Chapter III the CONCEPT of DHARMA in the ABHIDHARMAKOŚA-ŚĀSTRA

Chapter III THE CONCEPT OF DHARMA IN THE ABHIDHARMAKOŚA-ŚĀSTRA

The concept of dharma in Abhidharmakośa-Śātra describes and encompasses several meanings, including morality, law, religion and tradition. It talks about nature of reality or the nature of individual members of society. It also describes and explains the system of dharmas which refers to the individual elements of physical and psychological phenomena of human beings through transformation and development of stream of mind (citta) and consciousness (vijñāna), matter (rūpa) and mental (nāma) that collectively constitutes the empirical world. In order to elaborate in detail the concepts of dharma in Abhidharmakośa, first of all, we need to understand the biography of Vasubandhu and his Abhidharmakośa as well as its importance in history of Buddhist philosophy.

III.1. Vasubandhu and the Abhidharmakośa-śāstra

III.1.1. Vasubandhu and his works

III.1.1.1. Biography of Vasubandhu

Vasubandhu is one of the most prominent figures in the development of Buddhist philosophy in India. He was born in Puruṣapura, the capital of Gandhāra, around fourth century A.D., in a Brahmin family of the

Kauśika clan.67 The name of his elder brother was Asaṅga, who was also a great Buddhist philosopher. Viriñcivatsa was his younger brother; all these three brothers became Buddhist monks. At first, Vasubandhu followed Sarvāstivāda with his younger brother, after that, Vasubandhu followed his elder brother Asaṅga. He converted to the Mahāyāna tradition and established Yogācāra school with him. Vasubandhu has written around one thousand works, among them 500 works are in the Hinayāna tradition and 500 works are in Mahāyāna tradition. So he received the name as ‗Master of the Thousand Manuals‘. While discussing the date of Vasubandhu in the book ―On the date of the Buddhist Master of the Law Vasubandhu‖,68 the scholar E. Frauwallner made a comment that there are two Vasubandhus in Buddhist history one lived in the fourth century A.D. and the second lived in fifth century A.D.69

67 Junjiro Takakusu (1904). The Life of Vasubandhu by Paramārtha, T‘oung Pao, Archives Series II, Vol. 5, pp 269-296 (T. 50, No. 2049), EB. (eds.) by Damien Keown & Charles S. Prebish (2010), p. 793 and Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies (eds.) by Karl H. Potter (1999). Delhi: Vol. VIII, p. 483f, and Abhidharmasamuccaya (Tr.) by Sara Boin Webb (2001). California: Asian Humanities Press, pp. xiii - xx. 68 E. Frauwallner (1951). On the Date Of The Buddhist Master Of The Law Vasubandhu, Roma: Is. M. E. O. (Istituto Italiano Per IL Medio Ed Estremo Oriente, Serie Orientale Roma, vol. III). 69 ―Vasubandhu the elder was probably born about the year 320 A.D. His home city was Puruṣapura, modern Peshāwar. His father, the Brāhmaṇa Kauśika, was a teacher. He had two brothers, Asaṅga and Viriñcivatsa. Under the influence of his brother Asaṅga he converted to Mahāyāna and wrote also numerous works of Mahāyāna inspiration. Wonderful legends became soon attached to his activity in favour of Mahāyāna. Vasubandhu died before his brother Asaṅga, approximately 380 A.D. Vasubandhu the younger was born about 400 A.D.69 the tradition has nothing to say about his birth place and origin. He belongs to the Sarvāstivāda school but gradually he became more attached to the Sautrāntika‟s doctrines. At the climax of his activity he enjoyed the favour of the Gupta dynasty by King Skandagupta Vikramāditya (455-467 A.D). Especially Narasiṃhagupta Bālāditya (467-473 A.D). Vasubandhu had been a preceptor of Bālādity and received from him many honours. The first work he composed and which made Vasubandhu famous was the Paramārthasaptatikā, which contains a refutation of Master Vindhyavāsin of the Sāṃkhya School, who had defeated in a discussion his Master Buddhamitra. His principal work was the Abhidharmakośa, in which he exposed the doctrines of the Sarvāstivāda School to which he gave their definitive form. But in the commentary, which he wrote on that treatise, he manifests his preference for the doctrines of the Sautrāntika School. After the composition of the Abhidharmakośa he successfully defended his ideas against the attack of the grammarian Vasurāta. But he refused on account of his old age a disputation with the Vaibhāṣika master Samghabhadra, who attacked his commentary to the Abhidharmakośa from the orthodox

But other scholars Lê Mạnh Thát and Stefan Anacker, do not accept the view of E. Frauwallner. They have cited multiple sources to prove that, ―Frauwallner‘s hypothesis rests squarely upon the postulation that Paramārtha did give two different dates to the man or men bearing the name Vasubandhu. One quick examination of all the works, including translations, still extant under Paramārhta‘s name does not yield. However, no information which allows us to ascertain or assume that he gave two different dates to Vasubandhu. On the contrary, all we learn is that according to him Vasubandhu was born 900 years after the Buddha‘s Nirvāṇa, that is, he gave only one specific date to Vasubandhu, and not two.‖70 So they rejected the possibility of two Buddhist monks having the same name in the 4th and 5th century A.D.

III.1.1.2. Works of Vasubandhu

As stated earlier, Vasubandhu wrote about 1000 books. Most of them were in Sanskrit language. Unfortunately, in the last part of the 13th and early 14th centuries, many books were lost and burnt. Whatever books remained, were translated into Chinese and Tibetan (C. 5th – 11th A.D) and stored until now. At present, such books are around more or less 50 in number. The works extant of Vasubandhu can be classified into two categories, (1) independent works and (2) commentaries. While listing them, for each work, if its title in Sanskrit is known, it will be given as such; otherwise, it will be given the Chinese or the Tibetan titles are also given after that: Works that are still extant in fragments will be designated ‗Fragment‘. Any title that still exists in original Sanskrit will be described

Vaibhāṣika point of view. He died around the year 480 A.D. in Ayodhyā, at the age of 80 years.‖ E. Frauwallner, (1951), pp. 54-55. 70 Lê Mạnh Thát (2003). The Philosophy of Vasubandhu, Viet Nam: Hồ Chí Minh city Publishers, pp. 35 – 61, and Stefan Anacker (2005). Seven Works of VasubandhuThe Buddhist Psychological, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, pp. 7-24.

as ‗Sanskrit‘. Those still extant in Chinese Tripiṭaka will be designated as ‗Taishō‘ and Tibetan Tripiṭaka will be designated as ‗TT‘. Here is a complete list of the works of Vasubandhu:71 a. Independent works 1. Abhidharmakośa-kārika and bhāṣya: Sanskrit; Taishō 29; No. 1558, 1559 and 1560 阿毘達磨俱舍論. (Treasury of Abhidharma) (Trs. by Paramārtha and Hsuan Tsang). TT 5590, 5591. 2. Aṣṭādaśaśūnyatāśāstra: Fragment Sanskrit; Taishō 31; No. 1616. 十八空論. 3. Buddhatāśāstra: Taishō 31; No. 1610. 佛性論 (Treatise on Buddha Nature). 4. Karmasiddhiprakaraṇa: Taishō 31; No. 1608, 1609. 大乘成業論 (The Treatise on Action). 5. Madhyāntavibhāgaśāstra: Taishō 31; No. 1599. 中邊分別論. 6. Madhyāntavibhāgaṭīkā: Sanskrit; Taishō 31; No. 1600. 辯中邊論. (Treatise on distinguishing between middle and extremes). 7. Mahāyānasaṃgrahabhāṣya: Taishō 31; No. 1595 攝大乘論 (Commentary to the summary of great vehicle) (Tr. by Paramārtha). 8. Mahāyānaśatadharmaprakāśamukhaśāstra: Taisho 31; No. 1614. 大乘百法明門論 (Treatise on Lucid Introduction to the One Hundred Dharmas). 9. Nirvāṇa: Taishō 26; No. 1527 and Nirvāṇaśāstra: Taishō 26; No. 1528, 1529 涅槃論 (Nirvāṇa Treatise) (tr. by Paramārtha).

71 Akb. p. 27, Marek Mejor (1991). Vasubandhu‟s Abhifharmakośa and the commentaries preserved in the Tanjur, Germany: Franz Steiner Verlag Stuttgart, pp. 7-14, and Fernando Tola Carmen Dragonetti (2004). Being as Consciousness, Delhi: Motlal Banarsidass Publishers, Pp. 57-70.

