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71968434.Pdf Imaginary Cities of Gold ALSO BY PETER O. KOCH AND FROM MCFARLAND The Spanish Conquest of the Inca Empire (2008) The Aztecs, the Conquistadors, and the Making of Mexican Culture (2006) To the Ends of the Earth: The Age of the European Explorers (2003) Imaginary Cities of Gold The Spanish Quest for Treasure in North America PETER O. KOCH McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers Jefferson, North Carolina, and London LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGUING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA Koch, Peter O., 1953– Imaginary cities of gold : the Spanish quest for treasure in North America / Peter O. Koch. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-7864-4381-9 softcover : 50# alkaline paper 1. America—Discovery and exploration—Spanish. 2. Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, Alvar, 16th cent. 3. Coronado, Francisco Vásquez de, 1510–1554. 4. Soto, Hernando de, ca. 1500–1542. 5. Explorers—America—Biography. 6. Explorers— Spain—Biography. 7. Geographical myths. I. Title. E123.K65 2009 970.01'6—dc22 2009006678 British Library cataloguing data are available ©2009 Peter O. Koch. All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying or recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Cover image ©2009 Shutterstock Manufactured in the United States of America McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers Box 611, Je›erson, North Carolina 28640 www.mcfarlandpub.com For Abelene, Sara, Alex, and Eric; and for my extended family, Betty, Augusto, Mabelle, Joel, Meng, and Alpha: your love and support mean everything. Let the curious reader consider whether there is not much to ponder in this that I am writing. What men have there been in the world who have shown such daring? —Bernal Diaz del Castillo They were all groping in the darkness, because they did not understand what the Indians were saying. —Fray Bartolomé de Las Casas TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface . 1 1. The Lure of the Quest . 5 2. The Narváez Expedition . 22 3. The Spiritual Path of Cabeza de Vaca. 50 4. Rumors of Magnificent Realms . 67 5. Rivals for the Rights to Florida . 74 6. A Clerical Error . 89 7. The Coronado Expedition . 102 8. Bitter Disappointment . 110 9. Native Unrest . 128 10. The Search for Quivira . 138 11. The Road to Ruin. 148 12. De Soto Claims His Prize . 155 13. Pearls Before Swine . 171 14. Across the Wide Mississippi. 190 15. Nearing the End . 217 16. The Long Way Home. 224 Chapter Notes. 233 Bibliography . 235 Index . 237 vii This page intentionally left blank PREFACE Nearly a century before a small company of hopeful English colonists sought to plant a permanent settlement at Jamestown, Spanish colonists, who had already established a foothold in North America, were busy planning expeditions to explore, conquer, and settle the mysterious lands that lay just to the north of Cuba and Mexico. Their curiosity piqued by native tales of lands teeming with a natural supply of precious metals and gems, and uncharted regions that were home to many strange and wondrous sights, some of which seemed to correspond with ancient European lore, a great many Spaniards were willing to risk everything, including their lives, for the chance to find treasures said to surpass even their wildest dreams. A mere twenty years after Christopher Columbus established the first truly permanent European settlement in the Americas, a conquistador by the name of Juan Ponce de León sailed from Puerto Rico in search of the island of Bimini, a land that the natives had told him was rich with gold and home to a magical spring of water that could revive both body and soul. While he failed to find either of these attractive items, this legendary explorer did hap- pen to discover an unfamiliar territory that he christened Pascua Florida, a region that soon became the focus of intense Spanish speculation, most of which was fueled by native stories of extraordinarily wealthy kingdoms just waiting to be claimed for the greater glory of Spain. Rumors of Hernán Cortés’s discovery of Tenochtitlan, a New World city that surpassed the size and magnificence of any contemporary Old World city, spread quickly throughout the Spanish colonies in the West Indies. It stood to reason that if there was one such opulent kingdom then surely there must be others just waiting to be discovered. Such reasoning rekindled Juan Ponce de León’s desire to return to Pascua Florida. This renewed quest for gold and glory came to an abrupt end when the Spanish commander suffered an arrow wound that proved fatal. The dream of finding Florida’s legendary wealth did not, however, die with the passing of Juan