destructive ﬁshing practices and mangrove degradation, and attempts to promote conservation in protected areas.

There is need to link these various approaches with each other and with other development activities, through an effective Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) programme. Key recommendations for such a holistic approach are presented below.

9.2.1 Political goodwill

Strong political goodwill with an active interest in coastal and marine environmental issues, and broad public awareness and education concerning these issues would bring about signiﬁcant gains.

9.2.2 Speciﬁc Legislation

It is necessary to work towards a speciﬁc coastal and marine legislation, incorporating many components already covered in various sectoral laws, the Environmental Management and Co- ordination Act (EMCA, 1999), and relevant international and regional conventions to which Kenya is signatory. Such a law would serve to consolidate existing laws with a bearing on the coastal and marine environment and its resources; create a more functional coordinating mechanism; establish new rules and standards, and establish appropriate institutions. There is also a need to domesticate and implement international instruments at the national and local levels.

A single ministry or agency with dedicated or core competency to deal with coastal and marine issues would be preferable to the current situation, in which overlapping and uncoordinated jurisdictions among various institutions and ministries hinder implementation.

9.2.3 Ecosystem restoration

In order to restore degraded ecosystems along the coast, the following actions are required: • Review restoration work already underway (both coastal and marine) to identify areas that require and are suitable for ecosystem restoration and those more suitable for natural regeneration;

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• Identify national and local expertise, and build the capacity for rehabilitation through the development and/or dissemination (in local languages where necessary) of best-practice guidelines and training; and • Monitor the impacts of restoration at the species and ecosystem levels, as well as on the socio-economic wellbeing of local communities.

9.2.4 Mitigate threats from land-based activities

In order to address the threats from land-based activities to marine and coastal ecosystems, the following actions are proposed: • Enhance awareness of land-use management approaches among planners, resource managers and policy makers; • Analyse existing land-based activities which impact negatively on coastal ecosystems and livelihoods, and to design mitigative measures; • Promote partnerships with stakeholders on existing and planned coastal developments; and • Work with the mass media to build the capacity of journalists to report on ecosystem concerns on radio, TV and newspapers, with a special focus on local-language presentation.

9.2.5 Mitigate threats from unsustainable ﬁsheries

9.2.5.1 Address unsustainable exploitation of ﬁsheries and other living resources

It is important to look into the underlying causes of unsustainable exploitation, such as poverty, vulnerability and livelihood insecurity, and identify and promote livelihood activities that are acceptable, sustainable and have genuine development potential. Such activities might include: • Development and replication of community-based ecotourism models related to coastal ecosystems; • Development of integrated environmentally sustainable aquaculture; • Support to value-addition to ﬁsheries and agricultural products in order to limit post- harvest losses; and • Improvement of access to markets and support to marketing.

9.2.5.2 Promote sustainable ﬁshing practices in seagrass and coral reef habitats

Proposed approaches include the following: • Strengthening fisheries regulations and empowering implementing institutions to enforce laws; • Increasing private-sector involvement in addressing environmental issues associated with their activities; • Macro-economic policies that promote export of prawns xxx ???; • Raising awareness on the value of ecosystem services to fisheries at both local and national levels; • Empowering community conservation groups to help control habitat degradation; • Controlling destructive tourist activities in coral reef areas; and • Researching the impact of bottom trawling on the community structure and the socio- economic wellbeing of the fishing community.

9.2.5.3 Secure beach access routes for ﬁshermen

Access routes to a number of fish landing beaches have been blocked by private developers, resulting in resouce-use conflicts. There is a need to map out all beach access points along the coastline, and put in place measures to secure their open access to the public and fishermen, to guard against potentially serious social conflicts in the future.

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9.2.5.4 Halt destructive ﬁshing practices

The use of dynamite fishing, small-mesh-size nets, seine nets (local name ‘juiya’), ring-nets, prawn trawlers, spear guns (bunduki) and plant poisons (sumu), as well as reef trampling have been banned, but unfortunately, continue along the Kenya coast. Gill nets used in deeper waters frequently result in large quantities of by-catch, sometimes with Endangered species such as dugongs, dolphins and turtles. The ban on destructive fishing practices, and the use of recommended fishing gear, mesh sizes and turtle exclusion devices needs to be enforced more rigorously.

Prawn trawling in the Malindi-Ungwana Bay has resulted in habitat and community modification and loss of income for subsistence fishermen. Prawn trawling has also resulted in serious conflicts between trawler operators and artisanal fishermen (KMFRI, 2003). Incidental capture of juvenile fish and by-catch is another a big problem associated with prawn fishery; the use of appropriate by-catch reducer devices could help address these problems.