10. Pañcaskandhaprakaraṇa: Taishō 31; No. 1612. 五蘊論 (Treatise on the Five Skandhas). TT. 5560. 11. Prajñāpāramitā: Taishō 25; No. 1513, 1514. 般若波羅蜜多經, 能斷金剛般若波羅蜜多經. 12. Pratīyasamutpādavyākhyā: Fragment; TT. 5496. 13. Saddharmapuṇdarīka: Taisho 26; No. 1519, 1520. 妙法蓮華經 (Treatise on the Sūtra of the Lotus of the Wonderful Dharma). 14. Tarkaśāstra: Fragment; Sanskrit; Taishō 32; No. 1633. 如實論 (Real Treatise) 15. Triniḥsvabhāvaśāstra: Taishō 31; No. 1617 三無性論 (Treatise on the Three Non-Nature). 16. Trisvabhāvanirdeśa: Sanskrit; (The Teaching of three Own- Beings) TT. 5559. 17. Vādavidhāna: Fragment 18. Vādavidhi: Fragment (A Method for Argumentation). 19. Vajracchedikāprajñāpāramitāsūtraśāstra: Taishō 25; No. 1511 金剛般若波羅蜜經論 (Treatise on the Diamond Sūtra) 20. Vajrasuciśāstra: Taishō 25; No. 1512. 金剛仙論 21. Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi Triṃśikā: Sanskrit; Taishō 31; No. 1586 唯識三十論頌 (Thirty Verses on Vijñaptimātra Treatise) (tr. by Hsuan Tsang) TT 5556. 22. Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi Viṃśatikā: Sanskrit; Taishō 31; No. 1590 唯識二十論頌 (Twenty Verses on Vijñaptimātra Treatise) (trs. by Paramārtha and Hsuan Tsang). TT 5557, 5558. 23. Vyākhyāyukti: TT 5562 (Proper Mode of Exposition) 24. 六門教授習定論: Taishō 31, No. 1607 25. 止觀門論: Taishō 32; No. 1655 (Treatise on Cessation and Clear Observation).

26. 轉識論: Taishō 31, No. 1587 (Treatise on the Transformation of Consciousness). 27. 顯識論: Taishō 31, No. 1618 (Treatise on the Revealing the Consciousness). b. Commentaries

1. Amitāyursūtropadeśa: Taisho 1524. 26; No. 無量壽經 (Treatise on the Sūtra of Infinite Life). 2. Āryabhadracāryāpraṇidhānaṭīkā: TT. 5516. 3. Āryabhagavatiiprajñāpāramitāvajracchedikāsaptārthaṭīkā: Taishō 25 No. 1510, 1511 and 1513.金剛般若論. TT. 5216. 4. Āryagayāśirsasūtraṭīkā: Taishō 26; No. 1531. 文殊師利菩薩問- 菩提經論 (The Treatise on the Sūtra of the Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī Asking the Boddhi) (TT. 5492) 5. Āryanirdeśaprakaraṇa: Taishō 31; No. 1602.顯揚聖教論 6. Āryasammukhidhāranivyākhyāna: Taishō 21; No. 1361. 六門陀- 羅尼經論. TT 5489. (The six dharma gates to the sublime). 7. Bodhicittotpādasūtraśāstra: Taishō 32; No.1659. 發菩- 提心經論. (Treatise on the Sūtra of Arising the Boddhi-mind). 8. Caturdharmakaratnoṣṇīṣasūtropadeśa: Taishō 26; No. 1526. 寶髻經四法優波提舍 (Treatise on the Sūtra of the Precious Topknot of Four Dharma). 9. Daśabhūmikasūtraṭīkā: Taishō 26; No. 1522. 十地經論 (Treatise on the Ten Stages Sūtra) (TT. 5494). 10. Dharmacakraparavṛttisūtropadeśa: Taishō 26; No. 1533. 轉法輪經 11. Dharmadharmatāvibhāgavṛtti: TT. 5529.

12. Madhyāntavibhāgaṭīkā: Taishō 31; No. 1599, 1560. 中邊分別論. TT. 5528. 13. Mahāyānasaṃgrahabhāṣya: Taishō 31; No. 1596, 1597. 攝大乘論釋論 (Commentary to the summary of Great Vehicle). TT. 5551. 14. Mahāyānasūtrālamkaravyākhyāna: Taishō 31; No. 1604. 大乘莊嚴經論. TT 5527. 15. Śataśāstravṛtti: Taishō 30; No. 1569. 百論 16. Tryupasampadasūtropadeśa: Taishō 26; No. 1534. 三具足經- 優波提舍 (Treatise on the Sūtra of Three Implements for Worship). 17. Viśeṣacintabrāhmanaparipṛcchāsūtraṭīkā: Taishō 26; No. 1532. 勝思惟梵天所問經論. 18. 涅槃經本有今無偈論: Taishō 26; No. 1528 19. 遺教經論: Taishō 26, No. 1529. (Treatise on the Sūtra of the Teaching).

III.1.2. The Abhidharmakośa-śāstra

Although there are many books in the name of Vasubandhu, he has been known generally for two significant events in the history of Buddhism: (1) the composition of Abhidharmakośa and (2) the co-foundation of the Yogācāra system. The Abhidharmakośa written in about fourth century A.D, a collection of more or less six hundred verses. The name Abhidharmakośa-śāstra is called common to both kārikā and bhāṣya, it is very significant. Let us see the derivation of the word:

Abhi means higher or special, Dharma means teaching or philosophy. Thus Abhidharma means the higher teachings. Kośa means

treasury house, Śāstra means treatise, explanation, text book, scriptures, commentaries (or bhāṣya) etc. Thus the meaning of Abhidharmakośa- śāstra is the treatise of the treasuries of the higher special teachings.

The Abhidharmakośa-śāstra72 consists of two things, (1) the Abhidharmakośa-kārikā and (2) the auto-commentary (bhāṣya) on the verses (kārikās). The kārikās are in verse form while the commentary is in prose.

III.1.2.1. Some of the Abhidharmakośa texts available

Some manuscripts of Abhidharmakośa are found in India and China. Here is a list of the published texts of Abhidharmakośa of Vasubandhu which are available at present:

1) The Abhidharmakośa-kārikā published in the Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, by V.V. Gokhale.73

2) The Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam in Devanagari script.74

3) Abhisharmakośabhāṣyam translated into Chinese by Paramārtha (563-567 A.D), 9 chapters consists of 22 fascicules. Taishō 29; No. 1559.

4) Anhidharmakośa-śāstra translated into Chinese by Hsuan Tsang (651-654), 9 chapters consists of 30 fascicules. Taishō 29; No. 1558.

5) Abhiharmakośa-kārikā translated into Chinese by Hsuan Tsang (651 A.D.) with 2 fascicules, 8 sections 602 verses, Taishō 29; No. 1560. After that, the Abhidharmakośa was handed down to disciples of Hsuan

72 In the Chinese Tripiṭaka used also term śāstra consists of two texts Abhidharmakośa-kārika (阿毘達磨俱舍論本頌) and Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya (阿毘達磨俱舍論). 73V. V. Gokhale (1946). Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (new series), vol. 22, pp 73-103. 74 Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam of Vasubandhu (Akb.), edited by Prof. P. Pradhan, Patna India: Kashi Prasad. Jayaswal Research Institute, 1967, reprint 1975.

Tsang and it became Kosha school which is one of the ten schools in China.75

6) A complete French translation of the Kośabhāṣyam was carried out by Louis De La Vallée Poussin. This translation is primarily based on the Chinese translation of Hsuan-Tsang, but frequent reference is made to the Sanskrit text of Vasubandhu, the Chinese translation of Paramārtha and Tibetan. This work was published from 1921 to 1931 (L‟Abhidharmakośa de Vasubandhu).76 Later was translated in French which is again translated into English by Leo. M. Pruden ―Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam‖ 1986 in 4 volumes.77

7) Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya of Vasubandhu (The treasury of the Abhidharma and its auto-commentary), from Chinese translated into French by Louis De La Vallée Poussin, translated and annotated into English by Gelong Lodrō Sangpo with a new Introduction by Bhikkhu KL Dhammajoti, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited- Delhi, 2012, in 4 volumes.

III.1.2.2. Overview of the Abhidharmakośa-śāstra

The Abhidharmakośa consists of nine chapters (kośasthānas). The first eight chapters 600 verses are the main text, and the ninth chapter (in

75 Kosha school, Satysiddhi school, Three Śāstras school, the Lotus (Saddharmapuṇdarīka) school, Avataṃsaka school, Dhyāna school, Vinaya school, Mantra (Tantra) school, Dharmalakṣaṇa (Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi) School and Pure-land school. 76 ―Louis De La Vallée Poussin, who towered masterfully over the major Buddhist languages Pāli, Sanskrit, Chinese and Tibetan dedicated the last half of his life to a French translation of the Abhidharmakośa, the anastatic reproduction of which will be found here. The work, which was published between 1923 and 1931, consists of six volumes: Vol. 1. (chapters 1 and 2), Vol. 2. (chapter 3), Vol. 3. (chapter 4), Vol. 4. (chapters 5 and 6), Vol. 5. (chapters 7, 8 and 9), Vol. 6. (introduction, index and addenda)‖. Abhidharmakośa-Bhāṣya (Akbs.), (tr.) by Gelong Lodrō Sangpo with a new introduction by Bhikkhu KL Dhammajoti (2012), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, Vol. 1. P. 71. 77 Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam (Akbp.), (tr.) into French from Chinese by Louis de La Vallée Poussin, and translated into English by Leo M. Pruden, California: Asian Humanities Press, reprinted 1991 (4 Vols).

prose) is additional chapter as a kind of appendix. The subjects covered in Abhidharmakośa-śātra include all the main aspects of Buddhist psychology and philosophy. The verses of the main text are commented by the author, an auto-commentary, in which Vasubandhu criticizes and summaries the views of the Sarvāstivādins in the Mahāvibhāṣa.78

The first chapter, called Dhātu-nirdeśa (exposition of the elements), consists of 48 verses. It contains a treatment of the elements showing the nature of the substance of all things. In this chapter, the author has classified the dharmas into two categories, namely, subjective and objective classification. The subjective classification includes three departments, namely, five skandhas, the twelve āyatanas, and the eighteen dhātus. The objective classification includes two dharmas, namely, saṃskṛta-dharmas (conditioned dharmas) and asaṃskṛta-dharmas (unconditioned dharmas). A detailed exposition especially on the nature and structure of rūpa is also given here. This discussion gives an exposition of four great elements, namely, earth (pṛthivī), water (āp), fire (tejas) and air (vāyu). These are called dhātus or elements.

