Summa Theologiae

Table of Contents: Part 1-2

PROLOGUE TO PART 1-2 ...... 1

Question 1: Man’s Ultimate End ...... 1 Article 1: Does a man act for the sake of an end? ...... 1 Article 2: Is acting for the sake of an end peculiar to a rational nature? ...... 2 Article 3: Do human acts take their species from their end? ...... 3 Article 4: Is there some ultimate end of a human life, or is there an infinite procession of ends? ...... 5 Article 5: Can one man’s will be simultaneously directed to many things as ultimate ends? . . 6 Article 6: Is everything a man wills such that he wills it for the sake of his ultimate end? . . . . 7 Article 7: Is there a single ultimate end for all men? ...... 8 Article 8: Do all other things share in man’s ultimate end? ...... 9

Question 2: The Things That Man’s Beatitude Lies In ...... 10 Article 1: Does man’s beatitude lie in riches? ...... 10 Article 2: Does man’s good lie in honors? ...... 11 Article 3: Does man’s beatitude lie in glory or fame? ...... 12 Article 4: Does man’s beatitude lie in power? ...... 13 Article 5: Does man’s beatitude lie in any bodily good? ...... 14 Article 6: Does man’s beatitude lie in delight or pleasure? ...... 15 Article 7: Does man's beatitude lie in a good of the soul? ...... 17 Article 8: Does man’s beatitude lie in a created good? ...... 18

Question 3: What Beatitude Is ...... 20 Article 1: Is beatitude something uncreated? ...... 20 Article 2: Is beatitude an operation [i.e., an action]? ...... 21 Article 3: Does beatitude consist in an operation of the sentient part of the soul or only in an operation of the intellective part?? ...... 22 Article 4: Does beatitude consist in an act of the will? ...... 23 Article 5: Does beatitude consist in an operation of the speculative intellective or of the practical intellect? ...... 25 Article 6: Does man's beatitude consist in the sort of thinking that belongs to the speculative sciences? ...... 26 Article 7: Does man's beatitude consist in the cognition of the separated substances, i.e., the angels?...... 28 Article 8: Does man's beatitude lie in his seeing God's very essence? ...... 29

Question 4: What is Required for Beatitude ...... 31 Article 1: Is delight required for beatitude? ...... 31 Article 2: Is the act of delighting more central to beatitude than the act of seeing? ...... 32 Article 3: Is comprehending required for beatitude? ...... 33 Article 4: Is rectitude of will required for beatitude? ...... 34 Article 5: Is the body required for beatitude? ...... 35 Article 6: Is the perfection of the body required for beatitude? ...... 37 Article 7: Are exterior goods required for beatitude?...... 38 Article 8: Are friends necessary for beatitude? ...... 39

i Question 5: The Attainment of Beatitude ...... 41 Article 1: Can a man acquire beatitude? ...... 41 Article 2: Can one man be more blessed than another? ...... 42 Article 3: Can beatitude be had in this life? ...... 43 Article 4: Can beatitude be lost? ...... 44 Article 5: Is a man able to attain beatitude by his own natural powers? ...... 45 Article 6: Can a man be made blessed through the action of a higher creature, viz., an angel? 47 Article 7: Are any human works required in order to obtain beatitude from God? ...... 48 Article 8: Does everyone desire beatitude? ...... 49

Question 6: The Voluntary and the Involuntary ...... 51 Article 1: Is voluntariness found in human acts? ...... 51 Article 2: Does voluntariness exist in brute animals? ...... 53 Article 3: Can there be voluntariness in the absence of an act? ...... 54 Article 4: Can violence be done to the will? ...... 55 Article 5: Is violence a cause of involuntariness? ...... 56 Article 6: Is fear a cause of involuntariness absolutely speaking? ...... 57 Article 7: Is concupiscence a cause of involuntariness?...... 59 Article 8: Is ignorance a cause of involuntariness? ...... 60

Question 7: The Circumstances of Human Acts ...... 62 Article 1: Is a circumstance an accident of a human act? ...... 62 Article 2: Should the theologian consider the circumstances of human acts? ...... 63 Article 3: Are the circumstances correctly enumerated in Ethics 3? ...... 64 Article 4: Is it the case, as Ethics 3 asserts, that the principal circumstances are why? and the things in which the operation exists? ...... 65

Question 8: The Objects of the Will ...... 67 Article 1: Is the will directed only toward the good? ...... 67 Article 2: Is will (or willing) directed only toward the end or also toward the means to the end? ...... 68 Article 3: Is it by the very same act that the will is directed both toward the end and toward the means to the end?? ...... 70

Question 9: What Moves the Will ...... 72 Article 1: Is the will moved by the intellect? ...... 72 Article 2: Can the will be moved by the sentient appetite? ...... 73 Article 3: Does the will move itself? ...... 74 Article 4: Is the will moved by anything exterior to it? ...... 75 Article 5: Is the human will moved by any celestial body? ...... 76 Article 6: Is the will moved by God alone as an exterior principle? ...... 77

Question 10: The Modality with Which the Will is Moved ...... 79 Article 1: Is the will moved naturally toward anything? ...... 79 Article 2: Is the will moved with necessity by its object? ...... 80 Article 3: Is the will moved with necessity by the passions of the lower appetite? ...... 81 Article 4: Is the will moved with necessity by God? ...... 83

ii Question 11: Enjoying as an Act of the Will ...... 84 Article 1: Does the act of enjoying belong only to an appetitive power? ...... 84 Article 2: Does the act of enjoying belong only to men? ...... 85 Article 3: Is the act of enjoying directed only toward the ultimate end? ...... 86 Article 4: Is the act of enjoying directed only toward an end that is possessed? ...... 87

Question 12: Intending ...... 89 Article 1: Is intending an act of the intellect or an act of the will? ...... 89 Article 2: Is intending directed only toward the ultimate end? ...... 90 Article 3: Can someone intend more than one thing at the same time? ...... 90 Article 4: Is intending an end one and the same movement as intending the means to that end? 92 Article 5: Do brute animals intend an end? ...... 93

Question 13: Choosing ...... 94 Article 1: Is choosing an act of the will or an act of reason? ...... 94 Article 2: Does the act of choosing belong to brute animals? ...... 95 Article 3: Is an act of choosing directed only toward the means to an end? ...... 96 Article 4: Is it only with respect to human acts that there is an act of choosing? ...... 97 Article 5: Is an act of choosing directed only toward what is possible? ...... 98 Article 6: Does a man choose with necessity? ...... 99

