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~® A service of I\!)P HANDBOOK OF PORT AND HARBOR ENGINEERING GEOTECHNICAL AND STRUCTURAL ASPECTS
Gregory P. Tsinker, Ph.D., P.E.
Springer-Science+Business Media, B.V. Cover Design: Andrea Meyer, emDASH inc., New York, NY Cover Photo: Courtesy of Han-Padron Associates, New York, NY
Copyright © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 1997 Originally published by Chapman & Hall in 1997
ISBN 978-1-4757-0865-3 ISBN 978-1-4757-0863-9 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4757-0863-9
All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means-graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information storage and retrieval systems-without the written permission of the publisher.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Tsinker, Gregory P. Handbook of port and harbor engineering : geotechnical and structural aspects I Gregory P. Tsinker. p. em. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4757-0865-3 I. Harbors-Design and construction. 2. Marine geotechnique. I. Title. TC205.T747 1996 627' .2-dc20 95-48487 CIP British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data available
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v contents
Dedication v
Preface xix
Introduction xxv
Contributors xxxvii
1 THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT AND ITS EFFECTS ON PORT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1 1.1.1 General 1 1.1.2 Seawater and Fouling 4
1.2 Water-level Variations 8
1.3 Weather Factors 10
1.4 Wind 12 1.4.1 General 12
vii viii Contents
1.4.2 Wind Parameters 14
1.5 Currents 16
1.6 Waves 19 1.6.1 General 19 1.6.2 The Sea State Parameters 26 1.6.3 Wave Theories 31 1.6.4 Design Wave 33
1.7 Ice 37 1.7.1 Introduction 38 1.7.2 Ice Covers 39 1.7.3 Effects of Ice on Port Operations 47 1.7.4 Cold Temperature and Ice Effects on Marine Structures Design 54
References 61
2 PORT (HARBOR) ELEMENTS: DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND CONSIDERATIONS 69
2.1 General 69 2.1.1 Port Classification 70 2.1.2 Port Details and Definitions 71
2.2 Ships and their Influence on Port Design 73 2.2.1 Ships 73 2.2.2 Ship Influence on Port Design 74
2.3 Access (Navigation) Channel 78 2.3.1 General 78 2.3.2 Navigational and Operational Parameters 79 2.3.3 Environmental Parameters 81 2.3.4 Layout 82 2.3.5 Channel Cross Section 84 2.3.6 Economic Considerations 96 Contents ix
2.4 Port (Harbor) Entrance 98
2.5 Port Water Area (Harbor) 106 2.5.1 Basin Sizes 107
2.6 Location, Orientation, Size, and Shape of the Port 112 2.6.1 Selection of Port Location 112 2.6.2 Size and Orientation of Marine Facilities 115 2.6.3 Harbor Area Requirements 115
2.7 Quay Basin 119
2.8 Offshore Installations 121 2.8.1 Offshore Bottom-Fixed Marine Facilities 121 2.8.2 Single-Point Offshore Moorings 123
2.9 Port-Related Marine Structures 124 2.9.1 Land Requirements 124 2.9.2 Dust and Noise Control 127 2.9.3 Berth Requirements 128 2.9.4 Structures 130 2.9.5 Selection of the Most Cost Effective Structure for Dock Construction 151 2.9.6 Constructability 153
2.10 Structural Materials 154 2.10.1 Structural Concrete 155 2.10.2 Underwater Concreting 172 2.10.3 Precast Concrete 178 2.10.4 Structural Steel in Port Engineering 180 2.10.5 Structural Timber 195
2.11 Breakwaters 198
2.12 In-Harbor Slope Protection 203
2.13 Aids to Navigation 204
2.14 Mooring Accessories 205 x Contents
2.15 Fender Systems 206 2.15.1 Timber Fenders 208 2.15.2 Solid Rubber Fenders 210 2.15.3 Pneumatic Fenders 216 2.15.4 Foam-Filled Fenders 222 2.15.5 Other Fender Systems 222 2.15.6 Fenders Failure 226 2.15.7 General Principles in Fender System Selection and Design 226
References · 232
3 DESIGN LOADS 243
3.1 General 243
3.2 Environmental Loads 244 3.2.1 Wind 245 3.2.2 Currents 248 3.2.3 Waves 251
3.3 Mooring Loads 260 3.3.1 Mooring Lines Arrangement 261 3.3.2 Mooring Line Materials 262 3.3.3 Mooring Forces 262
3.4 Loads From Cargo Handling and Hauling Equipment and Uniform Distributed Loads 267 3.4.1 General Considerations 267 3.4.2 Design Load Assumptions 269 3.4.3 Uniform Distributed Cargo Loads and Miscellaneous Live Loads 271 3.4.4 Rubber Tire and Crawler Track Mounted Equipment 272 3.4.5 Rail-Mounted Cargo 279 3.4.6 Fixed-Base Equipment 282
3.5 Ship Impact (by M. Shiono in collaboration with G. Tsinker) 283
3.6 Ice Loads 293 3.6.1 General 293 3.6.2 Environmental Driving Forces 294 3.6.3 Ice-Crushing Load 295 3.6.4 Loads Due to Ice Bending Mode of Failure 297 Contents xi
3.6.5 Forces Due to Ice Sheet Adfreeze to the Structure 299 3.6.6 Vertical Loads on Piles or Piers Due to Changes in Water Level 300 3.6.7 Ice Load of Thermal Origin 301 3.6.8 Other Ice-Induced Loads 302
3.7 Seismic Loads (by W. S. Dunbar) 302 3.7.1 Seismic Ground Motion 303 3.7.2 Descriptions of Ground Motion 307 3.7.3 Design Ground Motion Estimation 312 3.7.4 Design Loads 318
3.8 Load Combinations 319
References 320
4 GEOTECHNICAL ASPECTS OF SOIL-STRUCTURE INTERACTION DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 331
4.1 General 331
4.2 Subsurface Investigation 333
4.3 Soil Liquefaction and Evaluation of Liquefaction Potential (by G. Tsinker and W. S. Dunbar) 334
4.4 Basic Design and Construction Considerations 342 4.4.1 Modern Trends 342 4.4.2 Bottom-Fixed Structures 343 4.4.3 Safety Considerations 345 4.4.4 Construction Procedure 347
4.5 Soils and Bedrock 348 4.5.1 Gravel and Sand 348 4.5.2 Silt and Clay 349 4.5.3 Bedrock 350
4.6 Properties and Characteristics of Soils 352 4.6.1 Shear Strength 354 4.6.2 Compressibility (Consolidation) 356 4.6.3 Permeability 357 xii Contents
4.7 Lateral Soil Pressure 358 4.7.1 Active Earth Pressure 359 4. 7.2 Effects of Wall Movement 368 4.7.3 Effects of Time-Dependent Changes in Soil 374 4.7.4 Effect of Ambient Temperature on Earth Pressures 376 4. 7.5 Effects of Backfill Freezing 376 4.7.6 Passive Earth Pressure 376 4. 7. 7 Earth Pressure at Rest 380 4.7.8 Compaction-Induced Pressure 381
4.8 Friction Forces on Walls 381
4.9 Dynamic Soil Pressures 382 4.9.1 Mononobe-Okabe Formulation 383 4.9.2 Effect of Saturated Backfill 385 4.9.3 Hydrodynamic Pressures 385 4.9.4 Effect of Wall Inertia 386 4.9.5 Selection of Ground Motions 387 4.9.6 Effect of Wall Movements 387
References 388
5 GRAVITY-TYPEQUAYWALLS 397
5.1 General 397
5.2 Basic Structural Arrangements 403 5.2.1 Blockwork Structures 403 5.2.2 Quay Walls Composed of Floated-in Concrete Caissons 409 5.2.3 Quay Walls Composed of Large-Diameter Cylinders 428 5.2.4 Cribwork Quay Walls 435 5.2.5 Steel Sheet-Pile Cell Bulkheads 439 5.2.6 Quay Walls 446 5.2.7 Gravity-Type Walls 452
5.3 Basic Design Considerations 461 5.3.1 Loads and Forces Load Combinations 461 5.3.2 Basic Static Principles 464
5.4 Design ofBlockwork Quay Walls 478 5.4.1 Basic Design Principles 478 Contents xiii
5.4.2 Design Phase 1 480 5.4.3 Design Phase 2 483 5.4.4 Design Phase 3 484 5.4.5 Design Phase 4 484
5.5 Design of Quay Walls Comprised of Floated-in Concrete Caissons 485 5.5.1 Basic Design Principles 485 5.5.2 Buoyancy and Buoyant Stability of a Caisson 485 5.5.3 Buoyancy and Stability of a Damaged Caisson 489 5.5.4 Caisson Launch 490 5.5.5 Towing and Sinking 496 5.5.6 Structural Design 497
5.6 Design of Quay Walls Composed of Large-Diameter Cylinders 500
5.7 Design ofL-Shaped Walls 504 5.7.1 Basic Requirements 504 5.7.2 Design of Cantilever Walls 506 5.7.3 Design of Counterfort Wall 507 5.7.4 Design of Wall Constructed from Prefabricated Components with Internal Anchorage 508 5.7.5 Design of Wall Constructed from Prefabricated Components with External Anchorage 508
5.8 Design of Cellular-type Steel Sheet-pile Bulkheads 511 5.8.1 Introduction 511 5.8.2 Conventional Design Method 512 5.8.3 Horizontal Shear (Cummings') Method 518 5.8.4 Brinch Hansen Method 519 5.8.5 Seismic Design of Cellular Bulkheads 519 5.8.6 Deflection of Cellular Bulkhead 520 5.8.7 Effects of Concentrated Horizontal Loads on Sheet-Pile Cell 522
5.9 Design ofCribwork-type Quay Walls 522
5.10 Reinforced Earth Quay (by D. Weinreb and P. Wu) 524 5.10.1 General Concept 524 5.10.2 Design of Reinforced Earth Marine Structures 532 5.10.3 Construction of Reinforced Earth Walls Underwater 536
References 542 xiv Contents
6 SHEET-PILE BULKHEADS 549
6.1 Introduction 549 6.1.1 Sheet-Piling-Background 549 6.1.2 Anchoring Systems 552 6.1.3 Sequence of Construction 555
6.2 Sheet-Piling-Structural and Driving Aspects 555 6.2.1 Timber Sheet Piles 556 6.2.2 Steel Sheet Piles 558 6.2.3 Concrete Sheet Piles 561 6.2.4 Selection of Sheet-Pile Section 570
6.3 Anchor Systems 571 6.3.1 Anchor System Comprised of Tie-Rods and Anchorages 572 6.3.2 Anchor System Comprised of Raked Piles 576 6.3.3 Ground (Rock) Anchors 583
6.4 Wall Capping 589
6.5 Construction Methods 591 6.5.1 Construction Sequence 591 6.5.2 Sheet-Pile Driving 592 6.5.3 Pile Jetting 596 6.5.4 Earthwork 602
6.6 Earth Pressures on Flexible Walls: State-of-the-Art Review 606