The second chapter, consists of 73 verses, is known as Indriya- nirdeśa (exposition of the faculties). It contains a treatment of the faculties in relation to the dharma. In this chapter, the author explained twenty-two organs (indriyas)79 and five states of existence are rūpa, citta, caitta, citta-

78 Akbs., pp. 10 – 61, Lata Bapat (1994). Abhidharmakośa A Study with a New Perpective, Delhi: Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan, pp. 37-39, and Indra Narain Singh (2010). An introduction to Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam, Delhi: Vidyanidhi Prakashan, pp. 5-6. 79 1) organ of sight-eye (cakṣuṣ-indriya 眼根), 2) organ of hearing-ear (śrotra-indriya 耳根), 3) organ of smell-nose ( ghrāṇa-indriya 鼻根), 4) organ of taste-tongue (jihvā-indriya 舌根), 5) organ of touch-body (kāyā-indriya 身根), 6) mental organ-mind ( māna-indriya 意根), 7) female organ (strī-indriya 女根), 8) male organ (puruṣa-indriya 男根), 9) vital organ-life (jīvita-indriya 命根 ), 10) sensation of suffering -bodily (duḥkha-indriya 苦根), 11) sensation of pleasure- bodily (sukha-indriya 樂根), 12) sensation of sorrow-mental (daurmanasya-indriya 憂根), 13)

viprayukta-saṃskāra and asaṃskṛta. In this chapter, the theory of skandha, āyatana and dhātu are carefully reconsidered, analysed in detail and also systematized from the standpoint of the Sarvāstivāda. All phenomena are shown to be the result of those dharmas working together. The principles of interrelation are fully explained and also the relation of the dharmas to each other. There are six kinds of causes (hetus), four kinds of conditions (pratyayas) and five kinds of results (phalas).80 At the end of this chapter, mind is classified into three types; good, bad and neutral. Their mutual relations are also dealt with in detail.

The third chapter, entitled Loka-nirdeśa (exposition of the world) enumerates the world in 102 verses. In this chapter, according to Buddhism, the universe is composed of innumerable worlds (cosmos) of which the earth is one and that there are three spheres known as kāma, rūpa and ārūpa in each of the worlds. The author gives overview of the world of suffering (duḥkha), rebirth (saṃsāra) and describes the various forms of existence. There are four kinds of existence of birth of living beings,

organ of sensation of joy-mental (saumanasya-indriya 喜根), 14) organ of sensation of indifference - bodily and mental (upekṣa-indriya 捨根), 15) organ of faith – confidence (śraddha-indriya 信根 ), 16) organ of energy –enthusiasm (vīrya-indriya 精進根), 17) organ of memory – mindfulness (smṛti-indriya 念根), 18) organ of absorption – meditation (samādhi- indriya 定根), 19) organ of discernment of dharmas – wisdom (prajña-indriya 慧根), 20) organ of ―I shall come to know the as yet unknown‖, of learning (anājñātam-ājñāsyāmi-indriya 未知當知根), 21) organ of knowledge or organ of having learned (ājña-indriya, 巳知根), and 22) organ of one who has already come to know or organ of perfect knowledge (ājñātādvi- indriya 具知根). Ak. P. 187 and Akk. ii, 1-8: 80 The six causes are (k. 50-54): (1) efficient cause (karaṇa-hetu 能作因), (2) co-existent cause (sahabhū-hetu 倶有因), (3) associative cause (samprayuktaka-hetu 相應因), (4) similar cause (sabhāga-hetu 同類因), (5) universal cause (sarvatraga-hetu 遍行因), and (6) retributive cause (vipāka-hetu 異熟因); The four conditions are (k. 61-62): (1) causal condition ( hetu-pratyaya, 因緣), (2) equal-immediate condition (samanantara-pratyaya 等無間縁), (3) observed object condition (ālambana-pratyaya 所縁縁), and (4) condition of dominance (Adhipati-pratyaya 增上緣); and the five results are (k. 57-58): (1) retribution result (vipāka-phala 異熟果), (2) emanation result (nisyanda-phala 等流果), (3) disconnection result (visaṃyoga-phala 離繫果), (4) virile result (puruṣakāra-phala 士用果), and (5) result of dominance (adhipati-phala 增上果). Akk.ii, 49-65.

namely, birth from the womb, oviparous birth, birth from moisture and birth having no dependence. It mentions the four stages of life namely; birth, existence, decay and fourthly the state intermediary to death and rebirth, and the twelve stages or links of causation are next dealt with in relation to the three divisions of time past, present and future.81

The fourth chapter, entitled Karma-nirdeśa (exposition of action) consists of 127 verses. In this chapter, the author discussed the different types of karmas, considered as the cause of the repeated existences that take place, and explained the different kinds of karma, as a result of which beings take a variety of forms. First of all karma is analyzed, according to its ‗self-nature‘, into three kinds (bodily, vocal and mental), namely, karma pertaining to the body, karma pertaining to speech and karma pertaining to thinking.82 The karma theories are also enumerated and explained in this chapter with special reference to the theory of the ten akuśala karma-pathas (ten unskillful path of karma).83

The fifth chapter, named Anuśaya-nirdeśa (exposition of the defilements), consists of 71 verses, containing a treatment of 98 latent evils considered as the condition of the repeated existences. The six principal anuśaya (greed, anger, pride, ignorance, false views, and doubt) become ten with false views beings divided into five84. These ten anuśaya further

81 Past (ignorance, formations, consciousness), Present (mind and matter, six sense objects, contact, feeling, craving, clinging, becoming) and Future (rebirth, old age-death) 82 Karmajaṁlokavaicitryaṁ cetanā tatkṛtaṁ ca tat| cetanā mānasaṁkarma tajjaṁ vākkāyakarmaṇī||1|| 世別由業生思及思所作思即是意業所作謂身語 (Akk. iv. 1) 83 Ten unskillfull paths of karma are: 1) killing, 2) stealing, 3) illicit sexuality, 4) lying, 5) malicious speech, 6) harmful speech, 7) inconsiderate speech, 8) greed, 9) hatred and 10) false views. (Akk. iv. 68, 73-78). 84 (1) Satkāyadṛṣṭi (有身見), a belief in self, view of self and what pertains to self, (2) Mithyādṛṣṭi (邪見) false views, view of negation, (3) Antagrahādṛṣṭi (邊見) a belief in extremes, view of eternity & annihilation, (4) Dṛṣṭiparāmarśa (見取見) esteeming views, holding as high that

subdivided become ninety-eight deals with in relation to the three worlds (kāma, rūpa and ārūpa) and each of the five classes of discipline.85 Upakleśas (secondary defilements) are also mentioned in this chapter.

The sixth chapter named Pudgalamārga-nirdeśa (exposition of the path and the saints), presents a treatment of the noble ones, considered as an effect of nirvāṇa. This chapter consists of 80 verses. In this chapter, the author begins with the two modes of removing defilement: (1) by insight into the four noble truths; (2) by discipline. He then proceeds to explain the method of removing defilements. The first stage includes the preparatory courses of the three dhātus (kāma, rūpa and ārūpa) and four kuśala mūla.86 One who goes through these two initial courses enters the group of the Holy Ones. Vasubandhu disciplines himself by means of the darśana mārga (path of seeing), insight into the Four Noble Truths and then, by means of the bhāvanā-mārga (the path of cultivation), he destroys the ten kinds of defilements.87 The next stage is the asaikṣa mārga (the path beyond training) which brings the fruit of Arahantship. At the end of the chapter are given the different classifications of the path to enlightenment i.e., seven sets of thirty- seven individual qualities are given.88

