UNIVERSITY OF HAWAllllBRARI Powerful Warriors and Influential Clergy Interaction and Conflict between the Kamakura Bakufu and Religious Institutions A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI'I IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN HISTORY MAY 2003 By Roy Ron Dissertation Committee: H. Paul Varley, Chairperson George J. Tanabe, Jr. Edward Davis Sharon A. Minichiello Robert Huey ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Writing a doctoral dissertation is quite an endeavor. What makes this endeavor possible is advice and support we get from teachers, friends, and family. The five members of my doctoral committee deserve many thanks for their patience and support. Special thanks go to Professor George Tanabe for stimulating discussions on Kamakura Buddhism, and at times, on human nature. But as every doctoral candidate knows, it is the doctoral advisor who is most influential. In that respect, I was truly fortunate to have Professor Paul Varley as my advisor. His sharp scholarly criticism was wonderfully balanced by his kindness and continuous support. I can only wish others have such an advisor. Professors Fred Notehelfer and Will Bodiford at UCLA, and Jeffrey Mass at Stanford, greatly influenced my development as a scholar. Professor Mass, who first introduced me to the complex world of medieval documents and Kamakura institutions, continued to encourage me until shortly before his untimely death. I would like to extend my deepest gratitude to them. In Japan, I would like to extend my appreciation and gratitude to Professors Imai Masaharu and Hayashi Yuzuru for their time, patience, and most valuable guidance. Last but definitely not least, my wife and best friend, who was always understanding, forgiving, and encouraging, even while having to scarifies her own academic work. I would not have been able to complete the dissertation without her support and concern, and balanced meals. 1Il ABSTRACT The dramatic years of the Genpei War (1180-1185) ended with a fundamental restructuring of Japanese polity. Replacing the established system of a single ruling elite with a dual structure of court and bakufu had far-reaching effects on Japanese society, economy, and religion. Eastern Japan, which once was considered the land of barbarians, became the home of a new warrior elite, and the headquarters of their military government in Kamakura. This geographical separation from the court contributed to the political independence of the bakufu, in turn allowing warriors to distinguish themselves as a unique social elite. As such, warriors turned to develop not only a new social identity, but also a vibrant local economy, comparable only to that of Kyoto. While Japanese society was transforming itself in unprecedented scope, Buddhism and Buddhist institutions were experiencing a revival in popularity among their elite patrons. Concern over the age of mapp(J, which the Genpei War brought to the fore, had both courtiers and warriors seeking religious guidance. The result was not only re-popularization of already established doctrines, but also a new emphasis on Amidism, and the promotion of new doctrines by reformer monks. This time, however, clergy and religious institutions benefitted not only from the traditional patrons at court. Kamakura warriors, who were genuinely concerned with their present iv and future existences, who realized the practical benefits of religious patronage, or who imitate court practices, proved to be generous patrons. This dissertation seeks to examine the role of religion, religious institutions, and clergy in the development of Kamakura's warrior society. The basic assumption is that when profound changes were occurring in Japanese society and religion, they inevitably were interrelated in some ways. Indeed, between the initial stages of the Genpei War until his death, Minamoto Yoritomo promoted the construction of large religious institutions to support both his political and religious needs, an approach that became an integral part of bakufu policy. Then, when warriors in general realized the many ways they could benefit from religious patronage, they engaged in construction of their own clan temples, while supporting those under bakufu patronage. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments iii Abstract iv List of Tables ix List of Figures x List of Abbreviations xi Chapter 1: Introduction 1 Periodization 10 Kamakura Buddhism 21 Division of Power: The Kenmon Theory 24 Thesis and Content 30 Conclusion 36 Chapter 2: Kamakura Geography........................................................................ 