Veget Hist Archaeobot DOI 10.1007/s00334-017-0606-2

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Neolithic land use in the northern Boreal zone: high-resolution multiproxy analyses from Lake Huhdasjärvi, south-eastern Finland

Teija Alenius1,4 · Teemu Mökkönen2 · Elisabeth Holmqvist1 · Antti Ojala3

Received: 30 September 2016 / Accepted: 3 February 2017 © The Author(s) 2017. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com

Abstract Two high-resolution pollen and charcoal Introduction analyses were constructed from sediments obtained from a small bay in eastern Finland in order to gain informa- In eastern Fennoscandia (Finland and the Republic of Kare- tion on human activity during the Neolithic Stone Age, lia, Russia), the Neolithic period begins with the appear- 5200–1800 bc. We used measurements of loss on ignition ance of pottery ca. 5300–5200 bc (Pesonen et al. 2012; (LOI), magnetic susceptibility and geochemical analyses to Nordqvist and Mökkönen 2016). In the Baltic States, this describe the sedimentological characteristics. Palaeomag- took place a few decades earlier (Piezonka 2012). Accord- netic dating and measurements of 137Cs-activity were sup- ing to the traditional interpretation, in eastern Fennoscan- ported by 14C-datings. The analyses revealed human activ- dia and in the Baltic States, the beginning of the Neolithic ity between 4400 and 3200 bc, which is synchronous with period was not associated with agriculture. Traditionally, archaeological cultures defined through different stages of the earliest agriculture in much of northern Europe has Comb Ware pottery types and Middle Neolithic pottery been associated with the much later Corded Ware phenom- types with asbestos as a primary temper. Direct evidence enon, which spread from central Europe to eastern Fen- of Hordeum cultivation was dated to 4040–3930 cal bc. noscandia in the early third millennium bc (e.g. Carpelan According to the pollen data, more significant effort was 1999; Zvelebil and Lillie 2000). High-resolution pollen put into the production of fibres from hemp and lime than analyses obtained from southern and eastern Finland (Ale- the actual cultivation of food. nius et al. 2013; Augustsson et al. 2013), western Russia (Königsson et al. 1997; Vuorela et al. 2001) and Estonia Keywords Pollen analysis · South-eastern Finland · Land (Kriiska 2003; Poska et al. 2004; Poska and Saarse 2006), use · Neolithic · Lake sediments · Geochemistry as well as archaeological data from the same area (Kriiska 2009; Nordqvist and Kriiska 2015), have challenged the traditional interpretation of northern European prehistory. There is increasing evidence that the initial stage of cereal Communicated by M.-J. Gaillard. cultivation in northern Europe took place at the very begin- ning of the Neolithic Stone Age, ca. 5200–4000 bc, con- * Teija Alenius current with the appearance of pottery in eastern Fennos- [email protected] candia. On the basis of circumstantial evidence, it has been 1 Department of Philosophy, History, Culture and Art Studies, proposed that eastern pottery technology and early cultiva- University of Helsinki, Unioninkatu 38 F, P.O.Box 59, tion spread concurrently into the north-eastern part of the 00014 Helsinki, Finland Baltic Sea through the same networks (Mökkönen 2010, 2 Department of Archaeology, University of Oulu, Oulu, 2011), but until recently, no data were available to actually Finland demonstrate the connection in Finland. 3 Geological Survey of Finland, Espoo, Finland In south-eastern Finland, the evidence from high- 4 Department of Archaeology, University of Turku, Turku, resolution pollen analysis indicates Stone Age cultiva- Finland tion around Lake Huhdasjärvi, where pollen originating