The seventh chapter, known as Jñāna-nirdeśa (exposition of the knowledge) consists of 56 verses, it contains a treatment of 10

which is low and (5) Śīlavrata-parāmarśa (戒禁取見) esteeming morality and ascetic practices, holding as cause and path that which is not cause and path. 85 See detail Akbp. vol. 3, pp. 788-796. (Akk. v. 12-18) 86 The four skillful roots (kuśala mūla) are (1) heats or warmth (ūṣmagata 煖), (2) summits, pinnacle (mūrdhan 頂), (3) receptivities or patience (kṣānti 忍) and (4) supreme worldly dharma (laukika -agra-dharma 世第一法). Akk.vi. 17-19. 87 Greed, anger, pride, ignorance, doubt, view of self, false views, view of eternity and annihilation, holding as high that which is low and, holding as cause and path that which is not cause and path. 88 (1) The four smṛtyupasthāna (Four frames of reference), (2) the four samyakprahāṅa (Four right exertions), (3) the four ṛddhipāda (four bases of power), (4) the five indriya (five faculties), (5) the five balas (five powers), (6) the seven bodhyaṅga (seven factors of Enlightenment) and (7) the eight mārga (Noble Eightfold Path).

knowledge considered as the cause of nirvāṇa. In this chapter, the author detailed of the ten kinds of knowledge,89 the ten powers (daśabala),90 the four forms of fearlessness (vaiśāradyas),91 the three applications of mindfulness (smṛtyupasthānas)92 and great compassion (mahākaruṇa).93

89 (1) Saṁvṛti-jñāna (worldly, conventional knowledge), (2) dharma-jñāna (a knowledge of dharmas), (3) anvaya-jñāna (inferential knowledge), (5) dukkha-jñāna (the knowledge of suffering is the 1st Noble Truth), (5) samudaya-jñāna (the knowledge of origin is 2nd Noble Truth), (6) nirodha-jñāna (the knowledge of Cessation is 3rd Noble Truth), (7) mārga-jñāna (the knowledge of the path is 4th Noble Truth), (8) paracitta-jñāna (the knowledge of the mind of another), (9) kṣaya-jñāna (the knowledge of destruction with regard to the truths, the certitude that they are known, abandoned etc.), (10) anutpāda-jñāna (the knowledge of non-arising). 90 Ten powers (daśabala 十力) are: (1) the power which consists of the knowledge of what is possible and what is impossible (sthānasthāna 處非處智力), (2) the power which consists of the knowledge of the retribution of actions (karma 自業智力, 業異熟智力), (3) the power of the knowledge of the dhyāna, Vimokṣa, samādhi and samāpatti (靜慮解脫等持等至智力), (4) the power of the knowledge of the degree of the moral faculties (indriya) of beings (根勝劣智力), (5) the power of the knowledge of the different aspirations (avimokṣa) of beings (種種勝解智力), (6) the power of the knowledge of the different acquired dispositions (dhātu) of beings (種種界智力), (7) the power of the knowledge of the paths which lead to the different realms of rebirth and to nirvaṇa (遍趣行智力), (8) the power of the knowledge of former abodes(宿住隨念智力), (9) the power of the knowledge of death and rebirth of beings (死生智力), (10) the power of the knowledge of the destruction of the cankers (漏盡智力); See detail in Akk. vii. 28-33. 91 Four from of fearlessness (vaiśāradya 四無畏) are: 1) The assurance that he has attained supreme comprehension with respect to all the dharmas (正等覺無畏), 2) The assurance that he has the knowledge of the destruction of all the defilements (漏永盡無畏), 3) Assurance that he can fully explain the dharmas (說障法無畏), and 4) The assurance that he can explain the path leading to definitive deliverance (說出道無畏). (Akk. vii. 11-14). 92 Three applications of mindfulness (smṛtyupasthāna 三念住) are nature, mindfulness and awareness. 1) When his disciples, unanimous, respectfully listen, accept and practice his teaching, he experiences neither joy nor satisfaction, but he remains indifferent, in full mindfulness and awareness. 2) When his disciples, unanimous, do not hear, do not accept and do not practice his teaching, he does not experience displeasure nor impatience, but he remains indifferent, in full mindfulness and awareness. 3) When some of his disciples hear, accept and practice his teaching, while others, not hearing, do not accept and do not practice his teaching, he does not experience joy and displeasure, but remains indifferent in full mindfulness and awareness. (Akk. vii. 15-17) 93 Great compassion (mahakaruṇa 大悲) is a conventional and mental state; it is great through its factors, its aspects, its object, its equality, and its excellence…; 1) By reason of its factors (sambhara); it is produced in fact by a great provisioning (sambhara) of merit (puṇya) and knowledge (jñāna). 2) By reason of its aspects, of the modality under which it grasps things: it considers things as painful by reason of the threefold suffering, the suffering inherent in suffering itself, the suffering inherent in change, and the suffering inherent in the saṃskāra (vi. 3), whereas ordinary compassion only envisions the suffering inherent in suffering itself. 3) Ву reason of the object, for it has for its object all beings in the three dhātus. 4) By reason of its equality, for it is equally concerned with the happiness and benefit of all being. 5) By reason of its excellence, for no other compassion which has arisen surpasses it. (Akk. vii. 18)

It also enumerates the virtues common to the Buddha and ordinary beings, namely, the six abhijñā (supernormal knowledge),94 the three vidyās and three prātihāryas (methods of conversion).95

The eighth chapter is called Samāpatti-nirdeśa (exposition of the meditative attainments). A treatment of the dhyānas considered as a condition of nirvāṇa is presented in 43 verses in this chapter. This chapter gives a detailed explanation of the different forms of samādhi.96 It tells about the gain resulting from the different types of samādhi, namely, the attainment of the four immeasurable (apramāṇa) loving kindness, compassion, joy and equanimity.97

The ninth chapter is called Pudgala-nirdeśa (exposition of the study of the person). This additional chapter is written in prose as a kind of appendix and also as an independent treatise. This refutes various theories of a soul or self, focusing mainly on the teachings a Buddhist school that held to a conception of the person (pudgala) neither different from nor identical to the skandhas. The chapter consists almost entirely of detailed arguments. In conclusion, the author Vasubandhu again affirmed that

94 The six abhijñā consists of (1) Supernormal Power (ṛddhi-sākṣātkriyā) (神足通), (2) Divine hearing (divyaśrotra) (天耳通), (3) Knowing another‗s mind (paracitta-jñāna) (他心通), (4) Memory of past existences (pūrvanivāsānusmṛti-jñāna) (宿命通), (5) Divine sight of the death and birth of all beings (divyacakṣus) (天眼通) and (6) Destruction of the cankers (āsravakṣaya-jñāna) (漏盡通). (Akk. vii. 42-56) 95 The three vidyā are fourth – sixth of six abhijñā (pūrvanivāsānusmṛti-jñāna, divyacakṣus and āsravakṣaya-jñāna) and Three Methods of Conversion (prātihārya) are 1st, 3rd and 6th of six abhijñā (supernormal power, knowing another‘s mind, destruction of the cankers. Through these three methods, conversion to a mind of faith and practice is initiated and carried through and forcefully. Conversion through teaching is regarded as the best because it arises with the fruit of the path, the destruction of outflows. (Akk. vii. 47) 96 The practice of samādhi mentioned in four dhyānas; the first dhyāna is provided with vicāra, prīti and sukha; the second dhyāna with prīti and sukha; the third dhyāna with sukha; and the fourth dhyāna are beyond the members, viz. vicāra (investigation 伺), prīti (joy or interest 喜) and sukha (happiness 樂). 97 Four immeasurable (apramāṇas or Brahma-vihāras are maitrī (慈), karuṇa (悲), mudita (喜) and upekṣa (捨). Akk. viii. 29-31.

Buddha teaches selflessness that can make us free from suffering, in contrast to the misguided interpretation of the Pudgalavādins. He also expresses the hope that what he has explained in this treatise will spread and serve to protect and purify the Saṅgha.

III.1.3. The Place of the Abhidharmakośa-śāstra in the Buddhist Philosophy

The Abhidharmakośa-śāstra written by Vasubandhu is a manual and a compendium of the Abhidharma treatises. It occupies an important place in the history of Buddhism for its systematic philosophy (see table 1 below). This is the most systematic exposition of the Buddhist philosophy of the Hīnayāna. It contains a full account of the tenets of the Sarvāstivādins. Moreover, in almost every case he justified his arguments by quoting original passages from canonical literature, especially from the Sanskrit Āgamas. It may be the reason why the Abhidharmakośa was widely read in India and abroad as a reliable guide book and a manual for study of abhidharma. In China and Japan it is still used as a text book and also considered an authority, when going to settle some controversial points on Buddhist doctrines.

As mentioned earlier the doctrines of the Sarvāstivāda school were given a definite form in Jñānaprasthāna, but the systematization was not yet complete. The Mahāvibhāṣa too, though it was so voluminous as to contain almost every doctrine and theory, was itself not a systematic treatise. The first work then which systematized the teachings of Sarvāstivāda school was the Abhidharmahṛdaya (the heart, soul and mind).98 The Abhidharmakośa followed the hṛdaya very closely but it rearranged the subject matter of the hṛdaya and added to it. It was not so much a creative work or a new

98 EB. (eds.) G. P. Malalasekera … (1961 – 1965), Vol. 1. p. 61.

philosophy, in some places the author has expressed his own commentary views, e.g., interpretation of the pratītya-samutpāda theory and the interpretation of the theory of the karmapatha (the way or direction or character of an action).