6.7 Design of Sheet-pile Walls 623 6.7.1 Design Criteria 623 6.7.2 Design of Cantilever Walls 625 6. 7.3 Design of Anchored Bulkheads 630 6.7.4 Design of Sheet-Pile Bulkheads Anchored by Raked Piles 643
6.8 Sheet-Pile Bulkheads Built on Creep Soils 653 6.8.1 Cantilever Sheet-Pile Bulkhead 655 6.8.2 Single-Anchor Sheet-Pile Bulkhead 657 6.8.3 Multianchor Sheet-Pile Bulkhead 661
6.9 Anchorage Design 665 Contents xv
6.9.1 Piled Anchorages 666 6.9.2 Sheet-Pile Anchor Wall 667 6.9.3 Individual Vertical Anchor Piles 669 6.9.4 Deadman (Plate) Anchor 670
6.10 Waling and Tie-Rod Design 672
6.11 Ground (Rock) Anchors 673
6.12 Overall Stability 679
6.13 Seismic Design of Anchored Sheet-Pile Walls (by W. S. Dunbar) 682 6.13.1 Observed Failure Modes 682 6.13.2 Seismic Design Procedure 683 6.13.3 Assumption 683 6.13.4 Factor of Safety Against Failure by Rotation 683 6.13.5 Size and Location of Anchor Block 684 6.13.6 Balanced Design Procedure 685
6.14 Sheet-Pile Wall Failure 686
References 688
7 PILED WATERFRONT STRUCTURES 695
7.1 Introduction 695
7.2 General 697 7.2.1 Structural Schemes and Structural Components 697 7.2.2 Prefabrication 701
7.3 Open Pile Structures With Suspended Decks 701 7.3.1 Open Piled Offshore Piers 702 7.3.2 Piling 710 7.3.3 Suspended Deck Structures for Marginal Wharves 711 7.3.4 Basic Design Principles 712 7.3.5 Suspended Deck Structures Founded on Large-Diameter Cylindrical Piles 718 7.3.6 Protection from Ship Impact 722 xvi Contents
7.3.7 Pile Anchoring in Foundation Soil and the Deck Structure 724
7.4 Relieving Platforms 725
7.5 Structural Elements 734 7.5.1 Pile Foundation 735 7.5.2 Superstructure 776 7.5.3 U nderdeck Slope 782
7.6 Pile-Soil Interaction 795 7.6.1 General 795 7.6.2 Piles Under Axial Static Load 803 7.6.3 Pile Settlement 817
7.7 Laterally Loaded Piles 820 7.7.1 General 820 7.7.2 Conventional Design Methods 822 7.7.3 Broms' Method 826 7. 7.4 Subgrade Reaction Approach 829 7.7.5 Laterally Loaded Socketed Piles 836
7.8 Piled Marine Structures Design Methods 837 7.8.1 Design Criteria 837 7.8.2 Design Methods 838
References 865
8 OFFSHORE DEEP WATER TERMINALS 879
8.2 Layout 881 8.2.1 Dry Bulk Loading/Unloading Facilities 882 8.2.2 Liquid Bulk Loading/Unloading Terminals 886
8.3 Mooring System 888 8.3.1 Basic Structural Concepts 890
8.4 Dolphins and Platforms 893 8.4.1 Breasting Dolphins 893 8.4.2 Piled Breasting Dolphins 895 8.4.3 Gravity-Type Dolphins 896 Contents x:vii
8.4.4 Steel Jacket-Type Structures 898 8.4.5 Fenders 898 8.4.6 Mooring Dolphins 898 8.4.7 Loading/Unloading Platforms 899 8.4.8 Access Trestles and Catwalks 899
8.5 Structural Design 901 8.5.1 Marine Foundation and its Effects on Structural Design 901 8.5.2 Basic Design Procedures 903
References 914
9 MODERNIZATION OF EXISTING MARINE FACILITIES 917
9.1 Introduction 917
9.2 Modernization of Mooring Structures 919 9.2.1 Modernization of Gravity-Type Quay Walls 920 9.2.2 Modernization of Piled Wharves 925 9.2.3 Modernization of Sheet-Pile Bulkheads 925 9.2.4 New Wall Construction 929
9.3 Modernization of Waterfront Structures: Characteristic Examples 930 9.3.1 Gravity-Type Quay Walls 930 9.3.2 Modification of Piled Coal-Loading Pier No. 6 at Norfolk, Virginia 940 9.3.3 Use of Piled Structures and Sheet-Pile Walls for Modernization of Existing Structures 942 9.3.4 Construction of Brand New Structures 949
References 949
10 BREAKWATER DESIGN (by S. Takahashi) 951
10.1 Historic Development of Breakwaters 952 10.1.1 Structural Types 952 10.1.2 Conditions for Breakwater Selection 956 10.1.3 Comparison of Sloping- and Vertical-Type Breakwaters 956 10.1.4 Historical Development of Breakwaters 957
10.2 Design of Conventional Vertical Breakwaters 977 xviii Contents
10.2.1 Examples of Conventional Vertical Breakwaters 977 10.2.2 Wave Transmission and Reflection by Vertical Walls 978 10.2.3 Wave Forces on Vertical Walls 981 10.2.4 Design of Rubble-Mound Foundation 1001 10.2.5 Rubble-Mound Toe Protection Against Scouring 1005
10.. 3 Design of New Types ofVertical Breakwater 1006 10.3.1 Perforated Wall Breakwater 1007 10.3.2 Inclined Walls 1015
10.4 Design of Horizontally Composite Breakwaters 1020 10.4.1 Wave Transmission and Reflection 1021 10.4.2 Wave and Block Load on a Vertical Wall 1022 10.4.3 Stability of Wave-Dissipating Concrete Blocks 1023
10.5 Design of Rubble-Mound Breakwaters 1024 10.5.1 Wave Transmission and Reflection 1025 10.5.2 Design of Armor Layer 1027 10.5.3 Inner Layers, Core, Toe, and Wave Screen 1034
References 1036
Index 1045 Preface
In past 10 years or so several excellent This book has been written to :fill a niche books and handbooks on "Port and Harbors in the existing literature on port and harbor Engineering" and "Coastal and Ocean Engi• engineering and to provide the port design• neering" have been published in Europe and ers, and particularly those concerned with in North America. Reference to these works the design of a port- and harbor-related is made elsewhere in this book. marine structures, with state-of-the-art in• The authors of the aforementioned works formation and common sense guidelines to offer a shrewd and comprehensive discus• the design and construction of the basic sion on the marine environment and its types of marine structures. This book is a effects on port design, port operation, port companion volume to my earlier work Ma• hydraulics, coastal geomorphology, littoral rine · Structures Engineering: Specialized sedimentation, port and shipping drift and Applications published by Chapman & Hall technology and economics, design and con• in 1995. That book covers important sub• struction of a floating port related struc• jects such as the evaluation of capacity of tures, and others. However, proportionally the in-service marine structures and meth• the geotechnical and structural aspects of and maintenance, port construction have been given very lit• ods of their remediation tle attention. This happens, perhaps, be• construction and operation of the marine cause the subject of marine structures engi• structures in cold regions, design and con• neering is very broad by itself; it is a blend struction of a shipyard and related marine that encompasses the array of engineering structures, design of anchored offshore disciplines, e.g., civil, structural, geotechni• moorings and floating breakwaters, design cal, hydraulic, strength of materials, corro• and construction of marinas (small craft sion, naval architecture and others knowl• harbors), and design and construction of edge of which is required to produce a sound marine structures that are used in naviga• and economical design of a modern port or ble waterways for protecting the bridge marine terminal. piers from ship collision. Conversely, this xix xx Preface volume provides the marine structures de• tion principles, and operation of these signer with basic information on the marine structures have been significantly improved environment and its effects on port design by the introduction of new and better fend• and construction (Chapter 1); port elements ering systems and efficient mooring acces• and their effects on port operation (Chapter sories. New and better structural materials 2); design loads and their combinations that have also been introduced. For example, are commonly used to design waterfront modern concrete technology now enables the structures (Chapter 3); information on the engineer to use durable high-strength con• phenomenon of soil I structure interaction crete, highly resistant to deterioration in that explains basic principles that affect harsh marine environments. New and bet• soil lateral thrust against rigid and flexible ter repair procedures and rehabilitation soil retaining structures (Chapter 4); design techniques for port structures have also of gravity quay walls, sheet pile bulkheads, been introduced. and piled marine structures (Chapters 5, 6 Progress in development of new marine and 7); basic principles of design of the structures and modernization of existing offshore marine terminals (Chapter 8); structures was based on advances in ana• modernization of the existing waterfront lytical design methods as well as on result structure that makes them usable in mod• of numerous scale-model tests and field in• ern port operations (Chapter 9); and design vestigations conducted all over the world. and construction of breakwaters (Chapter Today, marine structure design is a unique 10). discipline in the field of civil engineering In both books each chapter includes a that is based on the use of highly advanced comprehensive list of relevant cross-refer• methods of soil foundation investigation and ences intended to help the interested reader thorough understanding of the principles of to study the subject in additional depth. soiljstructure interaction in the marine en• In this book I have attempted to provide vironment. the reader with a clear understanding of Recently sophisticated computational the phenomenon of interaction between the procedures and mathematical models have environmental