Vol.:(0123456789)1 3 Veget Hist Archaeobot from Fagopyrum esculentum has been dated to the transi- north-eastern Europe and Eurasia (Nordqvist and Herva tion period between the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods, 2013; Herva et al. 2014, 2017; Nordqvist et al. 2014, 5370–5060 cal bc (2δ). This was then followed by Hor- 2015; Nordqvist and Kriiska 2015). Although traditional deum pollen dated to ca. 4260 bc and 2160 bc (Alenius elements of the material culture that defines the Neo- et al. 2013). In Estonia, some pollen evidence shows cul- lithic Stone Age have been known to be present among tivation during the fifth millennium bc (Kriiska 2009). In north-eastern European cultures, which were previously addition, several older, less accurate pollen analyses point labelled as Subneolithic or even as pottery Mesolithic to disturbances in vegetation and the sporadic presence cultures (e.g. Werbart 1998; Davidson et al. 2009), the of Cerealia-type pollen from the fifth millennium cal bc new insights concerning changes in the engagement onwards in the area south of the Arctic Circle in Finland with the material world have enriched the nature of the (Reynaud and Hjelmroos 1980). Neolithization process and thus also altered the context In a wider perspective, more evidence of cultivation and to which the record of early cultivation is considered to anthropogenic disturbances in vegetation appears around belong. 4000 bc when Typical Comb Ware spread extensively to Still, the archaeobotanical record is far from suffi- the eastern part of the Baltic Sea (Kriiska 2009; Mökkönen cient for understanding the role of cultivation during the 2010; Nordqvist and Kriiska 2015). In Estonia, abundant Neolithic in north-eastern Europe. In order to capture and continuous pollen evidence for different cereals starts the earliest, often very slight anthropogenic signals and around 4000 bc (Kriiska 2009). In Lake Onega, Russia, to understand the role of cultivation, it is necessary to signs of cereal cultivation dating to ca. 3800 bc have been produce accurate and high-resolution pollen data from encountered (Vuorela et al. 2001). In Lake Ahvenainen, lake sediments. In this study, we take a closer look at a southern Finland, Cerealia (possibly Triticum-type pollen) small body of water, Lake Huhdasjärvi, located within was dated to ca. 3400–3350 bc and Hordeum-type to ca. the limits of the modern town of Kouvola in the north- 2700–2680 bc (Tolonen 1978). In the pollen data obtained ern part of the province of Kymenlaakso, beyond the 60th from Lake Lehmilampi in eastern Finland, the first possible indications of human impact, including one Hordeum-type, were observed between 3000 and 2500 bc (Augustsson et al. 2013). Typical Comb Ware (3900–3500 bc), which roughly covers the area of Finland, Estonia, northern Latvia and parts of north-western Russia, represents a pottery tra- dition originating in the upper Volga region. In addition to increasing signs of cultivation, the appearance of this new pottery style around 3900 bc is marked by new con- tact networks that are in some regions explained through small-scale migration and in other areas through cultural diffusion, the movement of new ideas and material goods (Nordqvist and Kriiska 2015; Nordqvist et al. 2015). At that time, other exotic materials – flint from the east (Vuorinen 1982; Kinnunen et al. 1985; Mökkönen and Nordqvist 2016), amber from the southern Baltic region (Vuorinen 1984; Núñez and Franzen 2011), rock crystals from southern to south-eastern Finland (Mökkönen and Nordqvist 2016) and copper from the Lake Onega region, Russia (Taavitsainen 1982; Nordqvist and Herva 2013)— were more intensively used as novel raw materials. Rock art flourished (Lahelma 2008; Gjerde 2010), and semi-subterranean pithouses that often occur in village- like concentrations became the dominant dwelling type (Pesonen 2002; Vaneeckhout 2009; Mökkönen 2011). At the same time, there arose a new awareness that included a range of new techniques for manipulating materi- Fig. 1 a Location of the study area in south-eastern Finland. b als and engaging with the material world. As a whole, Drainage basin of the Kymijoki river. c Lake Huhdasjärvi coring sites these are seen as integral elements of Neolithization in and Stone Age dwelling sites