There are three points which we have to take into special consideration with regard to this work.99 (1) The Abhidharmakośa occupies an important place in the history of the Sarvāstivāda abhidharma literature. (2) It is related to the development of Indian Buddhist thought in Mahāyāna. (3) It has a special meaning as a text book of the fundamental doctrines of Buddhism. With regard to the first point it may be said that the Abhidharmakośa-śāstra completely systematized the Sarvāstivāda doctrine, that it marked an advance in Sarvāstivāda doctrine and that it introduced Sautrāntika views. Besides, it is also corresponding with exposition of the Pāli Abhidhamma in Buddhist philosophy of Theravādins.100

The Abhidharmakośa is also a background to the development of Mahāyāna thought and principles. It has a very close relation with Abhidharmakośa system and the Vijñaptimātra philosophy, one of the two main philosophical systems of Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism. From the Sautrāntika‟s point of view Abhidharmakośa is regarded as a bridge between the Hīnayāna and the Mahāyāna. In this way, the Abhidharmakośa presents itself as an introduction to or a forerunner of the Mahāyāna Buddhism. Understanding the Abhidharmakośa-śāstra is the only door of entrance to the philosophy of the Hīnayāna and background to study the philosophy of the Mahāyāna. The Abhidharmakośa is a repository of the principal Abhidharma works of the Sarvāstivādins. It has

99 Ibid. p. 60. 100 See more Lata Bapat (1994), pp. 37-39.

systematized and given a definite form to establish the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma Piṭaka. When the Abhidharmakośa-kārikā and bhāṣya were translated into Chinese by Paramārtha (between 563 - 567 A.D.), and by Hsuan Tsang (between 651 - 654 A.D), the Abhidharmakośa became the basic text of the Kosha school (one of the ten main schools in China),101 an important school of Buddhism during its early period in China. The Kosha school or the Kusha school as it is called in Japan is generally understood to have been brought into Japan in 658 A.D. by Chitsū and Chitatsu, two Japanese monks who studied some time under the famous Hsuan-Tsang. Up to 793 A.D., under the support of the imperial court the Abhidharmakośa text registered and it became the Kosha school, one of the six schools of Nara Buddhism in Japan.102

101 (1) Kosha school, (2) Satyasiddhi school, (3) three Śāstra school, (4) the Lotus (Saddharmapuṇdarīka) school, (5) Avataṃsaka school, (6) Dhyāna school, (7) Vinaya school, (8) Mantra (Tantra) school, (9) Dharmalakṣaṇa or Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi school, and (10) Pure-land school. 102 See more Junjirō Takakusu (2001), pp. 55-73, and EB. (eds.) Damien Keown and Charles S. Prebish, (2010). p. 6b.

Table 1

The Position of Abhidharmkośa in Abhidharma literature

Buddhist Thought (5th B.C.)

Mahāsāṃghika or mahāyāna Sthaviravāda (Hīnayāna) (4th B.C.) (4th B.C.)

Sarvāstivāda 3rd B.C. Theravāda 3rd B.C. (Northwest India ) (South India & Sri-Lanka)

Vaibhāṣika Sautrāntika or Dāṛṣtantika (Kasmir 1st B.C.) (Gandhara 1st B.C.)

Śūnyatavāda or Madhyamaka

Abhidharmakośa (Kasmir 4th A.D.)

Yogācāra or Vijñānavāda (4th & 5th A.D.)

Logicians of Yogācāra (5th & 7th A.D.) (Dignaga & Dharmakīrti)

III.2. The Classification of Dharma

The first two chapters of Vasubandhu‘s Abhidharmakośa are the expositions of the Buddha‘s dharma, in these chapters; Vasubandhu describes the basic elemental forces. He introduces and defines the five skandhas; describe the relationship between the five skaṅdhas, twelve āyatanas and eighteen dhātus. These elements are the first glance to structured clear background doctrines of Sarvāstivāda. The elements with which the Sarvāstivāda constructs his conception of the person and world are clearly set out and discussed. The conditioned elements (saṃskṛtas) are dealt with first, followed by the unconditioned elements (asaṃskṛta). Material (rūpa) is described straight away in the first chapter. The second chapter deals with the mind (citta), the mental factors (caitasika), and the conditioned factors not associated with mind (citta-viprayukta saṁskāra). All the elements are divided according to five categories, namely;103 rūpa, citta, caitasika, citta- viprayukta saṃskāra and asaṃskṛta.

The Abhidharmakośa holds two methods of classification of things (dharmas), viz., the subjective and the objective.104

The subjective method of classification or sūtra teaching is common in all Buddhist schools. According to this methodical classification, all things are divided into three departments:105

1) The five skandhas or constituents of being,

2) The twelve āyatanas or locations and

3) The eighteen dhātus or elements

103 Erich Frauwallner (1995), p. 135. 104 Mbp. pp. 105-107. 105 Rāśyāyadvāragotrārthāḥ skandhāyatanadhātavaḥ| mohendriyarūcitraidhāttistraḥ skandhādideśanāḥ||20|| 聚生門種族是蘊處界義愚根樂三故說蘊處界三. Akk. i. 20.

According to the objective method of classification or abhidharma teaching, all things are classified into two kinds:

1) Things composite or conditioned (saṃskṛta-dharma)

2) Things in-composite or unconditioned (asaṃskṛta-dharma).

III.2.1. Subjective Classification

The subjective classification is a presentation of the five skandhas, the twelve āyatanas, and the eighteen dhātus which is a description of the elements that makes up a person consisting of twofold factors, that is rūpa and nāma, namely, physical and psychological or the material and mental.

III.2.1.1. The Five Skandhas (Aggregates)

The term pañcaskandhas (the five aggregates)106 is defined in the simplest classification of all elements of existence which is represented by a division into five groups of elements: 1) the aggregate of material form (rūpaskandha), 2) The aggregate of feeling (vedanāskandha), 3) the aggregate of perception (saṃjñāskandha), 4) the aggregate of mental formations (saṃskāraskandha), and 5) the aggregate of consciousness (vijñānaskandha).107 ―Everything in the universe is due to the various compositions of these two classes i.e. rūpa and nāma (nāma consists of vedanā, saṃjñā, saṃskāra and vijñāna).108 All the externals are the

106 ―Vasubandhu advocates the theory of pañcaskandha. According to him, an individual or a human being is an aggregation of five aggregates, namely; rūpaskandha, vedanāskandha, saṃjñāskandha, saṃskāraskandha and vijñānaskandha. Among these five aggregates rūpaskandha is formed out of rūpadhātu, vedanā skandha, saṃjñā skandha, saṃskāra skandha and vijñāna skandha are formed out of arūpadhātu and vedanā skandha also is formed out of kāmadhātu. In other words, rūpaskandha is found only in the realim of rūpadhātu, saṃjñā skandha, saṃskāra skandha and vijñāna skandha are found only in the realm of arūpadhātu, vedanā skandha is found in both the realms of arūpadhātu and kāmadhātu. …‖ See Dr. Lata- Bapat (1994), pp. 78ff.‖ 107 See more A. Berriedale Keith (2nd edition, 1979). Buddhist Philosophy in India and Ceylon, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers PVT. LTD. pp. 200-202. 108 Sangharakshita (2006), pp. 89-91.

compositions of an infinitesimal particle or atom (rūpa-paramāṇu) or the matter particles which always cluster together and form a pattern (dravya). The entire class of manifest matter formation is known as rūpa-skandha in the widest significance; in a limited significance rūpa implies the visible only. The items under nāma constitute all psychic materials.‖109 In other words, rūpa and nāma are also called matter and mind.

(1) The Aggregate of Material Form (rūpaskandha)

Matter or material form is the five sense-faculties, the five object- referents, and the non-informative (avijñapti). The bases of the consciousness of these, namely the subtle material elements (rūpaprasāda), are the five sense-faculties, i.e., the sense-faculty of the eye, ear, etc.‖110 Rūpaskandha refers to the collection of various types of rūpa, which is subjective to transformation, disintegration or modification.111 Rūpaskandha comprises the five sense-faculties are: the eye sense-faculty (cakṣur-indriya), the ear sense-faculty (śrotra-indriya), the nose sense- faculty (ghrāṇa-indriya), the tongue sense-faculty (jihva-indriya) and the body sense-faculty (kāya-indriya). The five objects of sense referents are: the visible form (rūpa), the sound (śabda), the smell (gandha), the taste (rasa), and the touch (sparśa), which are regarded as the supports of eye- consciousness (cakṣur-vijñāna), ear-consciousness (śrotra-vijñāna), nose- consciousness (ghrāṇa-vijñāna), tongue-consciousness (jihva-vijñāna), and body-consciousness (kāya-vijñāna).112

109 Akb. Vol. 1. p. 49. 110 Rūpaṁ pañcendriyāṇyarthāḥ pañcāvijñaptireva ca| tadvijñānāśrayā rūpaprasādāścakṣurādayaḥ||9|| 色者唯五根五境及無表彼識依淨色名眼等五根 (Akk. i. 9) 111 Rūpaṁ dvidhā viṁśatidhā śabdastvaṣṭavidhaḥrasaḥ| 色二或二十聲唯有八種. (Akk. i.10ab) 112 James Duerlinger (2005). Indian Buddhist Theories of Persons, New York: Routledge Curzon, pp. 36-37.