agents such as waves, cur• been developed and used for design of vari• rents, and wind as well as harbor soils and ous marine structures. It must be stressed, backfill materials with bottom-fixed marine however, that in many cases the diverse structures. and complex geology at various port loca• During my long career as a practicing tions results in a wide variety of geotechni• waterfront consultant and port engineer cal environments. Such conditions require a considerable progress has occurred in the careful approach to selection of structure field of design and construction of port- and type and use of the appropriate design navigation-related marine structures. method, which should not necessarily be Progress in port design, and in particular highly sophisticated. It is a misconception design of waterfront structures, has been that sophisticated computer analysis, with strongly influenced by the dramatic changes its greater accuracy, will automatically lead in vessel sizes and in modes of modern to better design. Despite the highly sophis• terminal operation. Multipurpose ports have ticated analytical methods available today, been replaced by more specialized termi• the marine structural designer must be nals, which result in dramatic effects on aware that the design is not merely a stress both the design of berth structures and lay• analysis process. Use of computers has not out of the terminal. Furthermore, marine diminished the value of some hand calcula• structures for various purposes have been tions. In fact, many questions about marine developed using new design and construe- structure engineering are still best an- Preface xxi swered with simple, often empirically based, cialized marine terminals. During the same but practical formulas. period of time the nature of port traffic has Computers have revolutionized the pro• changed markedly rendering some older fa• cess of structural engineering and greatly cilities unsuitable for today's operations. increased productivity of engineering firms. The obvious example is the emphatic shift Computer-aided analyses are of great help to containerization of literally all types of when used in the proper context, for exam• cargoes and transportation of containerized ple, when modeling of the structure is cor• goods in ever larger vessels. Similar devel• rect, the real boundary conditions are taken opments have occurred in transporting of into account and most of all when the out• huge volumes of liquid and dry bulk com• put is examined and interpreted by an ex• modities; sizes of the vessels that now perienced engineer. However, some critics transport these cargoes reached 500,000 observed a "rapid deteriorating competency DWT and more. Obviously, these giant ves• on the part of the engineering community sels require deeper approach channels; as a consequence of using computers" and larger harbor basins; deep water quays; found "a serious lack of critical evaluation gantry cranes with greater height clear• ability in many of the young engineers ... ance, outreach, and lifting capacity; special• (which) put an inordinate amount of faith ized terminals with appropriate handling in the computer" (ENR, October 28, 1991). equipment; and so on. This gives obvious The worrisome trend in the present de• impetus to global modernization of existing sign and construction practices is that some ports as well as to construction of new ports inexperienced, however, highly competent and terminals that can accommodate the in the use of computers, engineers consider modern maritime traffic. themselves "instant experts" ready to ana• Large capital investments into ports de• lyze and design anything. velopment have been made in 1960s through The marine structures designer should 1980s and many experts predict that this realize that formulation of the mathemati• trend will continue through 1990s and far cal approach used for structural analysis beyond into the 21st century. must be practical and compatible with Much of the capital spent on port devel• available engineering data, for example, opment is allocated for construction, opera• shearing strength and consolidation charac• tion, and maintenance of its marine facili• teristics of the foundation and backfill soils, ties. Therefore, economical design of these environmental and live loads, etc. However, facilities can save a lot of money needed for sometimes even when analytically correct port development. results are obtained, the inexperienced en• Successful design of any project is based gineer can make errors by neglecting some on three pillars; they are practical aspects related to constructibility, for example, how to fabricate or how to get • intelligence the structural component in place. • education To avoid the disastrous consequences of • experience. such designs experienced engineers must spend sufficient time helping their less ex• The latter two assume thorough knowledge perienced colleagues to prepare the mathe• of a subject matter and the most recent matical models and review the computer developments in the area of interest. Unfor• output. tunately, all too frequently good and less The 1980s and 1990s have become known costly engineering solutions are not used for global modernization of existing ports because of the lack of familiarity on a part and construction of new high capacity spe- of the designer. On the other hand, use of a xxii Preface
"text book" solution to solve the problem This book has been 7 years in prepara• may also be counterproductive. tion. I have drawn from more than 40 years The subject of marine engineering is a of my own experience as a marine engineer field where ingenuity can achieve consider• and scientist involved with research and all able savings. Every project is site specific practical aspects of structural design, con• and therefore no engineer should be content struction, and project management. Also, merely to follow anothers designs but should worldwide experience has been examined study such designs and use them as a start• and the best of it is included in this work. ing point for developing his or her own Subsequently, acknowledgments of mate• ideas that are best suitable for the particu• rial used in this book are given in the ap• lar site conditions. propriate places in the text and figures. I AB noted earlier the science and practice wish to extend my deepest gratitude to all of port and harbor engineering draw from the publishers, authors, and organizations various disciplines and cover a broad area from whom material for this work has been of interrelated subjects. This book offers ba• drawn. sically geotechnical and structural aspects This volume is not a one-man job. I am of port and harbor engineering, and no at• deeply indebted to many experienced indi• tempt has been made to include all detailed viduals who have contributed material and analytical procedures from these interre• comments to this project. In attempting to lated disciplines, for example, dredging, port make this work most helpful and useful I operation and maintenance, etc. However, have drawn from sources including the where relevant, all efforts have been made knowledge and experience of my former col• to provide the reader with a considerable leagues at Acres International Limited, who cross-reference on the interrelated subjects; assisted in a variety of ways: Dr. W. S. this includes the most recently published Dunbar contributed information on books, papers from the journals of profes• seismic-induced loads, potentials for soil sional engineering societies, and the pro• liquefaction, soil dynamic loads upon re• ceedings of specialty conferences. taining structures, design of a soil retaining The design procedures and guidelines structures for seismic loading and also re• contained in this book are intended to point viewed several chapters and helped in edit• out the complexity of the particular prob• ing the book; Mr. R. G. Tanner has reviewed lem and illustrate factors that should be several chapters and offered useful com• considered and included in an appropriate ments; special gratitude goes to Mr. D. Pro• design scenario. They should not be used tulipac who dedicated a great deal of his indiscriminately and particularly not for the time to editing most of the text. detailed design, and should always be com• I wish to extend my gratitude and ac• bined with good engineering judgment. As knowledge a stimulating and enjoyable col• noted earlier, this work has been conceived laboration with: Mr. M. Shiono, Deputy as a two-part treatise in which I have at• General Manager-Research and Develop• tempted to provide marine structures de• ment, Sumitonio Rubber Industries, Kobe, signers with state-of-the-art information Japan who contributed information on rub• and common sense guidelines to the design ber fender systems; Dr. S. Takahashi, Chief of basic types of marine structures associ• of Maritime Structures Laboratory, Port