Question 14: Deliberating or Taking Counsel, Which Precedes Choosing ...... 101 Article 1: Does deliberating or taking counsel count as inquiry? ...... 101 Article 2: Does deliberating concern the end or just the means to an end? ...... 102 Article 3: Does deliberating or taking counsel concern only things that are done by us? . . . 103 Article 4: Is there deliberating or taking counsel with respect to everything that is done by us? ...... 104 Article 5: Does deliberating proceed by way of analysis? ...... 105 Article 6: Does deliberation’s inquiry go on ad infinitum? ...... 105

Question 15: Consenting, Which is an Act of The Will concerning the Means to an End . . . . . 107 Article 1: Does consenting belong only to the apprehensive part of the soul? ...... 107 Article 2: Does consenting belong to brute animals? ...... 108 Article 3: Does consenting concern the end? ...... 108 Article 4: Does consenting to an act always belong to higher reason? ...... 110

Question 16: Using, Which is an Act of the Will concerning the Means to an End ...... 111 Article 1: Is using an act of the will? ...... 111 Article 2: Does using belong to brute animals? ...... 112 Article 3: Can using concern even the ultimate end? ...... 112 Article 4: Does using precede choosing? ...... 113

Question 17: Acts Commanded by the Will ...... 115 Article 1: Is commanding an act of the will or an act of reason? ...... 115 Article 2: Does commanding belong to brute animals? ...... 116 Article 3: Does using precede commanding? ...... 117 Article 4: Is the commanded act the same act as the very act of commanding? ...... 118 Article 5: Are acts of the will commanded? ...... 119 Article 6: Are acts of reason commanded? ...... 120 Article 7: Are acts of the sentient appetite commanded? ...... 121 Article 8: Are acts of the vegetative soul subject to reason's command?...... 122 Article 9: Do the members of the body obey reason in their acts?...... 123

iii Question 18: The Goodness and Badness of Human Acts in General ...... 125 Article 1: Is every human action good, or are some actions bad? ...... 125 Article 2: Does an action have goodness or badness from its object? ...... 126 Article 3: Does an action have goodness or badness from its circumstances? ...... 127 Article 4: Does a human act have goodness or badness from its end? ...... 128 Article 5: Do moral acts differ in species because of their goodness and badness? ...... 129 Article 6: Do the goodness and badness derived from the end make for diverse species among acts? ...... 130 Article 7: Is the species of goodness derived from the end contained under the species of goodness derived from the object in the way that a species is contained under a genus? ...... 131 Article 8: Is any act indifferent by its species?...... 133 Article 9: Is any act indifferent as an individual? ...... 134 Article 10: Can a circumstance constitute a species of good or bad act?...... 135 Article 11: Does every circumstance relevant to goodness and badness give an act its species? ...... 136

Question 19: The Goodness and Badness of the Interior Act of Willing ...... 138 Article 1: Does the goodness of an act of willing depend on its object? ...... 138 Article 2: Does the goodness of an act of willing depend solely on its object? ...... 139 Article 3: Does the goodness of an act of willing depend on reason? ...... 140 Article 4: Does the goodness of a human act of willing depend on the eternal law? ...... 141 Article 5: Is an act of willing bad if it disagrees with reason when reason is mistaken? . . . . 141 Article 6: Is an act of willing good if it agrees with reason when reason is mistaken? . . . . . 143 Article 7: Does the goodness of an act of willing depend on the act of intending the end?. . . 145 Article 8: Does the quantity or amount of goodness in an act of willing depend on the amount of goodness in the act of intending? ...... 146 Article 9: Does the goodness of a human will or act of willing depend on its being conformed to God's will? ...... 147 Article 10: Should a human act of willing always be conformed to God's will with respect to what is willed? ...... 148

Question 20: The Goodness and Badness of the Exterior Act ...... 151 Article 1: Do goodness and badness exist in the exterior act before they exist in the act of willing? ...... 151 Article 2: Do the entire goodness and badness of exterior acts depend on the act of willing? 152 Article 3: Is the goodness or badness of the interior act of willing the same as the goodness or badness of the exterior act? ...... 153 Article 4: Does the exterior act add any goodness or badness beyond that of the interior act? 154 Article 5: Do subsequent events add to an act's goodness or badness? ...... 155 Article 6: Can a single act be both good and bad? ...... 157

Question 21: What Accrues to Human Acts by Reason of their Goodness or Badness ...... 158 Article 1: Does a human act have the character of being upright or deviant insofar as it is good or bad? ...... 158 Article 2: Does a human act have the character of being praiseworthy or blameworthy from the fact that it is good or bad? ...... 159 Article 3: Does a human act have the character of being meritorious or demeritorious because of its goodness or badness? ...... 161 Article 4: Does a good or bad human act have the character of being meritorious or demeritorious in relation to God? ...... 162

iv Question 22: The Subject of the Passions of the Soul ...... 164 Article 1: Are there passions in the soul? ...... 164 Article 2: Are the passions in the apprehensive part of the soul more than in the appetitive part? ...... 165 Article 3: Are the passions in the sentient appetite more than in the intellective appetite? . . 167

Question 23: The Differences among the Passions ...... 168 Article 1: Do the same passions exist in the irascible and concupiscible powers? ...... 168 Article 2: Is the contrariety among the passions of the irascible power based only on the contrariety between the good and the bad ? ...... 169 Article 3: Does every passion of the soul have a contrary? ...... 171 Article 4: Is it possible for passions that differ in species and are not contrary to one another to exist in the same power? ...... 171

Question 24: Goodness and Badness in the Passions of the Soul ...... 174 Article 1: Is any passion morally good or morally bad? ...... 174 Article 2: Is every passion of the soul morally bad? ...... 175 Article 3: Does a passion always diminish a moral act's goodness? ...... 176 Article 4: Is any passion of the soul morally good or bad by its species? ...... 177

Question 25: The Ordering of the Passions with respect to One Another ...... 179 Article 1: Are the passions of the irascible power prior to the passions of the concupiscible power? ...... 179 Article 2: Is love the first among the passions of the concupiscible power? ...... 180 Article 3: Is hope the first among the passions of the irascible power? ...... 181 Article 4: Are the four principal passions joy and sadness, hope and fear? ...... 183

Question 26: Love ...... 185 Article 1: Does love exist in the concupiscible power? ...... 185 Article 2: Is love a passion? ...... 186 Article 3: Is love (amor) the same as elective love (dilectio)? ...... 187 Article 4: Is love appropriately divided into love of friendship and love of concupiscence? 188

