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©Copyright 2012 Sachi Schmidt-Hori 1 ©Copyright 2012 Sachi Schmidt-Hori 2 Hyperfemininities, Hypermasculinities, and Hypersexualities in Classical Japanese Literature Sachi Schmidt-Hori A Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Washington 2012 Reading Committee: Paul S. Atkins, Chair Davinder L. Bhowmik Tani E. Barlow Kyoko Tokuno Program Authorized to Offer Degree: Department of Asian Languages and Literature 3 University of Washington Abstract Hyperfemininities, Hypermasculinities, and Hypersexualities in Classical Japanese Literature Sachi Schmidt-Hori Chair of the Supervisory Committee: Associate Professor Paul S. Atkins Asian Languages and Literature This study is an attempt to elucidate the complex interrelationship between gender, sexuality, desire, and power by examining how premodern Japanese texts represent the gender-based ideals of women and men at the peak and margins of the social hierarchy. To do so, it will survey a wide range of premodern texts and contrast the literary depictions of two female groups (imperial priestesses and courtesans), two male groups (elite warriors and outlaws), and two groups of Buddhist priests (elite and “corrupt” monks). In my view, each of the pairs signifies hyperfemininities, hypermasculinities, and hypersexualities of elite and outcast classes, respectively. The ultimate goal of 4 this study is to contribute to the current body of research in classical Japanese literature by offering new readings of some of the well-known texts featuring the above-mentioned six groups. My interpretations of the previously studied texts will be based on an argument that, in a cultural/literary context wherein defiance merges with sexual attractiveness and/or sexual freedom, one’s outcast status transforms into a source of significant power. In this type of context, the conventional idea of power (i.e. wealth, high social status, lineage) may be ignored or even perceived negatively. Consequently, certain literary constructs— such as a sexual entertainer juxtaposed with a deity, an attractive bandit forgiven for his crime, or a promiscuous monk revered as a sage—should not be reduced to idiosyncrasies or paradoxes. Rather, these figures should be better understood as a manifestation of prestige possessed by the marginal persons with particular charm and appeal. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Introduction ………………………………………………………………….………… 1 Chapter 1: Hyperfemininities of Royal Priestesses and Courtesans ………..…. 20 I. Introduction ……………………………………………………………..….. 20 II. Historical Context of the Saiō System ………………………………..… 22 III. Saiō Portrayed in Heian Vernacular Tales ……………………….…… 30 IV. Saiō Portrayed in Kamakura Vernacular Tales ………….…………… 41 V. Sex Trade and Courtesans in Premodern Japan: An Overview ..…… 45 VI. Portrayals of Yūjo in Chinese-Style Prose and Vernacular Tales ...…48 VII. Portrayals of Yūjo in Noh Drama........................................................54 VIII. Conclusion ………………………………………………………………. 85 Chapter 2: Hypermasculinities of Warriors and Outlaws ………………………... 87 I. Introduction ………………………………………………………...………. 87 II. Historical Context of the Emergence of the Military Class …………… 88 III. Hypermasculinity within Heian Vernacular Tales …………………….. 94 IV. Fragmentary Images of Warriors: East vs. West ………………….... 104 V. Yoshitsune: The Amalgamation of East and West …………….……. 114 VI. Hypermasculinity of Outlaws: An Overview ………...……………….. 121 VII. Criminals and Criminal Acts Portrayed in Buddhist Didactic Stories……………………………………………………….125 VIII. Criminals and Criminal Acts Portrayed in Secular Anecdotal Tales …………………………………………………….. 134 IX. Conclusion ………………………………………………………………. 148 Chapter 3: Hypersexualities of Buddhist Priests …………………………...…… 150 I. Introduction ……………………………………………………………….. 150 II. The Development of Buddhist Vinaya Celibacy Precept In Premodern Japanese Context …………………………………. 153 III. Historical and Cultural Backgrounds of the Chigo System …...……. 164 IV. Portrayals of Buddhist Monks in Love with Chigo……………….….. 177 V. Transcending the Celibacy Precepts: Poetics and Aesthetics Of Ikkyū Sōjun …………………………………………………...…. 192 VI. Conclusion ………………………………………………………………. 