ated with port activities. and Harbour Research Institute, Yokosuka, This book is designed to serve as both a Japan, who contributed Chapter 10 guide and a reference for practicing marine "Breakwater Design"; Dr. M. Gurinsky, Pro• and geotechnical engineers and a text for ject Engineer for Hardesty & Hanover Con• graduate students and others seeking to sulting Engineers, New York, N.Y., who enter the field of marine engineering. contributed Section 6.8, "Sheet Pile Bulk- Preface xxiii heads Built Upon Creep Soils"; Mr. D. ject and extend my deepest gratitude to Mr. Weinreb and Mr. P. Wu, both vice presi• M. Shiono and Mr. Ed Patrick of Sumitomo dents for Reinforced Earth Company, Ltd., Canada for their support. I also wish to Rexdale, Ontario, who contributed Section thank my publisher, Chapman & Hall, for 5.10, "Reinforced Earth Quay Walls. full cooperation. I extend my deepest gratitude to my good Finally, special thanks are due to my friend Roman Glusman for his invaluable wife Nora, for her valuable assistance dur• help with preparation of some illustrations ing preparation of the manuscript copy, but and Ms. L. Dunn, who typed the manuscript most important, for patiently tolerating me and dealt ably with many difficulties in the during the preparation of both volumes. process. I wish to thank Sumitomo Rubber Industries, Ltd. for sponsorship of this pro- GREGORY P. TSINKER Introduction
Ports-Their Past. Present. and Future
Maritime transportation has generally been traffic increased, the existing river ports the most convenient and least expensive became overcrowded, and in order to permit means of transporting goods, and this is more ships to berth and at the same time to why mankind, since ancient times, has been keep the river usable for more ships, piers steadily extending its activities into this had to be constructed along river banks. area. This stage may be seen as the beginning The history of maritime transportation of the development of modern ports. The and port development dates back to the ever-increasing demand for shipping and year 3500 B.C. and beyond. Over centuries, port facilities resulted in construction of the transport of goods by means of water trans• first open-sea ports. Four to five thousand portation has been evolved in steps with the years ago the Phoenicians established open• needs of world trade and technical capabili• sea ports along the Mediterranean coast• ties to build larger ships and shipI cargo line, and the Romans built the famous naval handling facilities. port near Rome on the Tiber River at Ostia. Initially, waterborne traffic has existed By the end of the first century A.D. a num• on a local basis where small ships sailed out ber of large ports had been constructed in of river ports for other nearby river ports the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, and the located in the same river system. With ad• Persian Gulf. vancing navigational skills the merchants Unfortunately, many of these old ports ventured greater and greater distances. and harbors have disappeared, either being Thus, larger ships transporting larger destroyed during the wars, buried by earth• quantities of goods have emerged. As ship quakes, or just through neglect and deca-
XXV xxvi Ports-Their Past, Present, and Future dence. Some of these ports are known from methods and technologies for handling and old documents and others have been discov• hauling of miscellaneous cargoes. However, ered by archaeologists. As pointed out by in the 1880s many kinds of cargos were still DuPlat Taylor (1949), these ports have been handled manually as it had been for cen• well planned and effectively executed. turies. Cargoes that consisted basically of The description of different methods of bags, bales, bundles, barrels, cases, cartons, port construction in earlier centuries, drums, pieces of timber, steel, and so forth specifically in the Roman Empire, that in• have been moved manually in the ship, on clude the use of tongue and grooved, lami• the quay, in the shed, and in the ware• nated, and various other types of sheet pil• house, sometimes ''humped" on the back. ing, and large stone blocks are found in This created a heavy demand for labor treaties by Roman architects (Leimdorfer, which fluctuated greatly with the arrival 1979). and departure of ships. Thus, if the ships As ship navigators developed more skill were to be turned round efficiently and eco• and fears of unknown waters gradually dis• nomically, a big pool of casual laborers was appeared, merchant mariners, in addition necessary. to trade between river ports on their own In the late 1880s, ships still continued coasts, started sailing the high seas, bring• their transition from sail to steam engine. ing goods from country to country and from The capacity of these vessels was a few continent to continent. The interchange of thousand tonnes and their draft less than goods and later of raw materials between 6 m. As ships changed, so did the ports that countries and continents reached by mar• served them. itime traffic as well as the development of In many ports, the finger pier was the powerful navy fleets brought about develop• most characteristic type of berth construc• ment of large sea ports; this subsequently tion. Typically, goods were stored there in gave birth to large cities built around these warehouses located in close proximity to ports. the berth line and were taken in and out of Many modern cities have been built and port by horse and cart. expanded around medieval ports located on The shift to mechanized handling of car• the open sea, bays, estuaries, sounds, and goes in ports began in the early 1900s. This rivers. Examples are London, Rotterdam, was largely dictated by the growing volume Hamburg, and many others. However, it of maritime traffic and changing size of was not until the 1880s that a revival of ships. By the 1920s most of the general interest in port works reappeared. cargo ships were using onboard booms to Port developments and their evolution move cargo by the sling-load method. The has started, motivated by both economic trend toward the growth of ship size coin• and technological pressures that resulted cided with construction of vessels special• from the global industrial revolution. At this ized in transporting a certain type of cargo time, the size, diversity, and complexity of (e.g., general purpose commodities, dry and ports changed dramatically. To a great ex• liquid bulk cargoes, and others). Naturally, tent this have been influenced by the new developments in a ship industry in• changing nature of ships, for example, the evitably brought about innovations in cargo transition from ships made from wood to handling and hauling technologies, the most steel and the introduction and rapid devel• radical of which was introduction of a quay opment of steamboats, and by the demand edge cranes. that greater volumes of cargo be handled at World War 11-inspired inventiveness took ports more rapidly. The latter stimulated mechanization of cargo handling one step the development of more and more efficient forward by the introduction offorklift trucks Ports-Their Past, Present, and Future xxvii and pallets that enabled the general-pur• developed and used extensively. This pose cargoes to be moved faster. In postwar method allows containers, but also cars, years, pallets have been standardized inter• tracks, trains, and so forth, to roll on ships nationally by International Standard Orga• via large stern or side ramps. nization (ISO) (1992). The ISO Committee The advent of containers completely stipulated that the maximum permissible overshadowed cargo handling on pallets. width of road vehicles (then mostly flat and The introduction of container systems for open) must be about 245 em; thus, all stan• transporting goods revolutionized sea and dard pallets had one dimension, of which land transport and cargo handling methods; 245 em was a multiple, so that they could ship turnaround time was reduced spectac• be stowed across open vehicles without ularly and speed, efficiency, and safety of wasting space. The use of forklift vehicles handling all types of containerized cargoes and pallets was very rapidly developed in increased dramatically. This new technol• industry all over the world, and palletized ogy drastically changed the approach to port loads occupied the steadily increasing vol• planning. In most ports, a previously very ume of ship holds. This, however, changed effective pier system was disused as general drastically in the not too distant future. cargo operations have been moved to the The shift to new technologies occurred in usually remote, high-volume container fa• the 1950s with the introduction of container cilities with their large paved container ships built to transport large freight con• storage areas and relatively few berths. tainers. These modern specialized ports and termi• Containers were soon standardized by nals tie directly into upland staging areas ISO internationally to 20 or 40 ft in length (marshalling yards) with multimodal links (6.06 m or 12.19 m) with the outside width to several cities, a region, or the entire and height being 8 ft (2.44 m). At the pres• country. ent time, the empty weight of a modern Traditionally, ports have been developed 20-ft container ranges from 19 to 22 kN in natural habors and, as mentioned ear• with maximum permitted total weight of lier, have formed the nuclei for many cities. 