Thus, in the Rūpaskandha, Vasubandhu described the ultimate material dharmas which are called the four great elements (mahābhūtas). These elements are earth (pṛthivī), water (ap), fire (tejas) and air (vāyu). These are also called elements (dhātus) as they retain their individual characteristics. They are called ‗great‘ as they are regarded as the supports of all derived matters. There are to show the characteristics and functions of the four great elements:113

Element Characteristic Function

Earth (pṛthivī) Hardness/solidity (kharatva) Supporting (dhāraṇa)

Water (ap) Humidity/moisture (snehatva) Cohesion/collecting (saṃgraha)

Fire (tejas) Heat (uṣṇatā) Ripening (pakti)

Air (vāyu) Motion/mobility (iraṇa) Expanding/spreading (vyūhana)

(2) The Aggregate of Feeling (vedanāskandha)

There are threefold kinds of felling (Vedanā): 1) pleasant (sukha), 2) unpleasant (duḥkha) and 3) neither-unpleasant nor-pleasant (aduḥkhāsukha). Seeing a particular object somebody becomes pleased, somebody becomes displeased, again somebody remains indifferent. These three kinds of feelings together are called vedanāskandha. Through the contact of six sense-organs, six kinds of feelings are possible. These feelings are born of eye-contact (cakṣu-saṃsparśaja-vedanā), of ear-contact (śrotra- saṃsparśajā-vedanā), of nose-contact (ghrāṇa-saṃsparśaja-vedanā), of

113 Bhūtāni pṛthividhāturaptejovāyudhātavaḥ| dhṛtyādikarmasaṁsiddhā kharasnehoṣṇateraṇāḥ||12|| Pṛthivī varṇasaṁsthānamucyate lokasaṁjñayā| āpastejaśca vāyustu dhātureva tathāpi ca||13|| 大種謂四界即地水火風能成持等業堅濕煖動性地謂顯形色隨世想立名水火亦復然風即界亦爾 (Akk. i. 12-13)

tongue-contact (jihva-saṃsparśaja-vedanā), of body-contact (kāya- saṃsparśaja-vedanā) and of mind-contact (manaḥ-saṃsparśaja-vedanā).

(3) The Aggregate of Perception (saṃjñāskandha)

The aggregate of perception (saṃjñāskandha) refers to a group of various kinds of perception, which perception of various characteristics such as blue, yellow, long, short, male, female, agreeable, disagreeable, pleasant, unpleasant, etc, of some objects are called saṃjñāskandha.114 Through the direct contact of six sense-organs, six kinds of perceptions are possible. They are produced of eye-contact (cakṣu-saṃsparśaja-saṃjñā), of ear- contact (śrotra-saṃsparśaja-saṃjñā), of nose-contact (ghrāṇa- saṃsparśaja-saṃjñā), of tongue-contact (jihva-saṃsparśaja-saṃjñā), of body-contact (kāya-saṃsparśaja-saṃjñā), and of mind-contact (manaḥ- saṃsparśaja-saṃjñā).

The two skandhas, vedanā and saṃjñā are distinguished from the other skandhas. Because, they are mainly responsible for disputes (vivādamūla) among men and it is also for the repeated existences (saṃsārahetu), on account of their (skandhas) causing attachment to desire (kāmādhyavasānam) and wrong views (dṛṣṭi-abhiṣvaṅga). In fact, one becomes attached to desire because one enjoys senses and becomes attached to wrong views (mithyādṛṣṭi) because of one‘s erroneous or false notions.115 Vedanā is regarded as food (bhojana) while saṃjñā makes it tasteful. They have got supremacy on the two spheres of existences i.e. kāmadhātu and rūpadhātu.

114 Saṁjñā nimittodgrahaṇātmikā 想取像為體. (Akk.i.14d) 115 Cakṣuśca dharmadhātośca pradeśau dṛṣṭiḥaṣṭadhā| 眼法界一分八種說名見. (Akk. i. 41.ab) Akbpp., Vol.1, p. 113f.

(4) The Aggregate of Mental Formations (saṃskāraskandha)

The aggregate of mental formations (saṃskāraskandha)116 refers to a group of mental formations. The general reference to this regard in the texts is as: ―Whatever there exists of mental formations whether past, present and future; one‘s own or external, gross or subtle, lofty or low, far or near, etc., these all belong to the mental formations.‖117 There are six classes of volition (cetanās) called saṃskāras or saṃskāraskandha. This definition of the mental formations like feeling (vedanā) and perception (saṃjñā) shows its relation with the six sense organs. It includes all the mental formations excluding the feeling and perception. The different schools of Buddhism present different lists of the saṃskāraskandha. For example, there are fifty dharmas properties under this group according to the Theravādins while the Sarvastivādins lists forty-six dharmas under this group. These dharmas are associated with the arising and ceasing of consciousness.

(5) The Aggregate of Consciousness (vijñānaskandha)

The vijñānaskandha consists of six classes of vijñānas:118 Eye- consciousness (cakṣur-vijñāna), ear-consciousness (śrotra-vijñāna), nose- consciousness (ghrāṇa-vijñāna), tongue-consciousness (jihva-vijñāna), body-consciousness (kāya-vijñāna) and mind-consciousness (Mano- vijñāna) this is called the consciousness group.119 The vijñānaskandha is

116 caturbhyo'nye tu saṁskāraskandhaḥete punastrayaḥ| dharmāyatanadhātvākhyāḥ sahāvijñaptyasaṁskṛtai||15|| 四餘名行蘊如是受等三及無表無為名法處法界 (Akk. i. 15), Ak. P. 50. 117 Akbp. Vol. 1, p. 73. See more Sn.iii. 60, 67, PTS. (reprint 2005), Vol.3, pp. 52-53 and 59-60. 118 Vijñānaṁprativijñaptiḥ mana āyatanaṁ ca tat| dhātavaḥ sapta ca matāḥ ṣaḍ vijñānānyatho mahaḥ||16|| ṣaṇṇāmanantarātītaṁ vijñānaṁyaddhi tanmanaḥ| 17ab 識謂各了別此即名意處及七界應知六識轉為意 . 由即六識身無間滅為意 (Akk. i. 16 & 17ab), Akbp. Vol. 1, pp, 74-75. 119 Mn.i.53, PTS. (reprint 2004), p. 67 and Bhikkhu J. Kashyap (2006), pp. 44-52.

the mana-āyatana consisting of seven dhātus: six vijñāna (vijñānakāya = vijñānadhātu) and the manodhātu or the mind. What is this manodhātu or mind? Vasubandhu explains that of all the vijñānas that which has only just passed or perished is called manodhātu or mind or hṛdaya or mana- indriya (manas, i.e., manodhātu). Likewise a man is once a son (putra) and again a father (pitṛ); the same seed (bīja) once become fruit (phala) and become seed again.120

III.2.1.2. The Twelve Āyatanas

The other categories of the subjective classification of existence consist of the twelve āyatanas and the eighteen dhātus. These must be the best considered together. Both are categories which were formulated not from an analysis of the human personality nor from an objective analysis of the external world, but as the result of the investigation of the functions of consciousness and means, whereby consciousness is produced. Here all the component parts of being are grouped together with reference to the part they play the consciousness producer is not an eternal self-existent thing but is the temporary product of certain pre-existent material factors.

Āyatana means place or sphere of meeting, or of origin or the ground of happening. A dharma of āyatana cannot be independent but it is dependent on combines by organ, objective of organ and consciousness or skandha, āyatana and dhātu. ―All the factors (dharma) are included in one aggregate (skandha), one sense-sphere of material form (āyatana) and one element (dhātu). A dharma is included by that which has the same intrinsic nature (svabhāva), for it is distinct from the nature (parabhāva) other.‖121

120 Akbp. Vol. I, pp, 96-97. 121 Sarvasaṁgraha ekena skandhenāyatanena ca dhātunā ca svabhāvena parabhāvaviyogataḥ||18||

Classification of the elements is made with a view to a division into cognitive faculties and their objects. There are six cognitive faculties and six categories of corresponding objects. They make the twelve āyatanas in number as follows:122

1. Object of sight (cakṣus-indriya-āyatana) 2. Object of hearing (śrota-indriya-āyatana) 3. Object of smell (ghrāṇa-indriya-āyatana) 4. Object of taste (jīvha-indriya-āyatana) 5. Object of touch (kāya-indriya-āyatana) 6. Object of thought (mana-indriya-āyatana) 7. Colour and shape (rūpa-āyatana) 8. Sound (śabda-āyatana) 9. Odour (gandha-āyatana) 10. Taste (rasa-āyatana) 11. Tangible or touch (sparśa-āyatana) 12. Non-sensuous objects (dharma-āyatana or dharmaḥ).

In this classification the first eleven items (āyatana) correspond to eleven elements (dharmas), each including one. The twelfth item contains all the remaining sixty-four elements and it is therefore called dharma-āyatana or simply dharma, i.e., the remaining elements.