9.2.5.5 Regulate commercial ﬁsheries

There is inadequate capacity to regulate the activities of commercial ﬁshing vessels operating within Kenya’s exclusive economic zone. Much Illegal, Unregulated and Unreported (IUU) ﬁshing is therefore taking place in the area, with far-reaching effects on stock sustainability and destruction of marine habitats. The capacity to carry out surveillance and monitoring needs to be urgently stepped up.

9.2.6 Capacity building and ﬁnancing

Capacity building is fundamental to Kenya’s embracing the principles of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM). Some national universities and training centres have training programmes in topics related to coastal management. In order to enhance national capacity in ICZM the following actions are needed: • Training needs assessments of different stakeholders in order to identify gaps, weakness, strengths and opportunities for building capacity in ICZM; • Support to existing national centres for training and research in ICZM; • Support to tertiary education and research in ICZM through grants, partnership and leadership development programs; • Development of targeted training modules for continuing education of coastal practitioners and managers, including enforcement agencies; and • Acquisition of relevant equipment and facilities.

One of the constraints to effective coastal management in Kenya is inadequate government budget. It is therefore important to identify sustainable ﬁnancing mechanisms for coastal ecosystem conservation. An innovative mechanism in this regard would be “payment for ecosystem services (PES)” schemes for selected coastal ecosystems. Such a programme could be piloted through private–public–community partnerships.

9.2.7 River basin management

The high and growing sediment loads from the two major rivers that drain into the Indian Ocean at the Kenya coast—Tana and Sabaki—are largely the result of poor land-use practices upstream. These sediments threaten the sustainability of important coastal habitats such as mangroves, seagrass beds and coral reefs, and the aesthetic quality of beaches (cf. Kitheka et al., 2002c; 2003d). An integrated river basin management approach, as proposed in the ICZM framework, is key to addressing this issue.

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9.2.8 Integration of traditional knowledge into resource management

Traditional knowledge has been crucial for the conservation of Kaya forests by the Mijikenda community as well as the conservation of medicinal plants and ﬁsheries resources. If continued existence of the Kaya forests and other important ecosystems is to be achieved, it will be important to integrate traditional knowledge into resource management, planning and scientiﬁc research. In addition, the impact of the use of traditional medicine on the environment should be studied, with a view to promoting sustainable resource-use strategies.

9.2.9 Gender Equity

9.2.10 Housing and infrastructure

As the demand for low-cost housing increases in the coastal region, especially in urban centres, new ways of providing housing need to be sought, including better methods to maximise the scarce amount of land available for housing. Furthermore, improvements need to be made to informal settlements and slums, to include the provision of clean running water, solid waste management systems and sewer services. Proper waste management will also serve to reduce ground water pollution.

It is noteworthy that, as a general trend, poverty leads to over-use and destruction of natural resources, as short-term livelihood concerns are pursued at the expense of long-term environmental sustainability. Environmental concerns should therefore be integrated into development planning, and development plans designed to lead to the empowerment of local communities to engage in sustainable livelihood activities.

9.2.11 Groundwater resources

Kenya’s coastal region has immense potential for groundwater resources. There is need to assess the quantity and quality of the region’s groundwater, and to use this information for the management of this important resource.

9.2.12 Aquaculture

Sustainable aquaculture development focusing on both freshwater and marine species could succeed at the Kenyan coast. However such developments should incorporate measures to mitigate against environmental problems, such as those recorded in large-scale shrimp culture in South-East Asia and Latin America.

9.2.13 Land use planning

The lack of clear legal deﬁnition of the area and extent of beaches in Kenya, together with the lack of unambiguous legislation goverening the development of structures along the shoreline, have led to many facilities being built very close to or encroaching on the beach. Appropriate coastal planning and development under an enforced ICZM plan would help remedy this situation.

79 KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2008

9.2.14 Agriculture

Agricultural chemicals and fertilizers are used on large-scale farms in Mombasa, Kiliﬁ and Lamu, and the Coast Province is an important horticulture producer in the country. There is need for the Agriculture Act to encompass the regulation of chemical and fertilizer usage at the coast and other parts of the country, which, as a result of runoff, has a direct impact on the health of the coastal and marine environment.

Furthermore, traditional shifting cultivation and slash-and-burn farming are widespread at the coast, with adverse impacts on fragile ecosystems and biodiversity. These farming practices should be replaced with better soil conservation and water-use methods, among other measures.