Question 27: The Causes of Love ...... 190 Article 1: Is the good the only cause of love? ...... 190 Article 2: Is cognition a cause of love? ...... 191 Article 3: Is likeness a cause of love? ...... 192 Article 4: Can any of the other passions be a cause of love? ...... 193

Question 28: The Effects of Love ...... 194 Article 1: Is union an effect of love? ...... 194 Article 2: Is love a cause of mutual indwelling in the sense that the lover exists in what is loved and vice versa? ...... 195 Article 3: Is ecstacy an effect of love? ...... 196 Article 4: Is jealousy an effect of love? ...... 197 Article 5: Is love a harmful passion? ...... 198 Article 6: Does a lover do everything out of love? ...... 200

v Question 29: Hatred ...... 201 Article 1: Is the cause and object of hatred the bad ? ...... 201 Article 2: Is love a cause of hatred? ...... 202 Article 3: Is hatred stronger than love? ...... 203 Article 4: Can someone hate himself? ...... 204 Article 5: Can someone hate the truth? ...... 205 Article 6: Can there be hatred of something in general? ...... 206

Question 30: Concupiscence ...... 208 Article 1: Does concupiscence or sentient desire exist just in the sentient appetite? ...... 208 Article 2: Is concupiscence a specific passion of the concupiscible power? ...... 209 Article 3: Are some instances of concupiscence natural and others non-natural? ...... 210 Article 4: Is concupiscence infinite or unlimited? ...... 211

Question 31: Pleasure in Itself ...... 213 Article 1: Is pleasure a passion? ...... 213 Article 2: Does pleasure exist in time? ...... 214 Article 3: Is joy altogether the same thing as pleasure? ...... 215 Article 4: Does pleasure exist in the intellective appetite? ...... 216 Article 5: Are corporeal and sensible pleasures greater than intelligible spiritual pleasures? 217 Article 6: Are the pleasures associated with touch greater than the pleasures associated with the other senses? ...... 219 Article 7: Are any pleasures non-natural? ...... 220 Article 8: Is one pleasure contrary to another?...... 221

Question 32: The Causes of Pleasure ...... 222 Article 1: Is operation a cause of pleasure? ...... 222 Article 2: Is movement a cause of pleasure? ...... 223 Article 3: Are hope and memory causes of pleasure? ...... 224 Article 4: Is sadness a cause of pleasure? ...... 225 Article 5: Are the actions of others a cause of pleasure for us? ...... 226 Article 6: Is doing good for another a cause of pleasure? ...... 227 Article 7: Is likeness a cause of pleasure? ...... 228 Article 8: Is wonder a cause of pleasure? ...... 229

Question 33: The Effects of Pleasure ...... 231 Article 1: Is being widened an effect of pleasure? ...... 231 Article 2: Is pleasure a cause of a desire for pleasure itself? ...... 232 Article 3: Does pleasure impede the use of reason? ...... 233 Article 4: Does pleasure perfect an operation? ...... 234

Question 34: The Goodness and Badness of Pleasures ...... 236 Article 1: Is every pleasure bad? ...... 236 Article 2: Is every pleasure good? ...... 237 Article 3: Is any pleasure the best thing? ...... 238 Article 4: Is pleasure the measure or rule of moral goodness and badness? ...... 240

vi Question 35: Pain or Sadness in Itself ...... 241 Article 1: Is pain a passion of the soul? ...... 241 Article 2: Is sadness or sorrow the same as pain? ...... 242 Article 3: Is sadness or pain contrary to pleasure? ...... 243 Article 4: Is every instance of sadness contrary to every instance of pleasure? ...... 244 Article 5: Is there a sadness that is contrary to the pleasure of contemplation? ...... 245 Article 6: Is sadness to be avoided more than pleasure is to be desired? ...... 247 Article 7: Is exterior pain greater than the interior pain of the heart? ...... 249 Article 8: Is Damascene's division of sadness into four species correct?...... 250

Question 36: The Causes of Sadness or Pain ...... 253 Article 1: Is it a lost good that is a cause of pain rather than a conjoined evil? ...... 253 Article 2: Is concupiscence a cause of pain or sadness? ...... 254 Article 3: Is a desire for oneness a cause of pain? ...... 255 Article 4: Should a greater power be posited as a cause of pain? ...... 256

Question 37: The Effects of Pain or Sadness ...... 258 Article 1: Does pain remove the ability to learn something new? ...... 258 Article 2: Is the mind's being weighed down an effect of sadness? ...... 259 Article 3: Does sadness impede every operation? ...... 260 Article 4: Is it sadness that inflicts the most harm on the body? ...... 261

Question 38: The Remedies for Pain or Sadness ...... 263 Article 1: Is pain or sadness lessened by every instance of pleasure ? ...... 263 Article 2: Does weeping lessen sadness? ...... 264 Article 3: Does the pain of a compassionate friend lessen sadness? ...... 265 Article 4: Does contemplating the truth lessen pain? ...... 265 Article 5: Do sleeping and bathing lessen sadness? ...... 266

Question 39: The Goodness and Badness of Sadness or Pain ...... 268 Article 1: Is every instance of sadness bad? ...... 268 Article 2: Does sadness have the character of an upright good? ...... 269 Article 3: Can sadness be a useful good? ...... 270 Article 4: Is sadness the greatest evil? ...... 271

Question 40: Hope and Despair ...... 273 Article 1: Is hope the same thing as desire or avid desire? ...... 273 Article 2: Does hope belong to the cognitive power? ...... 274 Article 3: Does hope exist in brute animals? ...... 275 Article 4: Is despair contrary to hope? ...... 276 Article 5: Is experience a cause of hope? ...... 277 Article 6: Are youthfulness and inebriation causes of hope? ...... 278 Article 7: Is hope a cause of love? ...... 279 Article 8: Does hope facilitate action? ...... 279

Question 41: Fear in Itself ...... 281 Article 1: Is fear a passion of the soul? ...... 281 Article 2: Is fear a specific passion or a generic passion? ...... 282 Article 3: Is there such a thing as natural fear? ...... 283 Article 4: Does Damascene correctly assign the species of fear? ...... 284

vii Question 42: The Objects of Fear ...... 286 Article 1: Is the object of fear something good or something bad? ...... 286 Article 2: Is there fear of evils of nature? ...... 287 Article 3: Is there fear of evils of sin? ...... 288 Article 4: Can fear be feared? ...... 289 Article 5: Are unfamiliar and sudden things more to be feared? ...... 290 Article 6: Are evils for which there is no remedy more to be feared? ...... 291

Question 43: The Causes of Fear ...... 292 Article 1: Is love a cause of fear? ...... 292 Article 2: Is weakness a cause of fear? ...... 293