1 3 Veget Hist Archaeobot parallel north in Finland (Fig. 1). This is a Y-shaped lake dominating soil type around Lake Huhdasjärvi is moraine, that has evidenced small-scale cultivation of Fagopyrum although there are also large areas of exposed bedrock. The esculentum (buckwheat), Cannabis (hemp) and Hor- narrow stripes of former grove vegetation on the shores of deum (barley) during the early phase of the Neolithic, ca. the lake have currently more or less been transformed into 5300–3600 cal bc (Alenius et al. 2013). Two locations agricultural land. in the bay of Pitkälahti were selected for high resolution pollen analyses in order to find out more detailed infor- Archaeological context mation on the Neolithic cultivation and land use phase detected in an earlier analysis (Alenius et al. 2013). The An archaeological survey of the area was conducted in presence of distinctively eastern species, i.e. buckwheat connection with the earlier studies (Alenius et al. 2013). and hemp, dating to the beginning of the Neolithic is not Despite the thorough survey, the total number of Stone profoundly surprising, as the earliest pottery traditions Age sites found within a radius of ca. 10 km around Lake in north-eastern Europe also originate from the Asian Huhdasjärvi is rather small, altogether 25 sites. Most of the tradition (e.g. Jordan and Zvelebil 2010). Therefore, dwelling sites are small in size, and they are characterized it has been proposed that the spread of eastern pottery by infrequent finds, such as quartz flakes and fragments of traditions in the boreal forest zone was actually accom- burnt bones, that could not be dated on their own. The total panied by some initial small-scale cultivation since the number of sites includes five locations with rock paintings very beginning (Alenius et al. 2013; see also; Mökkönen (see Alenius et al. 2013). 2010). In general, scenarios of the journey of eastern There are no structures visible on the surface at 12 of plants to Europe during the Stone Age have been pro- the Stone Age sites. Permanent dwelling structures, namely posed before, but the time frames of the movement are the bases of semi-subterranean pithouses, are recorded at still rather unclear (e.g. Janik 2002; Jones et al. 2011; eight sites, and they occur alone or in pairs. The housepit Boivin et al. 2012; Gepts et al. 2012). sites, with the exception of two sites—the one located in the Lake Huhdasjärvi area and another one by a small lake nearby—are located on the shores of larger lakes and Study area and site description waterways (Alenius et al. 2013). The shape of the housepits varies from round to oblong or rectangular and the size Environmental setting varies between 20 and 60 m2. In Finland, housepits are increasingly found in archaeological data from around 4000 Lake Huhdasjärvi (61.17109 N; 26.59148 E in WGS84 bc (Pesonen 2002; Mökkönen 2011). The smaller roundish coordinates) is located in the province of Kymenlaakso in housepits are most typical for the period between ca. 4000 south-eastern Finland, approximately 140 km north-east of and 3400 bc, even though they continue to occur in small the capital, Helsinki (Fig. 1a, b). The lake belongs to the numbers until the end of the Stone Age, while the rectan- drainage basin of the Kymijoki river and is situated at an gular and more oblong housepits, which are often larger altitude of 73.8 m a.s.l. Judging by its present altitude and in size and deeper, date distinctly to the latter part of the the rate of land uplift, which is ca. 7 mm per year (Saarn- Stone Age, starting from ca. 3500 bc (Mökkönen 2002, isto 1970), the lake emerged from the Baltic Sea during the 2011). Four of the housepits in the area definitely belong to Early Holocene, or around 8500 bc. At present, the lake the latter group. is Y-shaped and each arm has a radius of about 1.5 km There are only three Neolithic sites with pottery shards (Fig. 1c). The lake is fed by one small river and several that could be identified as a certain type. One is located on small brooks, and it has one outlet. the island of Pukkisaari in the middle of Lake Huhdasjärvi, The area belongs to the Southern Boreal zone, where the just next to locations where the current and previous sam- length of the growing season is 160–175 days. The vegeta- ples for pollen analysis were cored. One of the two pithouse tion is characterized by coniferous forests of Picea abies bases at the Pukkisaari site is partly excavated; in addition (spruce) and Pinus sylvestris (pine) and deciduous trees, to quartz debris, the finds included pottery (an organic- namely Betula pendula and B. pubescens (birches), Popu- tempered variant of Pöljä Ware), two grindstone slabs, an lus tremula (aspen), Alnus incana and A. glutinosa (alders) amber button, and three small scrapers made of slate (Miet- (Alalammi 1988). Today, the mean annual precipitation tinen 1998, 2004, 2012). Based on radiocarbon dates, the is 550 mm, of which about 200 mm is received as snow. site is dated to ca. 3020–2630 cal bc (Alenius et al. 2013). The mean annual temperature is +3.5 to +4 °C, the warm- The second site with identified pottery is the Nuumanniemi est month being July (+ 17 °C) and the coldest January and site, which is located slightly less than 10 km from Lake February (between −9 and −8 °C) (Alalammi 1987). The Huhdasjärvi, with shards of Early Comb Ware of the I:2 dominating relief amplitude is of the order of 30–75 m. The style (Miettinen 2004). This pottery style is dated to ca.

