OHIO ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 41 NO. 3 SUMMER 1991 The Archaeological Society of MEMBERSHIP AND DUES Annual dues to the Archaeological Society of Ohio are payable on the first of January as follows: Regular membership $15.00; husband and TERM wife (one copy of publication) $16.00; Life membership $300.00. EXPIRES A.S.O. OFFICERS Subscription to the Ohio Archaeologist, published quarterly, is included 1992 President James G. Hovan, 16979 South Meadow Circle, in the membership dues. The Archaeological Society of Ohio is an Strongsville, OH 44136, (216) 238-1799 incorporated non-profit organization. 1992 Vice President Larry L. Morris, 901 Evening Star Avenue SE, East Canton, OH 44730, (216) 488-1640 BACK ISSUES 1992 Exec. Sect. Barbara Motts, 3435 Sciotangy Drive, Columbus, Publications and back issues of the Ohio Archaeologist: OH 43221, (614) 898-4116 (work) (614) 459-0808 (home) Ohio Flint Types, by Robert N. Converse $ 6.00 1992 Recording Sect. Nancy E. Morris, 901 Evening Star Avenue Ohio Stone Tools, by Robert N. Converse $ 5.00 SE, East Canton, OH 44730, (216) 488-1640 Ohio Slate Types, by Robert N. Converse $10.00 1992 Treasurer Don F. Potter, 1391 Hootman Drive, Reynoldsburg, OH 43068, (614) 861-0673 The Glacial Kame Indians, by Robert N. Converse $15.00 1998 Editor Robert N. Converse, 199 Converse Dr., Plain City, OH Back issues—black and white—each $ 5.00 43064,(614)873-5471 Back issues—four full color plates—each $ 5.00 1992 Immediate Past Pres. Donald A. Casto, 138 Ann Court, Back issues of the Ohio Archaeologist printed prior to 1964 are Lancaster, OH 43130, (614) 653-9477 generally out of print but copies are available from time to time. Write to business office for prices and availability.

BUSINESS MANAGER Paul Wildermuth, 5210 Coonpath Road NE, Pleasantville, OH ASO CHAPTERS 43148, (614) 536-7855 or (800) 736-7815. Aboriginal Explorers Club President: John M. Rose, R.D. #1, Box 12, Chester, WV TRUSTEES Beau Fleuve Chapter 1992 David W. Kuhn, 2103 Grandview Ave., Portsmouth, OH President: John C. McKendry, 5545 Trescott Terrace, Lakeview, NY 45662, (614) 354-1454 (work) Blue Jacket Chapter 1992 Stephen Kelley, 301 Columbia Ave., Box 1, Seaman, OH President: Jacque F. Stahler, 115 S. Mill Street, DeGraff, OH 45679,(513)386-2375 Cuyahoga Valley Chapter 1992 Walter J. Sperry, 6910 Range Line Rd., Mt. Vernon, OH President: Norman Park, 4495 W. High Street, Mantua, OH 43050, (614)393-2314 Flint Ridge Chapter 1994 Martha Otto, 2200 East Powell Road, Westerville, OH 43081, President: James E. Hahn, 770 S. 2nd Street, Heath, OH (614)297-2641 (work), (614) 846-7640 (home) Fort Salem Chapter 1994 Don Gehlbach, 3435 Sciotangy Drive, Columbus, OH 43221, President: Clinton McClain, 1844 Sicily Road, Mt. Orab, OH (614)459-0808 Johnny Appleseed Chapter 1994 Stephen J. Parker, 1859 Frank Drive, Lancaster, OH 43130, President: Charles Fulk, 2122 Cottage Street, Ashland, OH (614)653-6642 King Beaver Chapter 1994 S. A. (Joe) Redick, 35 West Riverglen Drive, Worthington, OH President: Ronald Richman, Box 23, Clay Street, Edinburg, PA 43085, (614)885-0665 Lake County Chapter 1994 Michael W. Schoenfeld, 5683 Blacklick-Eastern Road NW, President: William M. King, 9735 Ridgeview Trail, Mentor, OH Pickerington, OH 43147, (614) 837-7088 Lower Ohio River Valley Basin Chapter REGIONAL COLLABORATORS President: Will Storey, 1820 Dexter, Portsmouth, OH David W. Kuhn, 2103 Grandview Ave., Portsmouth, OH 45662 Miamiville Archaeological Conservation Chapter President: Raymond E. Lovins, Box 86, Miamiville, OH Mark W. Long, Box 467, Wellston, OH Steven Kelley, Seaman, OH Mound City Chapter William Tiell, 13435 Lake Ave., Lakewood, OH President: Carmel "Bud" Tackett, 906 Charleston Pk., Chillicothe, OH James L. Murphy, University Libraries, 1858 Neil Avenue Mall, North Coast Chapter Columbus, OH 43210 President: Robert W. McGreevey, 24687 Tara-Lynn Dr., N. Olmstead, OH Gordon Hart, 760 N. Main St., Bluffton, Indiana 46714 Painted Post Chapter David J. Snyder, P.O. Box 388, Luckey, OH 43443 President: Joe Johnson, 108 Erwin Avenue, Follansbee, WV Dr. Phillip R. Shriver, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056 Sandusky Bay Chapter Brian Da Re, 58561 Sharon Blvd., Rayland, OH 43943 President: George B. DeMuth, 4303 Nash Rd., Wakeman, OH Jeff Carskadden, 960 Eastward Circle, Colony North, Sandusky Valley Chapter Zanesville, OH 43701 President: James E. Milum, 17306 CH 113, Harpster, OH Seneca Arrow Hunters All articles, reviews, and comments regarding the Ohio Archaeologist President: Donald Weller, Jr., 3232 S. State Rt. 53, Tiffin, OH should be sent to the Editor. Memberships, requests for back issues, changes of address, and other inquiries should be sent to the Busi­ Six River Valley Chapter ness Manager. President: Walter J. Sperry, 6910 Range Line Road, Mount Vernon, OH Standing Stone Chapter President: Paul Wildermuth, 5210 Coonpath Road, Pleasantville, OH PLEASE NOTIFY THE BUSINESS MANAGER OF ADDRESS CHANGES IMMEDIATELY SINCE, BY POSTAL REGULATIONS, Sugarcreek Valley Chapter SOCIETY MAIL CANNOT BE FORWARDED. President: Nancy E. Morris, 901 Evening Star Ave. SE, East Canton, OH TABLE OF CONTENTS PRESIDENT'S PAGE Possible Astronomical Alignments at Hopewell Sites in The third annual joint meeting of the West Virginia, Ohio by William F. Romain 4 Archaeological Society of Ohio has just concluded in Parkersburg, West Virginia. A Highly Refined Hopewell Frog Effigy Platform Pipe The two day meeting was held at the historic Blennerhassett byD.fi. Gehlbach 17 Hotel in Parkersburg, which was built in 1889. The hotel was fully Notched Winged Bannerstones by Robert N. Converse 18 restored in 1986 and is worthy of a trip coupled with a scenic boat ride to Blennerhassett Island. An Engraved Tubular Bannerstone by Bob White 19 The Saturday agenda for the two day meeting was as follows: Archaic Basal Notched Points from the Portage River 1. Proto-Historic Archaeology of the Mid-Ohio Valley, by Ronald Area of Ottawa County by Phillip R. Shriver 20 Moxley. Rare Bannerstones from the Bill Cain Collection 2. A Hopewell Menagerie: Effigy Pipes from Tremper Mound by Bill Cain 21 and Mound City, by Martha Dotter Otto. Two Birdstones from the Steve Fuller Collection 3. Cotiga Mound and the Law, by Jerrel C. Anderson. 4. The Intrusive Mound Culture, by Robert N. Converse. byRobertN. Converse 22 Sunday was devoted to a general meeting with displays Slate from the Collection of Mel Wilkins byMei wnkins ... 23 and was well attended by people from West Virginia, Ohio, and New York. There were many outstanding displays A Starke County Fluted Point by Larry L Morris 24 and a good feeling of comradeship. In Memoriam: Edward W. Richard - 1911-1991 25 The award winners were: Charles Faulk, Ken Spahr, Rollin Gravel Mining Continues to Threaten Barnett and Dan and Carol Carter. Hopeton 25 I want to thank all of the many people involved in putting to­ Lost in Time: The Forgotten Tribal Groups of gether the details relative to this third joint meeting. I know that it Northern Ohio by David M. Stothers 26 wasn't an easy task and everyone is to be commended. Soon, we will be going to the balance of our summer time The Disc Pipe-An Example from the Jim Ritchie meetings and headed toward our fall and winter agenda. I'm Collection byRobertN. Converse 28 looking forward to seeing each and everyone of you and your Symbolic Associations at the Mound families this year. by William F. Romain 29 Best regards, James G. Hovan A Processing Guide for Archaeological Charcoal President byj.fi. Haas 39 A Northeastern Ohio Collection by Jennifer A. Saksa 40 The Western Lake Erie Archaeological Research Program: A Prototype for the Future by Nancy A. Burnard.. 41 A Western Sandusky County Hi-Lo Point by David J. Snyder 41 Letter to the Editor: Space Age Witch Hunt by John Baldwin 42 Archaeology 1991 43 NPS Publishes Technical Report on the Legal Background of Archaeological Protection 43

Front Cover Made of glistening Ohio pipestone, this unique effigy pipe is in the image of a bear. Pipestone sculptures of animals in the full round are exceedingly rare. While the cultural affiliation of artifacts not found in context is open to speculation, it is probable that this pipe dates to the late prehistoric or early historic era. The pipe is from northwestern Ohio and is in the collection of Ron Helman of Sidney, Ohio.

Back Cover Two Ross County Axes, by Ned and Mark Shaw, New Holland, Ohio. These two axes made of compact green granite could have been made by the same Archaic craftsman. The large axe is eight inches long, four inches wide, two and one-half inches thick and weighs five pounds. It was found in 1978 just north of the prison at Chillicothe, Ohio. The miniature axe is made of the exact same material and exhibits the same fine craftsmanship as the larger axe. It is two and three-eighths inches long, one and one-fourth inches wide and three-quarter inches thick. It was found in northern Ross County along Paint Creek in 1982 and is a personal find of Ned Shaw. Reference: Converse, Robert N., Ohio Stone Tools, 1973, Published by the Archaeological Society of Ohio.

3 POSSIBLE ASTRONOMICAL ALIGNMENTS AT HOPEWELL SITES IN OHIO by William F. Romain 4000 Westbrook Drive, #502 Brooklyn, Ohio 44144

An increasing body of information (e.g., Accuracy earthworks. In general, Middleton's survey Greber 1986a, 1986b; Greber and For this study, Aveni's (1972) tables were data is considered accurate. Robertson Jargiello 1982; Hively and Horn 1984, used to determine the azimuth of selected (1983), for example, found that 1982; Romain 1988a, 1988b, 1988c, solar and lunar events. These events in­ Middleton's data is accurate to an average 1988d; Stocker 1981) suggests that the clude and all sites were checked for, align­ of about one-half of one degree. Similarly, great geometric earthworks of the Ohio ments to the four and eight lunar Hively and Horn's work at High Banks and were intentionally aligned standstill positions. No checks were made Newark showed Middleton's azimuths at to astronomical events. These events in­ for stellar or planetary alignments. those sites to be accurate to within plus or clude lunar standstills, and per­ Aveni's tables are entered by interpo­ minus one-quarter of one degree and haps, equinoxes. lated latitude, horizon elevation, date, and measured distances to within about one- Definitive statements regarding celestial event. To enter these tables, the half of one percent (Hively and Horn Hopewell archaeoastronomy are difficult latitude for each site was established to 1984:S89-S90). As Robertson states, to make because of the current condition the nearest ten minutes of latitude by ref­ Azimuths taken from these surveys of the earthworks. Archaeoastronomical erence to USGS topographic maps. may be more accurate than modern studies require very accurate survey data. Horizon elevations were all assumed to be surveys in many cases where exten­ However, most of the ancient Hopewell one degree. And except where noted, the sive alterations of the sites have jeop­ earthworks have been extensively dam­ date for each site was presumed to be ardized their authenticity (Robertson aged or destroyed by , excavation, about A.D. 250. Rising and setting events 1983:78). agricultural practices, and urbanization. were considered to occur at the instant of Potential inaccuracies based on In a few instances, such as at Hopeton the sun or moon's lower limb tangency Thomas' and Middleton's work come not and High Banks, the original outline and with the horizon. from Middleton's survey data - but rather, orientation of the earthworks can still be As Tables 1 and 2 show, the rising and from the maps which were drafted based surveyed with some accuracy. Hence, ar­ setting points for the sun and moon on Middleton's data. Robertson's (1983: chaeoastronomical studies at these sites change at relatively small increments in re­ Table 2) analysis of Thomas' maps have good potential for success. In other sponse to changes in latitude and date. A showed that the differences in azimuth be­ cases, however, no visible outline of the change in one full degree of latitude, for tween Middleton's survey data and the re­ earthworks remain. In these instances, ar­ example, results in a change in rising or sultant maps is about two degrees for the chaeoastronomical studies are very much setting azimuth of less than one-half of Baum earthwork and one degree for the dependent upon whatever maps and sur­ one degree. (For comparative purposes, Liberty Square earthwork. Nevertheless, veys are still extant. The problem in these consider that the northsouth separation we are fortunate to have such relatively cases is that most of the early surveys are between Cincinnati, Ohio, and Columbus, accurate maps and for the purposes of a too inaccurate for archaeoastronomical Ohio, is slightly less than one degree of preliminary study such as this, a potential studies. The maps of Atwater (1820), for latitude). error of two degrees can be considered example, contain azimuthal errors that on Similarly, over the course of a thousand acceptable. average exceed ten degrees (Robertson years, the sun's rising and setting posi­ In regard to Mound City, the map used 1983), while the maps of Squier and Davis tions on the horizon change by less than for this analysis was redrawn from James (1848) are notorious for their errors in dis­ two tenths of one degree in azimuth. A. Marshall's (1987:Figure 6) plan of the tances, horizontal angles, and orientation. The greatest change in azimuth results earthwork. Marshall's figure as published One of the few exceptions to this situation from variations in horizon elevation. As in 1987 is actually a flip-flopped image as are the maps presented by Thomas (1889). Table 3 shows, at 39 degrees North lati­ sometimes happens when working with With these caveats in mind, what fol­ tude, a change of one degree in horizon transparencies. My redrawing of the figure lows is a brief survey of Hopewell sites elevation results in a change of about one has corrected this inadvertent error. that appear to be aligned to various solar degree in the sun or moon's rising or set­ In any event, Marshall's map was based and lunar phenomena. Admittedly, this is a ting position on the horizon. Potential on his field survey of the site in 1972. speculative exercise. In all instances, ex­ alignment errors due to incorrect assump­ Marshall's mapping was done many years cept for Newark, High Bank, and the tions of horizon elevation in this study after the site's partial destruction and later , further field work is therefore are probably no more than plus reconstruction. However, the features of needed to confirm the existence of pro­ or minus one or two degrees - assuming the complex as they appear today seem posed alignments. Typically, such field that no horizon elevations are in excess of to correspond to Squier and Davis' (1848: work will require surveying to determine three degrees. P1 .XIX) figure of the earthwork before re­ the precise orientation and dimensions of Regarding the maps used in this study, construction. For a number of reasons, each earthwork or what remains thereof, a few comments are in order. First, the some of which are noted later, it is likely additional measurements of horizon eleva­ analyses for the Hopeton, Liberty, and that the earthen walls of Mound City were tions along proposed sightlines and in Baum earthworks use the maps published accurately reconstructed in terms of orien­ some cases, radiocarbon or other dating by Cyrus Thomas (1889). As Thomas ex­ tation and that Marshall's map and my re­ methods to establish each site's temporal plained, the maps in his 1889 report were sultant Figure 8 accurately reflect the origi­ parameters. In too many instances, how­ made from survey data provided to nal layout of the site. Nevertheless, it must ever, all traces of the earthworks have Thomas by his associate, James D. be acknowledged that because so few been obliterated and we will never again Middleton. Thomas and Middleton had details are known about the site's recon­ be able to personally examine these an­ been engaged by the Bureau of American struction, the alignments suggested here cient creations. Ethnology, to survey and report on the must be considered tentative.

