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Being Particularly Singlish: the Syntax of Sentence-Final Particles in Singaporean English

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Being Particularly Singlish: the Syntax of Sentence-Final Particles in Singaporean English Being Particularly Singlish: The Syntax of Sentence-Final Particles in Singaporean English Lan Yingjie Emmanuel College 8th June 2017 This dissertation is submitted for the degree of Master of Philosophy. Department of Theoretical and Applied Linguistics University of Cambridge Declaration This dissertation is the result of my own work and includes nothing which is the outcome of work done in collaboration except where specifically indicated in the text. This dissertation contains 23 183 words, of which 20 000 words are counted towards the official word limit. 1 Acknowledgements This thesis being my third in as many academic years, one might expect it to have been a little easier. Unfortunately, that was not quite how things panned out: I was stretched and challenged to exceed whatever I had previ- ously done, as it should be. To be able to complete this dissertation on my dearly beloved Singaporean English (SgE) therefore has been only possible because of all the people who have supported me throughout this endeav- our: my professors, my friends, family and loved ones, and my heavenly Father. To Dr Theresa Biberauer, my thesis supervisor, I owe an incredible debt of gratitude that I fear I can never repay. A powerhouse of intellectual energy and linguistic enthusiasm, Theresa pushed me to go beyond my own intellectual limits again and again. I am especially grateful for her generosity of time and energy, especially she was meant to focus on research instead of teaching this year. Despite her rigorous standards, she also knew when I needed to ease off, and I was very much touched by her care and concern the entire year. I also want to express my deepest thanks for her confidence in my abilities and the way she treated me, not merely as a student, but a younger lin- guist to be mentored. She will always be a role model for me to aspire towards. I also want to express my thanks to my Singaporean friends who served as my native speaker informants for this study: Gwyneth Teo, Charles Nicholas Lim, Justin Daniel Pereira, Derek Lim, Ludwig Tan, Goh Hui Min, Christine Yong, Leonard Yip, Teo Min Xun, Cheryl Tan and Natalie Ng. In particular, the cartographic approach to syntax requires an exhaustive search of syntactic possibilities, and I ended up bombarding Gwen and Charles with so many 2 test questions at strange hours. Had I not been conscientiously verifying my data with the other respondents, this thesis might have been better titled A Microvariational Syntax of the SgE of Gwen and Charles. Thank you for being so available, even if you were eight timezones away. To Lee Junwen, whose analysis of lah and ah formed the starting point for my exploration of pitch contours in SgE, thank you for always being an excellent sounding board for my ideas. I am also grateful to Dr Michael Yoshitaka Erlewine, for his time, ideas and the many useful suggestions he generously gave. Many of the ideas here were also developed at the Department of Theoreti- cal and Applied Linguistics MPhil seminar Topics in Syntax: Fine Structures, ably led by Dr Craig Sailor and Dr Jamie Douglas. To them, as well as my fellow seminar mates, be they, postgraduate, undergraduate (special mention goes to Ollie Sayeed and Samuel Andersson), or Sten Vikner, I am grateful for your company and suggestions. As many linguistics undergraduates will attest, syntax can be incredibly intimidating, especially at the beginning. While my continued explorations have only shown it to be more complex and challenging than I first imagined it to be, I want to thank Professor Kenichi Namai of Waseda University for helping me fall in love with that complexity. He showed me how beautiful elegant linguistic argumentation in syntax could be, and how a logical mind could begin to tease apart the mysteries of language. Without his encourage- ment, I might have given up after that first grueling class, much less go on to complete a dissertation under his watchful mentorship in my last year of undergraduate study. I would not be where I am today without him. To my family: Mama, Papa, and Yingli, who have put up with my very nomadic education over the past six years, thank you for the love and care. I might not always be around for many family events, having found myself in a different country each year for the last four years, but I have always known that you were supporting me and cheering me on from home to finish what I had started. To my aunts Pah Yen Sze and Ho Jia