Question 44: The Effects of Fear ...... 295 Article 1: Does fear make one to be drawn inward? ...... 295 Article 2: Does fear make one deliberative? ...... 296 Article 3: Is quivering an effect of fear? ...... 297 Article 4: Does fear impede an operation? ...... 298

Question 45: Daring ...... 300 Article 1: Is daring contrary to fear? ...... 300 Article 2: Does daring follow upon hope? ...... 300 Article 3: Is some defect a cause of daring? ...... 302 Article 4: Are those who are daring more eager at the beginning than in the midst of the dangers themselves? ...... 303

Question 46: Anger in Itself ...... 305 Article 1: Is anger a specific passion? ...... 305 Article 2: Is the object of anger something bad? ...... 306 Article 3: Does anger exist in the concupiscible part of the soul? ...... 307 Article 4: Does anger involve an act of reason? ...... 308 Article 5: Is anger more natural than concupiscence? ...... 309 Article 6: Is anger more grave than hatred? ...... 310 Article 7: Is anger directed only toward individuals with respect to whom there is justice?. . 312 Article 8: Does Damascene correctly enumerate the species of anger? ...... 313

Question 47: The Causes of Anger, and its Remedies ...... 315 Article 1: Is it always because of something done to himself that someone gets angry? . . . . 315 Article 2: Is disdain or contempt the only moving cause of anger? ...... 316 Article 3: Is an individual's excellence a cause of his getting angry more easily? ...... 317 Article 4: Is an individual's defectiveness a cause of his being such that we more easily get angry with him? ...... 318

Question 48: The Effects of Anger ...... 320 Article 1: Is anger a cause of pleasure? ...... 320 Article 2: Is fervor an effect especially of anger? ...... 321 Article 3: Does anger impede reason? ...... 322 Article 4: Does anger cause speechlessness? ...... 323

viii Question 49: The Substance of Habits ...... 325 Article 1: Is a habit a quality? ...... 325 Article 2: Is habit a determinate species of quality? ...... 326 Article 3: Does habit imply an ordering toward an act? ...... 329 Article 4: Is it necessary for there to be habits? ...... 330

Question 50: The Subject of Habits ...... 332 Article 1: Are there any habits in the body? ...... 332 Article 2: Are habits in the soul with respect to its essence rather than with respect to its power? ...... 333 Article 3: Can there be a habit in the powers of the sentient part of the soul? ...... 334 Article 4: Are there any habits in the intellect? ...... 336 Article 5: Are there any habits in the will? ...... 337 Article 6: Are there habits in angels? ...... 338

Question 51: The Causes of Habits ...... 340 Article 1: Are there any habits from nature ? ...... 340 Article 2: Can a habit be caused by an act? ...... 342 Article 3: Can a habit be generated by just a single act? ...... 343 Article 4: Are any habits infused into men by God? ...... 344

Question 52: The Growth of Habits ...... 345 Article 1: Can habits grow? ...... 345 Article 2: Is the growth of a habit effected by addition? ...... 347 Article 3: Does each act make a habit grow? ...... 349

Question 53: The Corruption and Diminution of Habits ...... 351 Article 1: Can a habit be corrupted? ...... 351 Article 2: Can a habit be diminished? ...... 352 Article 3: Is a habit corrupted or diminished just by a cessation from its acts? ...... 354

Question 54: The Distinctions among Habits ...... 356 Article 1: Can there be many habits in a single power? ...... 356 Article 2: Are habits distinguished by their objects? ...... 357 Article 3: Are habits distinguished by good and bad? ...... 358 Article 4: Is one habit constituted from many habits? ...... 359

Question 55: The Essence of a Virtue ...... 361 Article 1: Is a human virtue a habit? ...... 361 Article 2: Is it part of the concept of a human virtue that it is a habit ordered toward operation? ...... 362 Article 3: Is it part of the concept of a virtue that it is a good habit? ...... 363 Article 4: Is the customary definition of virtue correct? ...... 364

Question 56: The Subject of Virtue ...... 367 Article 1: Does a virtue exist in a power of the soul as in its subject? ...... 367 Article 2: Can a single virtue exist in two powers? ...... 368 Article 3: Is the intellect the subject of any virtue? ...... 368 Article 4: Can the irascible and concupiscible powers be the subject of any virtue? ...... 370 Article 5: Can any virtue exist in the interior sentient apprehensive powers? ...... 372 Article 6: Is the will the subject of any virtue? ...... 373

ix Question 57: The Distinctions Among the Intellectual Virtues ...... 374 Article 1: Are the speculative intellectual habits virtues? ...... 374 Article 2: Is it appropriate to distinguish three speculative intellectual virtues, viz., wisdom, scientific knowledge, and understanding? ...... 375 Article 3: Is an art or craft an intellectual virtue? ...... 377 Article 4: Is prudence a virtue distinct from an art? ...... 378 Article 5: Is prudence a virtue that is necessary for living well? ...... 379 Article 6: Are good deliberation (eubulia), and two sorts of good judgment (synesis and gnome) appropriately joined to prudence? ...... 381

Question 58: The Distinction between the Moral Virtues and the Intellectual Virtues ...... 383 Article 1: Is every virtue a moral virtue? ...... 383 Article 2: Is a moral virtue distinguished from an intellectual virtue? ...... 384 Article 3: Is human virtue adequately divided into moral virtue and intellectual virtue? . . . 385 Article 4: Can moral virtue exist without intellectual virtue? ...... 386 Article 5: Can intellectual virtue exist without moral virtue? ...... 388

Question 59: The Relation of the Moral Virtues to the Passions ...... 390 Article 1: Is a moral virtue a passion? ...... 390 Article 2: Can moral virtue exist along with a passion? ...... 391 Article 3: Can virtue exist along with sadness? ...... 392 Article 4: Does every moral virtue have to do with the passions? ...... 394 Article 5: Can a moral virtue exist without any passion? ...... 394

Question 60: The Distinctions among the Moral Virtues ...... 396 Article 1: Is there just a single moral virtue? ...... 396 Article 2: Are moral virtues distinguished from one another by the fact that some have to do with actions or operations, while others have to do with the passions? ...... 397 Article 3: Is there just a single moral virtue with respect to operations? ...... 398 Article 4: Are there diverse moral virtues with respect to diverse passions? ...... 399 Article 5: Are the moral virtues distinguished in a way that corresponds to the objects of the passions? ...... 401