240 kN. The empty weight of a 40-ft con• Today, ports and marine terminals are built tainer ranges from 28 to 36 kN with a wherever they can be economically justified. maximum permitted total weight of305 kN. The need for large open areas to accommo• Initially, containers have been handled date a modern container facility has in• by conventional quay edge cranes. The first duced ports to move to the periphery of specially designed container crane was in• cities and often on poor quality land. The troduced in 1959, and over the last 30 years, latter usually presents a challenge to port container handling cranes have grown. in designers and has been an area of major size and handling capacity. The need for controversy related mostly to dredging and efficient handling of containers stimulated disposal of the contaminated dredged soils. the development of new equipment, such as Alternatives to dredging have been found in straddle carriers, heavy lift forklift trucks, constructing offshore island ports and mov• gantry cranes, special tractors, and others. ing the up-river shallow draft ports down Older forklift trucks used for handling gen• river, to deeper waters. eral cargo and pallets had lifting capacities Dramatic changes have also occurred in of 30-80 kN. In contrast, today's new fork• the handling of liquid and dry bulk cargoes. lifts for container handling have capacities Movements of liquid bulk petroleum prod• up to 450 kN. ucts by ship started in the 1880s when During the last 25 years, the roll-onjroll• special tanks were mounted onto existing offmethod of handling containers have been vessels. Prior to this, the only means of xxviii Ports-Their Past, Present, and Future moving liquids was in barrels, which was needed. In some instances the terminals not a very efficient way of transporting have been moved as far as 2 km or more ever-increasing quantities as mankind offshore and have been linked to the shore moved into the petroleum age. either by a bridgelike trestle, designed to Since the introduction of the first tank• support pipe lines or conveyor systems and mounted vessels, the procedure and method to provide access to the terminal for of liquid bulk handling has not changed in lightweight vehicular traffic or by subma• principle 100 years later; however, techni• rine pipelines. In some instances, particu• cal improvements in this area have been larly in heavily populated areas where local spectacular. The capacity of liquid bulk car• residents object to the construction of con• riers (tankers) in the 1940s has reached ventional trestles as an unacceptable "vis• 22,000 DWT and at the present time ual pollution," submarine tunnels have been 500,000-DWT tankers ply the oceans. To• constructed as a solution to the problem. day, several shipyards in Europe and Asia The modern port is developed as an im• have the capacity to build 1,000,000-DWT portant link in a total transportation sys• tankers. tem and planners of such multimodal sys• Similar developments have occurred in tems seek to optimize the total network, not the transportation of dry bulk materials. just one of its components. Bulk carriers have lagged but tracked Construction of a new port, or expansion tanker growth, and, similarly, tankers may or modernization of an existing one, is usu• also be expected to grow in the future. The ally carried out to increase port capacity use oflarge and very large deep draft ships and its effectiveness. Traditionally, this has for transporting liquid and dry bulk materi• been focused on the sea, and, consequently, als and the material hauling innovations construction of new berths and moderniza• have changed the nature of the modern tion and expansion of existing ones was the port. Ports actually become a highly special• prime area of interest. However, as urban ized terminals able to handle the one spe• coastal areas, particularly in developed cific cargo at very high rates; for example, countries, have substantially expanded over loading of up to 20,000 tonnesjh and more the last five decades, while concurrently in• of dry bulk, and 220,000 m 3 of crude oil per ternational trade has increased and con• day; thus, annual throughput of tens of mil• tinue to expand, making the world more lions of tonnes has been achieved. and more economically interdependent, the Deep draft vessels need deep water ports. port land-side capacity to transfer the cargo It has been learned, however, that the con• from the wharf to the end user has become ventional approach to construction of such increasingly critical. In some densely popu• ports, involving dredging of large quantities lated areas, the available transportation of sometimes contaminated sediments, can network (e.g., highway and rail) is limited be prohibitively expensive. The solution has to moving a certain amount of cargo and been found in the construction of offshore cannot be expanded further. Under these marine facilities not protected from the ef• conditions there is no logic in increasing the fects of environmental forces such as waves existing port capacity, unless the land-side and currents. At these facilities, the low transportation infrastructure is equally ca• berth occupancy due to rough sea condi• pable of moving the increased volume of tions has been compensated for by a very cargo through the land-based transporta• high rate of material handling on calm days. tion network. These facilities have been constructed far In this respect, to avoid a waterfront con• enough offshore where sufficiently deep wa• flict, many countries have developed a mas• ter is found and no maintenance dredging is ter plan for its major ports. For example, in Ports-Their Past, Present, and Future xxix
Canada, both the Canada Ports Corporation sist of 75% manufactured goods as opposed (a Canadian Crown Corporation) and indi• to export of raw materials and this trend is vidual ports have developed land use plans characteristic of most countries in South and economic impact assessment in cooper• East Asia. Wider, nonstandard container ation with the cities and local special-inter• are already the reality, and the trend for est groups which interface with port activi• use of larger containers will continue. New ties (Gaudreault, 1989). container sizes will inevitably have great In the view of many experts, moderniza• impact on the design of new containerships tion of existing ports will continue and many and the container handling technologies. new ports will be developed in the 1990s The most radical and far-reaching and beyond due to major expansion of the changes in container terminal technology world economy. The latter is result of dra• will be their continuing automation which matic growth of the world population, gen• will lower manpower requirements and op• eral industrial growth, and growth of erating costs, increase control, and speed petroleum and mineral material industries. the flow of goods through the ports. Future The real value of world trade will con• terminals will be more flexible and easily tinue to grow. The new North American adaptable to changes in the world's econ• Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) between omy resulting in cyclic changes in demands. the United States, Canada, and Mexico and Alternatives to dredging and construc• new improved GATT treaty arrangements tion of deep water ports will be design of are expected to encourage similar agree• wider vessels with lesser drafts. The impor• ments elsewhere in the world that will tant new development in port operations eventually result in the total world market that occur about three decades ago was the free from protectionism and · immune to virtual disappearance of the true passenger destabilizing political upheaval in some re• liners; the cruise industry has emerged to gions. As pointed out by Barker (1990/1991) in future trade, replace it. Today, the passenger trade exists basically on local lines on inland waterways and between coastal ports . . . . the exporters will seek to increase the Cruise vessels, to date, have continued to added value of their trade, which will tend to reduce tonnages of raw commodities and in• look like liner vessels, notwithstanding that crease those in partially or fully processed speed is no longer of paramount impor• materials. Thus increasingly refined tance. Cushing (1989) predicts that cruise petroleum products, chemicals, alumina or vessels will change; they