Value-addition through the promotion of agro-processing could support income generation and lead to economic development. However, industries that ﬂourished in the past at the coast, including bixa, sugar, cashewnut and coconut procesing industries, collapsed due to a combination of factors, mainly poor management and corruption. The revival of agro- processing industries must therefore put in place management systems that afford resilience and sustainability to their operation.

9.2.15 Salt production

It is necessary to adopt environmentally friendly approaches for salt manufacturing in the coastal area. For instance, pond construction should be located behind mangroves, and efﬂuents from salt ponds directed to the sea, to safeguard mangroves from excessive salinity.

9.2.16 Oil and gas exploration

Oil and gas exploration at the Kenya coast will require the observation of sound environmental management procedures, as provided for in the Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA) and other regulations, to guard against pollution from exploration and any eventual drilling. The government should also ensure that bilateral agreements made with prospecting companies beneﬁt the local people and the country at large.

9.2.17 Shiploading

The planned shiploading facility at Shimoni will lead to habitat and biodiversity loss. Accidental oil spills and siltation from dredging activities during the facility’s operation will also likely result in environmental degradation. It will be critical, therefore, that the Environmental Management Plan is adhered to in terms of rehabilitation and remedial measures, in order to mitigate against widespread environmental harm.

9.2.18 Climate change

Article 4 of the The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change commits nations to develop integrated plans for coastal zone management as part of their adaptation strategies. To prevent climate change effects from eroding the beneﬁts of development, there is need for a strategy that incorporates the management of the risks associated with climate change—such as sea level rise, erractic weather patterns, weather extremes and storms—into broader development programmes.

9.2.19 Marine Protected Areas

Marine protected areas (MPAs) in Kenya have remained relatively small in the face of increasing

80 Towards the Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources pressure from a growing population. Furthermore, in most cases the boundaries of MPAs begin at the water mark, leaving out adjacent and interlinked ecosystems such as mangroves. New approaches elsewhere in the world promote the establishment of a network of MPAs that encompass the diversity of marine habitats, in order to afford greater resilience to the ecosystem and provide greater protection for marine communities. This approach deserves to be pursued in Kenya

9.3 Monitoring and evaluation

A long-term monitoring and evaluation (M&E) scheme is needed to detect changes in coastal areas, identify the likely causes of these changes, and recommend adaptive and management responses. Actions needed for the effective implementation of an M&E scheme are: • Site-level baseline assessments of coastal biodiversity, ecosystems and livelihoods, including assessment of risk and vulnerability; • Support to existing national and geographic information systems (GIS) centres in accessing and sharing relevant data regarding coastal ecosystems; and • Development and associated training in the use of common protocols for community-based and scientiﬁc monitoring of coastal ecosystem health and socio-economic indicators.

9.4 Conclusion

The development path of the Kenyan coast, and its impact on the resource base, will depend on the development strategy adopted, together with the amount of investments, political support, and administrative commitments it receives. Socio-economic, cultural and physical obstacles to sustainable development, including factors outside the country, have also to be considered.

A properly constituted Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) framework will allow all stakeholders, including government, NGOs, the private sector and local communities, to participate and beneﬁt from the natural environment. ICZM will go towards ensuring that coastal and marine natural resources and ecosystems are exploited sustainably and equitably, in order to continue to support livelihoods for the current and future generations.

KENYA: State of the Coast Report 2007 – Towards an Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources

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Statistical and other summary data for Kenya [NEMA to Update?] Total Area (km2) 582,650 Land Area (km2) 569,250 Varies from tropical along coast to arid in interior. The high Climate plateau areas at altitude of over 1500 m have high rainfall. Water pollution from urban and industrial wastes; degradation of water quality from increased use of pesticides and fertilizers; Key Environmental Concerns deforestation; soil erosion; desertification; poaching, high human population. Economic GDP (billion USD) 18.7 GDP Per capita (USD) 580.0 GDP growth rate (est. %) 2.5 GDP Agriculture (est., %) 27 GDP Industry (est., %) 18.5 GDP Services (est., %) 54.4 Social Population (est. at 2005) 34.3 million % urban – % rural – Growth rate ( %) (est., at 2005) 2.3 Marine and Coastal Resources* Coastline (km) 608 Exclusive Economic Zone (sq km) 118 Total mangrove area (ha) 54,000 Marine Protected Areas Number 10 Area (ha) 160 Marine fish catch (wild catch and aquaculture) (tonnes) 7000* Per capita food supply in 1992 from fish and seafood 2.8 Aquaculture (marine and fresh water, tonnes), 1995 -97 –