4 The map of Piketon Square shown in works in the Hopewell heartland? In this moon's maximum south rising position; E- Figure 9 was first published by James A. regard, I think the evidence will show that J is in alignment with the moon's maxi­ Marshall (1987:Fig. 10b) and was obtained most of the major Hopewell complexes in mum south rising position; F-C is in align­ by him from the , Ohio were laid out in alignment to the sun, ment with the moon's maximum south from the notes of Cyrus Thomas. It was or moon, or both. setting position; H-F is in alignment with not published by Thomas. Marshall (1987: On one additional note before proceed­ the moon's maximum north setting posi­ Fig.10b), however, has stated that he has ing with the actual analyses, it might prove tion; and L-B is in alignment with the personally surveyed what remains of the useful to review the explanation provided moon's minimum north setting position. earthwork and verified the accuracy of the by Hively and Horn relevant to lunar In the Hopeton Square there are align­ map. Hence it is presented here. standstills: ments to seven of the eight lunar standstill In the case of the Circleville Earthworks, The rising point of the Moon as positions. Moreover, almost every break or this map too has been presented by marked along the horizon oscillates gap in the earthwork is accounted for. If Marshall (1987:Fig. 7). The map is derived between a northerly and southerly ex­ ever there was a question as to the pur­ from an original plat of the city made be­ treme during each sidereal month (27 poseful intent of the Mound Builders to fore 1810, to which Marshall has added 1/3 days). Due to a slow precession align certain of their earthworks to lunar correct orientations and linear measure­ of the Moon's orbit, these extreme events, this earthwork should dispel any ments - again, based on his field survey of northerly and southerly rising points such doubts. the area. oscillate between two fixed azimuths In connection with the Hopeton Circle As Marshall is a civil engineer with years with a period of 18.61 years. A similar and as can be seen in Figure 2, it is proba­ of practical surveying experience, his find­ variation occurs in the setting point of bly no coincidence that the only gap in the ings in terms of azimuths and linear di­ the Moon....A careful observer of the Circle, outside of the Square, occurs in mensions are accepted here as accurate. 18.6 year cycle would therefore notice alignment with the winter solstice sunrise. Moreover, an independent check of the eight significant directions along the Finally, yet another lunar alignment is accuracy of Marshall's survey work has horizon (four moonrise and four suggested by the survey data provided by been made by Robertson (1983:77) who moonset points) where the Moon pe­ David S. Brose. According to Brose found Marshall's azimuths to coincide with riodically reaches a maximum or mini­ (1976:69-70), a ground survey of the long Middleton's data to within 0.03 degrees at mum extreme (Hively and Horn parallel walls at Hopeton (shown in Figure the Newark and Liberty Earthworks. 1982:S11-S12). 3) found these walls to have an azimuth of In regard to the Hopewell Earthworks, it As will become evident, many Hopewell 52.5 degrees, with a tree-top horizon ele­ will be noted that the surveyor in this case sites are aligned to these lunar extreme vation along this azimuth of about one de­ was Clinton Cowan. Cowan was a profes­ positions. gree. Curiously enough, the moon's maxi­ sional surveyor who had been hired by Definitions of other commonly used mum north rising position (given a one Frederic W. Putnam of the Peabody terms such as azimuth, horizon elevation, degree horizon elevation) is about 53.2 Museum at Harvard. The accuracy of and solstice can be found in the now stan­ degrees. Quite possibly, this long set of Cowan's work has been demonstrated by dard works on archaeoastronomy (e.g., embankments provided a sacred way of his careful survey and map of the Serpent Aveni 1980, Krupp 1983; Williamson 1984). approaching or departing to or from the Mound (see Hardman and Hardman 1987). earthworks. In fact, Cowan's maps were used to build Analyses models of various earthworks for major ex­ The Liberty Earthworks positions such as the Jamestown The The next site to be considered is known Tercentary Exposition, in 1907. Given this, The first site to be considered is known as the Liberty Earthworks, in Ross County, it is likely that his map of the Hopewell Site as the Hopeton Earthworks. The site is sit­ Ohio. This complex is also situated on the is accurate. To be more precise, Figure 11 uated on the east bank of the Scioto River, east bank of the Scioto River, near in this work is actually a version of N'omi near Chillicothe, Ohio. The site is located Chillicothe, Ohio. The site is located at Greber's tracing of a photograph of at about 39° 23' North latitude. Some about 39° 15' North latitude and for our Cowan's map. Cowan's original map is damage has occurred to the earthwork as purposes can be said to date to about about five feet in length (N'omi Greber, per­ a result of agricultural activity. Fortunately A.D. 300 (see Greber 1983:89-92 for a dis­ sonal communication, September 1991). though, the embankments are still fairly cussion of the radiocarbon dates obtained Similarly, there is no reason to doubt the visible. Also fortunate is that Thomas' from this site.) The site has been almost accuracy of the Turner Group map which maps provide a reliable survey and plan of totally destroyed by highway and railroad was made in 1887 by D.S. and J.A. the earthworks. Figures 1 and 2 show construction and agriculture. Hosbrook, for the Peabody Museum. In Thomas' plans of Hopeton. Superimposed Unfortunately, there are no accurate fact, this map was used as the main site on these figures are proposed archaeoas­ maps available that show the Liberty map by Charles Willoughby (1922) in his tronomical alignments. As can be seen in Earthworks in its entirety. Squier and report for the Peabody Museum on Turner. Figure 1, there are at least nine lunar sight- Davis' (1848:P1.XX) map of the site is no­ Nevertheless, no independent check is lines evident in the Hopeton Square. All of toriously inaccurate. And, Mills' (1907) available for the maps of the Hopewell these alignments occur through the gaps map is simply a copy of Squier and Davis' Site or the Turner Group. Therefore, the re­ in the embankment's walls. In other map with its north arrow re-oriented. In sults presented relevant to these sites words, when viewed from Point C, for ex­ any event, Thomas (1889) did not choose must also be considered tentative. ample, on the date of the moon's mini­ to illustrate the entire Liberty complex - In any event, what seems important, at mum north position, the moon will appear but rather, limited his maps to the Liberty least for this study, is not whether a cer­ to rise through the break in the embank­ Square and Small Circle sections of the tain map is accurate to within one-half of ment at Point H. Similarly, sightline A-l is in earthwork. His plans of these features are one degree, or whether a particular hori­ alignment with the moon's maximum north shown in Figures 4 and 5. Superimposed zon elevation is one-half of one degree or rising position; sightline B-l is in alignment on these plans are possible solar and lu­ one degree - surely these matters can be with the moon's minimum north rising po­ nar alignments. debated endlessly. The real question is - sition; C-K is in alignment with the moon's In the case of the Liberty Square, as how well does the entire system of pro­ minimum south rising position, C-H is in shown in Figure 4, two parallel walls of the posed solar and lunar alignments explain alignment with the moon's minimum north earthwork and yet a third sightline appear the many instances of geometric earth­ rising position; D-K is in alignment with the to be aligned to the moon's maximum

5 south setting position. More specifically, possible solar alignments can be seen in known about its reconstruction. What is when viewed from Point H, at its maxi­ the large circular earthwork. Figure 6 known is that the construction of Camp mum south position, the moon will appear shows these possible solar alignments su­ Sherman did not destroy the floors of to set in alignment with embankment H-A. perimposed on Squier and Davis' figure of some of the mounds which have since The same is true for embankment E-C, Baum. As in the earthworks already exam­ been excavated. Accordingly, the base of and sightline G-B. ined, the gaps in the Large Circle seem the earthwork's perimeter embankments Possible corroboration for this set of aligned to celestial events. As indicated by may also have been somewhat visible alignments is found in the survey data Figure 6, when viewed from Point A, the when restoration efforts were made. If this provided by Thomas (1889:25) wherein the summer solstice sun will appear to rise is the case, then what we see today may azimuth for embankment H-A is given as through the gap at Point F. Viewed from indeed accurately reflect the original out­ 227° 14'; while according to Aveni's ta­ Point E, the winter solstice sun will appear line of the structure. bles, the lunar maximum south setting po­ to rise through the gap at Point G. When In any event, Figure 8 shows the config­ sition is 229.5 degrees. viewed from Point H, the summer solstice uration of the site as it appeared in 1972. A second set of lunar alignments within sun will appear to set through the gap at Superimposed on this figure are proposed the Liberty Square is evident when viewed Point D. Viewed from Point I, the summer solar and lunar alignments. More specifi­ from Points I and H. In these instances, at solstice sun will rise through the gap at cally, as viewed from Point C, the sun will its minimum north position, the moon will Point H. And, from Point I, the summer appear to rise over Point F on the day of appear to set through the gap at Point C solstice sun will appear to set through the the winter solstice. when viewed from Point I. And, at its mini­ gap at Point B. As is apparent, these On the date of the moon's maximum mum north position, the moon will also alignments serve to explain all but one of south position, as viewed from point D, appear to set through gap D when viewed the breaks in the Large Circle. In view of the moon will appear to set through the from Point H. the known inaccuracies in Squier and gateway at Point B. So too, on the date of Yet another alignment may be indicated Davis' work, these alignments must be the moon's maximum south position, as by sightline C-F. In this instance, when considered tentative. However, Thomas' viewed from Point E, the moon will appear viewed from Point C, at the moon's maxi­ statement that his survey shows Squier to set over point A. mum north position, that body will appear and Davis' figure to be essentially correct Particularly intriguing is that the align­ to rise in alignment with the edge of em­ is somewhat reassuring. ments at this site seem especially well bankment G-F. More reliable of course, is Thomas' map suited in terms of symbolism to a necrop­ In short, there appear to be no less than of the Baum Square. As shown by Figure olis, or City of the Dead like Mound City. In six lunar alignments associated with the 7, the parallel walls of this earthwork ap­ this case, both solar and lunar alignments Liberty Square. pear to be aligned to the summer solstice mark extreme positions in the southern In regard to the Small Circle structure at sunrise. Viewed from Point A, for example, sky when the sun and moon are at their Liberty, a possible solar alignment in this the summer solstice sun will rise in align­ lowest ebb. earthwork may be indicated by sightline ment with embankment A-C. Similarly, Also of interest is that the burial mounds A-B in Figure 5. Although Thomas shows when viewed from Point G, the summer within the Mound City enclosure extend the south wall of the Circle being obliter­ solstice sun will rise in alignment with em­ along the two sightlines just mentioned. In ated, it may be that the wall never ex­ bankment G-E. So too, when viewed from the first instance, a total of six mounds tended past Point B. Point H, the summer solstice sun will ap­ appear to have been laid out along the pear to rise over Point D, at the entrance winter solstice sunrise azimuth extending The Baum Earthworks to the gateway. Corroboration of these from Point C to Point F. In the second in­ The site known as the Baum Earthworks alignments is found in the actual survey stance, another group of seven mounds is located in Ross County, near data provided by Thomas (1889:26) seem to have been laid out along the Bourneville, Ohio. The earthwork is situ­ wherein the azimuth of embankment A-B moon's maximum south setting azimuth. ated on the south bank of Paint Creek, at is given as 59° 17'; whereas according to In Figure 8, the mounds aligned along about 39° 16' North latitude. The earth­ Aveni's tables, the calculated summer sol­ both azimuths have been shaded to show work has been heavily damaged by agri­ stice sunrise azimuth is 59° 31'. this phenomenon. cultural practices, however, aerial pho­ What is unusual about the Baum tographs still show the original outline of Square and indeed the entire Baum com­ The Piketon Works the structure. plex is that it is so positively oriented to The Piketon Earthwork is located in Pike Figure 6 shows Squier and Davis' plan the sun rather than the moon. County, on the east bank of the Scioto of the earthwork; while Figure 7 shows River, near Piketon, Ohio. The site has been Thomas' plan of just the Baum Square en­ The Mound City Group mostly destroyed by gravel extraction oper­ closure. Important to this analysis are Mound City is situated on the west bank ations. Originally the complex included a Thomas' comments regarding the circular of the Scioto River, directly across from large circular enclosure which was con­ features of the earthwork shown by Squier the Hopeton Earthworks, near Chillicothe, nected by a set of parallel walls to the and Davis: Ohio. The site is located at about 39° 23' Piketon Square earthwork. A plan of the Although a complete resurvey of North latitude. Piketon Square earthwork is shown in these works was made it is not Mound City is remarkable in that a total Figure 9. Although the map shown in Figure thought necessary to introduce here of twenty-three burial mounds were found 9 was made by Thomas, he did not publish the notes relating to any part but the within the rounded-square enclosure that it in his 1889 work. As noted earlier, square. We may remark, however that forms the site's perimeter. It has been sug­ Marshall discovered this map in Thomas' the resurvey of the circular portion re­ gested, with some merit I think, that the notes. Marshall (1987:Figure 10b) has vealed no very essential variation overall shape of the earthwork resembles stated, however, that his field survey of what from the figure given in Ancient a Hopewell house structure. remains of the earthwork shows the map to Monuments (Thomas 1889:26). Over the years Mound City has been be accurate. Marshall has added the north Given Thomas' comments, it might be extensively excavated and was partially indicator and linear dimensions to the map concluded that in this instance, the orien­ destroyed by the construction of Camp shown in Figure 9. Superimposed on this tation and features of the circular earth­ Sherman - a World War I training camp figure are suggested lunar alignments. works shown by Squier and Davis' are and detention facility. The site has since More specifically, on the date of the correct. If this is the case, then several been restored. However, few details are moon's minimum south position, when

6 viewed from Point B, the moon will appear The Hopewell Site two large circular enclosures at this com­ to rise over Point F. So too, on the date of The next earthwork to be looked at is plex seem to be aligned to the summer the moon's minimum south position, when the famous Hopewell Site, located in Ross solstice sunrise. This alignment is shown viewed from Point C, the moon will appear County, Ohio. The site is situated on the in Figure 12 as sightline A-B. to rise through the gateway at Point E. North Fork of Paint Creek, about seven A lunar alignment appears to extend Also on the date of the moon's mini­ miles west of Chillicothe, Ohio. Much of from the gateway of the Small Circular mum south position, when viewed from the complex has been destroyed by exca­ Enclosure to the entrance of the Graded Point D, the moon will appear to set vation, erosion, and agriculture, however, Way. More specifically, on the date of the through the gateway at Point B. And some features are still visible. moon's maximum south position, as again, on the date of the moon's mini­ Figure 11 shows what is essentially viewed from Point C, the moon will appear mum south position, when viewed from Cowan's plan of the earthwork made in to set over Point E. Conversely, on the Point E, the moon will appear to set over 1892. Superimposed on this map are pro­ date of the moon's maximum north posi­ Point A. posed solar and lunar alignments. tion, as viewed from Point E, the moon will Starting with the Hopewell Square en­ appear to rise through the gateway at The Circleville Earthwork closure, as viewed from Point A, on the Point D. And, as viewed from Point D, on The Circleville Earthwork is located in date of the moon's maximum north posi­ the date of the moon's minimum south Pickaway County, on the east bank of the tion, the moon will appear to rise over position, the moon will appear to set over Scioto River, at about 39° 36' North point F. So too, as viewed from Point B, Point A. latitude. The town of Circleville was built on the date of the moon's maximum north within the earthwork complex and derives position, the moon will appear to rise over Possible Alignments at Other Sites its name from the earthwork. In fact, Main Point E. In addition to the eight earthworks just Street in Circleville was laid out along the A second set of lunar alignments is also mentioned, I have examined a number of main axis of the site, while other streets evident in the Hopewell Square. As shown the maps presented by Squier and Davis were laid out so as to pass through the in Figure 11, as viewed from Point B on (1848) of other sites in search of additional openings or gateways in the Large the date of the moon's maximum south alignments. In particular, alignments ap­ Square enclosure. This occurrence has al­ position, the moon will appear to rise over pear to occur at the Marietta Works, lowed Marshall to resurvey and add the Point H. So too, on the same date, when Frankfort Works, Dunlap Works, correct orientation and dimensions to an viewed from point C, the moon will appear Portsmouth Group, Seip Earthworks, and 1810 survey plat of the earthworks. to rise over Point G; and also on the same Works East of Chillicothe. I hesitate to pre­ According to Marshall (1987:43), the origi­ date, when viewed from Point D, the sent very detailed analyses of these earth­ nal of this map is on file at the Circleville moon will appear to rise over point F. works because I have not been able to Courthouse. This map with Marshall's Turning to the Large Enclosure, perhaps corroborate the accuracy of Squier and north indicator and linear dimensions is the most significant alignment extends Davis' maps. shown in Figure 10. Superimposed on from the opening in the embankment at However, particularly promising in this re­ this figure are suggested lunar align­ Point J to the entrance of the Square at gard are the Marietta Earthworks (Squier ments. Point B. As viewed from Point J, on the and Davis 1848:P1.XXVI) wherein the As shown by Figure 10, the main axis date of the moon's maximum north posi­ southeast wall of the Large Square appears of this earthwork appears to be aligned tion, the moon will appear to rise over to be aligned to the moon's maximum to the moon's minimum north setting po­ point B. Note here that sightline J-B also north rising azimuth. Similarly, the Large sition. Indeed, three sightlines are ori­ neatly bisects the circular enclosure iden­ Square's northwest embankment appears ented along this azimuth. When viewed tified here as I. to be aligned to the moon's maximum from Point A, on the date of the moon's As also shown in Figure 11, a solar south setting azimuth, as may be the long minimum north position, the moon will alignment is evident in sightline K-C. parallel walls known as the Graded Way. appear to set over Points E and F. When viewed from the approximate center Another promising site is known as the Similarly, when viewed from Point B on of the mound at Point K, the summer sol­ Frankfort Works (Squier and Davis the date of the moon's minimum north stice sun will appear to rise over Point C. 1848:P1.XXI, No .4), located in Frankfort, position, the moon will appear to set in Another interesting alignment occurs in ohio. At this site, the gateway between the alignment with embankment B-C-D. And, the embankment identified here as L-M. Large Circle and conjoined Square seems on the date of the moon's minimum north This particular embankment appears to be aligned to the moon's minimum south ris­ position, when viewed from Point 1, the aligned to the moon's setting position on ing position when viewed from the center moon will appear to set in alignment with the date of its minimum south position. of the Large Circle. Moreover, the north­ embankment l-H-G. Finally, the small mounds identified here east and southwest walls of the Square Corroboration for this set of alignments as N, O, P, Q, and R appear to have been appear aligned to the summer solstice is provided by Marshall's survey data laid out along the moon's maximum north sunrise and sunset. which indicates that the azimuth along rising azimuth. Recall that a similar The Dunlap Earthwork, located in Ross axis A-F is about 112 degrees. The recip­ scheme was found at Mound City where County, just north of Chillicothe, Ohio, ap­ rocal of this azimuth is 292 degrees which there too, burial mounds are laid out along pears to incorporate lunar alignments. matches the azimuth of 292 degrees for lunar and solar azimuths. Because it is so unusual in its configura­ the moon's minimum north setting az­ tion, Squier and Davis' plan of the site is imuth as per Aveni's tables. The Turner Earthworks presented here as Figure 13. As shown by Also evident in this earthwork is a sec­ The next site to be considered is the Figure 13, embankments D-A and C-B ap­ ond set of alignments to the moon's mini­ Turner Group which is located on the east pear aligned to the moon's minimum north mum north rising position. As viewed from bank of the , in Hamilton setting azimuth. Point C, on the date of the moon's mini­ County, Ohio. The site is located just out­ The Works east of Chillicothe (Squier mum north position, the moon will appear side of Cincinnati, Ohio, at about 39° 09' and Davis 1848:RXXI, No. 3), appear to in­ to rise through the gateway at Point A. North latitude. corporate a solar alignment in that a sight- And, as viewed from Point D, on the date Figure 12 shows the Turner Group as it line extending from the center of the Large of the moon's minimum north position, the appeared in about 1887. Superimposed Circle to the center of the Small Circle moon will appear to rise almost directly on this figure are possible solar and lunar happens to coincide with the sun's sum­ over Point I. alignments. As shown by Figure 12, the mer solstice setting azimuth.