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4500–4200 bc (Pesonen et al. 2012; Nordqvist and Mök- (κ) was determined at 5 mm intervals using a Bartington könen 2016). In addition, a housepit site called Hintteri has MS2E1 surface-scanning sensor. produced a few pieces of asbestos-tempered pottery that The core 1a and core 1b samples, which were obtained can be dated roughly to 3500–2500 cal bc. from the end of the Pitkälahti bay, were analysed using a To sum up, the archaeological finds indicating Stone portable energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometer Age habitation are modest, and most of the sites could (pXRF) in order to detect chemical signals in the sediment not be dated more accurately than to the Stone Age or to sequence possibly linked to anthropogenic activities in the the subsequent Early Metal Period (in the inland areas of catchment area (e.g. Wilson et al. 2008). PXRF analysis Finland, this is dated to 1800 bc-ad 300). In general, dur- of unprepared sediment samples can generate semi-quan- ing most of the Neolithic Stone Age, the area could be titative concentration values of high-Z elements applica- described as a periphery—an area that was only passed ble for the chemical discrimination of different sediment through or occupied on a limited scale. The Nuumanniemi layers. However, values in the low/mid-Z range should be site with Early Comb Ware of the style I:2 is the only data- treated with caution given the analytical limitations of this ble site older than ca. 3500 bc. Radiocarbon dates, detected instrumentation, mainly the lack of vacuum and suitable pottery (even small amounts), and certain housepit types calibration (Davis et al. 2012; Hunt and Speakman 2015; indicate more active habitation in the area during the latter Holmqvist 2017). In particular, accuracy issues affect the part of the Neolithic, after 3500 bc, although this picture elements Na, P, V, Cr and Ni, which cannot be accurately could be at least partly an illusion created by the unequal quantified (Hunt and Speakman 2015). However, of these archaeological visibility of different periods. elements, P was included our analysis, as it was detected at several sediment depths. The instrument employed was a portable hand-held Bruker S1 Titan energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence Materials and methods spectrometer equipped with a silicon drift detector (SDD), available at the University of Helsinki. The instrument has Coring, sediment stratigraphy and geochemistry an Rh-target X-ray tube, and it was operated using the Geo- chem calibration mode provided by the manufacturer (volt- Sedimentological methods used in this work include meas- age 45 kV, current 8.9 µA with TiAl filter for the heavy urements of loss on ignition (LOI), magnetic susceptibil- element detection and 15 kV/30 µA with no filter for light ity, geochemical analyses, palaeomagnetic dating and element analysis). Each centimetre of the core sample was measurements of 137Cs-activity. The sediment samples analysed individually (acquisition time 120 s per sample) were cored standing on the frozen surface of the lake in after the samples were dried and burned for the LOI deter- February 2014, using a light, rod-operated piston corer mination to exclude any interference from organic materi- (Putkinen and Saarelainen 1998). Sediment samples were als or moisture. In order to examine the sedimentary geo- taken from two different locations in Lake Huhdasjärvi. chemistry, the elements P, S, Cl, K, Ca, Ti, Mn, Fe, Zn, Rb, The first set (FID 60 A) was taken from the end of the Pit- Sr, Y and Zr were selected for the final analysis. The instru- kälahti bay (61.1626833 N; 26.59653162 E in WGS84), ment software was used to quantify the fluorescence peaks where the water depth was 9.40 m. The second core (FID to concentration values, treated as semi-quantitative mark- 60 C) was taken from the middle of the Pitkälahti bay ers of the sediment geochemistry in our analysis. (61.16581451 N; 26.59327747 E in WGS84), where the water depth was 12.70 m (Fig. 1c). Dating From the end of the Pitkälahti bay (FID 60 A), we retrieved two parallel sets of cores. Both sets of cores Dating of the Lake Huhdasjärvi sediment sequences is consist of two overlapping sediment sequences: core based on a combination of palaeomagnetic dating (e.g. 1a (0–198 cm) and core 1b (160–360 cm), and core 2a Thompson and Oldfield 1986; King and Peck 2001), radi- (0–195 cm) and core 2b (160–360 cm). From the middle of ocarbon dating (AMS 14C) and analysis of anthropogenic the Pitkälahti bay, one set of sediment sequences, FID 60 C, 137Cs-activity of the recently deposited sediments. Cs was obtained: cores 1a (0–201) and 1b (160–360 cm). The measurements were conducted at a resolution of 1 cm at the correlation of the three sets of sub cores was verified by Geological Survey of Finland (GSF) using a gamma spec- LOI, measurements of magnetic susceptibility, and visual trometer EG&G Ortec ACE™-2K equipped with a four- sediment stratigraphy. inch NaI/TI detector. LOI was determined at 1-cm resolution by burning pre- Sediment sampling for palaeomagnetic measurements viously dried (105 °C, overnight) sediment samples in a and testing of the stability of natural remanent magneti- furnace for 2 h at 550 °C. Volume magnetic susceptibility zation (NRM) followed Ojala and Tiljander (2003), and