According to the Buddhist philosophers of the abhidharma, the term āyatana means entrance. It is an entrance for consciousness and mental phenomena (citta-caittanam). Consciousness is a pure sensation without any content and never arises alone. It is always supported by or introduced by two elements a cognitive faculty and corresponding cognitive elements. These are the supporters or the doors for consciousness to appear. Visual

總攝一切法由一蘊處界攝自性非餘以離他性故 (Akk.i. 18 ), Akbp. Vol.1, p.76. 122 Akb. pp. 33-34.

consciousness (cakṣur-vijñāna) with the sense of vision (cakṣur-indriya) and some colour (rūpaṁ) in the case of the sixth cognitive faculty (manas)123 consciousness itself i.e., its preceding moment acts as a faculty for apprehending non sensuous objects.124

The trend of this classification, which is a characteristic feature of Buddhism from its very beginnings, is unmistakable. It intends to give a division of all objects of cognition into sense-objects and non-sensuous ones. The first are then divided into ten groups according to the five senses and their five objects, and the second (dharma-āyatana or simply dharma),125 including every non-sensuous object is left undivided. There six items corresponding to six cognitive faculties. Thus the twelve āyatanas are bases of cognition represent all elements of existence distributed within six subjective and six corresponding items. Their synonym is everything. When the principle ‗everything exists‘ is set forth it has the meaning that nothing but the twelve bases of cognition are existent.126

III.2.1.3. The Eighteen Dhātus (Elements)

Dhātu is called factors of consciousness or correctly the elements of existence regarded from the standpoint of consciousness and its causes, since the dhātu category contain all the twelve āyatanas and in addition the six major divisions of consciousness itself making eighteen in all.

Dhātu means race, element or gotra, it is also called the source (ākara) of its own species, the allied cause (sabhāgahetu) of the origin of

123 Vism. Chapter XIV, p. 555. 124 Th. Stcherbatsky (reprint 2003). The Central Conception of Buddhism and The Meaning of the word Dharma, Delhi: Asian Educational Services, p. 7. 125 Dharmāyatanadhātvākhyāḥ sahāvijñaptyasaṁskṛtai||15cd||Vijñānaṁprativijñaptiḥ mana āyatanaṁ ca tat| dhātavaḥ sapta ca matāḥ ṣaḍ vijñānānyatho mahaḥ||16| 及無表無為名法處法界. 識謂各了別此即名意處及七界應知六識轉為意. (Ak. i. 15 cd, and 16). 126 ―Everything exist means that the twelve āyatana exists. This is also called as a reception of the manas. According to Vaibhāṣika āyatana is real (dravyasat) while according to Sautrāntika it is prajñapatisat.‖

mind and mental states. According to both the Vaibhāṣika and Sautrāntika, the dhātus are real (dravyasat), Vasubandhu himself agrees with them. According to Vasubandhu, Buddha gives his exposition in the way of skandha, āyatana and dhātu, on account of individuals (pudgalas) being of three categories, viz. some subject to delusion (moha), who become entangled with mental phenomena have sharp faculties and like teachings in brief. Some possess sharp, medium and dull faculties of speculative consciousness. The skandha-deśanā is meant for the first category of individual the āyatana-deśanā for the second category and the dhātu-deśanā for the third category of individuals.127

The elements are called dhātus, just like different metals (dhātu) might be extracted out of a mine, just so does the stream of an individual life reveal elements of eighteen different dhātu-gotras. The eighteen dhātu-gotras give its name as follows:

1. Sense of vision 2. Sense of audition 3. Sense of smelling 4. Sense of taste 5. Sense of touch 6. Faculty of consciousness 7. Colour and shape 8. Sound 9. Odour (gandha āyatana) 10. Taste (rasa āyatana) 11. Tangible or touch (sparśa-āyatana) 12. Non-sensous (dharma-āyatana) 13. Visual consciousness (cakṣus-vijññāna-dhātu),

127 Mohendriyarūcitraidhāttistraḥ skandhādideśanāḥ. 愚根樂三故說蘊處界三. (Ak.i.20 cd)

14. Auditory (śrotra-vijññāna-dhātu). 15. Olfactory (ghrāṇa-vijññāna-dhātu). 16. Gustatory (jihvā vijññāna-dhātu). 17. Tactile (kaya- vijññāna-dhātu). 18. Non-sensuous (mano-vijññāna-dhātu).

It is said that these eighteen elements are distinguished in relation to the flow of life in the three realms of existence: the realm of sensuality (kāmadhatu), the realm of subtle matter (rūpadhātu), and the immaterial realm (arūpadhātu). The first twelve constitute the above twelve bases (āyatana), to which are added the six corresponding consciousnesses: visual consciousness through to mental consciousness.

Generally speaking, the Abhidharmakośa had given the division of elements (dhātus), through this they are categorised to explain many function of life.128 And it has also given more attention to the characteristics of each of eighteen dhātus, even though the non substantiality position of Buddhism made it impossible for them to carry out the theory of inherent attributes possessed by self existent substance. All these varieties of consciousness exist only in the ordinary plane of existence (kāma-dhātu).129 In higher worlds (rūpa-dhātu) sense-consciousness gradually disappears, in the immaterial worlds (arūpa-dhātu) only non-consous consciousness is left. A division of consciousness into various kinds (dhātus 13th - 18th) is thus made necessary for the composition of formulas of elements corresponding to the denizens of various worlds.130

128 Akb. pp. 37f. 129 Narakapretatiryañco manuṣyāḥ ṣaḍdivaukasaḥ| kāmadhātuḥ sa narakadvīpabhedena viṁśatiḥ||1|| 地獄傍生鬼人及六欲天名欲界二十由地獄洲異. Akk. iii. 1; Akbp. Vol. 1, p.365. 130 ―When the three dhātus are mentioned the term dhātu means world (loka) or plane of existence (avacara). It has nothing to do with the eighteen dhātus. The worlds are divided into material (rūpa) and immaterial (arūpa) worlds, the former again into worlds of carnal desire or defiled

From the above discussion we came know that all the saṃskṛta- dharma are included in the skandha; all the sāsravadharma (sāsrava: connected with) are included in the upādānaskandha and all dharma in general are included in the āyatana and the dhātu. But to make it more brief, it has been said that all the dharma of the constituted world are included in one skandha i.e., dharmadhātu, one āyatana i.e. mana- āyatana and in one dhātu i.e., dharmadhātu only. This dharma is made according to the individual nature of each and every dharma which is distinct from the nature of other dharma. If it is so, then why the two eyes, or two ears, or two nostrils are regarded as one dharma instead of two? The answer is: they have got their common characteristics regarding their nature (jāti), range (gocara) and consciousness (vijñāna).131 In short, the relationship between the skandha, āyatana and dhātu is explained below (see table 2 below) and meaning of them is as follow:132 1) Instruction by the skandha is heap, aggregate or group. The term pañcaskandhas (the five aggregates) consists of one matter (rūpa) and four mental (cittas). 2) Instruction by the āyatana is gate of entry, access-door. The twelve āyatanas (sense faculties and corresponding objects) consists of 10 matters (rūpas) and two mental (cittas).

matter-kāma (rūpa) dhātu and those of pure or reduced, matter-(niskama)-rūpa-dhātu. In the kāma-dhātu life consists of eighteen components (dhātus), in the rūpa-dhātu of fourteen (excepted are 9, 10, 15 and 16), in the arūpa-dhātu of three (no. 6, grees of perpetual trance [dhyāna]. Ordinary people can be transferred 12 and 18). In rūpa and arūpa-dhātus life is characterized by different degrees of perpetual trance (dhyāna). Ordinary people can be transferred into these higher regions of trance either through being reborn in them (utpatti) or through an effort of transit meditation (samāpatti).‖ See Th. Stcherbatsky (reprint 2003), p. 9. 131 Jātigocaravijñānasāmānyādekadhātutā| dvitve'pi cakṣurādīnāṁ śobhārtha tu dvayobhdavaḥ||19|| 類境識同故雖二界體一然為令端嚴眼等各生二. Akk. i. 19; Akbp. Vol. 1, p. 76f. 132 Rāśyāyadvāragotrārthāḥ skandhāyatanadhātavaḥ| mohendriyarūcitraidhāttistraḥ skandhādideśanāḥ||20|| 聚生門種族是蘊處界義愚根樂三故說蘊處界三. Akk. i. 20; Akbp. Vol. 1, pp.77-81.

3) Instruction by the dhātu is lineage, species source. The eighteen dhātus (elements) consists of ten matters (rūpas) and eight mental (cittas).

