DEFENDING and PROVISIONING the CATAWBA NATION: an ARCHAEOLOGY of the MID-EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY COMMUNITIES at NATION FORD Mary
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DEFENDING AND PROVISIONING THE CATAWBA NATION: AN ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE MID-EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY COMMUNITIES AT NATION FORD Mary Elizabeth Fitts A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Anthropology. Chapel Hill 2015 Approved by: C. Margaret Scarry R.P. Stephen Davis Brett H. Riggs Silvia Tomášková Margaret Wiener Kathleen DuVal © 2015 Mary Elizabeth Fitts ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT MARY ELIZABETH FITTS: Defending and Provisioning the Catawba Nation: An Archaeology of the Mid-Eighteenth-Century Communities at Nation Ford (Under the Direction of C. Margaret Scarry) In the mid-eighteenth century, several Catawba communities were situated near Nation Ford, where the main trading path that traversed the southern Appalachian Piedmont crossed the Catawba River. Men from these communities had adopted a militaristic strategy of serving as auxiliaries for the English colonies. The alliance between the Catawba Nation and South Carolina, in particular, precipitated a set of processes that transformed the conditions of daily life near Nation Ford. Two of these processes were settlement aggregation and the incorporation of native refugee communities. In this dissertation I consider whether the political process of centralization through which refugees were incorporated into the Catawba Nation was accompanied by parallel changes in economic organization, particularly with regard to foodways. I also examine the impacts of settlement aggregation on the formulation of community identities and the farming and foraging practices of Catawba women. In addressing these topics, I consult primary documents to assess the character of the alliance between the English colonies and the Catawba Nation, and to trace the development of the Catawba’s role as auxiliaries. I also examine archaeological materials from the mid-eighteenth-century Catawba settlements of Nassaw-Weyapee and Charraw Town to access the activities of Catawba women, particularly with regard to making pottery, farming, and collecting wild foods. iii I find that the incorporation of refugee groups was not accompanied by uniform changes in Nation Ford communities of practice. On the one hand, variation in pottery attributes suggests this particular craft was taught and undertaken in household or matrilocal groups. However, women appear to have been processing less maize at Charraw Town relative to Nassaw, a pattern that may indicate the development of collaborative networks that cross-cut Catawba settlements. It also appears that a more anthropogenic environment had developed near Nation Ford as a result of settlement aggregation. This circumstance likely contributed to a food security crisis between 1755 and 1759, when enemy raids, European settler encroachment, and a regional drought all interfered with Catawba subsistence practices. Ultimately, this study highlights the double-edged nature of strategies available to American Indian groups seeking to maintain political autonomy in early colonial period contexts. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am indebted to the many people whose ideas, hard work, and encouragement have contributed to the completion of this project. First and foremost, I would like to thank the members of my graduate committee. My advisor, Margie Scarry, has been a consistent source of sage and candid advice. Her interest in using archaeobotanical data to address social questions has helped me think with food in new ways. Steve Davis and Brett Riggs organized the Catawba Project from the ground up. I have benefitted from relationships they forged with the Catawba Tribal Historic Perseveration Office and residents of York and Lancaster Counties, South Carolina. Working with Steve and Brett in the field and lab has shaped my professional practice. In addition, Steve’s sharp editorial eye has helped me avoid many errors, and Brett’s encyclopedic memory has directed me to numerous sources. Both Silvia Tomášková and Margaret Wiener have helped me bring a critical perspective to my work. Finally, Kathleen DuVal has encouraged me to think about how this project fits into to the existing corpus of Catawba research, and to reflect on the writing of American Indian histories in general. Other graduate students who have participated in the Catawba Project have been an important sounding board for my ideas as well as a source of moral support, particularly David Cranford, Mark Plane, and Theresa Shebalin. Over the years I have also benefitted from discussions with Ben Shields, Ashley Carse, Lawrence McBride, Cara Shank, Erik Johannesson, Will Meyer, Erin Stevens Nelson, Lindsay Bloch, Anna Semon, and many other graduate students in the Department of Anthropology. v I would also like to thank all of the field school students who participated in the excavations at Nassaw-Weyapee and Charraw Town. Their hard work and attention to detail were a vital component of the process by which things in the ground became the archaeological data presented in this dissertation. In 2007, field school participants excavating at Nassaw- Weyapee included Connie Cohn, Paul Eubanks, Kristy Gladstone, Maury Hutchens, Daniel LaDu, Kathleen Loeven, Ethan Moore, Byron Parker, Amanda Pitcock, Mark Storch, and Robert Strickland. Members of the 2008 crew working at Nassaw-Weyapee were Kelsey Bartiss, Justine Casciani, Rene McLeod, Rachel Pierce, Jason Romano, Robin Smith, and Stephanie Wendel. The 2011 Charraw Town excavations were accomplished through the efforts of Tomas de Leon, Elise Duffield, Kelly Gagnon, Mari Hicks, Stephanie Keffer, Cassie Marcelo, Cassandra McGuire, Allie Mead, Mallory Melton, Hannah Moffett, Bouran Mozayen, Sarah Pizzolato, Kathryn Roberson, Megan Ross, Liana Roux, and Abi Winegarden. Lillian Ondus, bead-finder extraordinaire, participated in all of these field seasons. I am also indebted to the crew supervisors, whose expertise, managerial skills, and good humor kept the dirt moving, the paperwork in order, and spirits high: David Cranford, Matt Mirarchi, Mark Plane, Erin Stevens Nelson, Emily Cubbon Ditto, and Johann Furbacher. Students also played an important role in helping me process and analyze the materials collected at Nassaw-Weyapee and Charraw Town. I would like to thank Janice Tse, Bouran Mozayen, and Lauren Crist for assisting with the ceramic analysis, and Kelly Gagnon, Marisa Hobbs, Noelle Wells, Megan Hynek, and Isaac Warschauer for helping with the macrobotanical analysis. My reconnaissance work at Charraw Town was funded through a summer research grant from the Center for the Study of the American South at UNC-Chapel Hill. The Charraw Town vi and Belk Farm faunal material was analyzed by Ashely Peles with the support of a Timothy P. Mooney Fellowship from the Research Laboratories of Archaeology (RLA). I would also like to thank Vin Steponaitis, Lisa-Jean Michienzi, and Brenda Moore of the RLA for providing vital support and resources, as well as the staff of the Department of Anthropology including Suphronia Cheek and Caleb Tabor. This manuscript was completed with the encouragement of Margie Scarry, John Scarry, Peggy Mook, and Gabby Purcell. Finally, I would like to acknowledge the generosity and understanding of my husband Greg and the companionship of Pete the dog. And with more gratitude than I can articulate, I would like to thank my mother Cathy for everything. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ...............................................................................................................x LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... xii Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................1 People of the River...........................................................................3 Orientation and Definitions..............................................................9 The Path Ahead ..............................................................................13 2 CAROLINA ...............................................................................................19 Sixteenth-Century Imperialism and Seventeenth- Century Revolution ........................................................................24 Settling ...........................................................................................30 Expansion .......................................................................................39 Interactions .....................................................................................46 3 CATAWBA ...............................................................................................55 South Appalachian Mississippian Frontiers...................................57 Things Fall Apart ...........................................................................73 Constituents of the Catawba Nation ..............................................80 The Catawba Nation as Friend and Foe .......................................106 viii 4 “SO WARLIKE A DISPOSITION” ........................................................117 Catawba Warriors as an Auxiliary Force .....................................119 Offense, Defense, and Insecurity .................................................136 New Neighbors ............................................................................151 5 HILLY LAND .........................................................................................160