Ponce de León. There would soon follow a succes- sive number of expeditions to this region, all of which were led by Spanish 1 2PREFACE commanders who were thoroughly convinced that they possessed the where- withal to succeed where their predecessors had failed. Pánfilo de Narváez, a Spanish conquistador blinded by greed, arrogance, and the loss of one eye, was next in line to take up the search for the ever-elusive rich empires of Florida, especially a wealthy realm the natives called Apalachee. This ill-fated expedition suffered one loss after another until there were but four survivors, one of whom was an officer by the name of Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca. After more than seven years living among various tribes that wandered across much of Texas, New Mexico, and northern Mexico, Cabeza de Vaca and his three comrades finally found their way back to civilization. These four survivors were escorted to Mexico City, the Spanish capital of New Spain that was built over the ruins of Tenochtitlan, the city that was once the very heart of the Aztec empire. Besides returning with a profound respect for the indigenous peoples of the Americas, Cabeza de Vaca and his comrades returned with splendid stories of lands that held out the promise of yielding a great many earthly rewards. The most promising of the tales told by the survivors of the Narváez expedition centered around a region to the distant north that the four men never set eyes on but had been told was a major source of the kind of met- als and gems that were so dear to the hearts of every European. The natives would call this golden realm Cibola, which they claimed was home to seven cities, each of which either equaled or eclipsed the magnificent wealth once stored at the principal cities of the Aztecs of Mexico or the Incas of Peru. To Christian ears, the Seven Cities of Cibola sounded very similar to the oft told Iberian tale of the Seven Cities of Antillia, the glorious and unmapped cities founded during the eighth century A.D. by seven pious Portuguese priests and their faithful followers after having barely escaped the wrath of an invad- ing horde of Arabs and Moors by sailing westward across the Atlantic Ocean. Gossip and speculation over the many treasures that awaited at Cibola ignited numerous calls for the launching of a major expedition to find and claim this splendid region for Spain. A cautious Antonio de Mendoza, the viceroy of New Spain, responded by sending a small scouting party—led by Fray Marcos de Niza, a devout priest who had once beheld the incredible wealth that was housed at Cuzco, and guided by Esteban, a Moor and Span- ish slave who was one of the four survivors of the Narváez expedition—which was expected to discover a direct route to the legendary Seven Cities of Cibola. Esteban would forfeit his life for the opportunity to be the first to catch a glimpse of Cibola, while Fray Marcos would return with wondrous stories of having seen a large and towering city that appeared to be made entirely of gold. Needless to say, many Spanish settlers were now convinced that Cibola truly was a realm worthy of being claimed for Spain. Preface 3 Francisco Vásquez de Coronado was appointed to lead a large expedi- tionary force charged with laying claim to the Seven Cities of Cibola. The suc- cess of this mission seemed assured with the addition of Fray Marcos as its guide. However, instead of finding a golden city larger than Mexico City, Coronado and his soldiers were disappointed to discover that Hawikuh, one of the Seven Cities of Cibola, was simply a small pueblo consisting of a few buildings made of clay and rock. Unable to find any items of value at Cibola, Coronado then turned his attention to finding Quivira, a region that a self- serving native guide claimed had an abundance of gold. Coronado’s army would spend nearly two years trekking across the barren lands of northern Mexico, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas only to dis- cover that the golden cities of Cibola and Quivira were simply an illusion. While Coronado and his troops were searching for the rich native empires first mentioned by the four survivors of the Narvaez expedition, Her- nando de Soto was leading an even larger army of eager conquistadors through the swamps and forests of Florida to find the wealthy native king- doms that had eluded Panfilo de Narvaez. Don Hernando de Soto had earned for himself the fame and fortune that every conquistador who ever sailed to the New World dreamed of acquiring but few ever realized. Not one to rest on his laurels, de Soto decided to risk all that he had on the chance to find even greater fortune and glory in the province of Florida.
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