Yin, and my grandaunt Ho 3 Siew Bee (Yˇım`a), thank you for your care and putting up with my incessant questions about Hokkien. I also owe my thanks to my teammates at the Cambridge University Fencing Club, especially to my teammates on the Men's First Team. My life in Cambridge would have been unbearably unbalanced had I only restricted myself to linguistics: you guys gave me something to look forward to at train- ings, and I cherish the memories we have together (especially our triumph over the Dark Blue Menace at the Varsity Match). I shall eternally remain, very proudly, a Light Blue fencer. To Judith, who has encouraged my dreams for the past two years, even if it meant that we would be apart for what felt like an eternity, thank you for the love, care, and prayers you have lavished on me. It has been a challenging two years, but I am very aware of the sacrifices you made for us. And last but not least, I give thanks to God for His grace that has brought me through. May my work continue to uncover the exquisite intricacies of His hand. 4 Abstract This thesis looks at sentence-final particles (SFPs) in Singaporean English. By combining existing descriptions with new insights, I address existing issues of SFPs and their pitch contour variants. Subsequently, through a cartographic approach, the linear ordering of SFPs relative to each other is mapped and their relative structural heights determined. The differences in structural position then motivate a proposal for a discourse domain above the CP as postulated by Wiltschko (2016). I then find evidence for an additional functional projection in this domain beyond what has been proposed in the literature. Finally, I examine the apparent violations of the Final-over-Final Condition by the head-final SFPs in SgE that dominate a head-initial clause. 5 Contents 1 Introduction 9 2 Singaporean English and Sentence-Final Particles 12 2.1 The Origins of SFPs in SgE . 12 2.2 Tone in SgE SFPs . 15 2.2.1 Tone with lah, ah and what?............... 15 2.2.1.1 lah ........................ 15 2.2.1.2 ah ........................ 17 2.2.1.3 what ....................... 19 2.2.1.4 Interim Conclusions . 19 2.2.2 Tone and the \Cantonese set" of SFPs . 19 2.2.2.1 lor33 ....................... 20 2.2.2.2 meh55 ...................... 21 2.2.2.3 ma22 ....................... 22 2.2.2.4 hor: A Problem? . 23 2.2.2.5 Another Problem: leh ............. 26 2.2.3 Conclusion . 30 2.3 Other SFPs and Potential Candidates . 30 2.3.1 Other SFPs . 30 2.3.1.1 one ....................... 30 2.3.2 SFP-like Items in SgE . 32 2.3.2.1 Sentence-final already ............. 33 2.3.2.2 Sentence-final only ............... 34 2.3.2.3 Sentence-final already and only as SFPs in SgE 35 6 2.4 Boundary Tone Revisited . 36 2.5 Conclusion . 40 3 Syntactic Analysis of SgE SFPs 41 3.1 Introduction . 41 3.2 SFPs in Varieties of Chinese . 41 3.3 Substratum Transfer and SgE SFPs . 47 3.3.1 Transferred Properties of SgE SFPs . 47 3.3.2 SFP Linear Ordering in SgE . 48 3.3.3 The Low/High Divide in SgE SFPs . 56 3.3.3.1 Embedded and Matrix Clause Modification . 56 3.3.3.2 SFP Positions with Question Tags . 58 3.3.4 SgE SFP Structural Heights . 64 3.3.5 Rethinking the Low/High Divide . 71 3.3.6 Situating The Groups . 73 4 SFPs in the Discourse Domain 75 4.1 Motivating the Discourse Domain . 75 4.2 The Complex Speech Act Structure . 76 4.3 SgE SFPs and the Discourse Domain . 80 4.4 The Case of hor24 ......................... 88 4.5 Conclusion . 90 5 SgE and The Final-over-Final Condition 91 5.1 The Final-over-Final Condition . 91 5.2 Particles and FOFC . 93 5.2.1 FOFC and Chinese SFPs . 93 5.2.2 Types of Particle Acategoriality . 95 5.2.3 Acategoriality and Borrowing . 95 5.2.4 Acategoriality, FOFC and SFPs . 97 5.3 Resolving FOFC and SgE SFPs . 97 5.3.1 Intonational SFPs . 98 5.3.1.1 The Low and Middle SFPs . 98 5.3.2 Pitch Contour SFPs . 103 7 5.4 Summing Up . 104 6 Conclusion 105 8 Chapter 1 Introduction `Singlish also has an array of words that [...] dramatically alter the tone of what you're saying when tacked on to the end of a sentence. \I got the cat lah", is an assurance that you have the cat. \I got the cat meh?" is the puzzled realisation that you may have lost it.' Tessa Wong, The Rise of Singlish1 Singaporean English is a variety of English spoken on the former British colony of Singapore. When the British established a colony in Singapore in 1819, English was put in place as the language of administration. Subse- quently, it was retained upon independence in 1965 as the working language of the country and continues to be widely used in most spheres, public and private, developing into what is referred to as Standard Singaporean English (SSE).
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