7 The Seip Earthwork (Squier and Davis sampling error. Rather, this phenomenon these sites (see e.g., Sherrod and 1848:P1.XXI, No. 2) appears to include may reflect the moon's particular impor­ Rolingson 1987). Given this, we might ex­ both solar and lunar alignments. A sight- tance to the Hopewell people. pect that the Hopewell people too would line extending from the northeast corner of Given these observations, one conclu­ align their sites to the heavens. the Square to the entrance to the Small sion that might be reached is that when Circle, for example, appears to be in align­ viewed in its entirety, a typical earthwork, Acknowledgments ment with the summer solstice sunset; if there is such a thing, can be thought of I would like to thank Dr. N'omi B. Greber while other sightlines extending from the as symbolizing the sun by means of a cir­ of the Cleveland Museum of Natural gateway of the Small Circle through the cle, the moon by means of a square or oc­ History for permission to use her draft of gaps in the Large Circle describe align­ tagon and perhaps, the Hopewell people Cowan's map of the Hopewell Earthworks. ments to the moon's maximum and mini­ by means of a second circle, juxtaposi- Regrettably, I have not had the pleasure of mum north rising positions. tioned both geometrically in real space hearing her presentations on Hopewell ar­ Finally, a number of earthworks in the and symbolically, between these celestial chaeoastronomy - so I do not know if any Portsmouth Group appear to incorporate bodies. Certainly, as Waselkov points out, of our findings coincide. I look forward, alignments. For example, the Square in addition to the circle being a sun sym­ however, to comparing our efforts. earthwork shown by Squier and Davis bol, there is ample evidence among the Special thanks are also extended to (1848:P1 .XXVIII, No. A), which is actually Indians of the southeastern United States James A. Marshall for permission to use across the Ohio River in Kentucky, ap­ for "the use of circles to represent human his maps of Circleville and the Piketon pears to incorporate lunar alignments. social groups" (Waselkov 1988:29). Earthworks. Jim Marshall has spent years More specifically, the northeast and south­ What results in the earthworks then is a surveying hundreds of prehistoric sites in west walls of this enclosure seem to be map of sorts, defining man's place in the the eastern United States. His work pro­ aligned to the moon's rising position on universe and in essence, linking the vides an important data base for future the date of its maximum south position. Hopewell people to the heavens. studies. Lastly, it will be recalled that Hively and Naturally, once such a link has been es­ Horn (1984, 1982) found numerous solar tablished, the next step may have been to About the Author and lunar alignments at the Newark and try and control by rituals of sympathetic William F. Romain holds a Masters de­ High Banks earthworks. While elsewhere magic, the progress or outcome of large- gree in archaeology from Kent State in this issue, I have presented evidence for scale celestial events and cycles. University. He is a member of the Society similar alignments at the Serpent Mound. Certainly, at the very least, the earth­ of Professional Archaeologists, MENSA, In summary, it appears that at least seven­ works could have been used with great and is a Fellow of The Explorers Club. His teen Hopewell sites in the Ohio area mani­ accuracy to predict future events such as interests include prehistoric shamanism, fest possible astronomical alignments. solstices and lunar standstills. To people underwater archaeology, and archaeoas­ Undoubtedly, many more sites will be not possessing the knowledge evident in tronomy. Comments about this article are found to have similar alignments. the earthworks, the Hopewell must have welcomed by the author. appeared to be incredibly powerful as­ Discussion trologers, diviners of the future, and magi­ References Several concepts seem suggested in cians. Atwater, Caleb the earthworks just discussed. First, it fre­ Support for some of these ideas comes 1820 Description of the Antiquities Discovered quently happens that a square or octago­ from the observation that there appears to in the State of Ohio and Other Western nal earthwork is either attached to, or be a continuity in interest in the heavens States. Archaeologic Americana, closely associated with, a circular earth­ and the alignment of sites to celestial phe­ Transactions and Collections, Vol. 1. work. It also happens that a square and nomena extending from historic times American Antiquarian Society. circular earthwork combination is fre­ back into prehistory. An historic example Aveni, Anthony F. quently associated with yet a second cir­ of this interest in and association of celes­ 1980 Skywatchers of Ancient Mexico. cular earthwork. The two basic patterns tial bodies with large sacred enclosures is University of Texas Press, Austin. therefore are: 1) an associated square and provided by witnesses to the 1972 Astronomical Tables Intended for Use in circle; and 2) a square and circle associ­ Green Corn Dance: Astroarchaeological Studies. American ated with yet a second circular earthwork. The moon being now at its full and a Antiquity 37(4):531 -540. These combinations are suggested as fitting location having been selected, Brose, David S. only basic patterns - further elaborations the chiefs and magicians congregate 1976 An Historical and Archaeological and exceptions occur regularly. together...and the medicine men then Evaluation of the Hopeton Works, Ross Second, there seems to be a general proceed to walk in single file, and County, Ohio. Report submitted to the tendency to align circular earthworks to with measured steps, completely in fulfillment of solar events and square and octagonal around the spot which they would Contract PX-6115-6-0141. earthworks to lunar events. Again, how­ render sacred, and which is generally Greber, N'omi B. ever, there are some very notable excep­ half a mile in diameter....The entire 1986a and the Patterns of Five tions to this generalization. population of the valley are now sum­ Geometric Earthworks in Ross County, Third, if this makes sense, one gets the moned to the outskirts of the sacred Ohio. Paper presented at Second Oxford impression that there was an effort by the enclosure...(to) join the chiefs and Conference on Archaeoastronomy, Hopewell to see how many unique earth­ magicians in the rite they are about to Merida, Yucatan. work configurations they could devise, us­ perform...(Swanton 1946:769). 1986b Possible Astronomical Alignments ing the same basic symbols, to express In this account we find a clear connection Found at Five Hopewell Sites, Ross essentially the same, repeated solar and between large sacred enclosures used for County, Ohio. Paper presented at Annual lunar alignments. ritual magic and the moon. Meeting of the Midwest Archaeological At the same time, however, each site Extending the association between ce­ Conference, Columbus. seems to favor in a general sort of way, lestial bodies, sacred enclosures, and 1983 Recent Excavations at the Edwin one or two predominant celestial events. magic rituals back into prehistory are the Harness Mound, Liberty Works, Ross Finally, there seems to have been a pre­ astronomical alignments found at numer­ County, Ohio. Mid-Continental Journal of dominance of alignments to the moon. I ous Mississippian sites. In particular, sol­ Archaeology, Special Paper No. 5. Kent do not think this is a result of statistical stice alignments are found at many of State University Press.

8 Greber, N'omi B., and Katherine C. Ruhl Mills, William C. Stocker, Terry 1989 The Hopewell Site: A Contemporary 1907 Explorations of the Edwin Harness 1981 A Note on Eastern U.S. Site Orientations. Analysis Based on the Work of Charles Mound. Ohio State Archaeological and Archaeoastronomy 4(3):24-29. C. Willoughby. Westview Press, Boulder, Historical Quarterly 16:113-193. Swanton, John R. CO. Robertson, Thomas H. 1946 The Indians of the Southeastern United Greber, N'omi B., and David Jargiello 1983 The Reliability of Historical Maps of States. Bureau of American Ethnology 1982 Possible Astronomical Orientations Used Earthworks in the Ohio Valley. Bulletin 137. Reprinted in 1979 by the in Constructing Some Scioto Hopewell Archaeoastronomy 6(1 -4):75-79. Smithsonian Institution Press, Earthwork Walls. Paper presented Romain, William F. Washington, D.C. Annual Meeting of the Midwest 1988a Geometry at the Serpent Mound. Ohio Thomas, Cyrus Archaeological Conference, Cleveland. Archaeologist 38(1):50-54. 1889 The Circular, Square and Octagonal Hardman, Clark, Jr., and Marjorie H. Hardman 1988b Terrestrial Observations at the Serpent Earthworks of Ohio. Bureau of American 1987 An Analysis of the Maps of the Great Mound. Ohio Archaeologist 38(2):15-19. Ethnology Bulletin No. 10, pp. 7-33. Serpent Mound. Ohio Archaeologist 1988c The Serpent Mound Solar Eclipse Smithsonian Institution, Washington, 37(2):18-25. Hypothesis: Ethnohistoric D.C. Hively, Ray, and Robert Horn Considerations. Ohio Archaeologist Waselkov, Gregory A. 1984 Hopewellian Geometry and Astronomy at 38(3):32-37. 1988 Lambhatty's Map: How Indians Viewed High Bank. Archaeoastronomy 7:S85- 1988d Ancient Eclipse Paths at the Serpent the South 300 Years Ago. Southern S100. (Supplement to Vol. 15, Journal Mound. Ohio Archaeologist 38(4):24-28. Exposure Summer 1988, pp. 23-29. for the History of Astronomy.) Sherrod, P. Clay, and Martha Ann Rolingson Williamson, Ray A. 1982 Geometry and Astronomy in Prehistoric 1987 Surveyors of the Ancient Mississippi 1984 Living the Sky: The Cosmos of the Ohio. Archaeoastronomy 4:S1 -S20. Valley: Modules and Alignments in American Indian. Houghton Mifflin, (Supplement to Vol. 13, Journal for the Prehistoric Mound Sites. Arkansas . History of Astronomy.) Archaeological Survey Research Series Willoughby, Charles C. Krupp, Edwin C. No. 28. 1922 The Turner Group of Earthworks 1983 Echoes of the Ancient Skies: The Squier, E.G., and E.H. Davis Hamilton County, Ohio. Papers of the Astronomy of Lost Civilizations. New 1848 Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Peabody Museum of American American Library, New York. Valley. Smithsonian Contributions to Archaeology and Ethnology. Harvard Marshall, James A. Knowledge. Vol. 1. Smithsonian University. Vol. VIII (No. 3). 1987 An Atlas of American Indian Geometry. Institution, Washington, D. C. Ohio Archaeologist 37(2):36-49.

Table 1 (Romain). Changes in Sun's Azimuth as a Function of Latitude. Summer Solstice Sun - A.D. 250,1 horizon elevation, lower limb tangent 39° 00' N lat. 39° 30' N lat. 40° 00' N lat. Rise 059°.639 059°.406 059°.172 Set 300°.361 300°.594 300°.827

Source; Aveni (1972).

Table 2 (Romain). Changes in Sun's Azimuth as a Function of Date. Summer Solstice Sun - 39 latitude, 0 horizon elevation, lower limb tangent 500 B.C. A.D. 1 A.D. 500 Rise 058°.483 058°.566 058°.666 Set 301°.516 301°.433 301°.333 Source: Aveni (1972).

Table 3 (Romain). Changes in Sun's Azimuth as a Function of Horizon Elevation.

Summer Solstice Sun - 39 latitude, A.D. 500, lower limb tangent 0° hor. elev. 1 ° hor. elev. 2° hor. elev. 3 hor. elev. Rise 058°.667 059°.689 060°.711 061°.733 Set 301°.333 300°.311 299°.289 298°.267 Source: Aveni (1972).

9 MOON MAX ^NORTH SET .306M

MOON MIN NORTH RISE 67°.3

MOON MAX NORTH RISE 53°.2 Fig. 1 (Romain) Plan of the Hopeton Square MOON MIN showing possible lunar alignments. Modified MOON MAX NORTH RISE after Thomas 1889: Plate VIII. SOUTH SET. 229°.5 .

MOON MIN NORTH SET 292°.7" MOON MAX SOUTH RISE 130-.5 MOON MIN SOUTH RISE MOON MAX 115'.9 SOUTH RISE

Fig. 2 (Romain) Plan of the Hopeton Circle showing possible alignment. Modified after Thomas 1889: Plate IX.

10 ••r -rr-cM^-- MltiZF* **WmkZ> '* * v'-v ° •'- *

Fin*.AraHe Land.

•~ -~.~^i*irJtflt?m,ffrmrumMlfy inunjmtmj. •*"* .«r-."

F/g. 3 (Romain). Plan of the Hopeton Earthworks showing possible lunar alignment along parallel walls. Modified after Squier and Davis 1848: Plate XVII.

11 MOON MIN kNORTH SET 292".7

MOON MAX SOUTH SET MOON MAX NORTH RISE 53°.2

Fig. 4 (Romain) Plan of the Liberty Square showing possible lunar alignments. Modified after Thomas 1889: Plate X. MOON MAX SOUTH SET 229°.5

MOON MAX SOUTH SET

%

fflsL \l 1 F/'g. 5 (Romain) Plan of the Liberty Small Circle showing a possible solar alignment. Modified after Thomas 1889: Figure 2.

WINTER SOLSTICE SUNRISE 122M

12 >V.' /.

SUMMER SOLSTICE SUNRISE . 59°-5

WINTER SOLSTICE " ISE .1

SUMMER SOLSTICE SUNRISE

SCA L E 1000 ft.1o In.cli.

Fig. 6 (Romain) Plan of the Baum Earthworks showing possible solar alignments associated with the Baum Circle. Modified after Squier and Davis 1848: Plate XXI, No. 1.

Fig. 7 (Romain) Plan of the Baum Square showing possible solar alignments. Modified after Thomas 1889: Plate XI.

t&iX&l.'Zs, SSVMrl

13 Fig. 8 (Romain) Plan of Mound City showing possible solar and lunar alignments. Redrawn after Marshall 1987: Figure 6.

MOON MAX1 SOUTH SET 229°.5

WINTER SOLSTICE SUNRISE MOON MAX 122M SOUTH SET

MOON MIN Fig. 9 (Romain) Plan of Piketon Square SOUTH RISE showing possible lunar alignments. Modified MOON MIN 115°.7 after Marshall 1987: Figure 10b. SOUTH SET 244'.3

'MOON MIN SOUTH RISE MOON MIN SOUTH SET. 4V7

14 , MOON MIN ""HPl1 1SE T

MOON MIN MOON MIN NORTH SET NORTH SET Fig. 11 (Romain) Plan of the Hopewell Site showing possible solar and lunar alignments. Modified after Greber 1989: Figure 2.1.

MOON MIN NORTH RISE MOON I NORTH RISE »T.2 Fig. 10 (Romain) Plan of the Circleville Earthworks showing possible lunar alignments. Modified after Marshall 1987: Figure 7.

MOON MAX NORTH RISE 53#.3

Fig. 12 (Romain) Plan of the Turner Group Earthworks showing possible solar and lunar alignments. Modified after Willoughby 1922: Plate 1.

O f ^W^Vf^^o, MOON MIN ... . ,«, .iS.*^ SOUTfl SET a^M"M ^ g

llffis^

15 DUNLAPS WORKS. moss COUNTY; OHIO.

J^ittsvsa. xerrace.

MOON NORTH

StCOfl rf Bottom-.

5oo It. to the Inch.

/. C Hit It* »fl. Fig. 13 (Romain) Plan of the Dunlap Earthworks showing possible lunar alignments. Modified after Squier and Davis 1848: Plate XXIII.

16 A HIGHLY REFINED HOPEWELL FROG EFFIGY PLATFORM PIPE by D.R. Gehlbach 3450 Sciotangy Dr. Columbus, Ohio

The Mississippi River has been an ac­ know, the Hopewellians added lavish back and the stem hole at the end of a tive transportation center and trade route trimmings to some of their burial de­ gently curved platform base, It faces the for more generations of people than posits. Objects such as river pearl neck­ frog's rear a diagnostic feature of many can appreciate. During the prehis­ laces, mica cutouts, copper celts and Hopewell effigy pipes. The native artisan toric era, native groups used this readily breastplates, carved effigies of various used locally available limestone for his available water source to their advantage animals, birds, amphibians, boatstones creation. It was uncovered in some of the as they pursued their tenuous existence. of exotic materials and elaborately deco­ referenced multiple mound sites adjoin­ A prominent riverine group, the Hopewell rated pedestal pots were some of the ing the Mississippi in Mercer County, culture, not only used the Mississippi as items found in Hopewell graves. Highly Illinois. Originally housed in the famous a resource in their material distribution refined "platform" smoking pipes also ac­ Edward Payne collection, it passed to his system, but also as a background am­ companied some "high status" burials. daughter Alida Payne Law upon his phitheater for their ceremonial rights. Some of these pipes which were carved death and was one of her highly valued Lining the river banks from Minnesota from available native materials and im­ relics for many years. It has now found its through Wisconsin and Illinois were mul­ ported Ohio pipestone were depictions of way to Ohio perhaps duplicating a similar tiples of burial mounds reserved for their various co-inhabiants of the wetlands journey some 2000 years ago by its special citizens. In some cases upwards along with Mississippi. Pictured is one Hopewell relatives. of 30 mounds in a row dotted a particular such example, a superb frog effigy with promontory along the waterway. As we the characteristic bowl in the amphibians'

Figure 1 (Gehlbach) Hopewell Frog Effigy Platform Pipe from Mercer County, Illinois.

17 NOTCHED WINGED BANNERSTONES by Robert N. Converse 199 Converse Drive Plain City, Ohio

Among the more pleasing and well de­ Such bannerstones are usually thin hunt. For this reason, these banners signed prehistoric bannerstones or atlatl winged and skillfully fashioned. The hole rarely show damage from heavy use - weights are the winged types. There are is drilled through the thickened center most breakage coming from weather or a number of styles, but probably the section and is almost uniformly about farming implements most highly developed are the double 1/2 inch in diameter in all examples. The notched winged bannerstones notched types similar to those in the ac­ Some are small - no wider than three or shown in Figure 1 are in the collection of companying photograph. They are nearly four inches (miniatures of the type are Bill Cain, Wilkinson, Indiana, and are all always made of banded slate and occa­ known) while others may attain the width outstanding examples of the type. sionally the bands of the slate were in­ of eight or nine inches. Rarely will the un­ corporated into the appearance of the common maroon colored slate be found piece itself, thus not only was an attrac­ in this type but it is known. tive stone used but the bands in the It is diffcult to imagine that these were stone became part of the design of the anything other than non-functional ob­ bannerstone. The large center specimen jects - probably used in some sort of cer­ is a fine example of a combination of emony where an emblematic atlatl hope­ lines and design. fully brought good fortune in a coming

Fig. 1 (Converse) Notched winged bannerstones (atlatl weights) from the Bill Cain collection, Wilkinson, Indiana. Upper left is from Delaware County, Ohio, and was originally collected by Dr. Meuser. Upper right is from Montgomery County, Ohio, and was first in the Hubert Wachtel collection. Lower left was collected by Dr. Meuser from Darke County, Ohio. Lower right is also from Darke County, Ohio, collected by Hubert Wachtel. The center specimen is from Marion County, Ohio, and was collected by Earl Townsend.

18 AN ENGRAVED TUBULAR BANNERSTONE by Bob White Thomville, Ohio

The engraved tubular bannerstone or this engraving with the naked eye. The more commonly present on chlorite tubu­ "tube" as commonly used by collectors, engraving takes the form of 13 semi-par­ lar bannerstones. illustrated in pictures one and two, is a allel lines, two of the lines are etched After finding 20 or so damaged or bro­ personal surface find of the author on deeper than the other eleven and the top ken pieces of slate, to say it was a thrill 6-14-89. The field where it was found has two lines are joined together, the top to find an undamaged slate piece is an yielded a broken engraved butterfly ban­ three lines are larger than the other ten. understatement. Add to this the fact that nerstone. A large piece of another ban­ After studying these engraved lines my it is re-polished on the obverse end then nerstone, an expanded notch knife, and conclusion is that they make no sense. engraved on the top surface and that it is an assortment of medium and small ar­ Although, it is re-polished the reverse a bannerstone, makes me justifiably rows and knives and 3 whole drills were end has some wear around the hole. It proud to add it to my collection. all found in the spring of 1989. Having appears that the wear is the result of its The fact that the prehistoric artisan gone by this field for 9 years without being used in such a way that the tube who manufactured this tube took the stopping to surface hunt, I was surprised could slide down an atlatl and strike time to re-polish the reverse end, shows at it's yield this year. something causing it to stop, and at that the author that he prized this piece. Many The tube is made from gray and blue moment supply the shaft thrower with of these tubes are battered on the end banded slate, it is D-shaped, the bottom more leverage to launch his shaft. As a from use, and remain this way when is flat, and it shows polish over its entire result of this use, the reverse end (or the found. surface. It measures 3/4 inches in thick­ end with the smallest opening), shows ness, 1-5/8 inches in length, and 1-3/8 wear; and the obverse end shows none. References inches in width. There is a large cylindri­ This banded slate tubular bannerstone Converse, Robert, Ohio Slate Types cal hole drilled through the length that is somewhat out of character. It is smaller measures 1/2 inch on the obverse end, in length and width than the average and 7/16 inches on the reverse end. banded slate tube and has the measur- The tube has been engraved (Fig. 3) on ments of a ball bannerstone. Its D-shape the top surface, only it is difficult to see and engraving are two characteristics

Fig. 1 (White) Top side of an engraved tubular bannerstone. Fig. 2 (White) Bottom side of tubular bannerstone.