1 3 Veget Hist Archaeobot the palaeosecular variation (PSV) results from the Lake A minimum of 900 pollen grains per sample were identi- Huhdasjärvi sequence were compared with the FEN- fied using publications of Erdtman et al. (1961), Fægri and NOSTACK (Snowball et al. 2007) Lake Nautajärvi (Ojala Iversen (1989), Moore et al. (1991), Reille (1992, 1995) and Tiljander 2003) varve-dated reference curves. These and Beug (2004). Microcharcoal fragments >10 μm were reference curves are based on carefully documented sedi- counted on the pollen slides. Different authors have differ- mentary varve chronology with an estimated error of less ent size criteria for the limit of Humulus/Cannabis-types. than ±1%. Palaeomagnetic measurements were made at In the identification key by Fægri and Iversen (1989), all GSF with a 2G-Enterprises SRM-755R tri-axial SQUID the Humulus/Cannabis-types larger than 20 μm are iden- magnetometer and the PSV inclination and declination tified as Cannabis. Erdtman et al. (1961) use a size limit curves were matched with the reference curves to construct of 22.5 μm. According to Beug (2004), the mean value an age-depth transformation for the Lake Huhdasjärvi sedi- for Humulus lupulus is 23.4 μm, and for Cannabis sativa ment sequence. 28.1 μm, in pollen samples that are treated with acetoly- The result of the palaeomagnetic dating was supported sis and mounted in glycerin-gelatine. In order to avoid the by three radiocarbon analyses from sediment depth lev- classification ofHumulus- type pollen into Cannabis, all the els 175, 206, and 210 cm to specify certain points in the Humulus/Cannabis-types of pollen grains ≥ 30 μm were time-depth curve for the core location FID 60 A (Table 1). determined as Cannabis sativa. Cereal pollen identifica- In addition, with both sequences, the age-depth chronol- tion was based on the following criteria: grains between ogy was anchored to the rise of Picea pollen grains in the 40 and 60 μm with an annulus diameter >10 μm and a dis- sediment sequences, which were radiocarbon-dated in the tinct outer margin were identified as cereals and distinct previous study by Alenius et al. (2013), and Tilia pollen from the wild grass group. Secale was distinguished from grains, which were radiocarbon-dated earlier by Tolonen other cereal pollen by its oblong outline, scabrate surface, and Ruuhijärvi (1976). We used a Bayesian P-sequence and the undulating outer margin of its annulus. Hordeum deposition model in Oxcal 4.2 software by Bronk Ramsey was identified based on its annulus diameter of 10–12 μm, (2008, 2009) to calibrate the radiocarbon dates and to fit while grains with an annulus diameter larger than 12 μm PSV characteristics to the age-depth model in order to pro- were assigned to the Avena–Triticum group. vide a sediment chronology for the Lake Huhdasjärvi sedi- Calculations for pollen percentages were based on the ment sequence. Henceforth, we use the prefix “cal” withbc basic sum of terrestrial pollen grains, P, that includes arbo- dates when referring to a specific calibrated14 C sample, but real pollen [AP = including Picea, Pinus, Betula, Alnus], the prefix “cal” is omitted when referring to the interpo- non-arboreal pollen (NAP), and noble deciduous trees lated age-depth model or archaeological periods. [=QM including Corylus (hazel), Ulmus (elm), Quercus (oak), Tilia (lime), Carpinus (hornbeam), Fraxinus (ash) Pollen and charcoal analysis and Fagus (beech)]. The aquatic pollen and spores were calculated from the sums P + AqP and P + Spores. For calculations of pollen and charcoal concentrations Biostratigraphical data treatment and diagrams were (number of pollen grains or charcoal particles per ­cm3 of handled with Grimm’s (1991) TILIA and TILIA GRAPH sediment), two Lycopodium tablets (Stockmarr 1971) were programs. Constrained Incremental Sum of Squares added to samples of 1 cm3 in volume. Subsamples for pol- (CONISS) (Grimm 1987) was used to assist zonation. We len analysis were prepared according to the procedure sug- used stratigraphically constrained analysis and square root gested by Bennett and Willis (2001). No acetolysis treat- transformation. In order to avoid the dominance of main ment was used. Glycerol was used as a mounting medium. tree species, which would likely illustrate regional for- In order to obtain a high temporal resolution, all the sedi- est development history, only pollen taxa originating from ment samples were analysed in each cm from the part of herbs were included in the analysis. To estimate palyno- the sediment that covers the range between ca. 6000 and logical richness, rarefaction analysis (Birks and Line 1992) 1000 bc. was carried out using the POLPAL program (Walanus and