will become larger, aluminum ingots or aluminum products, steel slower moving floating resorts. products, vehicles, sawn and processed tim• The new ideas in port operations will ber products, processed agricultural commodi• bring new engineering and construction ties and such-like will be the cargoes rather ideas in their wake. As pointed out by than the basic raw commodities. These are more valuable and readily damaged cargoes Hochstein (1992), the nontechnical aspects which require more careful handling and stor• of port performance, such as commercializa• age. The trend to more specialized vessels tion, liberalization, and privatization, along such as reefer, parcel tanker, car carriers and with improvements of port administration roll-onjroll-off will continue and many of the will continue to contribute to the institu• processed cargoes will end up being handled tional restructuring and drastic improve• in containers. ments in port operations. Commercialization gives to the port au• This trend is already quite visible in Asia. thorities freedom similar to the private sec• For example, today, Thailand's exports con- tor where decision making is decentralized xxx Ports-Their Past, Present, and Future and management is held accountable for erate in the 1990s. Also, today it is most port performance. apparent in Asia. Liberalization lessens the port authori• Improvement of port administration en• ties' monopoly on power by allowing the compasses actions that improve the perfor• private sector to provide similar services mance of the organization. It may include and is complementary to commercialization. corporate planning and carrier develop• Privatization transfers functions previ• ment, as well as installation and constant ously performed by the port authority modernization of a computerized manage• (government) to private sector. It may in• ment information systems that enhances volve transfer of full or partial ownership of management without changing the port's port facilities, or it may be limited to pri• institutional structure. vate sector management practices for the Recent experience in ports worldwide provision of port services via lease and op• suggest that commercialization and privati• erating contracts. Privatization usually as• zation are the most far-reaching and effec• sociates with eliminated subsidies and re• tive strategies to achieve the objective of duced costs of port operation. port effectiveness. The privatization of ports brings greatly In conclusion to this section it should be enhanced commercial freedom to port man• noted that the future is not possible with• agers and is recognized as one way to react out thorough familiarity with the past which more positively to market opportunities and is a true foundation for new ideas. As Tooth use human incentives, based on personal . (1989) rightfully said, "The past is not just gains and improvements, to increase effi• something out of date, it is a record of human experience-an experience is cer• ciency of the port operations. This trend is tainly something which should be used to natural and will continue both in developed help shape the future." and developing countries. For more information on port develop• It must be recognized, however, that ments the reader is referred to Dally (1981), ports and harbors are built and operate Cushing (1989), Clearwater (1992), Thom• within a certain societal framework that son (1992), and PIANC (1987, 1989, 1990). includes an array of political, financial, en• vironmental, and other considerations. Therefore, the port planner must have a Engineering Advancement in Port clear understanding of local technical and Design and construction nontechnical issues. For example, in some The primary construction materials that developing countries, existing or new ports were used for construction of older marine are not solely an industrial development facilities were wood and stone. They were but also enterprises aimed at solving some worked by hand and used for construction regional, social, or demographical problems. of sheet-pile bulkheads, piled piers, quay Therefore, a careful approach to port priva• walls, breakwaters, and other structures. tization is needed in developing countries. Wooden sheet piles and regular piles were The latter assumes that although commer• driven by using primitive power equipment, cial spirit there must not be discouraged, and stone was placed from crude construc• the commercial approach to port operations tion platforms. in some developing countries should not More than five centuries ago the Phoeni• pursue a short-term financial gain. cians extensively used wooden sheet piles In Europe, port privatization has been and piles for construction of their marine successfully introduced in the 1980s in the facilities. For sheet-piling they used long United Kingdom where it is likely to accel- planks made from Lebanon cedar. Various Ports-Their Past, Present, and Future :xxxi types of timber sheet-piling techniques (e.g., destroy wood. The same is true for wooden tongue and groove, laminated, and others) piles. were used. These piles were driven succes• Cast-iron piles became complementary to sively edge to edge to form a vertical wall timber piling in the early 1800s (Borthwick, for the purpose of preventing the retained 1936). The earliest reported use of iron sheet materials from spreading and from being piles was construction of the North Pier of undermined by the action of waves and cur• Bridlington harbor, the United Kingdom, in rent. This type of construction was also the early 1820s (Mackley, 1977). Various known to ancient Egyptians and Romans. types of iron sheet-pile sections were avail• The Phoenicians also used heavy blocks able at that time, and a considerable locked together with copper dowels for con• amount of exploratory work was carried out struction of the open-sea port at Tyre. This in order to develop the most economical type of construction was also used by the profile. Cast iron, however, as a material Romans. In the 1800s, both materials still had limitations primarily because of its vul• played a major role in port construction. nerability to brittle fracture during driving A great variety of gravity-type walls con• in hard soils. Typically, wrought-iron piles structed from rubble masonry or heavy were used in a composite riveted form and granite or limestone blocks have been built were based primarily on the fitting of plates during the 1880s. The history of heavy between suitable guides or against sup• blockwork construction is traced back to ports. ports in Mediterranean, at Marseilles and In 1897 a Danish engineer, Larssen, rev• Algiers, with much of this pioneering work olutionized the use of iron sheet piles by being carried out at the Port-of-Bonqie, Al• introducing a new pile section which was geria where a quay wall composed C!f lime• developed from a rolled trough section plus stone blocks had been built as far back as a riveted "z" section, to form an interlock; 1840. During the same period of time, wood this shape is very familiar in modern con• was extensively used for the construction of struction. piled wharves and piers, as well as for grav• In 1914 Larssen also introduced the first ity-type quays comprised of floated-in tim• deep-arch section in which interlocks were ber cribs with or without a masonry super• situated in the neutral axis of the complete structure. section; thus, their material bulk did not It should be noted that improved and influence the bending moment to be taken economically sound blockwork quay walls up. are still in use. Details are provided in Larssen's inventions and modifications Chapter 5. Today, timber cribs are used helped to greatly increase the capacity and where wood is in abundance, and timber effectiveness of sheet piles in their ability to sheet-pile bulkheads made from treated resist earth and water pressures. Increased wood have been constructed elsewhere, par• pile stiffness enabled it to be driven without ticularly in coastal regions as a secondary buckling or springing under the blows of line of shore defense in ocean-exposed loca• the driving hammer, increased water-tight• tions and for construction of low-height ma• ness of the sheeting prevented seepage rine structures in small-craft harbors. through the wall, and, most importantly, Well-treated timber sheeting is also em• efficient use of rolling mills produced an ployed in permanent structures where it is economical section with interlocks. always hidden under water, thus preserved At the beginning of this century, both from rot, and at locations where there is no wood and iron have been replaced by steel marine organisms (e.g., borers) which can and reinforced concrete. The first sheet pile xxxii Ports-Their Past, Present, and Future ever made from a rolled section was used in crete in the tension zone is thereby largely Chicago in 1901; it was called the Jackson eliminated