19 ARCHAIC BASAL NOTCHED POINTS FROM THE PORTAGE RIVER AREA OF OTTAWA COUNTY by Phillip R. Shriver Miami University

As noted in an earlier article describing presented by him to the society on References a basal notched point found in the Indian November 17, 1931. For sixty years they Converse, Robert N. Creek Valley here in southwestern Ohio, have been available for viewing and 1973 Ohio Flint Types. The Archaeological this particular type of is a study by school groups and the general Society of Ohio. rare occurrence. (See Shriver, 1991: 22.) public as well as the membership of the 1981 "A Basal Notched Variety." Ohio Indeed, according to Noel D. Justice, the society, in the best tradition of Ohio's Archaeologist, 31(1): 36. typological site for basal notched Archaic now more than four hundred historical Justice, Noel D. spear forms is the in the societies and museums. 1985 Projectile Point Types and Their Tennessee River Valley, several hundred Chronology. Glenn A. Black Laboratory miles to the south. (See Justice, 1985:14.) Acknowledgements of Archaeology, Indiana University, Interestingly, the three points illustrated Grateful appreciation is extended to Bloomington. in Figure 1 were found not far from the Mrs. Elizabeth Denney, curator of the Lewis, Thomas M.N., and Madline Kneberg Lake Erie shore line, in the Portage River Ottawa County Historical Society's Lewis area of Ohio's Ottawa County. All three Museum at the time of my visit, for her 1961 Eva: An Archaic Site. University of are in the archaeological collection of courtesy in permitting me to examine the Tennessee Press, Knoxville. that county's historical society museum society's archaeological collection and to Shriver, Phillip R. in Port Clinton. The one on the left was photograph portions of it, and for grant­ 1991 "A Basal Notched Point from the Indian found by Henry A. Miller, who lived just ing me access to the society's records Creek Valley." Ohio Archaeologist, 41 (2): 22. west of and adjacent to Port Clinton concerning specific artifacts of particular Airport off the Gypsum Road on the interest. Marblehead Peninsula, between the Sandusky Bay to the south and Lake Erie to the north. Chipped from blue-gray chalcedony, the point has a waxy ap­ pearance not unlike some of the Flint Ridge material I have seen. Measuring 2 3/8 inches in length and 1 3/16 inches in width, it is thin, symmetrical, and very well made. Mindful of Robert N. Converse's observation (1973: 28) that basal notched points have also been found in Ohio Hopewell, my initial reac­ tion to this particular point was that it might indeed be Hopewell. However, ab­ sent more diagonal notching and given the straight rather than convex base, my conclusion is that it must be Archaic. I reached the same conclusion re­ specting the other two points. Both were found by Earl Wendling, who lived on the north side of the Portage River, near its mouth, several miles downstream from the famed Libben Site. The point in the center was shaped from a low grade piece of gray chert and is 2 1/2 inches long and 1 3/4 inches wide. The point on the right was fashioned from good quality black flint and is 2 7/16 inches long by 1 inches wide. Though their notches are well-defined they are not deep. The bases of both are straight rather than IpftJj' i , •. ..ft -i i|iU|,!il|l!!ljllL|niljilll|llli|WI|IIH!llli|l!l^ convex. Neither is as symmetrical as the i i '. 6 7 e q io n i? n K is i6 17 ia n point on the left. Of interest to those who may be pon­ dering possible future gifts to local or Fig. 1 (Shriver) All three basal notched points shown in this photograph were found in Ottawa state historical/archaeological museums, County and are now part of the archaeological collection in that county's historical society museum in Port Clinton. The one on the left was made from blue-gray chalcedony; the one in the the records of the Ottawa County center, from dull gray chert; the one on the right, from black flint. The scale shown is metric. Historical Society indicate that the point found by Henry Miller was turned over by him to the society, along with other arti­ facts, on June 27, 1932. The points found by Earl Wendling were part of a small collection of prehistoric materials

20 RARE BANNERSTONES FROM THE BILL CAIN COLLECTION by Bill Cain Wilkinson, Indiana

Pictured in the accompanying pho­ tographs are examples of some of the rarer types of bannerstones found in the Ohio Valley. All are made of banded slate which is the normal material for these types, other kinds of stone are rarely en­ countered. All of them were probably found by farmers when land was first cleared many years ago.

Fig. 1 (Cain) Top, a double crescent from Allen County, Ohio. This is one of the scarcest types known. It was originally; collected by Dr. Meuser. Below is a knobbed lunate. It is also rare and was in the Meuser, Bunche, MacBeth collections.

Fig. 2 (Cain) Two rare notched ovates. Top example is from Preble County, Ohio, and was originally collected by Hubert Wachtel. It is 4 1/2 by 4 3/4 inches. Below is a notched ovate from Richland County, Ohio, collected by Dr. Meuser. It is 9 by 4 1/2 inches.

21 TWO BIRDSTONES FROM THE STEVE FULLER COLLECTION by Robert N. Converse 199 Converse Drive Plain City, Ohio

No single prehistoric artifact has gener­ delicate hafting process which on many come out in the proper position. The two ated more speculation than the birdstone. would not sustain any sort of heavy or vio­ birdstones in the color picture dramatically A great many professional reports simply lent use. Nor would the atlatl weight the­ demonstrate the prominent eye produced list them as atlatl weights - an assumption ory explain a number of them which are by skilled Archaic birdstone makers. with which nearly every collector who has completely finished except for drilling or These outstanding examples are in the examined large numbers of birdstones those which have only partial drilling. collection of Steve Fuller, Wooster, Ohio. would quickly disagree. While it is easy to Among the many curious attributes The top specimen is from Scott County, assume that all such drilled objects were found in birdstones is the presence of an Indiana. The bottom birdstone was origi­ fastened to atlatl shafts, an in depth study eye depicted by banding in the slate. nally in the old Hill collection of Delaware, of birdstones will reveal any number of ar­ While at first glance this may seem to Ohio, and its origin was given as Hardin guments to refute this assumption. Not have been easily accomplished, in prac­ County, Ohio. the least of these arguments would be the tise it is fairly difficult to make these bands

22 SLATE FROM THE COLLECTION OF MEL WILKINS

Fig. 1 (Wilkins) Four Glacial Kame gorgets of banded slate. Left to right - Gettysburg, Darke Co., Ohio - Allen Co., Ohio - Henry Co., Ohio - tally-marked, Darke Co., Ohio.

Fig. 2 (Wilkins) Two indented gorgets. Example on left is from Allen Co., Ohio. Right is from Lorain Co., Ohio.

23 A STARKE COUNTY FLUTED POINT by Larry L. Morris 901 Evening Star S.E. East Canton, Ohio 44730

The small Gainey-style fluted point in eral grinding runs .68 inches (17.27mm) Goodyear, Albert C. the accompanying photos was found by on the left side and .77 inches (19.56mm) A Hypothesis for the Use of my uncle, the late Robert W. Morris. It on the right. Cryptocrystalline Raw Materials Among was found in an area of kettle and kame On the reverse side two flake scars ex­ Paleo-lndian Groups of North America. topography in eastern Stark County, tend from the tip through the end of the Institute of Archaeology and Ohio. Although other fluted points are fluting channel and a third one runs par­ Anthropology, University of South known or have been reported from Stark allel to the right lateral edge and intrudes Carolina, November, 1979. County (Gramly and Summers, Summers, into the channel. End thinning from the Gramly, R. M. & Summers, G. L. and Stambaugh) and eastern Stark tip is not uncommon (Callahan). However, Noble's Pond: A Fluted Point Site in County in particular (Noble and Linerode) given its small size and the multiplicity of Northeastern Ohio. Midcontinental they are indeed rare. flake scars originating from the distal Journal of Archaeology 11(1), 1986 The point is made from black Upper end, it is the author's opinion that they Linerode, Tom Mercer flint and measures 1.27 inches represent use damage and extensive cu- Conversation with author. July 28, 1991. (32.3mm) long and .93 inches (23.62mm) ration. Extensive curation of lithic mate­ Noble, Earl wide. On its obverse side the fluting rial is a recognized Palaeo Indian trait Conversation with author. July 22,1991 channel is .97 inches (24.64mm) long and and may be the reason for the selection Stambaugh, Richard .74 inches (18.8mm) wide. On the reverse of such high quality material for their Conversation with author. April 23,1990. side the original fluting channel is not tools (Goodyear). Summers, Garry L. measurable due to flake scars obscuring Conversation with author. June 13, 1991 it from the tip and the right lateral side. REFERENCES Its maximum width is .72 inches Callahan, Errett (18.29mm) wide. The depth of the basal The Basics of Biface Knapping in the concavity is .22 inches (5.59mm). The Eastern Fluted Point Tradition. maximum thickness is .22 inches Archaeology of Eastern North America 7, (5.59mm). From the obverse side the lat- 1979.

Fig. 1 (Morris) Obverse and reverse of fluted point.

24 IN MEMORIAM EDWARD W. RICHARD - 1911-1991

It is with great sadness we report the Site, the Meeks Site and the Nobles death of our friend, Ed Richard. This gen­ Pond Site. He was co-chairman of the erous, friendly and enthusiastic man will Fort Laurens Research and Restoration be sorely missed by The Sugarcreek Committee participating in all the excava­ •• I t-»— %—T* Valley Chapter, the archaeological com­ tions at that site. Over the years in co-op­ munity, his friends and family. eration with other local avocational ar­ In our chapter Ed was known for wel­ chaeologists and history buffs, he coming guests and taking new members searched for and located Col. Bouquet's under his wing. With infinite patience, he camp sites in the Bolivar area. answered our questions and gave many A successful businessman and com­ of us our first opportunity to work on an munity leader, he was awarded the archaeological site. Tuscarawas County Historical Society's Ed had served The Sugarcreek Valley 1988 Man of the Year Award. He was a Chapter as trustee, site director, vice member of the Canal Society of Ohio, president, and two terms as president. Tuscarawas County Farm Bureau, He was active in the excavation of the Wilderness Center of Wilmont, honorary Riker Site and served on the committee member and first president of the Dover that made the publication of the books, Garden Club, past chairman of the The Riker Site, and 25 Years (1961- 1986) Tuscarawas County Park Board, member A History of The Sugarcreek Valley and past president of the Bolivar Lions Chapter of The Archaeological Society of Club, a director of the Strasburg Savings Ohio, successful chapter projects. In and Loan of Strasburg, and a member of January 1991 he had together with other St. Johns United Church of Christ in chapter members presented the ASO Bolivar where he was a former member Mini-Session on the Yant Mound Site. of the consistory and a member of the He excavated the Kline Mound Site, building committee. The Kingwood Drive Site, Site 33 TU 42, Surviving Ed is his wife of 57 years, the and led the excavation of the Yant former Lula C. Shutt. Mound Site. He also participated in the Larry L. Morris excavations at The Hunt Site, The Vail Dave Lehberger

GRAVEL MINING CONTINUES TO THREATEN HOPETON EARTHWORKS

Metzenbaum Introduces Bill to Hopeton Earthworks and three other nearby Hopewell sites as possible ad­ Preserve Ohio Archaeological Sites sites. Under the proposed bill, the ditions to the park. National Park Service would: Gravel mining continues to threaten The bill also authorizes the appropria­ the prehistoric Hopeton Earthworks in • change the name of Mound City Group tion of funds for these activities, although Ross County, Ohio. National Monument to Hopewell it does not appropriate funds. The Trust The Ohio Historic Preservation Office Culture National Historical Park; for Public Lands is working on the devel­ has met with the National Park Service, • expand the park boundaries to include opment of alternative financial resources federal legislators, the Trust for Public the Hopeton Earthworks, High Banks for the acquisition of the rest of Hopeton. Lands, the Archaeological Conservancy, Works, Hopewell Mound Group, and Hopeton Earthworks is a National and the gravel company to discuss ways Seip Earthworks; Historic Landmark, a designation be­ to mitigate the effects of mining. • be authorized to acquire another 200 stowed upon the nation's most important The gravel company has agreed to let acres of the Hopeton Earthworks along historic properties. the National Park Service undertake ar­ with High Banks, Hopewell, and Seip; Mound City Group National Monument chaeological investigations in a four acre • enter into cooperative agreements with was established in 1923. It is the only area between the gravel operation and the Ohio Historical Society, the federal area preserving and interpreting part of the earthworks now owned by the Archaeological Conservancy, and oth­ remains of the Ohio Hopewell culture, National Park Service. ers for assistance in interpretation and which is believed to have thrived in east­ Ohio Senator Howard M. Metzenbaum management; and ern North America between 200 B.C. and has introduced a bill that would expand • conduct archaeological investigations 500 A.D. the boundaries of nearby Mound City of the Spruce Hill Works, Harness Reprinted from May-June 1991 Group National Monument to include the Group, Cedar Banks Works, and other Ohio Preservation

25 LOST IN TIME: THE FORGOTTEN TRIBAL GROUPS OF NORTHERN OHIO by David M. Stothers Director, The Archaeological Research Program The University of Toledo

University of Toledo archaeologists have quence, which represents a third tribal Europeans had reached the western re­ learned from two decades of excavation group who inhabited the region east of the gion of Lake Erie. These European derived research that long before the dawn of his­ Black River to Conneat Creek, near trade items suggest a trade connection tory the lands surrounding western Lake Conneat, Ohio, but apparently centered and (as such a pre-existant trade route Erie in southwestern Ontario, southeast­ near Cleveland, Ohio in the Cuyahoga into the Great Lakes from the east) with ern Michigan and northern Ohio as far River drainage in late prehistory, both the Algonquian speaking Indians who lived east as Lorain on the Black River, were in­ Sandusky and Whittlesey traditions may near Montreal in the St. Lawrence River habited by two ethnically and linguistically have emerged from a common or closely Valley. Interestingly, Champlain recorded distinct American Indian tribal groups, related ancestoral group(s) prior to 1000 in his diary for 1603 that on three separate who have disappeared into the recesses A.D.. Thus, these two Algonquian speak­ and independent occasions he was told of time (Figs. 1 and 2). ing "sister traditions" may have diverged by these Montreal Indians, in detail, about One of these tribal groups is known in from a common ancestoral base (Fig. 2) in a route of passage into the interior, ex­ archaeological terms as the "Western northcentral Ohio, to produce two related, tending up the St. Lawrence, westward Basin tradition". This tribal group spread but territorially distinct tribal complexes through Lake Ontario, to the western end from their homeland in southwestern during late prehistory. of Lake Erie. Ontario about 500 A.D. to extend their ter­ The Sandusky and Whittlesey cultural None of these tribal groups of northern ritory into lands which surround the west­ complexes are believed to represent the Ohio were met by Europeans, and as ern end of Lake Erie, which today include Tontontaratohnronon and Ontarraronon such have gone unrecorded in history. southeastern Michigan and northern Ohio (Fig. 2) respectively. These appellations, However, co-operative research endeav­ as far east as Sandusky Bay. The other which are Iroquoian, and respectively ors between the Archaeological Research tribal group originated and developed from mean "those who live where the lake runs Program at The University of Toledo and earlier ancestoral groups in the Sandusky out or disappears" and "those who live The Sandusky Bay Chapter of The Bay region, and has been named the beside the lake", were recorded at the Archaeological society of Ohio in con­ "Sandusky tradition" by archaeologists, dawn of history by a few very early French junction with The Firelands Archaeological but was called "Assistaeronon" or priests and explorers, after which these Research Center, are slowly resurrecting "Totontaratonhronon" in very early historic names disappear into the mists of time. from the dust of time, an undocumented accounts. Populations who represented The Tontontaratohnronon were one of heritage that was very nearly lost to the the Western Basin tradition were a hitherto six Algonquian speaking groups allied in a ensuing course of history. unknown tribal group of Iroquoian speak­ confederacy of tribal groups who were ers, while Sandusky tradition populations collectively referred to as the For Further Reading were Algonquian speakers of yet another "Assistaeronon" or "Asistagueronon", an The following list of published sources undocumented tribal group. Iroquoian term which means "Fire will give the reader much greater breadth Because of competition over land and People". As such, early French explorers and detail concerning issues and informa­ resources, these two tribal groups be­ and priests referred to them as "Gens de tion presented in this overview, should came engaged in a prehistoric tribal war Feu". Confusion in the identification and such be desired or needed. between A.D. 1200 and A.D. 1300, when geographic location of the Totontara- Campeau, Lucien (S.J.) the Western Basin people were militarily tohronon has resulted from two factors. 1987 La Mission Des Jesuites Chez Les Hurons defeated by the Sandusky people. This As recently pointed out by a French- 1634-1650. Bibliotheca Instituti Historici prehistoric military defeat caused the Canadian researcher, the term S.I. Vol. XLVI. Editions Bellarmin. Western Basin Iroquoians to withdraw "Assistaeronon" was used in two different Montreal. back into southwestern Ontario, where ways: it was used to designate the collec­ Ellis, Chris J. and Neal Ferris (eds.) they rejoined their kinsmen, who moved tive confederation of the six independant 1990 The Archaeology of Southern Ontario to eastward to eventually become one of the tribes (Ahriottaehronon, Oskouarahronon, 1650. London Chapter, The Ontario constituent population groups of the Kouattoehronon, Skenchioronon, Archaeological Society, Occasional Neutral Confederacy. The Neutral Assistaeronon and Ontarraronon), and it Publication No. 5. (Readers are specifi­ Confederation lived in the Niagara was also used occasionally to specifically cally directed to Chapters 7,13 and 15 for Peninsula regionat the east end of Lake designate the Totontaratohronon. This background information pertinent to this (Fig.1) Erie in the early 1600's when they confusion was further compounded by a article). were first met by French explorers and badly miscopied rendering of the term Heidenreich, Conrad E. priests. "Assistaeronon" onto the Taunton Map as 1988 An Analysis of the 17th Century Map "Aictaeronon", which was later copied by Sandusky tradition village populations 'Nouvelle France'. Cartographica the famous cartographer Nicholas Sanson moved westward into the Toledo area as a 25(3):67-111. onto his 1656 and 1657 maps entitled result of the prehistoric wars with the Lagarde, Pierrette L. "Novvelle France". Western Basin Iroquois, where they were 1987 La Formation Des Noms De Peuples Et to remain until 1643, when they were de­ University of Toledo archaeologists have De Bourgades En Huron. Bibliotheca feated, destroyed and dispersed by the discovered European derived trade mate­ Instituti Historici S.I. Vol. XLVI. Editions Neutral Confederacy Iroquois, the tradi­ rial at three excavated and radiocarbon Bellarmin. Montreal. tional enemies of the Sandusky people. dated sites which were inhabited by the Murphy, Carl and Neal Ferris Because of close ceramic associations Sandusky or Totontaratohnronon tribal 1990 The Late Woodland Western Basin between the Sandusky developmental se­ group of Algonquian speakers between Tradition in Southwestern Ontario. In: The quence and the Whittlesey ceramic se­ 1550 and 1643 A.D., long before Archaeology of Southern Ontario to A.D.

