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Death and Emotional Standards in Heian Japan

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Death and Emotional Standards in Heian Japan “Never Had I Known Such Sorrow”: Death and Emotional Standards in Heian Japan by Emily Hillman A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Department of East Asian Studies University of Toronto © Copyright by Emily Hillman, 2018 “Never Had I Known Such Sorrow”: Death and Emotional Standards in Heian Japan Emily Hillman Master of Arts Department of East Asian Studies University of Toronto 2018 Abstract Death is perhaps the only universal human experience, yet emotional reactions to it are neither natural nor universal. Although every person experiences emotions, socially constructed standards shape how an individual conceives, perceives, and expresses a given emotion. As failing to comply with a society’s standards is a serious and damaging social mistake, researching standards of emotion provides an opportunity to bring forward new aspects of complex social relationships. In this thesis, the aristocratic society of Heian Japan (794-1185 CE) is studied from the perspective of emotional history, focusing upon expressions of sadness in response to death as described in nikki , a popular form of literature. After establishing the emotional standards of departures for the purpose of comparison, the thesis moves on to establish the standards for the deaths of loved ones and of the emperor. Compared to other aspects of life, death allowed for far more extreme expressions of sadness. ii Table of Contents Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... iii Chapter 1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1 1. Historiography ........................................................................................................................... 2 2. Historical Context ..................................................................................................................... 8 3. Primary Sources ..................................................................................................................... 11 Chapter 2 Departures .................................................................................................................... 15 1. Departures in the Capital ...................................................................................................... 15 2. Provincial Departures ............................................................................................................ 20 3. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 27 Chapter 3 Death of a Loved One .................................................................................................. 30 1. Kagerō Nikki ............................................................................................................................ 30 2. Sarashina Nikki ....................................................................................................................... 33 3. Kenreimon’in Ukyō no Daibu Shū ........................................................................................ 35 4. Tosa Nikki and Midō Kanpakuki ........................................................................................... 37 5. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 41 Chapter 4 Death of the Emperor ................................................................................................... 44 1. Kagerō Nikki ............................................................................................................................ 44 2. Sanuki no Suke Nikki ............................................................................................................. 46 3. Kenreimon’in Ukyō no Daibu ................................................................................................ 52 4. Teishinkōki and Midō Kanpakuki ......................................................................................... 54 5. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 57 Chapter 5 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 59 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................. 63 iii Chapter 1 Introduction Known for its elegant court society and literary masterpieces, the Heian period is a culturally significant era of Japanese history that remains influential even today. From 794 to 1185, a small population of elites based in the capital city of Heian-kyō dominated the political, economic, and cultural worlds of Japan. Confident in their innate superiority and disdainful of those who did not belong to their exclusive society, the elites lived comfortable lives filled with art, leisure, and the occasional political intrigue. In such a small community located within one city, maintaining one’s reputation was of utmost importance. Although rank played a significant role in how an elite was viewed by others in the rigidly hierarchical society of court, other qualities contributed as well. Social reputation depended heavily on an aristocrat being able to meet expectations of what constituted a true noble and differentiated them from the common masses. Many of these qualities involved artistic talent and aesthetic taste, requiring both men and women to be capable of, among other things, composing clever poems, writing elegant calligraphy, and choosing appropriate colour combinations for clothing. While exceptional talent could allow for lower- ranked elites to achieve fame, failing to meet expectations of artistic talents might not necessarily have economic or political repercussions, but could result in an elite being viewed as nothing more than a joke by their peers. 1 It was not only rank and artistic skill that determined one’s social reputation, however. One of the main qualities that nobles felt defined their class and distinguished them from unsophisticated commoners and boorish provincials was emotional sensitivity, in particular the capacity to feel and express sadness with elegance. Many situations provoked sadness in a true elite, from the falling of cherry blossoms to romantic endeavours. Being able to properly express sadness 1 Title page quote: Takasue no Musume, As I Crossed a Bridge of Dreams: Recollections of a Woman in Eleventh- Century Japan , ed. and trans. Ivan Morris (New York: The Dial Press, 1979), 119. Helen Craig McCullough, “Aristocratic Culture,” in The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 2, Heian Japan, ed. John Whitley Hall (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 390, 395, 414-418. Ivan Morris, The World of the Shining Prince: Court Life in Ancient Japan (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1964), 2, 13, 64-66, 170, 180-183. In the late tenth-century Makura no Sōshi , the author writes of an incident in which some of the “high-ranking ladies and gentlemen at Court” wrote a song mocking a fellow courtier for his “uncouth” manners and provincial heritage. The courtiers were unrepentant, one even arguing that “if he did [hear the song] he wouldn’t understand” because of his lack of wit and poetic knowledge. Apparently, the song became so popular that even the emperor played the tune on his flute. Sei Shōnagon, The Pillow Book of Sei Shōnagon, vol. 1, ed. and trans. Ivan Morris (New York: Columbia University Press, 1967), 30-31. Sei Shōnagon, The Pillow Book of Sei Shōnagon, vol. 2, ed. and trans. Ivan Morris (New York: Columbia University Press, 1967), 32-33. 1 2 brought admiration and respect, while also confirming one’s social status. However, expressing too much sadness could be just as detrimental as failing to display any, causing an elite to lose the aesthetic appeal of refined and restrained sadness and therefore damage their reputation. 2 By approaching this need for sensitivity from the perspective of emotional history, a deeper understanding of the interactions between emotional behaviour, reputation, and social status can emerge. Despite the name, the history of emotions focuses on societal attitudes toward certain emotions, as well as expectations of appropriate behaviour held by a society, rather than attempting to judge the sincerity of emotions professed by people of the past. 3 Heian elites are best known for their elegantly restrained expressions of sadness in response to romance and aesthetics. However, other situations associated with sadness did not necessarily adhere to these same emotional standards. In particular, this thesis will attempt to establish the standard expressions of sadness associated with a universal and more extreme situation: death. 1. Historiography Although interest in the history of emotions has existed since the early twentieth century, viable methods through which it may be studied have only recently been developed. The first scholars to propose a practical method were Peter and Carol Stearns. The Stearns argue that the phrase “history of emotions” is misleading, and instead distinguish between genuine emotional experience and “emotionology,” defined as “the attitudes and standards that a society … maintains toward basic emotions and their appropriate expression.” 4
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