Question 61: The Cardinal Virtues ...... 404 Article 1: Is it moral virtues that should be called cardinal, i.e., principal, virtues? ...... 404 Article 2: Are there four cardinal virtues? ...... 405 Article 3: Should any other virtues be called more principal than these? ...... 406 Article 4: Are the four virtues under discussion diverse virtues and distinct from one another? ...... 407 Article 5: Are the four virtues under discussion appropriately classified as exemplary virtues, virtues of a purified mind, purifying virtues, and political virtues? ...... 408

Question 62: The Theological Virtues ...... 411 Article 1: Are there any theological virtues? ...... 411 Article 2: Are the theological virtues distinct from the moral and intellectual virtues? . . . . 412 Article 3: Is it appropriate to posit three theological virtues? ...... 413 Article 4: Is the order of the theological virtues such that faith is prior to hope and hope is prior to charity? ...... 414

x Question 63: The Cause of Virtue ...... 416 Article 1: Does virtue exist in us by nature? ...... 416 Article 2: Can virtues be caused in us by the habituation of actions? ...... 417 Article 3: Are there other virtues infused in us by God besides the theological virtues? . . . 418 Article 4: Do the infused virtues differ in species from the acquired virtues? ...... 419

Question 64: The Mean of the Virtues ...... 421 Article 1: Do the moral virtues consist in a mean? ...... 421 Article 2: Is the mean of a moral virtue a mean that belongs to the things or a mean of reason? ...... 422 Article 3: Do the intellectual virtues consist in a mean? ...... 423 Article 4: Does a theological virtue consist in a mean? ...... 424

Question 64: The Connectedness of the Virtues ...... 426 Article 1: Are the moral virtues necessarily connected with one another? ...... 426 Article 2: Can the moral virtues exist without charity? ...... 428 Article 3: Can charity be had without the other moral virtues? ...... 429 Article 4: Do faith and hope ever exist without charity? ...... 430 Article 5: Can charity exist without faith and hope? ...... 431

Question 66: The Equality of the Virtues ...... 433 Article 1: Can a virtue be greater or lesser? ...... 433 Article 2: Are all the virtues in one and the same individual equally intense? ...... 434 Article 3: Are the moral virtues preeminent over the intellectual virtues ? ...... 436 Article 4: Is justice the principal moral virtue? ...... 437 Article 5: Is wisdom the greatest of the intellectual virtues? ...... 438 Article 6: Is charity the greatest of the theological virtues? ...... 440

Question 67: The Duration of the Virtues after this Life ...... 442 Article 1: Do the moral virtues remain after this life? ...... 442 Article 2: Do the intellectual virtues remain after this life? ...... 443 Article 3: Does faith remain after this life? ...... 444 Article 4: Does hope remain after death in the state of glory? ...... 446 Article 5: Does anything of faith or hope remain in the state of glory? ...... 447 Article 6: Does charity remain after this life in the state of glory? ...... 449

Question 68: The Gifts of the Holy Spirit ...... 450 Article 1: Do the gifts differ from the virtues? ...... 450 Article 2: Are the gifts necessary for human salvation? ...... 452 Article 3: Are the gifts of the Holy Spirit habits? ...... 454 Article 4: Are the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit appropriately enumerated? ...... 455 Article 5: Are the gifts of the Holy Spirit connected ? ...... 456 Article 6: Do the gifts of the Holy Spirit remain in heaven? ...... 457 Article 7: Is the dignity of the gifts preserved by the way they are enumerated in Isaiah 2?. . 459 Article 8: Should the virtues take precedence over the gifts? ...... 460

xi Question 69: The Beatitudes ...... 462 Article 1: Do the beatitudes differ from the virtues and the gifts? ...... 462 Article 2: Do the rewards attributed to the beatitudes belong to this life? ...... 463 Article 3: Are the beatitudes appropriately enumerated? ...... 464 Article 4: Are the rewards of the beatitudes appropriately enumerated? ...... 467

Question 70: The Fruits of the Holy Spirit ...... 469 Article 1: Are the fruits of the Holy Spirit named by the Apostle in Galatians 5 acts? . . . . . 469 Article 2: Do the fruits of the Holy Spirit differ from the beatitudes? ...... 470 Article 3: Did the Apostle correctly enumerate the fruits in Galatians 5? ...... 471 Article 4: Are the fruits contrary to the works of the flesh enumerated by the Apostle? . . . . 473

Question 71: Vices and Sins in Themselves ...... 475 Article 1: Is vice contrary to virtue? ...... 475 Article 2: Are vices contrary to nature? ...... 476 Article 3: Is a vice, i.e., a bad habit, worse than a sin, i.e., a bad act? ...... 478 Article 4: Can a vicious act, i.e., a sin, exist together with a contrary virtue? ...... 479 Article 5: Does every sin involve an act? ...... 480 Article 6: Is it correct to define a sin as "a word or deed or desire contrary to the eternal law”? ...... 481

Question 72: The Distinctions among Sins ...... 484 Article 1: Do sins differ in species according to their objects? ...... 484 Article 2: Is it appropriate to distinguish spiritual sins from carnal sins? ...... 485 Article 3: Are sins distinguished in species according to their causes? ...... 486 Article 4: Is it appropriate to divide sin into sins against God, sins against one's neighbor, and sins against oneself? ...... 488 Article 5: Does the division of sins according to the degree of guilt—as, e.g., when sin is divided into mortal sin and venial sin—make for a diversity of species? ...... 489 Article 6: Do sins of commission differ in species from sins of omission? ...... 490 Article 7: Is it appropriate to divide sins into sins of the heart, sins of the mouth, and sinful deeds?...... 492 Article 8: Do excess and defect make for diverse species of sin? ...... 493 Article 9: Are vices and sins diversified in species by diverse circumstances? ...... 494

Question 73: The Relation of Sins to One Another ...... 496 Article 1: Are all sins connected? ...... 496 Article 2: Are all sins equal? ...... 497 Article 3: Does the gravity of sins vary according to their objects? ...... 499 Article 4: Does the gravity of sins differ according to the dignity of the virtues to which the sins are opposed, in the sense that a graver sin is opposed to a greater virtue? . . . . . 500 Article 5: Are carnal sins lesser faults than spiritual sins? ...... 501 Article 6: Does the gravity of a sin have to do with the cause of the sin? ...... 502 Article 7: Do the circumstances aggravate a sin?...... 503 Article 8: Is a sin's gravity increased by its doing greater harm? ...... 504 Article 9: Is a sin aggravated by the status of the person who is sinned against? ...... 506 Article 10: Does the greatness of the person who commits a sin aggravate the sin? ...... 507

xii Question 74: The Subject of Sins ...... 509 Article 1: Can the will be the subject of sin? ...... 509 Article 2: Is the will alone a subject of sin? ...... 510 Article 3: Can sin exist in the sentient appetite? ...... 511 Article 4: Can a mortal sin exist in the sentient appetite? ...... 512 Article 5: Can sin exist in reason? ...... 513 Article 6: Does the sin of lingering pleasure exist in reason? ...... 514 Article 7: Does the sin of consenting to an act exist in higher reason? ...... 514 Article 8: Is the act of consenting to the pleasure a mortal sin?...... 516 Article 9: Can there be a venial sin in higher reason insofar as it directs the lower powers? . 518 Article 10: Can a venial sin exist in higher reason with respect to itself, i.e., insofar as it examines the eternal conceptions ?...... 519