26 7650 (C. Ellis and N. Ferris, eds.): 189- 1990 The Totontaratohnronon: Ethic Identity of Sandusky Traditions-A 1982 Perspective. 278. Occasional Publication No. 5, the Sandusky Tradition. Ohio Journal of Archaeology of Eastern North America, London Chapter, Ontario Archaeological Science 90(2):28. 11:109-142. Society. Stothers, David M. and Timothy J. Abel 1985 The Prairie Peninsula Co-Tradition: An Steckley, John L. 1989 The Position of the 'Pearson Comple' in Hypothesis for Hopewellian to Upper 1990 The Early Map "Novvelle France": A the Late Prehistory of Northern Ohio. Mississippian Continuity. Archaeology of Linguistic Analysis. Ontario Archaeology, Archaeology of Eastern North America, Eastern North America, 13:153-175. 51:17-29. 17:109-141. Trigger, Bruce G. (editor) Stothers, David M. 1991 Beads, Brass and Beaver: Archaeological 1978 Handbook of North American Indians: 1981 Indian Hills (33-W0-4): A Protohistoric Reflections of Protohistoric 'Fire Nation' Northeast, Vol. 15. Smithsonian Institution Village in the Valley of Trade and Exchange. Paper presented at Press. Washington, D.C. Northwestern Ohio. Ontario Archaeology, the 1990 Annual Symposium of The Trigger, Bruce G. 36:47-56. Ontario Archaeological Society, Toronto. 1985 Natives and Newcomers. McGill-Queen's 1987 The Taunton Map: Prototype for the "Lost Submitted for publication. University Press. Nontreal. Huron" and Nicholas Sanson Maps? Ohio Stothers, David M. and James R. Graves Journal of Science 87(2):27. 1983 Cultural Continuity and Change: The Western Basin, Ontario Iroquois, and

Fig. 1 (Stothers) Map indicating location of late sixteenth - early seventeenth century tribal groups and their relationship to prehistoric Late Woodland Western Basin Tradition populations.

Upper New York State fcjfc-j^.^.,.. Northwestern Ohio. Northcentra! Ohio. Southeastern Miehijan TIME

Western Basin Tradition New Yorl: Iroquois Ontario Iroquois Sandusky Tradition Whittlaseg Tradition (Iroquoian) (Algonquian) (Algonquian)

A» Neutral Totontaratonnronon Five Nations Iroquois Attiwandarons

[GaVoga Phase

Fig. 2 (Stothers) A cultural-historical model for Late Woodland tribal development in northern Ohio and contiguous areas. Oak Mil Phase

Canandolgua Phase

Carpenter Brook Phase

Hunter's Home]: Phase [

27 THE DISC PIPE - AN EXAMPLE FROM THE JIM RITCHIE COLLECTION by Robert N. Converse 199 Converse Drive Plain City, Ohio

The disc type pipe is a very distinctive style and easily recognized. The flat, flared disc surrounding the bowl is of course the most diagnostic trait. This disc or bowl rim is circular and thin - usu­ ally less than one quarter inch at its thick­ est and one eighth inch at the edges. But there are a number of other char­ acteristics usually found in most exam­ ples, making this a most unique smoking device. Disc pipes are nearly always made of catlinite - a brick-red stone im­ ported from the pipestone quarries of Minnesota - and rarely of materials such as calcite or limestone. I have never seen one of banded slate. The stem is square or rounded and tapers from the one half inch stem opening to the pointed or prow-like end away from the smoker. Often the forward end is decorated with notches or, as is seen in the illustration, a fringe-like treatment. The disc is set di­ rectly on top of the stem leaving a rather small bowl for the smoking material. A curiousity with this pipe type is the presence in a majority of specimens of engraving on some part of the bowl or stem. Sometimes the underside of the disc is decorated - sometimes the under­ side of the stem. These engraving take the form of zigzag lines, or - as shown in the color picture - zoomorphic pictures, or the engraving may be no more than undecipherable lines. Disc pipes are associated with the murky late prehistoric-historic time pe­ riod and it is not clear whether they de­ veloped before or after the advent of Europeans into America. A fine disc pipe was found wih a burial at the 40MR12 site in eastern Tennessee in the foothills of the Appalachians in 1974. This site was a Mississippian location which apparently spanned the prehistoric-historic eras. In addition to the pipe a number of other items were in the grave and included Fig. 1 (Converse)Disc pipe in the collection of Jim Ritchie, Toledo, Ohio. It was found in Hamilton three large stone celts, three chipped flint County, Ohio. celts, several Mississippian triangular points, shell ear plugs and conch shell sections. Shell beads and a bone awl were also found but there were no items of European manufacture.

Reference Rice, Orleanas L. Jr. A Catlinite Disc Pipe find: Salvage Archaeology at 40MR12. Central State Archaeological Journal Vol. 21 Number 4 October 1974

Fig. 2 (Converse) Bottom view of disc pipe showing engraved bird.

28 SYMBOLIC ASSOCIATIONS AT THE SERPENT MOUND by William F. Romain 4000 Westbrook Drive, #502 Brooklyn, Ohio 44144

In earlier articles, it was suggested that rock shelter is located in the Serpent Tennessee; Jackson County, Alabama; the Serpent Mound in Adams County, Mound ridge, perpendicular to the oval and Colbert County, Alabama (Henson Ohio, may depict a solar eclipse wit­ feature of the Serpent Mound effigy (see 1986:93,98,101). nessed by the Mound Builders. In particu­ Romain 1988b: Figure 6), and the west The association of sinkholes with the lar, it was shown how the Serpent Mound side of the ridge is virtually pocketed by Underworld is supported by stories such physically resembles a snake swallowing very small, erosion induced crevices. as the one told by the Creek Indians a disk meant to represent the sun (Romain Additionally, three large sinkholes are lo­ wherein a possessing 1988a). And it was shown how the unique cated about four hundred feet south of the miraculous powers was said to live in "wa­ physical setting of the site could be Serpent Mound effigy (see Romain 1988b: ter-holes" Gatschet 1899: 259). In actual­ thought of as having a synergistic effect Figure 8), and several springs are found on ity, a sinkhole is a naturally occurring de­ on the idea of a monstrous serpent the Serpent Mound property (Putnam pression that when filled with water, emerging from the Underworld to do bat­ 1890: 873; Reidel 1972:132). becomes a water-hole. Certainly too, the tle with the sun (Romain 1988b). Also dis­ In North American Indian mythology, observation made by E. Lucy Braun (1928: cussed were various North American caves, sinkholes, and springs are often 473) that in the summer, mists can often Indian legends that tell of monstrous ser­ thought of as entrances to the earth and to be seen rising from sinkholes in vicinity of pents attacking the sun and eclipses be­ the Underworld. Indeed, Mallam has the Serpent Mound would contribute to ing caused when such monsters swallow stated: their association with unseen subter­ the sun (Romain 1988c). Finally, it was As documented in the ethnographic ranean realms. shown how several total, annular, and par­ literature, springs, crevices, and The association of springs with the tial eclipses would have been visible to caves are almost universally regarded Underworld is supported by stories such the builders of the Serpent Mound by native peoples as avenues to the as the one told by the Cherokee wherein it (Romain 1988d). Underworld (Mallam 1982:19). was said that springs are the "doorways" In the present article, various symbolic Viewed in another way, caves and sink­ by which the Underworld can be entered relationships supportive of the solar holes border the threshold between the (Mooney 1900: 240). eclipse hypothesis will be discussed. surface world and the subterranean world. In terms of symbolism then, if caves, These symbolic relationships will draw And they border the realm between light sinkholes, and springs were indeed thought upon ethnographic and ethnohistoric ex­ and dark - creating a sort of twilight or of as points of contact with the amples of beliefs and behaviors sug­ transformational zone. Underworld, then the close physical asso­ gested as analogous to those of the Intensifying the almost inherent mystery ciation of the Serpent Mound with nearby Mound Builders. In recent years this type and foreboding associated with caves and caves, sinkholes, and springs would be of approach has been successfully used sinkholes and further strengthening their consistent with the idea of the Serpent in numerous ethnoarchaeological studies, association with the Underworld, is the Mound area being a portal, or entrance to including some that are specifically related fact that they are often home to anomalis­ the Underworld. In fact, the abundance of to the reconstruction of prehistoric belief tic and sometimes frightening creatures caves, sinkholes, and springs in the systems among the Mound Builders (e.g., including snakes, bats, salamanders, milli­ Serpent Mound area would have made that Hall 1979; Penny 1985). Essentially, what pedes, flatworms, and in Adams County, a location ideal, in symbolic terms, for the is being suggested here is that there is a rare "pseudoscorpion" (Piatt 1989: 53). placement of the Serpent Mound effigy. continuity in core ideology extending from Given this, it should come as no sur­ historically documented North American prise to learn that in North American Bats and Zones of Transformation Indian beliefs, back into prehistory, to the Indian mythology, caves would also be As mentioned in an earlier article belief systems of the early Woodland thought of as lairs for, or otherwise associ­ (Romain 1988b), the rocky crags, caves, Indians. ated with, monstrous, evil-minded ser­ and sinkholes of the Serpent Mound area pents. Among the Seneca, for example, provide an ideal habitat for one of nature's Caves, Sinkholes and the Underworld the giant, man-eating, two-headed ser­ strangest creatures - the bat. At least nine In an earlier article, I wrote: pent Ka-is-to-wah-ea was said to live in a different species of bats are found in the ... the Serpent Mound is located at, cave underneath a mountain (Converse Ohio Bluegrass Region surrounding the or near, the intersection of various en­ 1908: 113). Similarly, the Chicasaw mon­ Serpent Mound, making the area the unof­ vironmental zones, and in juxtaposi­ ster serpent Sint-holo was said to live in a ficial "bat capital of Ohio" (Elfner 1979: tion to several geophysical anoma­ cave (Swanton 1926: 251). And, the Grand 255). As a matter of fact, the winged lies. In fact, the Serpent Mound exists River Iroquois believed in a huge serpent mammals are rather common at the at the boundary of several, very dif­ whose mouth was a cave entrance con­ Serpent Mound and on warm summer ferent realms. taining the bones of deceased victims nights, one can often catch a glimpse of Among many peoples, unusual or (Barbeau 1952: 116). In all instances these the creatures as they dart about over the transitional areas such as this are of­ monsters were considered creatures of serpent effigy. ten considered supernatural gate­ the Underworld. Most likely, the creatures were just as ways or portals, between the celestial Arguing for the continuity of an associa­ abundant when the Serpent Mound was Upperworld and the Underworld tion between caves, serpents, and the first built - since climatic conditions in (Romain 1988b: 16). Underworld back into prehistory are the southern Ohio have remained relatively As pointed out in that same article, the discoveries of horned and winged ser­ stable over the past two thousand years. area surrounding the Serpent Mound is pents in glyph form, dating to at least In any event, bats are unusual in the characterized by numerous caves, sink­ Mississippian times, found in Mud Glyph sense that they overlap the boundaries holes, and springs (see Figure 1). As a Cave in eastern Tennessee (Faulkner between birds and four-legged mammals matter of fact, a small solution cave or 1988), as well as in caves in White County, (see Hudson 1976: 318). That is, they fly

29 like birds - but have wings of skin rather high, crescent-shaped ridge (see Figure and unusual creatures, and were pretty than feathers and four feet instead of two. 2). This ridge is several hundred feet in much inaccessible to prehistoric man. Moreover, bats silently hunt their prey - at­ length, extending more or less in a south­ Indeed, if rivers are thought of as marking tacking with razor-sharp teeth, even in to­ east to northwest direction with a south­ the boundary to the Otherworld then one tal darkness. Truly, bats are creatures of west facing exposure overlooking Brush can understand how evil-minded serpents the night who seem to come alive at twi­ Creek. As a matter of fact, the Serpent might be thought of as inhabiting such light or dusk - that magical time of trans­ Mound ridge is one of the highest ridges rivers - given that monsters have always formation between light and dark - when in the area and as such, would be a fitting been believed to lurk on the fringes or things are not always what they appear to home for the Great Horned Serpent - just boundaries of man's world - at the edge be. No doubt the nocturnal activity of as is told in legends. of the unknown. Such is the nature of these strange creatures would also have man's imagination that he fears the un­ become evident during the twilight and Brush Creek and known and hence populates unexplored ensuing darkness of a total eclipse. Underwater Monsters or inaccessible regions with the most hor­ In view of these characteristics, as well Another location to be considered in rible of creatures. During the 1400s, for as their predilection to hang upside down connection with the Great Horned example, western explorers imagined sea in caves and sinkholes, it seems fitting Serpent's dwelling places are rivers, lakes serpents lurking at the edge of the world, that bats might be thought of as belonging and streams. Many Indian legends (see while today we imagine powerful aliens in­ to another world - or zone of transforma­ e.g., Gatschet 1899) tell of monster ser­ habiting the depths of space. tion, existing between night and day. pents dwelling in the depths of rivers and Anyway, many Indian legends tell of That at least some North American lakes. Among the Seneca, for example, a heroes and shamen, both alive and dead, Indian groups held similar beliefs is evi­ monstrous serpent who feasted on the having to cross rivers to reach the denced by a Cherokee story wherein the bodies of the dead was said to live in the Otherworld or Underworld. Among the bat was instrumental in winning a contest waters near Niagara Falls (Morgan 1901: Ojibway, for example, a story is told between Upperworld creatures that fly 150); while in addition to its other haunts, wherein Geezhig attempts to cross a tur­ and animals who walk the earth (Mooney the feared Cherokee monster serpent bulent river marking the boundary to the 1900: 286-287). So too, the Iroquois be­ Uktena was also said to hide "in deep Land of Souls - in order to be reunited lieved bats to have special powers pools in the river"(Mooney 1900: 297). with Morning Star - his recently deceased (Fenton 1978: 298). In fact, as is appropri­ Typically, the Great Horned Serpent was betrothed (Kalweit 1988: 61). ate to our discussion, the Iroquois be­ considered the ruler of all underwater That the Mound Builders may also have lieved bats to be a "symbol of the union creatures including fish and frogs, and believed rivers to mark the boundary to of light and darkness . . . (denoting) some was considered the cause of whirlpools, other worlds seems suggested by the lo­ life and death struggle close at hand" tempests, and drownings. cation of various Adena and Hopewell (Beauchamp 1922: 50). That the ancient As shown by Figures 2 and 3, the mortuary complexes on the banks of Mound Builders may have held similar be­ Serpent Mound ridge closely parallels rivers and streams. Mound City, for exam­ liefs is suggested by the discovery of two Brush Creek. In fact, Brush Creek is lo­ ple, which is a huge, Hopewell burial com­ copper bat effigies found in a mortuary cated only 100-200 feet west of the plex located about 35 miles northeast of context, i.e., the ultimate transformational Serpent Mound ridge. the Serpent Mound is situated on the zone - between life and death, at the In keeping with this, it has often been banks of the Scioto River. So too, the nearby Mound City Group (Mills 1922: observed that when seen in profile, the Serpent Mound area can be considered a Fig. 66). Serpent Mound ridge resembles a giant mortuary complex given that the remains Given then, the symbolism suggested serpent lifting itself out of Brush Creek of at least eight individuals dating to by the Serpent Mound involving a "life and (Holmes 1886: 627; also see Romain Adena-Hopewell times plus another nine, death struggle" between "light and dark­ 1988c: Figure 4). Moreover, an actual intrusive burials from a later time period ness" as would be apparent during a solar physical link exists between the Serpent have been recovered from the immediate eclipse, it again seems apparent that the Mound and Brush Creek in that rocks vicinity of the Serpent Mound effigy (see Serpent Mound was ideally located in identified as from Brush Creek were used Figure 4; also see Putnam 1890: 880-882). view of the dense population of bats in the in the original construction of part of the It may also be relevant that many Indian area and those creatures' association with Serpent Mound effigy (Kimball 1887: groups believed the Otherworld, or Land zones of transformation between light and Figure 13 caption). of the Dead, to be located in the west - in dark, and life and death. In short, the close physical proximity of the direction of the setting sun. Among the the Serpent Mound to Brush Creek, as numerous peoples who held this belief The Serpent Mound Ridge well as its actual physical link to Brush were the Cherokee who described the and Haunts of The Horned Serpent Creek, and the effigy's seeming emer­ "Ghost Country" as in the west (Mooney In addition to living in caves, the Great gence from Brush Creek are all symboli­ 1900: 253) and the Iroquois who believed Horned Serpent was also said to live cally appropriate to the location of the the "Land of Souls" to be in the west among high mountain passes. Cherokee Serpent Mound - if the Serpent Mound (Hewitt 1892: 344). Recall that Brush legends, for example, tell of the monster builders believed, as did many other Creek which may be thought of as mark­ serpent Uktena guarding high mountain Indian peoples, that monstrous ing the boundary to the Otherworld is lo­ passes on the borders of the Cherokee Underworld serpents lived in such rivers cated immediately west of the Serpent country (Mooney 1900: 297); while as and streams. Mound ridge. mentioned earlier, the giant Seneca ser­ Of additional interest in regard to direc­ pent Ka-is-to-wah-ea was said to live in a Rivers and Mortuary Areas tional symbolism is that the oval embank­ cave underneath a mountain. Additional as Entrances to the Underworld ment, jaws, and neck of the Serpent examples of the Great Serpent's associa­ Of special interest in connection with Mound effigy all point to the northwest - tion with mountains and mountain passes the Serpent Mound's proximity to Brush which is the direction of coldness to the can be found in almost any anthology of Creek is the fact that in Indian mythology, north and darkness to the west. Indian lore. The point, however, is that in rivers often mark the border between this In summary then, the close proximity of accordance with the above descriptions of world and the Otherworld. Most likely this the Serpent Mound to Brush Creek, as the Great Horned Serpent's haunts, the has to do with the fact that watery depths well as Brush Creek's location west of the Serpent Mound is located on top of a are cold and dark, inhabited by strange Serpent Mound ridge are both symboli-