39 Introduction 39 Background and Development 45 Kamakura Before the Minamoto 45 Kamakura and the Minamoto 48 Periods of Development 53 Kamakura City Layout 55 Bakufu Offices and Warrior Residences 55 Highways, Avenues, and Streets 65 Population 75 Temples in Kamakura: The Case of YOiukuji 83 Conclusion 93 Chapter 3: Tsurugaoka Hachimanguji: A Bakufu Institution 96 Introduction 96 Early Development 98 Yoritomo's Tsurugaoka Hachimanguji 98 vi Hachiman . 101 Early Appointments . 104 Location . 108 Influential Clergy .. 111 Structure of Tsurugaoka Offices .. 111 Chief Administrator . 115 Engyo and Yoritomo . 117 The Evil Betta . 125 Jogo . 127 Ryuben and the Hojo .. 132 Conclusion . 140 Chapter 4: Tsurugaoka Hachimang(lji: Rituals and Culture . 143 Religious Rituals and Practices .. 143 Hojoe: Origins in the Hachiman Cult .. 143 Hojoe in Yoritomo's Kamakura .. 146 The Hojoe After Yoritomo .. 148 The Hojoe After the 1240s . 152 Omens and Natural Disasters . 153 Epidemics . 162 Superstitions . 164 Kamakura Culture . 172 Yabusame, Kasagake .. 174 Bugaku and Kagura: The case of 6 no Yoshikata . 182 Conclusion . 189 Chapter 5: Ujidera: Development and Religious Role .. 192 Introduction . 192 Development and Characteristics . 193 Warrior Clan Ujidera . 194 Early Ujidera . 198 vii Courtiers' Ujidera in the Heian Period 201 Warriors' Ujidera in the Kamakura Period 203 Construction, Affiliation, and Structure 216 Affiliation 218 Construction and Structure 224 Rules and Regulations 230 Ujidera as Warrior Sanctuaries 233 Conclusion 236 Chapter 6: The Economy of Buddhas and Clergy 240 Introduction 240 Economy and Trade 242 Local Economy 242 Foreign Trade 246 Buddhas by the Road 254 Buddhas in the Market 261 Bakufu and Ujidera Affairs 270 The Economy of Rituals and Services 270 Judicial Protection: The Case of To Rokuro Moriyoshi 273 Conclusion 279 Chapter 7: Conclusion 281 Mundane Geography and Divine Locations 283 Implications and Perspectives 288 Appendix A: 296 Appendix B: 299 Appendix C: 302 Appendix D: 303 Appendix E: 306 Appendix F: 309 Bibliography 313 viii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Tsurugaoka Hachimanguji Betto 303 2. Tsurugaoka Hachimangl1ji NijugobO 304 3. Landholding of Tsurugaoka Hachiman Twenty-Five Monk Offices.. 305 ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure ~ 1. Tsurugaoka Hachimangfrji Offices 302 2. Sh6my6ji 306 3. Bannaji 307 4. Kamakura Y6fukuji 308 5. Kamakura Passes 309 6. Kamakura Temples and Warrior Residences 310 7. The Center of Kamakura in the Thirteenth Century......................... 311 8. Kant6 312 x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS BIM Bannaji monjo CJM ChOrakuji monjo DNS Dainihon shiryo Gus6 shidai Tsurugaoka hachimangu guso shidai KBK Kanazawa bunko komonjo KI Kamakura ibun THM Tsurugaoka hachimangu monjoshu Shamu kiroku Tsurugaoka hachimangu shamukiroku Shamushiki shidai Tsurugaoka hachimangu shamushiki shidai Shoshiki shidai Tsurugaoka hachimangu shoshiki shidai xi CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION The significance of the Kamakura period lies in fundamental political changes that redefined the social and economic structure of Japanese society between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries. The most notable of these changes was the formation of a governing apparatus by warriors of imperial descent, commonly known as the Kamakura bakufu, which served as the political and military focal point of a new, recognizable warrior society. In practical terms, the old ruling elite, consisting of courtiers and powerful clergy in the capital, was forced to compromise its claim to absolute authority, and bestow upon the bakufu the authority to exercise police and military powers.l In its capacity as protector of the state, with the objective of maintaining internal peace and security, the Kamakura bakufu and its coalition of powerful warrior families set the stage for a new era in Japanese history that lasted for some seven hundred years during which warriors were the dominant political and military power of the country. The Kamakura period, then, can be viewed as a time of transition from a single dominant ruling 1 For an excellent overview of the subject see the "Introduction" in Jeffrey P. Mass, Yoritomo and the Founding Of the First Bakufu: The Origins of Dual Government in 'apan (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999), 1-10. 1 elite to dual, shared rulership.2 In this period of transition, warriors learned and experimented in methods of ruling, in judicial processes, and in economic policies, while solidifying their new identity as a ruling elite at the top of the sociopolitical hierarchy.3 The Kamakura bakufu's ability to dispense its authority and implement its policies has not been fully studied,4 but it is clear that its continued existence depended heavily on the acceptance of the role of the bakufu by the coalition of powerful warriors--the bakufu's housemen 2 Cameron Hurst discusses the origins and development of court-bakufu polity throughout the Kamakura period in "The Kobu