Table 1 Radiocarbon dates of the Huhdasjärvi sediment sequence obtained from core FID 60 A. The calibration was made with the OxCal 4.2 software (Bronk Ramsey 2009), which employs the Intcal09 calibration curve (Reimer et al. 2009)

14 Lab. code Depth (cm) C age year bp cal age (1σ) cal age (2σ) Median

Poz-79,592 175 4,330 ± 35 2942–2898 bc (41.1%) 3024–2890 bc (94.8%) 2950 bc Poz-79,593 206 5,195 ± 35 4001–3968 bc (40.4%) 4055–3951 bc (94.6%) 4001 bc Poz-79,594 210 5,150 ± 35 3995–943 bc (57.9%) 4041–3932 bc (76.0%) 3964 bc

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Nalepka 1999). In both cores, the sum for rarefaction analy- Figs. 3, 4 and 5. It is shown that results from these three sis was set to 600. independent dating methods agree very well, thus sup- porting the reliability of the sediment chronology. The P-sequence deposition model was constructed based on Results 137Cs, three AMS radiocarbon dates (Table 1), two pol- len dates and 11 PSV age constraints in Oxcal 4.2 (Bronk Sediment description, chronology and geochemistry Ramsey 2008, 2009). The dating results demonstrate that the Huhdasjärvi Sediment stratigraphy, LOI and magnetic susceptibil- sediment sequence covers a continuous sedimentary ity indicated that cores FID 60 A and FID 60 C and their archive since about 6500 bc with an average deposition rate overlapping sequences contained similar sedimentary data of 0.36 mm ­year−1 down to a sediment depth of 313 cm. and provided a solid basis for their correlation (Fig. 2). The Given the uncertainties with radiocarbon calibration, sediment deposits consist of homogeneous fine-detritus varve-based PSV chronology and age-depth modelling, we gyttja with only a few weakly laminated sections down to provide an overall confidence level of ±2% for the dated a sediment depth of about 250 cm. Below that lies faintly sequence seen in Fig. 4, shaded in grey. laminated clay gyttja (partly gyttja) that gradually shifts to sulphide-bearing gyttja clay at a depth of 350 cm. Pollen and charcoal records The sedimentary signal of chemical components is rather flat throughout the sequence, excluding the lower- The pollen, charcoal data, numerical zonation and palyno- most part of the sediment (below 260 cm) and the upper- logical richness are presented in Fig. 6. The descriptions most ca. 27 cm (about 1500 cal ad), where Rb, Sr and Zr of the main events in vegetation and land-use history and increase rapidly (Fig. 2). Fe, Zn and Y first decrease and charcoal data during the Early Neolithic (5200–3900 bc), then increase in the topmost 5 cm. However, small fluc- Middle Neolithic (3900–3200 bc), and Late Neolithic tuations can be seen throughout the sediment core in the (3200–1800 bc) are presented in Table 2. The periodization values of Fe, Rb, Zn, Sr, Y and Zr, although the absolute