30 cally appropriate if the Serpent Mound rattlesnake's frighteningly large size and known as a striking coil. In either case, the builders believed, as did many other deadly poisonous nature - factors that are rattlesnake is characterized by its distinc­ Indian peoples, that rivers and streams sure to leave a lasting impression. No tive spiral coiling. marked the boundary to supernatural doubt these same factors caused the rep­ In general, there is a tendency in pre­ realms variously referred to as the tile to be generally disliked. Among the historic art to exaggerate those features Otherworld, Land of Souls, Ghost Iroquois, for example, rattlesnakes were that the artist wishes to emphasize. In ac­ Country, or Underworld. described as "Children of the Evil Minded cordance with this observation, if the So too, the association of the Serpent . . . hated, despised and loathed crawlers Serpent Mound builders were trying to Mound with nearby burials in what is es­ of the ground" (Converse 1908: 112); convey the idea of a rattlesnake in the ef­ sentially a mortuary complex is symboli­ while the Cherokee considered the rat­ figy, then the most convincing way would cally appropriate if the Mound Builders tlesnake to be "the most dreaded of the be to do exactly what they did - coil the believed mortuary areas to be zones of animal spirits" (Mooney 1891: 352). tail to emphasize this part of the animal transformation between life and death and Apparently too, it was a rattlesnake that which is marked by rattles; and coil the hence, entrances to the Otherworld. provided inspiration for the Iroquois' vision tail to depict the rattlesnake's predilection Further, the location of the Serpent Mound of the Great Horned Serpent - as evi­ to coil both when at rest and in prepara­ in a mortuary area or zone of transforma­ denced by the monster's diamond-backed tion for its strike. tion is symbolically appropriate to the ap­ pattern (see Figure 5). While among the In connection with this, it will be noted parent transformation of the sun through Cherokee, legends are told of two crea­ that the Serpent Mound effigy tail coils death and rebirth during an eclipse. tures being sent to destroy the sun - i.e., around in a counterclockwise spiral - be­ In terms of an ideal dwelling place for the Uktena which was a monstrous ser­ ginning at its tip, progressing through its an evil-minded Underworld serpent such pent having rattlesnake attributes and the spiral convolutions, and finally merging with as the Uktena then, the immediate Rattlesnake itself (Mooney 1900: 252,297). the main body. The sun on the other hand, Serpent Mound area clearly fulfills the According to legend, these creatures were rises in the east, moves through the south­ Great Horned Serpent's predilection for sent to kill the sun in retaliation for the sun ern sky, and sets in the west - in what can caves, sinkholes, mountain passes, rivers, having sent a sickness to kill the Cherokee best be described as a clockwise motion. and streams. Moreover, the Serpent - because the Cherokee people would Obviously, the two motions are opposite to Mound area can be considered a zone of screw up their faces when looking at the each other. As would be appropriate to a transformation, or portal or entrance to the sun. Anyway, both the Uktena and monster serpent intent on destroying the Underworld by virtue of its association Rattlesnake failed to kill the sun, however, sun, the serpent's body motion, as ex­ with nearby caves, sinkholes, under­ it was the Rattlesnake who by mistake, pressed in the Serpent Mound, is antitheti­ ground springs, bats, Brush Creek, vari­ succeeded in killing the Daughter of the cal to the sun's motion. That this anti-he- ous burials and other features. Sun (Mooney 1900: 252). liotropic structuring of the Serpent Mound In essence, it is the synergistic combi­ Recalling then the numerous correspon­ is no mere coincidence is supported by nation of the above related elements that dences between the Serpent Mound and Marshack's observations, i.e., produces the perception of the serpent the Uktena, as well as the above noted The ethnographic literature of the Mound area as a place where the Cherokee legends of the Rattlesnake be­ American Indian is rich in descriptions Upperworld, earth, and Underworld meet. ing sent to attack the sun, plus the obser­ of the enactive structuring of move­ It follows that it would be from within such vation that most representations of ser­ ment in symbolic settings, in which an area that a monstrous serpent would pents in Indian art are of the rattlesnake, it movement is performed circularly be expected to have emerged from the follows that the Serpent Mound may have "sunwise" or "countersunwise" or in Underworld to do battle with the sun. been modelled after a rattlesnake. spiral form, often as a metaphor for Ostensibly, this struggle resulted in the so­ In this regard, Boyle's comment that the solar motion .... This form of cog­ lar eclipse depicted by the Serpent Mound extremities may aid in identification makes nized, symbolized motion is known effigy. sense. Indeed, the following characteris­ ethnographically from diverse peo­ tics of the Serpent Mound effigy's extremi­ ples and periods around the world The Serpent Mound - ties further suggest that a rattlesnake is (Marshack 1986: 263). Rattlesnake Model represented in the earthwork: 1) coiling of The second physical feature of the Admittedly, it is a risky business to sug­ the tail; 2) "horns" on either side of the Serpent Mound suggesting that the effigy gest that a particular genus or species of head. is modelled after a rattlesnake are the serpent is represented in the Serpent As shown by Figure 6, the tail of the controversial projections or embankments Mound. On the other hand, authorities as Serpent Mound coils around in several located on either side of the serpent ef­ prominent as Webb and Baby (1957: 106) ever-expanding spirals. No doubt, it took a figy's head (see Figure 6). Note how these have suggested that the Serpent Mound fair amount of time and effort to construct embankments closely resemble in form represents a rattlesnake. And, numerous the tail in this manner. Hence we can con­ and position, the projections at the back other authorities have pointed out that in clude that the Serpent Mound builders of a rattlesnake's head (see Figure 8). In North American Indian art, it is almost al­ considered the effigy's tail to be of some real-life rattlesnakes these projections are ways the rattlesnake which is depicted. special significance. Correspondingly, one fairly pronounced and are formed by the For example, Boyle concluded that, of the most unusual characteristics of the intersection of the snake's mandible, With regard to serpents, (drawings, rattlesnake is the peculiar set of rattles lo­ quadrate, and pterygoid bones. incisings, or effigies of which are cated on its tail - used to warn of enemies Accordingly, it may be that the builders of found at wide intervals over the of an impending attack. Moreover, the rat­ the Serpent Mound intended the projec­ greater part of North America), it has tlesnake can usually be found in what is tions or embankments on either side of been observed that in nearly every in­ known as its resting coil, or when threat­ the earthen serpent's head to represent stance the model was a rattlesnake. ened, in its striking coil. this prominent feature of the rattlesnake. A natural elaboration of these projections Both, or either of the extremities may Very briefly, the resting coil is a flat, pan­ aid in this identification (Boyle 1897: would be the "horns" so commonly at­ cake-like spiral involving the snake's entire tributed to the "Great Horned Serpent". 25). body, with the head lying on the outer Very seldom does it happen that a species edge or on the other coils (see Figure 7). As a footnote, it is interesting to note of snake other than the rattlesnake is Prior to striking, however, the rattlesnake that North American Indian peoples often shown. Presumably, this is because of the throws itself into a vertical spiral, in what is envisioned supernaturally powerful crea-

31 tures, including evil serpents, as having ridge, it is apparent that Harwig's charac­ works, the Hopewell Mound Group, and horns. For example, the Huron monster terization could describe the Serpent Mound City. It is also known that many serpent Onniont was said to have a horn Mound ridge almost exactly. Truly, it would Indian groups used rattlesnake venom to on his forehead that he used to pierce be difficult to find a more fitting home for make poisoned arrows. In fact, Klauber rocks, trees, hills, and anything else he en­ any monster snake - whether it be a tim­ (1972: Vol. II: 1201-1202) lists 62 Indian countered (Willoughby 1936: 258). ber rattlesnake or legendary Uktena. groups who were known to use rat­ Correspondingly, in North American Indian tlesnake venom to poison their arrows. art, horns are often used as a symbol, or Rattlesnake Venom Given these observations, it seems likely artistic device, to show that a being pos­ and Color Symbolism that the Serpent Mound builders knew rat­ sesses supernatural powers. For this rea­ The idea of the Serpent Mound being tlesnake venom to be yellow in color, as son too, it is appropriate for the Serpent modelled after a rattlesnake has some in­ well as lethal in effect. Mound effigy to be shown with "horns". teresting implications. For instance, if the In summary, if the Serpent Mound was Serpent Mound incorporates characteris­ modelled after a rattlesnake, it certainly Crotalus sps. and the Serpent Mound tics of a rattlesnake, then the color of the would have been symbolically appropriate Of all the rattlesnake species that come effigy's clay substructure may be of signifi­ to build it out of yellow clay - which is the to mind, the eastern diamondback cance. In particular, the limited excava­ color of rattlesnake venom. In practical ef­ (Crotalus adamanteus) and timber rat­ tions of the effigy by Putnam (1890: 875) fect, this use of color symbolism would tlesnake (Crotalus horridus horridus ) showed that the Serpent Mound is con­ have further strengthened the sympathetic seem most likely to have contributed to structed of a "yellow clay" overlaid by a magical connection between the Serpent the design of the Serpent Mound. layer of dark topsoil (see Figure 9). Mound effigy and the venomous Great Certainly, the eastern diamondback was Although it may be that the Serpent Horned Serpent. well-known to the Cherokee Indians and Mound builders arbitrarily used yellow clay Finally, in connection with color symbol­ their ancestors as its habitat extends that just happened to be found on the ism, it is interesting to note that one of the throughout the southeastern United Serpent Mound ridge, my own explo­ symptoms of the rattlesnake's bite is that States. Moreover, the Cherokee some­ rations have revealed that a variety of clay the site of the injury quickly swells and times referred to the Uktena serpent mon­ soil colors in addition to yellow are present discolors. After an initial red, blue, or black ster as the "diamond rattlesnake" in the area. Some of these clays are al­ discoloration, the site further darkens and (Mooney 1900:459). most red in color. That the Serpent Mound usually turns completely black (Klauber builders constructed the effigy of yellow 1982: 184-185). This is due to the hemor­ On the other hand, in Ohio, there are clay may be related to the fact that timber rhagic effects of the venom. Compare this three species of poisonous snakes - the rattlers periodically exhibit a yellow color to what happens during a solar eclipse timber rattlesnake, the eastern mas- phase. This color phase is described as a when the sun not only appears to be bit­ susauga or "swamp rattler", and the cop­ "series of dark brown or black, chevron- ten but also turns totally black. perhead. Of these snakes, the timber rat­ shaped crossbands on a ground color of tler is by far the largest and most deadly. In brownish yellow" (Denny 1973: 24). fact, according to Denny (1973: 24), "By Eclipse Blindness, Rattlesnake Venom, virtue of their large size, timber rattlers are Alternatively, the yellow clay substruc­ and the Uktena the most dangerous snake in northeastern ture of the Serpent Mound effigy could be I hesitate to pursue the Serpent Mound America. They may attain a length in ex­ related to the fact that rattlesnake venom as a rattlesnake model much further, but cess of six feet. . . ." Interestingly enough, is yellow in color. Indeed, Klauber (1972: there is yet another set of associations timber rattlesnakes are fairly common at Vol. II: 785) points out that "Liquid rat­ that may be of interest. This involves the several locations near the Serpent Mound tlesnake venom is usually bright yellow in commonality of darkness and blindness - namely in Zaleski, , and Tar color." as related to: 1) the actual darkness that Hollow state forests (Denny 1973: 24). And In this regard, several observations can engulfs the world during an eclipse; 2) timber rattlesnakes are described as "fairly be made. First, there is evidence that eclipse blindness or solar retinitis; 3) sto­ numerous" only 10 miles distant from the Adena and Hopewell peoples placed spe­ ries of the Uktena dazing or blinding its Serpent Mound - in Pike State forest cial emphasis on soil texture and color victims by bright light; 4) vision impairment (Denny 1973: 24). In fact, according to symbolism in construction of their earth­ caused by actual rattlesnake bites; and 5) Serpent Mound area manager William works (see e.g., Dragoo 1963 : 131, 209; blindness experienced by rattlesnakes Gustin (pers. comm. 3-20-91), timber rat­ Hall 1979: 259). This in turn, supports the during skin shedding. tlesnakes have been killed in the very near idea that the Serpent Mound builders had To begin with, consider that during a to­ vicinity of the Serpent Mound - at Locust a definite reason for selecting yellow clay tal solar eclipse, the most obvious and Grove, Ohio - which is only 3-4 miles from for their serpent creation. frightening occurrence is that the world the Serpent Mound. Based on this, there is Second, Cherokee legends of the mon­ becomes dark. Darkness like that of the little doubt that timber rattlers would have ster serpent Uktena specifically state that deepest night descends over the land. been fairly common in the immediate the monster was venomous, could spit And, for what seems like an eternity, the Serpent Mound area during the Adena- poison and further, that the blood of the individual is engulfed in a blackness that Hopewell period, before the encroachment Uktena was "as poisonous as the froth" robs him of his ability to see. No doubt of civilization. Certainly, the Serpent (Mooney 1900: 300). Since in all creatures equally frightening for the prehistoric Mound ridge offers all the features sought blood is found throughout the body, this eclipse viewer is that for all he knows, this by the timber rattler. reference tells us that the entire body or blackness and functional blindness may More specifically, in this part of the length of the Uktena serpent was probably last forever. (Perhaps man's fear of the country, the timber rattlesnake is de­ considered poisonous. This idea of dark stems from his feelings of helpless­ scribed as typically making its den in a fis­ course, is consistent with the observation ness in the face of what he cannot see.) sured, rocky ledge, usually about 600 feet that the length of the Serpent Mound is Continuing our discussion, it is widely long, with a 10-30 foot drop on the down­ constructed of yellow clay - congruent recognized that unprotected viewing of a hill side, usually parallel to a stream, with a with the color of rattlesnake venom. solar eclipse can cause serious damage to south or southwest exposure to the sun That the Hopewell Indians were familiar the retina of the eye. In any number of in­ (Harwig, quoted in Klauber 1972: Vol. I: with the rattlesnake is evidenced by sev­ stances, direct viewing of the sun during 578). When one compares these charac­ eral representations of the animal in their an eclipse has resulted in varying degrees teristics to those of the Serpent Mound art recovered from the Turner Group earth­ of vision impairment including permanent

32 blindness. After the solar eclipse of March which clears up some days before the ac­ cosmological dualism so often character­ 7, 1970, for example, 145 cases of solar tual shedding takes place" (Klauber 1982: istic of man's perception of the universe. retinopathy were reported in the United 50). Throughout history, the idea of the uni­ States (Hatfield 1970). Quite simply, dam­ The point is that blindness is the com­ verse having a binary nature has found ex­ age is caused by overexposure to near-ul­ mon element that links the above phe­ pression as a conflict between opposite traviolet radiation which results in photo­ nomena. Perhaps of greater significance, primordial principles such as being and chemical damage to the retina (Ham however, is the thought that for prehistoric nothingness, order and chaos, good and 1983). According to Hatfield, man, the occurrence of a solar eclipse evil, light and dark. Clearly, this clash be­ Symptoms do not appear for several could in reality, be a dangerous event. tween primordial forces is a fundamental hours, or even a day, after exposure, There is a powerful temptation to watch concept in native American thought - with and there is generally no pain. the progress of an eclipse even when one its likely origins deep within the core of However, . . . (damage is) incurable knows the dangers of unprotected view­ pan-American shamanism. leaving blind spots in the victim's field ing. For a population unaware of such Recall that in North American Indian of vision (Hatfield 1970: 80). dangers, however, the potential impact of mythology, creatures of the Underworld Keeping in mind that the Cherokee a solar eclipse could be devastating. are generally believed to be engaged in an monster serpent Uktena was one of the Obviously, prehistoric eclipse viewers eternal struggle against the powers of the creatures sent by the Cherokee people to would not have had any idea that any Upperworld. Usually, the Upperworld is destroy the sun - as appears to happen blindness or vision impairment they suf­ represented by the sun and during a solar eclipse, it is interesting to fered would have resulted from their expo­ beings, whereas the Underworld is repre­ note that the name "Uktena" means sure to ultraviolet radiation. It would, how­ sented by either the Great Horned Serpent "Keen-eyed" (Mooney 1900: 297). ever, have been entirely logical for them to or (see Figure 10). Perhaps the name "Keeneyed" is related attribute any such blindness to the super­ In the case of the Serpent Mound, it is to the fact that snakes have no eyelids natural power of the evil monster who suggested that these opposite primordial and therefore, never blink. tried to otherwise darken the earth by de­ forces are symbolized by the sun and the In any event, what is even more interest­ vouring the sun. Indeed, the sympathetic serpent - with the conflict between these ing is that the Uktena was said to have the magical connection between the darkness forces being seen as a solar eclipse. The power to daze its victims by means of a of an eclipse and eclipse blindness would logic of this metaphor is apparent in that crystal located on its head. (Recall the crys­ probably have seemed obvious. Further, the sun gives forth light, warmth, and life; tal outcroppings found along the Serpent to the builders of the Serpent Mound it whereas the serpent dwells in the dark Mound ridge - see Romain 1988c.) certainly would have made sense that the corners of the earth, is cold-blooded, and Strangely enough, one name by which this creature most likely to cause the world to causes death. Further iterations of this crystal was known was "Igaguti", meaning go dark would be a supernatural rat­ metaphor can be found in Table 1. "Daylight" (Mooney 1900: 459). In fact, the tlesnake or Uktena - creatures whose Ultimately, however, it must be acknowl­ crystal on the Uktena's head was said to smaller brethren themselves experienced edged that the extent to which the give forth "piercing rays of light... so as to periods of blindness and who could cause Serpent Mound builders consciously rec­ dazzle the eyes" (Adair, quoted in Mooney aberrations in vision, as well as blindness ognized these iterations will probably for­ 1900: 460). And, it was said that "for who­ and death by their poisonous bite. ever remain a mystery. ever is seen by the Uktena is so dazed by In my next article, I will discuss ar- the bright light that he runs toward the Cosmological Dualism chaeoastronomical features at the site snake instead of trying to escape" (Mooney On a final note, I think a strong case can that are supportive of the solar eclipse 1900: 297). In essence, this "dazing" by be made for the idea that the Serpent hypothesis. bright light or "Daylight" sounds remarkably Mound is yet another expression of the like the effects of solar retinitis or "eclipse blindness". thesis antithesis Seemingly related to the vision abnor­ order chaos malities caused by the Uktena is the categorized phenomena anomalous phenomena (see note 1) Cherokee belief that an eye disease "in­ orderly alternation between night and f eclipse volving susceptibility to light" can be light dark caused simply by seeing a rattlesnake day night (Mooney and Olbrechts 1932: 184). Other sun (see note 2) serpent (see note 3), moon (see note 4) Indians too, such as the Karok and Porno circle (see note 5) octagon (see note 6) also believed rattlesnakes to be the cause life (growth) death (decay) of eye troubles and blindness. sky caves, sinkholes, springs Interestingly enough, any number of warmth cold (see note 7) cases have been reported wherein rat­ dry wet (dew, rain, rivers, lakes, tlesnake bites have resulted in vision im­ streams - see note 8) pairment including the inability to focus, fire (see note 9) absence of fire blurred vision, retinal hemorrhage, yellow sunrise sunset vision, and temporary blindness (Klauber calm storms, whirlwinds 1982: 183-184). These symptoms reflect east west the neurotoxic effects of rattlesnake south north venom. zenith (meridian transit of sun - noon) nadir A final piece of information perhaps clockwise motion counterclockwise motion connected with all this is that for several object shadow (see note 10) days prior to shedding their skins, rat­ Upperworld Underworld tlesnakes themselves become partially habitation area mortuary area blind. This is caused by an "exudate that good evil appears between the new and old cover­ vision blindness ing of the eyeball of a snake, causing . . . medicine (see note 11) poison (rattlesnake venom) partial blindness for about a week, but Table 1 (Romain) Symbolic Associations At Serpent Mound \