206 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………… 211 Bibliography ………………………………………………………………………… 217 i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my dissertation committee members. I would especially like to thank Professor Paul S. Atkins, the committee chair and my academic adviser, for the countless hours he spent on teaching, guiding, and encouraging me. This dissertation would not have been materialized without the support of my husband and best friend, Roy Schmidt. ii DEDICATION To Roy. iii 1 INTRODUCTION The current study is an attempt to elucidate the complex interrelationship between gender, sexuality, desire, and power through delving into how premodern Japanese texts represent the gender-based ideals of women and men at the topmost as well as outside of social hierarchy. To do so, in the following chapters, I will survey a wide range of premodern texts and contrast the literary depictions of two female groups (imperial priestesses and courtesans), two male groups (elite warriors and outlaws), and two groups of Buddhist priests (elite and “corrupt” monks). In my view, each of the pairs signifies hyperfemininities, hypermasculinities, and hypersexualities of elite and outcast classes, respectively. By hyperfemininity/hypermasculinity, I mean exaggerated and (normally) idealized gender stereotypes that are similar to the concept of womanliness/manliness, while I label the sexual acts of presumably celibate Buddhist priests as hypersexuality.1 I propose that analyzing the portrayals of these particular figures will provide us with a telling picture of how gender and sexuality intertwine with power and desire in the literary productions of vernacular tales, Chinese-style poetry, noh plays, anecdotal tales, martial epics, religious tales, waka poetry, and 1 While the terms “femininity” and “masculinity” at times signify exaggerated gender characteristics of women and men, respectively, in this dissertation, they simply refer to “female- ness” and “male-ness,” in an attempt to make possible expressions such as “feminine masculinity” and “masculine femininity.” 2 so on. By offering not only the contrast between elites and outcasts within the same category but also comparisons between female and male gender ideals as well as between laymen and Buddhist priests, this study will be particularly comprehensive. The ultimate goal of this study is to contribute to the current body of research in classical Japanese literature by offering new readings of some of the well-known texts featuring the above-mentioned six groups. Generally speaking, scholarly works dealing with people of marginal status tend to express the authors’ personal opposition towards a social transgression associated with the particular outcast group. In the case of scholarly works that handle the sexual entertainments of premodern Japan, for example, most authors convey disapproval of prostitution (usually in the modern context) for two major reasons—compassion for the victims of human trafficking; and detestation for the women who would engage in the commercial sex trade. For instance, Saeki Junko states in Yūjo no bunkashi: I assume that the images of courtesans appearing in literature would be very distant from the cruel lives of actual courtesans. Even their tragedies are beautified and consumed….I hope I will not be mistaken—I did not write this book because I wanted to argue that we should bring back the way sacred sexuality [of courtesans] was once embodied to the present.2 On the other hand, my interpretations of the previously studied texts will be based on an argument that, in a cultural/literary context wherein defiance merges with sexual attractiveness and/or sexual freedom, one’s outcast status 2 Saeki Junko, Yūjo no bunkashi: Hare no onna tachi (Tokyo: Chūkō shinsho, 1987), pp. 243-244. 3 transforms into a source of significant power. In this type of context, the conventional idea of power (i.e. wealth, high social status, lineage) may be perceived as irrelevant or even negatively. Consequently, literary constructs such as a sexual entertainer juxtaposed with a deity, an attractive bandit forgiven for his crime, and a promiscuous monk revered as a sage, should not be reduced to idiosyncrasies or paradoxes. Rather, these figures should be better understood as a manifestation of prestige possessed by the marginal people with particular charm and appeal and appreciated by the creators of the texts and generations of readers . The texts I will examine in depth for this dissertation come from the period between the tenth and fifteenth century. This period covers diverse historical terrains from the efflorescence of the Heian court culture, emergence of the first military government (shogunate), the triumvirate of the court, shogunate, and powerful Buddhist institutions, and the rise of provincial feudal lords. While it is beyond the scope of this study to summarize such long and heterogeneous times, below I will lay out the basic historical context by presenting a brief overview of gender, sexuality, and body politics of Nara, Heian, medieval, and early modern Japan. An Overview: Nara Period (710-784) According to Kojiki (712), one of the collections of Japanese mythology, the origin of Japan and its people goes back to a pair of sibling deities, Izanagi, the male god, and his sister/wife
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