of the Neolithic follows Halinen (2015). The pollen data differences between the measured concentrations are not display the major features of pollen stratigraphy in south- great. Detected levels of phosphorus (P) in the pXRF anal- eastern Finland (Donner 1971; Hyvärinen 1972), with the ysis appear mostly in the lower part of the section (below colonization of Tilia and Picea as the most distinguishing 150 cm), in the deposit older than 2000 bc. features. In addition, the pollen data display anthropogenic The PSV comparison and age-depth curve (dating) for pollen types (Behre 1981; Vuorela 1986), possibly con- the Lake Huhdasjärvi sediment sequence is presented in nected to anthropogenic impact (Table 2).

Fig. 2 Characteristics of sediment chemical and physical parameters of the Huhdasjärvi sediment sequence. Geochemistry is measured from FID 60 A, core 1. The values of P are presented with dots, meaning presence or absence

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Fig. 3 Lake Huhdasjärvi paleo- magnetic age-depth. Records of NRM inclination and declina- tion from the Huhdasjärvi sediment sequence compared with Nautajärvi PSV reference curves (Ojala and Tiljander 2003). Typical features are marked with different letters

Fig. 4 An age-depth curve of the Huhdasjärvi sediment for cor- Fig. 5 An age-depth curve of the Huhdasjärvi sediment for coring ing location FID 60 A based on the Bayesian P-sequence deposition location FID 60 C. Tilia and Picea chronomarkers are indicated with model with Oxcal 4.2 (Bronk Ramsey 2008, 2009). Calibrated AMS open circles and tagged PSV characteristics with black circles. The 14C dates (2σ) are indicated with lines, Tilia and Picea chronomarkers shaded area represents chronological uncertainty levels with open circles, and tagged PSV characteristics with black circles. The shaded area represents chronological uncertainty levels palynological richness are visible in the pollen data from core FID 60 C, where the rarefacted number of taxa is The numerical zonation identified four statistically sig- somewhat lower during the late Mesolithic, until 5600 bc. nificant zones of major change in the pollen assemblages in A slight increase is visible between 208 and 213 cm. The FID 60 C and 60 A, based on changes in herb pollen data. mean charcoal concentration in both cores is highest during In FID 60 C, the zone boundaries were at the levels of 153, the levels of the Early Neolithic, and the mean concentra- 185 and 259 cm. In FID 60 A, the zone boundaries were at tions decrease in both cores during the Middle Neolithic. the levels of 121, 185 and 246 cm. Another decrease in charcoal concentration is visible dur- In general, palynological richness remains stable in ing the Late Neolithic. the study period in both cores. The only fluctuations in