Question 75: The Causes of Sin in General ...... 521 Article 1: Does sin have a cause? ...... 521 Article 2: Does sin have an interior cause? ...... 522 Article 3: Does sin have an exterior cause? ...... 523 Article 4: Is sin a cause of sin? ...... 524

Question 76: Ignorance as a Cause of Sin ...... 526 Article 1: Can ignorance be a cause of sin? ...... 526 Article 2: Is ignorance a sin? ...... 527 Article 3: Does ignorance excuse one totally from sin? ...... 528 Article 4: Does ignorance diminish a sin? ...... 530

Question 77: The Sentient Appetite as a Cause of Sin ...... 532 Article 1: Is the will moved by a passion of the sentient appetite? ...... 532 Article 2: Can reason be overcome by a passion against its own knowledge? ...... 533 Article 3: Should a sin of passion be called a sin of weakness? ...... 535 Article 4: Is love of self a source of every sin? ...... 536 Article 5: Are ‘concupiscence of the flesh’, ‘concupiscence of the eyes’, and ‘pride of life’ appropriately posited as causes of sins? ...... 537 Article 6: Is a sin lessened by passion? ...... 539 Article 7: Does passion totally excuse one from sin?...... 540 Article 8: Can a sin of passion be mortal? ...... 541

Question 78: Malice as a Cause of Sin ...... 543 Article 1: Does anyone sin purposefully or from fixed malice? ...... 543 Article 2: Does everyone who sins from a habit sin from fixed malice? ...... 544 Article 3: Does everyone who sins from fixed malice sin from a habit? ...... 545 Article 4: Does one who sins from fixed malice sin more gravely than one who sins from passion? ...... 547

Question 79: God as a Cause of Sin ...... 549 Article 1: Is God a cause of sin? ...... 549 Article 2: Is the act of sinning from God? ...... 550 Article 3: Is God a cause of spiritual blindness and hardness of heart? ...... 551 Article 4: Are spiritual blindness and hardness of heart always ordered toward the salvation of the one who is blinded or whose heart is hardened? ...... 552

xiii Question 80: The Devil as a Cause of Sin ...... 554 Article 1: Is the devil a direct cause of a man's sinning? ...... 554 Article 2: Can the devil induce a man to sin by instigating him interiorly? ...... 555 Article 3: Can the devil impose a necessity for sinning? ...... 556 Article 4: Do all of men’s sins come at the devil’s suggestion? ...... 557

Question 81: Man as a Cause of Sin: The Transmission of Original Sin ...... 559 Article 1: Is the first sin of the first parent transmitted to the others by way of origin? . . . . 559 Article 2: Are other sins of the first parent himself or of close ancestors likewise transmitted to their descendants? ...... 561 Article 3: Does the sin of the first parent pass by way of origin to all men? ...... 562 Article 4: Would someone who was miraculously formed out of human flesh contract original sin? ...... 563 Article 5: If Adam had not sinned after Eve sinned, would their children have contracted original sin? ...... 564

Question 82: The Essence of Original Sin ...... 566 Article 1: Is original sin a habit? ...... 566 Article 2: Are there many original sins in a single man? ...... 567 Article 3: Is original sin concupiscence or disordered desire? ...... 568 Article 4: Does original sin exist equally in everyone? ...... 569

Question 83: The Subject of Original Sin ...... 571 Article 1: Does original sin exist more in the flesh than in the soul? ...... 571 Article 2: Does original sin exist in the soul’s essence prior to existing in its powers? . . . . 572 Article 3: Does original sin infect the will prior to infecting the other powers? ...... 573 Article 4: Are the powers mentioned in the introduction, [viz., the generative power, the concupiscible power, and the sense of touch], more infected than the other powers? 574

Question 84: One Sin as a Cause of Another Sin ...... 576 Article 1: Is avid desire or covetousness the root of all sins? ...... 576 Article 2: Is pride the beginning of every sin? ...... 577 Article 3: Besides pride and avarice, are there any other sins that might be called capital sins? ...... 578 Article 4: Should one claim that there are seven capital vices, viz., vainglory, envy, anger, sadness, avarice, gluttony, and lust? ...... 579

Question 85: The Corruption of the Good of the Nature as an Effect of Sin ...... 582 Article 1: Does sin diminish the good of the nature? ...... 582 Article 2: Can the whole of the good of human nature be destroyed by sin? ...... 583 Article 3: Is it appropriate to claim that there are wounds of the nature that follow from sin, viz., weakness, ignorance, malice, and concupiscence? ...... 585 Article 4: Is the privation of mode, species, and order an effect of sin? ...... 586 Article 5: Are death and other bodily defects the effects of sin? ...... 587 Article 6: Are death and other bodily defects natural to man? ...... 588

Question 86: The Stain of Sin as an Effect of Sin ...... 590 Article 1: Does sin cause a stain in the soul? ...... 590 Article 2: Does the stain remain in the soul after the sinful act? ...... 591

xiv Question 87: Being Deserving of Punishment as an Effect of Sin ...... 592 Article 1: Is it an effect of sin to be deserving of punishment? ...... 592 Article 2: Can a sin be the punishment for a sin? ...... 593 Article 3: Does any sin make one deserving of an eternal punishment? ...... 594 Article 4: Should the punishment for sin be infinite with respect to quantity? ...... 595 Article 5: Does every sin make one deserving of an eternal punishment? ...... 596 Article 6: Does one’s being deserving of punishment remain after the sin? ...... 597 Article 7: Is every punishment because of some sin?...... 599 Article 8: Is anyone punished for someone else’s sin?...... 600