33 Notes monsters were repelled by fire Heritage, ed. by Michael B. Lafferty, 1) Both the Adena and Hopewell Indians (Mooney 1900: 299-300). So too, the pp. 252-259. Ohio Academy of Science, were fascinated by unusual or Cherokee would pass their moc­ Columbus. anomalous phenomena. Collections casins over a fire to protect against Emerson, Ellen Russell of meteoric iron, alligator teeth, bat snake bites (Emerson 1884:108). 1884 Indian Myths, or Legends, Traditions, effigy cutouts, quartz crystals, and 10) At noon, the shadow cast from a and Symbols of the Aborigines of the Adena dwarf pipe are all good ex­ gnomon pole set up at the tip of the America .... James R. Osgood, Boston. amples of this interest. This predilec­ serpent effigy's tail will point due Faulkner, Charles H. tion also helps explain and is congru­ north in precise alignment with the 1988 Painters of the "Dark Zone". Archaeology ent with their apparent interest in central juncture of the serpent effigy's 41(2): 30-38. eclipse phenomena. head (see Romain 1988a). Recall that Fenton, William N. 2) The Algonquin word for sun is Kesuk, in North American Indian cosmology, 1978 Northern Iroquoian Culture Patterns. In which means 'to give life' (Mackenzie shadows and reflections are often Handbook of North American Indians, 1924: 150). considered mystical extensions of an Vol. 15, Northeast, ed. by Bruce G. 3) The serpent is an anomalous creature object's "soul" (see Romain 1988c). Trigger, pp. 296-321. Smithsonian in that it has no feet or wings, yet 11) In Cherokee mythology, a powerful Institution, Washington, D.C. moves swiftly over land and through "medicine" or charm used for suc­ Gatschet, Albert S. water, may be found in trees, in water, cess in hunting was made from the 1899 Water-monsters of the American or underground, is cold-blooded, scale of a Uktena (Mooney 1900: Aborigines. Journal of American Folklore swallows its prey whole, and has 300-301); while the flesh of the rat­ 12(46): 255-260. scales over its body. It is also one of tlesnake was used as a medicine for Hall, Robert L. the very few creatures that has the an illness known as "contagion" 1979 In Search of the Ideology of the Adena- mysterious and terrifying ability to (Mooney 1900:296). Hopewell Climax. In Hopewell cause a painful and unexpected Archaeology: The Chillicothe death by means of a poisonous bite. References Conference, ed. by David S. Brose and 4) The association of the moon with the Barbeau, Marius N'omi Greber, pp. 258-265. Kent State serpent effigy is suggested by the lu­ 1914 Supernatural Beings of the Huron and Univ. Press, Kent, Ohio. nar alignments evident in the earth­ Wyandot. American Anthropologist 16(2): Ham, William T, Jr. work. These alignments are shown in 288-313. 1983 Ocular Hazards of Light Sources: Review Figure 6. They include alignments re­ 1952 The Old World in America. In of Current Knowledge. Journal of flecting the moon's 18.6 year cycle, Indian Tribes of Aboriginal America: Occupational Medicine 25(2): 101 -103. as well as the moon's midpoint rise Selected Papers of the XXIX th Hatfield, Elizabeth MacFarlane and set positions. Conversely, the International Congress of Americanists, 1970 Eye Injuries and the Solar Eclipse: oval embankment which is a sun ed. by Sol Tax, pp. 115-122. Univ. of Results of a Survey. The Sight-Saving symbol, appears to be in alignment Chicago Press, Chicago. Review 40: 79-85. with the setting sun on the day of a Beauchamp, William M. Henson, B. Bart solstial eclipse (i.e., an eclipse that 1922 Iroquois Folk Lore Gathered from The Six 1986 Art in Mud and Stone: Mud Glyphs and occurred within a day or two of the Nations of New York. Empire State Petroglyphs in the Southeast. In The summer solstice). These alignments Historical Publications XXXI. Reissued in Prehistoric Native American Art of Mud and others will be discussed in a 1965. Kennikat Press, Port Washington, Glyph Cave, ed. by Charles H. Faulkner, forthcoming article. N.Y. pp. 81-108. Univ. of Tennessee Press, Knoxville. 5) Recall that when a circle is rotated Boyle, David forty-five degrees around its X-axis, it 1897 Mounds. In Annual Archaeological Report Hewitt, J.N.B. assumes the appearance of an el­ 1896-97, Being Part of Appendix to the 1892 Raising and Falling of the Sky in Iroquois lipse, or oval - like the Serpent Report of the Minister of Education, Legends. American Anthropologist (o.s.) Mound oval embankment (see Ontario, ed. by David Boyle, pp. 14-37. 5(4): 344. Romain 1988a). Ontario Archaeological Museum. Warwick Holmes, William H. 6) Recall that an octagon is found in the Bros. & Rutter, Toronto. 1886 A Sketch of the Great Serpent Mound. design of the Serpent Mound (see Braun, E. Lucy Science 8(204): 624-628. Romain 1988a). 1928 The Vegetation of the Mineral Springs Hudson, Charles 7) During a solar eclipse the air temper­ Region of Adams County, Ohio. Ohio 1976 The Southeastern Indians. Univ. of ature usually drops by several de­ Biological Survey, Bulletin 15 (vol. Ill, Tennessee Press, Knoxville. grees. no. 5). Kimball, John C. 8) During a solar eclipse dew often Converse, Harriet M. 1887 Unpublished series of photographs forms over the landscape as a result 1908 Myths and Legends of the New York taken in 1887, at the Serpent Mound, by of the sudden drop in temperature. Iroquois, edited and annotated by Arthur John C. Kimball, photographer to Appropriately enough, the Iroquois C. Parker. New York State Museum Frederic W. Putnam. In Charles L. Metz believed dew to be caused by the Bulletin No. 125. Reprinted in 1962, Collection, Cincinnati Historical Society. moon (Barbeau 1914: 306). Empire State Historical Publications VII. Ira Klauber, Laurence M. 9) In North American Indian mythology, J. Friedman, Inc., Port Washington, N.Y. 1982 Rattlesnakes: Their Habits, Life Histories, fire is usually considered to be the Denny, Guy L and Influence on Mankind, (abridged edi­ earthly representation of the sun. 1973 Ohio's Reptiles (Booklet). Ohio tion) ed. by Karen Harvey McClung.) When the Serpent Mound was first Department of Natural Resources, University of California Press, Berkeley. discovered by Squier and Davis, a Columbus. 1972 Rattlesnakes: Their Habits, Life Histories, small mound of fire-cracked rocks Dragoo, Donald W. and Influence on Mankind. 2 vols, (sec­ was located in the center of the 1963 Mounds for the Dead: An Analysis of the ond ed.) Univ. of California Press, Serpent Mound oval embankment - . Annals of the Carnegie Berkeley. Originally published in 1956. considered here to be a symbol of Museum, Vol. 37. Pittsburgh. Mackenzie, Donald A. the sun. Appropriately enough, in Elfner, Lynn E. 1924 Myths of Pre-Columbian America. Cherokee mythology, Uktena serpent 1979 The Bluegrass. In Ohio's Natural Gresham Publishing Co., London.

34 Mallam, R. Clark Morgan, Lewis Henry Romain, William F. 1982 Site of the Serpent: A Prehistoric Life 1901 League of the Ho-de-no-san-nee or 1988a Geometry at the Serpent Mound. Ohio Metaphor in South Central Kansas. Iroquois. Vol. I. Burt Franklin, N.Y. Archaeologist 38(1): 50-54. Occasional Publications of the Penny, David W. 1988b Terrestrial Observations at the Serpent Coronado-Quivira Museum, No. 1. 1985 Continuities of Imagery and Symbolism Mound. Ohio Archaeologist 38(2): 15-19. Lyons, Kansas. in the Art of the Woodlands. In Ancient 1988c The Serpent Mound Solar Eclipse Marshack, Alexander Art of the American Woodland Indians, Hypothesis: Ethnohistoric Considerations. 1986 More on the Endless Serpent. Current text by David S. Brose, James A. Brown, Ohio Archaeologist 38(3): 32-37. Anthropology 27(3): 263-264. and David W. Penny, pp. 147-198. Harry 1988d Ancient Eclipse Paths at the Serpent Mills, William C. N. Abrams, Inc., New York. Mound. Ohio Archaeologist 38(4): 24-28. 1922 Exploration of the Mound City Group. Piatt, Carolyn Swanton, John R. Ohio Archaeological and Historical 1989 Caves: Underground Wonderlands. 1926 Social and Religious Beliefs and Usages Quarterly 31: 423-584. Timeline 6(1): 44-54. of the Chickasaw Indians. Bureau of Mooney, James Putnam, Frederic W. American Ethnology Annual Report XLIV. 1891 The Sacred Formulas of the . 1890 The Serpent Mound of Ohio. Century Washington, D.C. In Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau Illustrated Magazine 39 (April): 871 -888. Webb, William S., and Raymond S. Baby of American Ethnology, 1885-1886. Randall, Emilius O. 1957 The Adena People, No. 2. Ohio Historical Washington, D.C. 1907 The Serpent Mound, Adams County, Society, Columbus. 1900 Myths of the Cherokee. In 19th Annual Ohio .... (second ed.). Ohio State Willoughby, Charles C. Report of the Bureau of American Archaeological and Historical Society, 1936 The Cincinnati Tablet: An Interpretation. Ethnology for the Years 1897-1898, Columbus. Ohio Archaeological and Historical Parti. Washington, D.C. Reidel, Stephen P. Quarterly 45(3): 257-264. Mooney, J., and F.M. Olbrechts 1972 Geology of the Serpent Mound 1932 The Swimmer Manuscript: Cherokee Cryptoexplosion Structure. Unpublished Sacred Formulas and Medicinal M.S. thesis. Dept. of Geology, Univ. of Prescriptions. Bureau of American Cincinnati. Ethnology, Bulletin 99. Washington, D.C.

Fig. 1 (Romain) Large sinkhole located west of the Serpent Mound and typical to the area.

35 w: tw

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Fig. 2 (Romain) Aerial view of the Serpent Mound showing its proximity to Brush Creek.

Fig. 3 (Romain) View of Brush Creek from near the base of the Serpent Fig. 4 (Romain) Conical burial mound located about 600 feet southeast Mound ridge, looking west toward the "Land of the Dead." of the Serpent Mound effigy.

36 Fig. 5 (Romain) Iroquois representation of the Great Horned Serpent. After Converse 1908: 44.

»

& a# SERPENT MOUND STATE MEMORIAL ADAMS COUNTY, OHIO

SURVEY BY: WILLIAM F. ROMAIN, WILLIAM E. GUSTIN, AND TY R. PELL MAP BY: WILLIAM F. ROMAIN AND JOHN E. OAILEY SURVEY DATE: FEBRUARY 7-8, 198/ AND APRIL 18-19, 1W7 GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATES: 39"01'33' N x 83 25 51' W ELEVATION: 750 765 FEET ABOVE MEAN SEA LEVEL MOON MID 4POIJ

Fig. 6 (Romain) Map of the Serpent Mound effigy showing the tail and the controversial "projections" on either side of the serpent's head. Also note the lunar alignments which symbolically link the serpent to the moon.

37 Fig. 7 (Romain) Eastern diamondback rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus) in its resting coil.

Fig. 8 (Romain) Top view of a rattlesnake (Crotalus sp.) biting a white disk. Note the projections on either side of the serpent's head - analogous to the "projections" on either side of the Serpent Mound effigy.

>>TU%- Y i LLOW 'CL AY

^^SSXL:^ .'f V "'"-GRAY CLAY . o«.

Fig. 9 (Romain) Cross-section through the Serpent Mound showing its substructure of yellow clay. Drawing by Randall 1907: 23; after Putnam 1890: 875.

Fig. 10 (Romain) Thunderbird and Uktena-like serpent designs from Moundville, Alabama - a Mississippian site - suggesting the continuity of belief and symbolism back into prehistory. From Sun Circles and Human Hands, ed. by E.L. Fundaburk and M. Douglass Foreman. (Copyright 1957 by E.L. Fundaburk).

38 A PROCESSING GUIDE FOR ARCHAEOLOGICAL CHARCOAL by J.R. Haas 4708 Old State Road, Norwalk, Ohio 44857 Sandusky Bay Chapter of the Archaeological Society of Ohio. Huron County Preservation Officer for the University of Toledo's Archaeological Research Program. Laboratory Director for the Firelands Archaeological Research Center Inc.

PREFACE men was still fragile. Many liquid chemi­ provide a surface whose face is above The Sandusky Bay Chapter of the cals were tried; most however caused and below the depth of field (ie. out of fo­ Archaeological Society of Ohio in co-op­ analytic blinding, permanently filling the cus). During the polishing action a great eration with the archaeology program at tiny vessels with chemical solids, while deal of fine black charcoal dust will accu­ The University of toledo, has far reaching others provided only minimal support. mulate on the face of the abrasive sheet objectives to promote development of After many weeks of experimentation I and the specimen. I found compressed new methods and technologies in ar­ found the right chemistry. air will clean the surface of each quite chaeology for application in field and lab­ I first clean the specimen to remove easily, even down into the vessels of the oratory. Herein is a brief description of a any granitic abrasives and dry the speci­ specimen. Since the silicon carbide abra­ procedure to improve the preparation of mens. Then partially submerge the speci­ sive paper is many times harder than the archaeological wood charcoal for genus men into a sodium silicate solution. If the charcoal, one piece of paper will last and species analysis. I assumed the re­ specimen is thoroughly dry, this solution through many tens of samples. Just do sponsibility of researching current tech­ is absorbed into the specimen providing not get the face of the paper wet. nology, testing various procedures for the required internal physical support for Caution ! While polishing, if you feel a both speed and most importantly accu­ processing. Should the specimen be bump on the paper... stop. You have racy. Through Dr. David Stothers, The quite small, and after the sodium silicate something under the paper and it will de­ University of Toledo, I contacted Rudy has thoroughly dried, I encapsulate most, stroy the finish on the specimen. Remove Fecteau of the Royal Ontario Museum, but not all the specimen in epoxy. The the paper and the particle and restart the Toronto, Canada. He provided me with sample is now ready to be processed. polishing procedure. an analysis handbook by John H. Since breaking the sample does provide McAndrews that proved invaluable and It is often necessary to examine a a clean viewing surface, but is often de­ specimen in three planes. This procedure provided a workable blueprint. It's only structive, the following procedure was shortfall assumes that physically strong will allow you, with careful alignment, to adapted, thus allowing for smaller and polish nearly exactly parallel to any one specimens of sufficient size can be me­ smaller specimens to be examined. chanically broken to reveal one of it's of the three planes. three analytical faces. Archaeological Obtain a sheet of plate glass at least One more word of advice. Use a good charcoal identification would indeed be 12 inches square and not less than .25 dry and oil free air supply to clean the easy with a large and abundant supply. inches thick. It must be free of surface specimen. Unfortunately this is not the case. defects. Obtain abrasive paper with a grit size of 8 micron purity. This is the tele­ CLOSING phone industry standard for polishing The University of Toledo's Archae­ METHODOLOGY fiber optic glass terminals. Wet the plate ological Research Program and The Many times the sample is only several glass sheet and apply the abrasive paper. Sandusky Bay Chapter of the mm in diameter and very, very fragile. This causes the paper to stick to the Archaeological Society of Ohio have inte­ Often samples defy a clean break, turn­ glass. Holding the specimen firmly in grated into a network of research, devel­ ing into useless dust. A sufficient number your fingers, polish (grind) the sample opment and co-operation on many lev­ of failures encouraged me to embark into a viewing surface using a figure 8 els. One such result is the co-operative upon a task to develop a procedure to stroke. This figure 8 stroke is important in involvement in, and advancement of sev­ prevent identifiable samples from that it provides a perfectly flat face to the eral avenues of forefront scientific re­ preparatory destruction. Some form of specimen (caution ... do not change the search analysis. The benefits of such co­ protective shell was required to afford position of the specimen in your fingers operative endeavors will bring stature physical rigidity to the specimen. The an­ while grinding. Try to maintain the same and progress to the discipline of archae­ swer seemed simple. Dip the specimen hand posture). After a little practice this ology, and will result in new types of into fast setting epoxy and allow it to procedure will become natural and very highly technical information. This new cure. This process works and I use it but easy. The importance of this will become technology and its resultant information unfortunately it was not the complete an­ obvious when the specimen is viewed will bring about new and previously un­ swer. The epoxy does not allow the under high magnification. It provides a documented types of information, which specimen to be broken to obtain a clean viewing surface improvement many fac­ will be able to add whole new dimen­ break for examination and more impor­ tors greater than a clean broken face. If sions of knowledge to our understanding tantly the interior strength of the speci­ the specimen is not optically flat it will of northern Ohio's past.