and the danger of corrosion of pile. This was followed by the rather fast reinforcement is decreased. development of numerous straight or trough The same applies to regular concrete piles sections of steel piles that were produced that are extensively used in marine applica• around the world, either with integral lock• tion. The advantage of piled structures is ing arrangements or with a separate inter• that they enable practically free passage of locking member. waves, which makes them particularly at• The first steel "z"-shaped sheet piling tractive for construction of the deep water known as the Hoesch system was intro• offshore terminals. duced in Belgium in 1913. In comparison A great variety of concrete and steel piles with other sections, this type of piling was have been developed and used from the stiffer and had a higher section modulus at beginning of this century. The wide variety equal weight with other piling systems. of these piles is discussed in Chapter 7. Since this time, various combinations of The most significant development in this different piling systems and various types area is the use of large-diameter (up to of box piles (H-section) have been intro• 3.0 m and more), very long (60 m and longer) duced in North America and Europe. At prestressed concrete and steel cylindrical present, a variety of high-strength sheet• piles. Depending on geotechnical site condi• pile sections are available from different tions, these piles can be installed by differ• pile manufacturers. ent methods (e.g., driven by hammer, vibra• In addition to the above-mentioned piles, tor, hydraulically, or a combination of some relatively low sectional modulus straight of these). It should be pointed out that the web steel sheet piles are often used in ma• vibratory hammers introduced in the fifties rine application for construction of and sixties changed the basic way piles had cellular-type bulkheads. These piles were been driven since the late 1800s. New hy• first manufactured and used in the United draulically operated hammers enable the States in 1908/1909. constructors to drive piles under water. It should be noted that steel pipe-type Similarly, very large floating and jack-up sheet piles are now coming into widespread pile-driving equipment was developed and use for deep water construction where a used for pile installation at exposed off• sheeting of greater strength is required. shore locations. An array of piles with en• Reinforced concrete sheet piles have been hanced bearing capacities have been devel• used in harbor construction since the begin• oped; for example, screw piles of different ning of this century. They are usually con• designs, prefabricated piles with enlarge• sidered relatively maintenance-free compo• ments on their shafts, belled piles, and other nents of a sheet-pile wall. Although many have been s~ccessfully used in port and different design types have been developed offshore construction. and used in the past 50 or so years, the High-strength steel and prestressed con• straight web piling bar provided with a crete allow the port designers and construc• tongue and groove, similar to that used on tors the flexibility to design for greater timber piles, is the most commonly used. depth, longer spans and higher capacity. Since the 1950s, prestressed concrete sheet For example, general cargo wharves are now piles have replaced almost completely the routinely designed for 5.0 tonnesjm2, up ones made from regular reinforced concrete. from 2.0 tonnesjm2 60-70 years ago. Prestressing of concrete sheet-pile rein• Galvanization and the use of protective forcement has an advantage, especially in coatings, such as epoxy, which came into seawater environment, as cracking of con- use in the 1950s increased the longevity of Ports-Their Past, Present, and Future xxxiii marine structures. Epoxies are also used by An economical solution to gravity wall constructors for splicing concrete structural construction in the wet was also achieved elements in the field. by use of the traditional structures such as Remarkable progress has been achieved a large-diameter steel sheet-pile cell, a con• in concrete technology. Today's structural ventional boxlike floated-in concrete cais• concrete is indeed a mixture of admixtures. son, and blockwork walls of enhanced de• Products such as superplasticizers, re• signs. tarders, accelerators, air entrainers, and The economy of gravity wall construction others allow concrete pours in cold temper• was significantly improved by using innova• ature or hot weather. A denser and higher tive methods of bed preparation and place• quality product is obtained by use of silica ment and densification of backfill materials. fume in a slurry or powdered form. Silica Detailed information on this subject is given fume can substantially increase strength in Chapter 5. and density of concrete and make it virtu• Waterfront construction was accelerated ally impervious to chloride penetration in by the use of prefabricated structural com• the harsh marine environment. Further• ponents. Prefabrication dramatically re• more, use of corrosion inhibitors may slow duced the time required for overwater con• down the potential onset of corrosion in struction and enhanced quality and there• steel reinforcing bars. fore longevity of marine structures. Development of huge floating heavy lift The design of any project is a continuous equipment revolutionized the construction process, which begins with the perception of a need or opportunity, followed by a feasi• of gravity-type quay walls and breakwaters. bility study that usually includes a concep• These structures, generally built in water tual design, and embedded by the detail depths of 6-9 m in the late 1800s, are now design. The latter is followed by the con• constructed at depths of 25 m and below. struction of the project with subsequent Finally, it should be pointed out that in commissioning. Furthermore, where re• the past 30-40 years primitive fenders used quired to support the basic concept of the for protection of marine structures from ship project (e.g., harbor layout) or permit inno• impact have been replaced by very efficient vative structural designs to be used with high-energy-absorbing and low-reaction• confidence, research is undertaken. force rubber fender systems. At the present In the past, port and its related marine time, fender units are manufactured from structures have been designed with a high solid a,nd laminated rubber in different degree of redundancy, largely because of shapes and sizes. They are also manufac• the relatively rapid deterioration rate of tured in the form of a low-pressure inflated structural materials in the marine environ• balloon (pneumatic fenders), or as a closed• ment, but also due to a lack of proper cell foam filled unit. The pneumatic fender understanding of wave mechanics, mecha• units have been manufactured up to 4.0 m nisms of ship-structure andjor soil-struc• in diameter and 12.0 m long. ture interaction. The latter was particularly In modern marine engineering practice, true in designing a "flexible" structure such a number of innovative and economical as sheet-pile bulkheads. gravity-type quay walls have been em• In the past 50 years, substantial progress ployed. Among them are concrete large• has been achieved in such areas as the diameter floated-in caissons, bottomless development of new, much stronger and concrete cylinders, and prefabricated L• more durable structural materials, the in• shaped retaining walls of miscellaneous de• troduction of better construction tech• signs. nology, and a better understanding of the xxxiv Ports-Their Past, Present, and Future process of soil-structure interaction. Thus, (CAD) open opportunities for transition research and development directly or indi• from traditional two-dimensional (2-D) de• rectly became the integral part of the de• sign to three-dimensional (3-D) design. This sign process. has been made feasible by the rapid ad• The design of port layout with its related vances in computer-graphics hardware structures such as breakwaters, piers, and which now permits full 3-D CAD models to quay walls normally involves a great num• be displayed quickly and effectively, with ber of parameters that are generally consid• hidden lines removed or with shading; 3-D ered to be far beyond the ability of purely computer models can be viewed from any analytical methods to achieve the reliable angle and viewpoint, in orthographic, iso• solution. This has been overcome by use of metric, perspective, or cutaway views. This large-scale physical models, which appear helps to make. the project aesthetically more to be a viable tool in solving a complex acceptable to the community and overcome multiparameter problem. the public resistance to some projects re• Today's engineers have abundant analyt• garded as a "visual pollution" to the area. ical capability supported by computers. The