Question 88: Mortal Sin and Venial Sin ...... 602 Article 1: Is it appropriate for venial sin to be divided off against mortal sin? ...... 602 Article 2: Do venial sin and mortal sin differ in genus in the sense that some sins are mortal by their genus and some sins are venial by their genus? ...... 603 Article 3: Is a venial sin a disposition toward a mortal sin? ...... 605 Article 4: Can a venial sin become a mortal sin? ...... 606 Article 5: Can some circumstance surrounding a venial sin make it a mortal sin? ...... 607 Article 6: Can a mortal sin become a venial sin? ...... 609

Question 89: Venial Sin in its own Right ...... 611 Article 1: Does a venial sin cause a stain in the soul? ...... 611 Article 2: Are venial sins appropriately designated as “wood, hay, and straw”? ...... 612 Article 3: Was man in the state of innocence able to commit a venial sin? ...... 613 Article 4: Can a good angel or bad angel commit a venial sin? ...... 615 Article 5: Are the first movements of the sentient appetite in non-believers mortal sins? . . . 616 Article 6: Can venial sin exist in someone who has original sin alone? ...... 617

Question 90: The Essence of Law ...... 619 Article 1: Is law something that belongs to reason? ...... 619 Article 2: Is law always ordered toward the common good as its end? ...... 620 Article 3: Whose reason is it that makes law? ...... 621 Article 4: Is promulgation part of the nature of law? ...... 622

Question 91: The Different Kinds of Law ...... 624 Article 1: Is there such a thing as eternal law? ...... 624 Article 2: Is there any such thing as natural law in us? ...... 625 Article 3: Is there any such thing as human law? ...... 626 Article 4: Was it necessary for there to be such a thing as divine law? ...... 627 Article 5: Is there just a single divine law? ...... 628 Article 6: Is there such a thing as a ‘law of the stimulant [to sin]’? ...... 630

Question 92: The Effects of Law ...... 632 Article 1: Is it the role of law to make men good? ...... 632 Article 2: Are the acts of law correctly enumerated when one says that the acts of law are to command, to forbid, to permit, and to punish? ...... 633

xv Question 93: The Eternal Law ...... 635 Article 1: Is the eternal law the highest conception or plan existing in God? ...... 635 Article 2: Is the eternal law known to everyone? ...... 636 Article 3: Does every law stem from the eternal law? ...... 637 Article 4: Are necessary and eternal things subject to the eternal law? ...... 638 Article 5: Are natural contingent things subject to the eternal law? ...... 639 Article 6: Are all human affairs subject to the eternal law? ...... 641

Question 94: The Natural Law ...... 643 Article 1: Is the natural law a habit? ...... 643 Article 2: Does the natural law contain many precepts or just one precept? ...... 644 Article 3: Do all the acts of the virtues belong to the law of nature? ...... 645 Article 4: Is there a single law of nature for everyone? ...... 646 Article 5: Can the law of nature be changed? ...... 648 Article 6: Can the natural law be wiped out of a man’s heart? ...... 650

Question 95: Human Law ...... 651 Article 1: Was it useful for laws to be made by men? ...... 651 Article 2: Does every humanly made law stem from the natural law? ...... 652 Article 3: Does Isidore appropriately describe the characteristics of positive law? ...... 653 Article 4: Is Isidore’s division of human laws appropriate? ...... 655

Question 96: The Force of Human Law ...... 657 Article 1: Should human law be made in a general way or for particular cases instead? . . . . 657 Article 2: Should human law suppress all vices? ...... 658 Article 3: Does human law command the acts of all the virtues? ...... 659 Article 4: Does human law impose an obligation in conscience on a man? ...... 660 Article 5: Is everyone subject to human law? ...... 661 Article 6: Is one who is subject to the law permitted to act outside the letter of the law? . . . 663

Question 97: Changes in Human Law ...... 665 Article 1: Should human law in any way be changed? ...... 665 Article 2: Should human law always be changed when something better comes along? . . . . 666 Article 3: Can custom acquire the force of law or nullify a law? ...... 667 Article 4: Can the rulers of the people give dispensations from human laws? ...... 668

Question 98: The Old Law ...... 670 Article 1: Was the Old Law good? ...... 670 Article 2: Was the Old Law from God? ...... 671 Article 3: Was the Old Law given through the mediation of angels or was it given directly by God? ...... 673 Article 4: Was it fitting for the Old Law to have been given only to the Jewish people? . . . . 674 Article 5: Were all men obliged to observe the Old Law? ...... 675 Article 6: Was it appropriate for the Old Law to have been given at the time of Moses? . . . 677

xvi Question 99: The Precepts of the Old Law ...... 679 Article 1: Does the Old Law contain just one precept ? ...... 679 Article 2: Does the Old Law contain moral precepts? ...... 680 Article 3: Does the Old Law contain ceremonial precepts in addition to the moral precepts? ...... 681 Article 4: Does the Old Law contain judicial precepts in addition to the moral and ceremonial precepts? ...... 682 Article 5: Are there any precepts contained in the Old Law in addition to the moral, ceremonial, and judicial precepts? ...... 683 Article 6: Was it right for the Old Law to have induced the observance of its precepts by temporal promises and threats? ...... 685

Question 100: The Moral Precepts of the Old Law ...... 687 Article 1: Do all the moral precepts of the Old Law belong to the law of nature? ...... 687 Article 2: Do the moral precepts of the Law have to do with all the acts of the virtues? . . . . 688 Article 3: Are all the moral precepts of the Old Law traced back to the ten precepts of the Decalogue? ...... 689 Article 4: Are the precepts of the Decalogue correctly distinguished from one another? . . . . 691 Article 5: Is there an appropriate number of precepts in the Decalogue? ...... 692 Article 6: Are the precepts of the Decalogue correctly ordered? ...... 695 Article 7: Are the precepts of the Decalogue set down in an appropriate way? ...... 697 Article 8: Can dispensations be granted from the precepts of the Decalogue? ...... 699 Article 9: Does the mode of virtue fall under a precept of the Law? ...... 700 Article 10: Does the mode of charity fall under a precept of divine law? ...... 702 Article 11: Is it correct to mark out moral precepts of the Law in addition to the Decalogue?...... 703 Article 12: Did the moral precepts of the Old Law give justification [before God]? ...... 705

Question 101: The Ceremonial Precepts of the Old Law in Themselves ...... 708 Article 1: Does the reason for the ceremonial precepts lie in their having to do with the worship of God? ...... 708 Article 2: Are the ceremonial precepts figurative ...... 709 Article 3: Was it right for there to be a multiplicity of ceremonial precepts? ...... 711 Article 4: Are the ceremonies of the Old Law correctly divided into sacrifices, sacred things, sacraments, and observances? ...... 712