39 A NORTHEASTERN OHIO COLLECTION by Jennifer A. Saksa 5122 State Route 5 Newton Falls, OH 44444 Upon asking permission to hunt for ar­ Pictured below are just some of the ar­ center) also from Trumbull County, and a tifacts in this farmer's Licking County tifacts that I have found over a period of cord-marked pottery sherd (left of center 14 years. Fig. 1 contains arrowheads from Mahoning County. field, he said that he didn't mind and that which I have found in Trumbull, Portage, Fig. 3 contains artifacts found in he never understood why people like to and Mahoning counties. Fig. 2 also con­ Licking County including a shell pendant, pick up those "flint things" anyway! I tains artifacts from these three counties bladelets, and halves of Paleo knives. guess he'll never know the thrill of being including a slate pendant (in center from Fig. 4 is also from Licking County and in­ the first human to hold an artifact since Trumbull County, a shell pendant (right of cludes part of a birdstone bust. the Indian who used it last.

f >* i In ^ *# f *M^ " ~ «aA3li \ ? IT!"™

Fio 1 (Saksa) Various arrowheads from Trumbull, Portage, and Fig. 2 (Saksa) Flint, slate, shell and pottery items from Trumbull, Portage, Mahoning Counties. and Mahoning Counties.

Fig 3 (Saksa) Arrowheads, knives, scrapers and shell pendant from Fig. 4 (Saksa) Flint artifacts and part of birdstone bust from Licking Licking County. Cou"*

40 THE WESTERN LAKE ERIE ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH PROGRAM: A PROTOTYPE FOR THE FUTURE by Nancy A. Burnard Research Associate, The University of Toledo Archaeological Research Program and Rare Books Assistant, The University of Toledo

The University of Toledo and its Regional work on prehistoric sites along side profes­ help process materials from university Archaeological Preservation Officer sional researchers, keeping careful field sites, they also assist with the processing Program in co-operation with students, notes, helping to make sure the excava­ of materials from sites excavated by the community, and avocational support tions are done in a tightly controlled, pro­ Sandusky Bay Chapter, under professional groups, has established a highly visible fessional manner. supervision from the University of Toledo. and successful co-operative research and The Western Lake Erie Archaeological These materials, once processed, sorted, education program which is 'Saving the Program at the University of Toledo, in co­ and tallied, provide the data which become Past for the Future'. A model program in­ operation with the Sandusky Bay Chapter educated inferences about how prehistoric cluding field excavation, laboratory work­ of the Archaeological Society of Ohio, has man lived in this region. It helps to identify shops, educational lectures and seminar in recent times, established a model pro­ specialized sites, permanent villages, and sessions, it integrates the efforts of profes­ gram emphasizing the integration of edu­ assists in filling in the chronology of the sionals, community members, students cation and archaeological research. area. It also allows the findings from vari­ and avocational support groups for re­ The University of Toledo graduate and ous sites to see publication that much search into Ohio's prehistoric inhabitants. undergraduate students, interested com­ quicker. At a time when everyday sees the loss of munity members from northern Ohio and Recently a co-operative "outreach" pro­ more prehistoric sites to urban expansion, southern Michigan, and members of the gram has been established with the Port graduate and undergraduate students of Sandusky Bay Chapter have developed a Clinton High School and Fremont Ross the university, community members of series of programs dealing with field exca­ High School, among others, for the estab­ northern Ohio and southern Michigan, and vation, laboratory workshops, educational lishment of Regional Archaeological members of the Sandusky Bay Chapter of lectures and seminar sessions. While the Resource Centers. Working with profes­ the Archaeological Society of Ohio are se­ educational portion of the program is not sionals, students have the chance to par­ lectively excavating sites which will add to limited by the academic year which runs ticipate in actual excavations. University of the knowledge of the prehistory of north­ from September to the following June, nei­ Toledo students, of course, provide the ern Ohio and contiguous areas. ther is it confined to the excavation season majority of the field labor. Most come into A dedicated group of preservation offi­ which covers the months of April to the program through required course work, cers watch over known prehistoric sites to November. It goes year round. Two quar­ but they come away with much more. They protect them from non-discriminating am­ ters of the academic year, along with the learn the discipline of team work and how ateurs, to preserve their integrity until they summer quarter, provide the student man­ to work with people from all types of back­ can be professionally excavated. Through power necessary for the field excavations. grounds and of various ages. networks of local contacts they also keep During the winter quarter and quarter The professional and the avocational ar­ a wary eye and ear out for sites which may breaks, students and community avoca­ chaeologist are trying to save Ohio's not be well known, to see that these are tional archaeologists may be found spend­ rapidly disappearing past. In this time of brought to the attention of the program. ing Saturdays in the laboratory at the uni­ contract archaeology, the Western Lake These preservation officers come from the versity learning how to identify pottery Erie Archaeological Research Program still ranks of the avocational and professional sherds and lithic assemblages recovered undertakes its excavations in pursuit of alike. During the excavation season they from the prehistoric sites which they may knowledge, an example the rest of the also serve as field supervisors, helping to have helped excavate. Not only do they state should follow. A WESTERN SANDUSKY COUNTY HI-LO POINT by David J. Snyder 3144 County Road 704, Lindsey, Ohio 43442

Hi-Lo points date from approximately surface find in Woodville Township of 8500-7900 B.C. (Justice, 1985: 4-5) Sandusky County, Ohio. It was recovered which would place them in the Late adjacent to the Portage River mainstream Paleo/Early Archaic time sequence. Thus west of Woodville city limits. The resharp- they could be considered a transitional ened artifact measures about 53 mm in point type. Hi-Los are somewhat con­ length and 10 mm in maximum thick­ temporary with the slender lanceolate ness. It is made from an unidentified Agate Basin and the "eared" lanceolate white flint that could possibly have its Dalton points. Hi-Lo points display basal source in the Toledo area. To date, no Fig. 1 (Snyder) grinding and usually, in place of fluting, other diagnostic material has been recov­ Resharpened Hi- heavy basal thinning. These points may ered from this site (33SA242). Lo point from have been used in a caribou-hunting 33SA242. economy. The majority of Hi-Los have References been recovered in the immediate Great Justice, Noel D. Lakes region. The lanceolate-style point 1985 Projectile Point Types and Their was named for the Hi-Lo site located in Chronology. Glenn A. Black Laboratory GRJMtMMg' Ionia County of southwestern Michigan. of Archaeology, Indiana University, The Hi-Lo point pictured was a 1982 Bloomington.

41 LETTER TO THE EDITOR: SPACE AGE WITCH HUNT by John Baldwin, West Olive, Michigan

Southern Indiana and Northern ployees are on the witch hunt, real Indian Art Show, one newspaper reported Kentucky is a-buzz with an issue involving American issues like drugs and organized that dozens of Indians protested. I was the procurement of prehistoric artifacts crime are less important. It makes the there, saw all that happened, asked ques­ from private land. The ongoing Witch Hunt thinking man ask, "Did someone at the top tions of everyone and during the entire investigation and prosecution of several in­ get paid off to direct a worthless witch time never counted more than nine so- dividuals is being spurred on by self-serv­ hunt so that the troops are spending their called Indians and two of them were blue ing special interest groups and many jaded time and our money chasing arrowhead eyed blonds. Where did the newspaper get newspaper accounts. The public is being hunters, while real crime figures flourish?" I dozens? It is clear that nine would not deceived as to the real issue. I hope that must also ask the question, "What right do have been news. The Native Americans' this report helps focus on the real issue, these few have to change Constitutional interest is not the same as the archaeolo­ the misuse of tax dollars, and the jeopardy ownership of private property which af­ gists. The archaeoloyist digs and exca­ that all private property owners face. Four fects every land owner in America?" The vates as a paid profession while the Native different interest groups are involved in this real issue is being hidden under the sub­ American is impelled to seek his benefits American happenstance, the results of terfuge of grave robbing and the sale of al­ through minority attention from protest. It which could change the Constitutional leged illegally taken artifacts. I'm sorry that makes no difference whether the issue is ownership of your private property. I cannot find their issue constructive. I am legitimate or not, their goal is to gain more Although each group portrays a disappointed that a select few are in a po­ financial benefits. The seller of any art form Puritanistic intention, justifying their in­ sition to ruin the lives of basically honest artifact does not care who pays his price. volvement, the truth is, each group's bot­ people. I don't understand where our gov­ Anyone, including Native Americans, are tom-line is the almighty dollar. My reportive ernment police bodies are going with this welcome to purchase any artifact offered investigation will critique each group. We issue for it to best serve the American pub­ for sale. The current indication is that they will analyze each group's motivations and lic. If the thinking government individuals want the financial benefits without paying disclose for the first time that the underly­ asked themselves the same question, I be­ the price. ing true motives are designed to use your lieve that the direction mapped out by the ARCHAEOLOGISTS tax dollars for personal gain. If these spe­ people pulling the strings would be over­ If you think that these are the good guys, cial interest groups win, it will change your whelmingly questioned. Yes, they are all read on. Before now, everyone was afraid rights of ownership under the subterfuge expected to earn their pay, but not on to publicly say that Archaeology is dead. of good causes. In reality, this will serve witch hunts making police state decisions! I'm saying Archaeology is dead and that only government, Indians, and archaeolo­ INDIANS the issue here is only money. I will wait a gists. The four groups involved are: It is an archaeological fact that from long time before anyone can come up with early times to 1400 A.D. cultures living in (1) GOVERNMENT - Federal prosecutors, new archaeological evidence that will solve North America died out and long sterile the F.B.I., and court judges. the drug problem, stop pollution, help periods existed before new cultures inhab­ (2) INDIANS - Native Americans and re­ poverty, feed the hungry, stop child abuse, ited the same geographic area. The study lated grave robbing protesters. stop crime or any other important major of Chronology proves that not only were national and world problem. Our atomic (3) ARCHAEOLOGISTS - Those involved these early inhabitants not related to each in any anti-collector manipulation. space age computerized society has ad­ other, they are not related to the modern vanced to a point that the missing informa­ (4) COLLECTORS - Anyone owning one or so-called Native American. It is an histori­ tion yet to be found in Archaeology will more arrowheads or assorted artifacts. cal fact that many modern Indian tribes have little meaning. The archaeologists GOVERNMENT (not to be confused with prehistoric cul­ saying is "By understanding our past we Someone in our government has de­ tures) buried their dead in trees and on will better understand our future. " This cided that the ARPA (Archaeological platforms, knowing that the birds, animals may have been true before our civilization Resources Protection Act) enacted and elements would scatter the remains launched into the space age and all of the October 31,1979, which basically makes it and artifacts to the four winds to be used new technology. So what are the archaeol­ a crime to remove any artifact from fed­ again by their new caretakers. I can under­ ogists squawking about. I can assure you eral/public owned land should also apply stand the personal intentions of the reli­ it is money. Traditionally they played down to private land. It seems that some of the gious individual that says graves of my an­ the value of any superior artifact. In fact, investigating parties have already made cestors should not be disturbed. My high art form artifacts are valuable col­ the decision as to how the law is to be in­ agreement ends where linage cannot be lectibles as items of ancient art. Many are terpreted. I was not brought up that way. I proven, where private property is con­ highly sought, highly paid for and enjoyed believe that here in America it is up to the cerned, and when legalities of ownership as high art. The archaeologist normally re­ courts to interpret the law, not an over by law are extended before 1776 when the ceives no benefit from the sale of artifacts, zealous F.B.I, agent or government prose­ American laws by which we are all gov­ so where are his big dollars coming from? cutor. As a taxpayer I can see that some erned, were created. There is a point in It's your taxes. There is a congressional bill big time dollars are being spent on this in­ time when a grave no longer remains a that provides 1 % of the cost of all federally vestigation (witch hunt), with no account­ grave. The Indian groups as far as this is­ funded roads and construction projects be ability for the cost of chasing a group of sue is concerned are classic examples of set aside as an archaeological fund. This is undiscerning collectors over a few boxes opportunists. Their underlying motivation a multimega dollar fund that only licensed of worthless rocks. Attempted sting tactic seems to be the benefits gained for them­ archaeologists can tap into. Horror stories operations were reported to have taken selves and not an honest concern for arti­ can be told of the high dollar cost waste of place in order to self-incriminate a few ea­ facts. There are several news medias that this fund with no redeeming value received ger buyers. I once again wonder how high thrive on the sensationalism of so-called for your tax dollars spent. The archaeolo­ the taxpayer cost is, in order for a few to Indians voicing an opinion as a group. gist already has a free ride tap into the dictate how the law is to be interpreted. After the 1991 Owensboro-Kentucky money, now they want control of your pri- Could it be that while teams of federal em-

42 vate property so they can tap the funds along with his proper understanding of the time will prove to be a fundamentalist for even harder. The monies should be spent particular art form. Without the collector constitutional ownership. I hope he will not for a more appropriate and relevant solu­ we would not have the great collections become a dinosaur. tion to the problems of today. The proar- and assemblages. The government, ar­ CONCLUSION chaeological factors are the real bad guys chaeologists and Indians would want you I have been interested in what I thought in this issue as they are the only ones with to believe that collectors are all unscrupu­ was Archaeology and the collecting of arti­ the ready made tax dollar piggy bank wait­ lous. This idea is as un-American as can facts for a long time. My contributions to ing to be raped. I don't advocate a stop al­ be. The collectors' underlying motives are that interest in the forms of society involve­ together of archaeology. However, I sure love of the endeavor including the artifact ment, books, published articles, docu­ would like to see reform of the waste now value or he wouldn't collect. That is the menting records and the preservation of taking place under false pretenses. I sug­ American way. There are a few so-called artifacts as art forms is a matter of record. gest the archaeologist play the traditional corrupt collectors who should be dealt The self-evaluation of the information from roll as the knowledgeable educator of his­ with under fair due process of law. There my investigation has caused me to refocus tory, working with the collector and the in­ are also some of our nation's archaeolo­ my personal opinion as to the importance terested public and local universities on gists who have sold items in their care of prehistoric artifacts. I now view North low budget excavations. from our public institutions and universi­ American early man artifacts strictly as art COLLECTORS ties, these sellers should feel the due pro­ forms. After careful thought I now find it I consider myself a professional collector cess of law. These facts surely don't make very hard to understand the value of any of prehistoric stone art forms. As a mem­ everyone from each group dishonest. We high budget, low information value discov­ ber of that group, I can state first hand that already have the proper laws to prevent eries. We know enough about the past cul­ the redeeming values are the open and the plunder of federal and public land. tures to paint an adequate picture. No shared preservation, and in several cases These laws should be enforced at the matter how hard creative thoughts can the invaluable documentation. On the sub­ proper level, by the courts. Land owners speculate I cannot conceive one piece of jects of Bannerstones, Birdstones, should know they have valuable art form new evidence that will solve our society's Projectile Points and Effigy Pipes, the pro­ collectibles on their land that once be­ problems or more importantly add knowl­ fessional collector has written, self-fi­ longed to a bygone culture. Archaeologists edge to the space age we now live in. I am nanced and published books that have be­ and collectors should be willing to pay to for art and education, however, the groups come the leading authority on these recover them just as the mining, oil, timber investigated in this report do not hold subjects. Papers and published books or gravel companies are willing to do. Big these issues as their main goals. If I truly written by archaeologists are published brother elements want to tell the land believed differently I would have reported with public funds and are often less valu­ owner what he can and can't own. Private it. Wake up land owners and private prop­ able reference sources. I think the differ­ property and the benefits it contains is sa­ erty owners, BIG BROTHER and SPECIAL ence is the collectors' uninhibited ap­ cred to its owner taxpayer. The collector is INTEREST GROUPS are out to get what proach and dedication to a total subject the self-financed realist about this and in you now own. Stop them if you can! ARCHAEOLOGY 1991 1991 Annual Review of Archaeological Research: The Western Lake Erie Archaeological Research Program (University of Toledo) TIME: 7:30 p.m. DATE: Thursday, November 21, 1991 PLACE: Southwest Academic Center, Auditorium Room 1023 (located at Dorr and Secor: the former location of Value City) PROGRAM: "Research and Education: A Co-Operative Endeavor" Come and hear about current and recent research findings and discoveries in the lands surrounding the western end of Lake Erie. Learn about new understandings about ancient man in northern and S.E. Michigan. Program Director Dr. David M. Stothers (Associate Professor of Anthropology and Director, Laboratories of Ethnoarchaeology, The University of Toledo) will chair a short research review with slide-illustrated presentations by professional, student and avocational archaeologists affiliated with the University of Toledo's Archaeology Program. FREE ADMISSION - PUBLIC WELCOME - COME AND ENJOY AN EVENING OF DISCOVERY AND EDUCATIONAL ENRICHMENT FREE AND CONVENIENT PARKING SPONSORED BY THE UT. ARCHAEOLOGY PROGRAM, DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY, ANTHROPOLOGY AND SOCIAL WORK. NPS PUBLISHES TECHNICAL REPORT ON THE LEGAL BACKGROUND OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROTECTION National Park Service (NPS) Director Resources Protection Act (ARPA) are listed The Listing of Outlaw Treachery (LOOT), James M. Ridenour recently announced the and examined in detail. Other legislation which is a clearinghouse of case-specific issuance of a new report Legal Background that indirectly benefit the protection of ar­ information maintained by the AAD, pro­ of Archaeological Resources Protection. chaeological resources also are described; vides a final and informative framework with The report, also called Technical Brief No. for example, the National Environmental which to understand the success and frus­ 11, is the latest in a series of technical infor­ Policy Act (NEPA) and the American Indian tration of the Federal government in pro­ mation reports that the NPS Archaeological Religious Freedom Act (AIRFA). tecting the irreplaceable archaeological re­ Assistance Division (AAD) publishes. Once given a legal context, the author sources located on its lands. Protection of archaeological resources on examines the effectiveness of the law in ef­ Technical Brief 11 is available free of Federal lands is examined in its legal con­ forts to curb the looting and vandalism that charge by writing to: Publication text, both historically and current. Laws that occurs on Federal lands. In doing so, the Specialist, U.S. Department of the shape preservation, such as the Antiquities author discusses the issues related to loot­ Interior, National Park Service, Archa­ Act of 1906 to the most recent 1988 ing and the process by which cases are eological Assistance Division, P.O. Box amendments to the Archaeological prosecuted under these various statutes. 37127, Washington, DC 20013-7127.

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OBJECT OF THE SOCIETY The Archaeological Society of Ohio is organized to discover and conserve archaeological sites and material within the State of Ohio, to seek and promote a better understanding among students and collectors of archaeological material, professional and non-professional, including individuals, museums, an< institutions of learning, and to disseminate knowledge on the s archaeology. Membership in the society shall be open to any person u character interested in archaeology or the collecting of American Indian artifacts, upon acceptance of written application and payment of dues.