(Table 2) Relationship between the Skandha, Āyatana and Dhātu

Twelve Āyatanas Five Skandhas Eighteen Dhātus

1) Eye 1) Eye 2) Ear 2) Ear 3) Nose 3) Nose 1) Form 4) Tongue 4) Tongue 5) Body 5) Body 6) Mind 6) Mind 5) Consciousness 7) Forms 7) Forms

8) Sounds 8) Sounds 9) Smells 9) Smells 10) Tastes 10) Tastes 2) Sensations 11) Tangible objects 11) Tangible objects 12) Mental objects 12) Mental objects 3) Perceptions 13) Eye-consciousness 4) Mental formations 14) Ear- consciousness 15) Nose-consciousness 16) Tongue-consciousness 17) Body -consciousness 18) Mind-consciousness

III.2.2. Objective Classification

As mentioned above, in the Abhidharmakośa as well as in all Buddhist schools the classifications of dharmas are divided into two methods on their classification of things, viz., the subjective and the objective. In the subjective method, all things are divided into three departments: Skandhas, āyatanas, and dhātus. In the objective method, all things are divided into two; conditioned dharma (saṃskṛta-dharma) and unconditioned dharma (asaṃskṛta-dharma).

III.2.2.1. Saṃskṛta Dharma (Conditioned Dharma)

As we classified above, in the objective method the dharmas are divided into two major groups: Saṃskṛta dharma and asaṃskṛta dharma. Etymologically saṃskṛta (sam +kṛ+kta) means ‗done with‘ viz. caused, collected, made up, constituted or conditioned. So the saṃskṛta dharma are those which are caused, conditioned, mundane, temporal, impermanent, non-eternal and associated with āsravas (taints). The asaṃskṛta dharmas are those which are not subject to cause or condition and there are transcendental, unchanging, eternal, inactive and free from the āsravas.133

According to Abhidharmakośa, the saṃskṛta defines as follows: Conditioned, because they are made ‗kṛta‘ by conditions co-existing in assemblage. There is nothing which is produced by a single condition. What is conditioned is what is dependently originated and characterized by four characteristics of the conditioned (saṃskṛta-lakṣaṇāni: jāti, sthiti, jarā, anityatā). These four are real entities belonging to the class of viprayukta-saṃskāra, each a distinct force, which together cause a so- called conditioned dharma to be impermanent, momentary (kṣaṇika). Such as, a dharma is said to be conditioned (saṃskrta) dependent on cause and conditions, arising and ceasing, cause and effect; and acquires the characteristics of the conditioned. A dharma is said to be unconditioned (asaṃskrta) is no arising and ceasing, cause and effect; and acquires the characteristics of the unconditioned.

133 Sāsravā'nāsravā dharmāḥ saṁskṛtā mārgavarjitāḥ| sāsravāḥ āsravāsteṣu yasmātsamanuśerate||4|| Anāsravā mārgasatyaṁtrividhaṁ cāpyasaṁskṛtam| ākāśaṁ dvau nirodhau ca tatrākāśamanāvṛtiḥ||5|| 有漏無漏法除道餘有為於彼漏隨增故說名有漏, 無漏謂道諦及三種無為謂虛空二滅此中空無礙. Akk. i. 4 & 5; Akbp. Vol. 1, pp. 58-9.

According to A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms, the term saṃskṛta-dharma means as follows: ―Saṁskṛta-dharma (有為法) active, creative, productive, functioning, causative, phenomenal, the processes resulting from the laws of karma, verb 有作; opposite of 無為, passive, inert, inactive, non-causative, laisser-faire. It is defined by 造作 to make and associated with saṃskṛta. The three active things 三有為法 are 色 material, or things which have form, 心 mental and 非色非心 neither the one nor the other. The four forms of activity 四有為相 are 生住異滅 coming into existence, abiding, change and extinction; they are also spoken of as three, the two middle terms being treated as having like meaning. 有為果 the result or effect of action. 有為無常 activity implies impermanency. 有為生死 the mortal saṁsāra life of births and deaths, contrasted with 無為生死 effortless mortality, e.g. transformation such as that of the Bodhisattva. 有為空 the unreality of the phenomenal. 有為轉變 the permutations of activity, or phenomena, in arising, abiding, change and extinction.‖134

III.2.2.2. Asaṃskṛta Dharma (Unconditioned Dharma)

According to Abhidharmakośa, the asaṃskṛta-dharma means the unconstituted. There are three kinds of asaṃskṛta-dharmas135 viz. ākāśa (infinite space), pratisaṃkhyā-nirodha (cessation of the impurities by

134 A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms (eds.) by Wiiliam Edward Soothill and Lewis Hohous (2003). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limied, p. 214b. 135 Ak. Pp. 12-18.

means of knowledge or prajñā, pratisaṃkhyā) and apratisaṃkhyā- nirodha (cessation of the impurities by means other than knowledge or pratisaṃkhyā). Two kinds of nirodhas are annihilation by means of discriminating wisdom (pratisaṃkhyā-nirodha) and annihilation not by means of discriminating wisdom (apratisaṃkhyā-nirodha).136

Abhidharmakośa states that, the asaṃskṛta are not subsumable under the skandha taxonomy, from skandha means a heap (rāśi); and unlike rūpa etc., the asaṃskṛta do not form separate heaps of ‗past asaṃskṛta‘, ‗present asaṃskṛta‘, etc. the essential characteristic of the asaṃskṛta dharma is that they are neither temporalized nor specialized. This, however, does not mean that they are not distinctly individuated; rather, they exist as a plurality or real entities (dravya). Being beyond the space-time dimension, they can neither arise nor cease and accordingly are not directly involved in any causal process. Only the past and present saṃskṛta dharmas have the functions of ‗grasping a fruit‘ (phala-grahaṇa) and ‗giving a fruit‘ (phala-dāna). These two functions lack among in the future saṃskṛta dharma as well as the asaṃskṛta dharma. Nevertheless, according to Vasubandhu the saṃskṛta-dharmas are real forces and can have an impact on the human existence (sasvabhāva). Meanwhile, the asaṃskṛta-dharmas are not real but a concept (prajñaptisat) only.137

136 Pratisaṁkhyānirodho yo visaṁyogaḥpṛthak pṛthak| utpādātyantavighno'nyo nirodho'pratisaṁkhyayā||6|| 擇滅謂離繫隨繫事各別畢竟礙當生別得非擇滅. (Akk. i. 6) Akbp. Vol. 1, pp. 59-61. 137 Anāsravā mārgasatyaṁtrividhaṁ cāpyasaṁskṛtam| ākāśaṁ dvau nirodhau ca tatrākāśamanāvṛtiḥ||5|| Saṁskṛtaṁsavisaṁyoga phalaṁ nāsaṁskṛtasya te||55cd| 無漏謂道諦及三種無為謂虛空二滅此中空無礙果有為離繫無為無因果 (Akk. i. 5 & ii. 55cd), Akbp. Vol. 1, p. 59 and p. 278.

In ―A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms”, the term asaṃskṛta- dharma was explained as follows:

―Asaṃskṛta-dharma (無為法) non-active, passive; laisser-faire; spontaneous, natural; uncaused, not subject to cause, condition or dependence; transcendental, not in time, unchanging, eternal, inactive and free from the passions or senses; non-phenomenal, nominal; also interpretation as nirvāṇa, dharma-nature, reality and dharmadhātu. 無為法 asaṃskṛta-dharma, anything not subject to cause, condition or dependence out of time, eternal, inactive, supra-mundane. Sarvāstivādins enumerate three: ākāśa, space or ether; pratisaṁkhyā-nirodha, conscious cessation of the contamination of the passions; apratisaṁkhyā-nirodha, unconscious or effortless cessation. 無為法身 asaṃskṛta- dharmakāya, the eternal body of Buddha not conditioned by cause and effect. 無為涅槃 (界) the realm of the eternal, unconditioned nirvāṇa, the pure land. 無為生死 the birth and death of saints, i.e. without any action; transformation. 無為空 asaṃskṛta śūnyatā, the immaterial character of the transcendent. 無為自然 causeless and spontaneous, a translation of nivṛtti. 無為舍 the nirvāṇa home.‖138

However, the details of the classification of the saṃskṛta and asaṃskṛta accordingly Sarvāstivādins as well as Abhidharmakośa had again classified with the consisting of 75 dharmas. In which the saṃskṛta- dharmas are seventy two in number as follows:

138 A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms (eds.) by Wiiliam Edward Soothill and Lewis Hohous (2003), p. 380b.

1. Rūpa consists of 11 dharma, 2. Citta has only 1 dharma, 3. Cetasika consists of 46 dharma and 4. Citta-viprayukta-saṁskāra consists of 14 dharmas.

The asaṃskṛta-dharmas are three in number as follows:

1. Ākāśa, 2. Pratisaṁkhyā-nirodha and 3. Apratisaṁkhyā-nirodha.

According to Abhidharmakośa, the seventy two saṃskṛta-dharmas constitute the entire universe. The saṃskṛta and asaṃskṛta-dharma together make up the aggregate of the phenomenal world. the relationships between the teachings of the five skandhas, twelve āyatanas and eighteen dhātus (sūtra teachings) and the five categories with seventy five dharmas (abhidharma teachings), connecting early taxonomies to the later, and more developed analysis of the dharma. The above was the general explanation and definition of the concept of dharma in Abhidarmakośa-śastra. In order to know detail information regarding 75 dharmas of saṃskṛta and asaṃskṛta, they are analyzed in the next chapter.