Question 102: The Causes of the Ceremonial Precepts ...... 715 Article 1: Are there reasons for the ceremonial precepts? ...... 715 Article 2: Do the ceremonial precepts have literal reasons or only figurative reasons? . . . . . 716 Article 3: Can appropriate reasons be assigned for the ceremonies that involve sacrifices? . 717 Article 4: Can appropriate reasons be assigned for the ceremonies that involve the sacred things? ...... 723 Article 5: Can appropriate reasons be assigned for the sacraments of the Old Law? ...... 731 Article 6: Are there reasoned causes for the ceremonial observances? ...... 742

xvii Question 103: The Duration of the Ceremonial Precepts ...... 749 Article 1: Did the ceremonies of the Law exist before the Law existed? ...... 749 Article 2: Did the ceremonies of the Old Law have the power to confer justification at the time of the Law? ...... 750 Article 3: Did the ceremonies of the Old Law cease with the coming of Christ? ...... 752 Article 4: Can the ceremonial precepts be observed without mortal sin after Christ’s passion? ...... 754

Question 104: The Judicial Precepts of the Old Law ...... 757 Article 1: Does the nature of the judicial precepts consist in their directing a man in his relations with his neighbor? ...... 757 Article 2: Are the judicial precepts figures of anything? ...... 758 Article 3: Do the judicial precepts of the Old Law have perpetual binding force? ...... 759 Article 4: Can the judicial precepts be divided into set kinds? ...... 760

Question 105: The Reasons for the Judicial Precepts ...... 762 Article 1: Did the Old Law give appropriate direction concerning the rulers? ...... 762 Article 2: Were appropriate judicial precepts given with respect to the common life of the people? ...... 764 Article 3: Were appropriate judicial precepts given with respect to outsiders? ...... 772 Article 4: Did the Old Law issue appropriate precepts with respect to household members? . 775

Question 106: The Law of the Gospel, called the New Law, in Itself ...... 779 Article 1: Is the New Law a written law? ...... 779 Article 2: Does the New Law confer justification? ...... 780 Article 3: Should the New Law have been given from the beginning? ...... 781 Article 4: Will the New Law last until the end of the world? ...... 782

Question 107: The Relation between the Old Law and the New Law ...... 785 Article 1: Is the New Law different from the Old Law? ...... 785 Article 2: Does the New Law bring the Old Law to fulfillment? ...... 787 Article 3: Is the New Law contained within the Old Law? ...... 789 Article 4: Is the New Law more burdensome than the Old Law? ...... 790

Question 108: The Contents of the New Law ...... 793 Article 1: Should the New Law command or prohibit any exterior acts? ...... 793 Article 2: Does the New Law give adequate direction to exterior acts? ...... 794 Article 3: Does the New Law give man adequate direction with respect to interior acts? . . . 797 Article 4: Is it appropriate for certain determinate counsels to be proposed in the New Law? ...... 800

xviii Question 109: The Necessity for Grace ...... 802 Article 1: Can a man have cognition of any truth without grace? ...... 802 Article 2: Is a man able to will and do good without grace? ...... 803 Article 3: Can a man love God above all things by just his natural power and without grace? ...... 805 Article 4: Can a man without grace fulfill the precepts of the Law by his own natural power? ...... 806 Article 5: Can a man merit eternal life without grace? ...... 807 Article 6: Can a man prepare himself for grace on his own without the exterior assistance of grace? ...... 808 Article 7: Can a man rise up from sin without the assistance of grace?...... 809 Article 8: Is a man without grace able not to sin? ...... 811 Article 9: Is someone who has already received grace able on his own to do good and avoid evil without any further assistance of grace? ...... 812 Article 10: Does a man in the state of grace need the assistance of grace in order to persevere? ...... 814

Question 110: The Essence of God’s Grace ...... 816 Article 1: Is grace an entity of some sort in the soul? ...... 816 Article 2: Is grace a quality of the soul? ...... 817 Article 3: Is grace the same as a virtue? ...... 819 Article 4: Is it the essence of the soul that is the subject of grace? ...... 820

Question 111: The Divisions of Grace ...... 822 Article 1: Is grace appropriately divided into sanctifying grace and gratuitously given grace? ...... 822 Article 2: Is grace appropriately divided into operating grace and cooperating grace? . . . . . 823 Article 3: Is grace appropriately divided into prevenient grace and subsequent grace? . . . . 825 Article 4: Does the Apostle appropriately distinguish the kinds of gratuitously given grace? ...... 826 Article 5: Is gratuitously given grace superior to sanctifying grace? ...... 828

Question 112: The Cause of Grace ...... 829 Article 1: Is God alone a cause of grace? ...... 829 Article 2: Is any preparation or disposition for grace required on the part of a man? ...... 830 Article 3: Must grace necessarily be given to someone who prepares himself for grace or who does what is within his power? ...... 831 Article 4: Is grace greater in one man than in another? ...... 832 Article 5: Can a man know that he has grace? ...... 833

xix Question 113: The Effects of Grace ...... 835 Article 1: Is the justification of a sinner the forgiveness of sins? ...... 835 Article 2: Is an inpouring of grace required for that forgiveness of sin which is the justification of a sinner? ...... 836 Article 3: Is a movement of free choice required for the justification of a sinner? ...... 837 Article 4: Is a movement of faith required for the justification of a sinner? ...... 838 Article 5: Is a movement of free choice with respect to sin required for the justification of a sinner? ...... 840 Article 6: Should the forgiveness of sins be counted among the things required for the justification of a sinner? ...... 841 Article 7: Does the justification of a sinner occur instantaneously or successively?...... 842 Article 8: Is the inpouring of grace first in the natural ordering of the things required for the justification of a sinner? ...... 844 Article 9: Is the justification of a sinner God’s greatest work? ...... 845 Article 10: Is the justification of a sinner a miraculous work?...... 847

Question 114: Merit ...... 849 Article 1: Can a man merit anything from God? ...... 849 Article 2: Can someone merit eternal life without grace? ...... 850 Article 3: Can a man who is in the state of grace merit eternal life by his own worthiness? . 851 Article 4: Is grace the principle of merit mainly through charity rather than through the other virtues? ...... 852 Article 5: Can a man merit first grace for himself? ...... 853 Article 6: Can one man merit first grace for another man? ...... 854 Article 7: Can someone merit restoration for himself after a fall?...... 855 Article 8: Can a man merit an increase of grace or charity? ...... 856 Article 9: Can someone merit [final] perseverance? ...... 857 Article 10: Do temporal goods fall under merit? ...... 858

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