The importance of aesthetic aspects of any mathematical modeling of a complex phe• project now is fully recognized by the de• nomenon such as the interaction between signers and developers, and the 3-D ap• nature and engineering developments has proach to structural and civil design helps become commonplace in the design process. to bridge the gap between art and science. It enables the engineer to .closely predict Unfortunately, computerization of the the behavior of the complex structure in design process has its own drawbacks; it practice. provides not only the leading edge of tech• For complex projects, both mathematical nology but have been also a major source of and physical models are best used in combi• concern. The popularity of computers has nation. However, despite the prediction of resulted in a flood of software, and on model studies, the designer should exercise today's software market, there are nearly the proper level of conservative engineering as many computer programs as there are judgment which is dictated by the complex• researchers. Unfortunately, the quality of ity of marine foundations, marine environ• some software presently available on the ment, ship maneuvers, and so forth. market is questionable, and it would be of Today, port and harbor engineering has great interest and perhaps shock to some entered the electronic age. The computer when results of analyses of a certain struc• vastly enhances an engineer's productivity tures are compared with the same input and his or her opportunities for innovative data using different programs. design. In addition to reducing the opportu• The difference in the software output nities for making errors, the use of comput• happens because some developers of com• ers drastically enhances engineering judg• puter software blindly rely solely on the ment. By taking advantage of the speed of mathematical approach to solving the prob• computer analysis, the engineer can explore lem and are ignorant about current state• a number of design alternatives in a short of-the-art knowledge. period of time. Today, computer hardware Sometimes problems with software (e.g., and software allow the engineer to see his incorrect sign convention) may cause a com• project from all perspectives, investigate puter to subtract stresses when it must be each detail, make changes by shaping as a added can be difficult to detect. sculptor might, then, when all is finished, Growing reliance on computer-aided have the calculations and drawings pro• analysis and design without adequate con• duced. Computer-aided design and drafting trols on misuse can lead to structural fail- Ports-Their Past, Present, and Future xxxv ures and, subsequently, to "computer-aided the observation method is a departure from liabilities," the term used by Backman the traditional design process in geotech• (1993) in her interesting paper on a subject nicaljfoundation engineering, because it matter. allows one to make a final decision on foun• Recognizing this as a potential problem, dation design in the future, both during the Committee on Practices to Reduce Fail• construction when uncertainty in founda• ures, under the American Society of Civil tion soils became understood and during Engineers Technical Council on Forensic facility operation. The latter is particularly Engineering, is currently preparing a mono• important where long-term changes in graph titled "Avoiding Failures Caused by soil-structure interaction are expected. Misuse of Civil Engineering Software." The Several advancements in port engineer• monograph, scheduled for publication in ing have been pointed out in this section 1996, will examine all computer-related is• and the reader will find much more else• sues where misuse could result in cata• where in this book. strophic failures, poor performance of facili• Finally, it should be noted that in the ties, and poor solutions to problems in civil past in order to reduce the cost of a design, engineering. attempts to standardize construction of ma• Due to a worsening legal climate for rine structures have been made. It has been practicing engineers, the designers are of• proved, however, that standard designs to ten not willing to accept potential risk asso• meet various site conditions, in general, and ciated with a more economical or innovative marine facilities, in particular, are not eco• design. The conservative approach, which nomical. In general, it is because the cost of limits innovations in design and construc• the waterfront structure is so high that it tion practices, causing economical prob• would be false economy to attempt to re• lems, has been especially visible in founda• duce design costs by limiting the scope of tion engineering. This has been explained design studies. by the uncertainties in soil-structure inter• In conclusion, it must be said that pro• action and usually limited information on ducing a good, sound, and effective design foundation soils available to the designer. is, of course, science; however, it is also an In the past 35-40 years, this has been im• art. Just as an artist does, the designer proved by the extensive research into must be imaginative in developing the con• statistics and risk analysis, as applied to cept of his or her project and, as a scientist, the field of geotechnical engineering. careful and meticulous in paying attention Also, the observational (monitored deci• to all details. sions) method, which provides the designer with flexibility in the decision-making pro• REFERENCES cess, has been introduced. BACKMAN, L., 1993. "Computer-Aided Liability." Statistics provide procedures for obtain• ASCE Civil Engineering, June. ing information from given quantitative BARKER, J., 1990/1991. "Ports in the 1990's and measurements, which, in turn, permits Beyond." The Dock & Harbour Authority, De• analysis of how the aforementioned listed cember/January. uncertainties of soil and other parameters BORTHWICK, M.A., 1936. ''Memoir on the Use of involved in soil-structure interaction may Cast Iron in Piling, Particularly at Brunswick affect the design of the structure; risk anal• Wharf, Blackwall." Transaction Institute Civil ysis is a set of decision-making procedures Engineers, Vol. 1. dealing with difficult design circumstances, CLEARWATER, J. L., 1992. "Port Construction where many components interact such that Since 1885: Evolving to Meet Changing there is more than one mode of failure; and World." The Dock & Harbour Authority, May. xxxvi Ports-Their Past, Present, and Future
CusHING, C. R., 1989. ''Vessels of the Future: A LEIMDORFER, R., 1979. "La Saga des Palplanches." Naval Architect's Viewpoint." PIANC Bulletin PIANC Bulletin No. 34, Vol. III. No. 66. MACKLEY, F. R., 1977. (Reported by Buckley, P. DALLY, H. K, 1981. "The Effect of Development J. C.) "The History and Development of Sheet in Cargo Handling on the Design of Terminal Piling." Proceedings Institution of Civil Engi• Facilities." PIANC Proceedings XX:Vth neers, Part 1, No. 62, February, London. Congress, Edinburgh. PERMANENT INTERNATIONAL AsSOCIATION NAVIGA• DuPLAT TAYLOR, F. M., 1949. "The Design, Con• TION CONGRESSES (PIANC), 1990. Twenty• struction and Maintenance of Docks, Wharves Seventh PIANC Congress PCDC Panel Dis• and Piers." Eyre & Spottiswoode, Ltd., Lon• cussion, Osaka, Japan. don. PERMANENT INTERNATIONAL AsSOCIATION OF NAVI• GAUDREAULT, R., 1989. "Where Have We Been, GATION CONGRESSES (PIANC), 1989. Panel 3: Where Are We Going? A Canadian Perspec• Future Marine Terminal Designs. Five papers tive." Presentation to ASCE Specialty Confer• on subject matter. PIANC Bulletin No. 67. ence PORTS'89, Boston, Massachusetts. PERMANENT INTERNATIONAL HocHSTEIN, A., 1992. "Implications of Institu• AsSOCIATION OF NAVI• GATION CONGRESSES (PIANC), 1987. "Develop• tional Changes on Port Performance in Asia ment of Modem Marine Terminals." Supple• and Latin America." ASCE Proceedings Spe• ment to Bulletin No. 56. cialty Conference PORTS'92, Seattle, Wash• ington. THOMSON, B., 1992. "A New Era for British INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZA• Ports." The Dock & Harbour Authority, June. TION (ISO), Standards Handbook, 2nd edition, TOOTH, E. S., 1989. "A Glimpse of the Past." The 1992. Freight Containers, Switzerland. Dock & Harbour Authority, May. contributors
Mr. M. Shiono Dr. M. Gurinsky, P.E. President SRI Marine Servie Co. Ltd. Project Engineer 1-14, 4 chome Isogami-Dori Hardesty & Hanover Consulting Engineers Chuo-Ku, Kobe 651, Japan 1501 Broadway New York, N.Y. 10036 Dr. S. Takahashi Chief Maritime Structures Lab Port and Harbour Research Institute Dr. W. S. Dunbar 3-1-1 Nagase Yokosuka, Japan 239 Engineering Consultant 925 Leovista Ave. Mr. P. L. Wu, P.E. and Mr. D. Weinreb, P.E. North Vancouver, British Columbia, Vice Presidents Reinforced Earth Co. Ltd. Canada V7R 1R1 190 Attwell Dr., Suite 501 Rexdale, Ontario, Canada M9W 6H8
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