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Fig. 6 Pollen percentages (%) and charcoal particle concentrations lines mark the Neolithic periods. ZONISS zones based on herb and for FID 60 A and C. Black silhouettes indicate the percentage values cultivated pollen taxa are presented with dashed lines and grey silhouettes indicate the exaggeration factor (×2). Horizontal

Discussion wild grasses (Tweddle et al. 2005; Behre 2007; Tin- ner et al. 2007). Behre (2007) has listed species belong- Distinguishing between the pollen of wild Poaceae ing to the Cerealia-type that can be confused with wild species and cereals grasses. Of these species, Aegilops ovata, Agropyron intermedium, Lygeum spartum, Secale montanum, Triti- It is difficult to make a distinction between the pollen of cum aegilopoides, Triticum dicoccoides and Glyceria pli- cultivated cereal crops and that of naturally occurring cata do not grow in Finland. Bromus erectus, Hordeum

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Fig. 6 (continued) murinum, Setaria pumila and Setaria glauca are all new- and grove-like spruce swamps, along brooks and on sea- comers, appearing in Finland starting from 1950 and shores. As the dominant soil type around Lake Huhdas- even then only occasionally. Also Avena fatua and Bro- järvi is moraine, it seems unlikely that the Cerealia-type mus inermis are newcomers and rare species in Finland. pollen originates from Agropyrum caninum. The only Bromus mollis only grows in the coastal areas of southern species left in Behre’s (2007) list that is likely to grow Finland and is only occasionally known from other parts in the surroundings of Lake Huhdasjärvi is Glyceria flui- of Finland (Hämet-Ahti et al. 1984). The species that are tans. According to the pollen key of Küster (1988), how- common in Finland are Agropyron caninum and Glyceria ever, the Glyceria type has a diffuse (indistinct) outer fluitans. Of these, Agropyron caninum grows in groves annulus boundary, and in our analysis, one important

1 3 Veget Hist Archaeobot bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc Apiaceae, Galium and Urtica Apiaceae and Galium Brassicaceae, aceae, Galium and Urtica Cannabis : 3240 3280 Fabaceae: : 3396 Rumex 3503 Caryophyllaceae: Cannabis : 3640 occurrenceRegular of Chenopodiaceae occurrenceSporadic Brassicaceae, of Ranunculaceae, conc: 324,033 Mean charcoal : 3981 Rumex Cannabis : 4127 4165 Fabaceae: Caryophyllaceae, Campanula : 4230 Cannabis : 4403 : 4790 Polygonum Caryophyllaceae, occurrenceRegular of Chenopodiaceae and Urtica occurrenceSporadic of Cichoriaceae, Ranunculaceae, conc.: 397,371 Mean charcoal Caryophyllaceae: 2198 Caryophyllaceae: 3010 Caryophyllaceae: occurrenceRegular of Chenopodiaceae occurrenceSporadic Api - Brassicaceae, of Fabaceae, conc.: 277,851 Mean charcoal Cichoriaceae: 1734 Cannabis : 3203 Cannabis : 3913 Pollen related to human impact, charcoal; FID 60 C charcoal; human impact, to related Pollen bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc Apiaceae aceae : 4040–3930 cal Hordeum Caryophyllaceae: 1795 Caryophyllaceae: 3585 Ranunculaceae: : 1841 Rumex 1886 Brassicaceae: 2800 Brassicaceae: : 3060 Rumex 3091 Ranunculaceae: : 3123 Polygonum occurrenceRegular of Chenopodiaceae and Humulus occurrenceSporadic and Apiaceae of Urtica conc.: 213,526 Mean charcoal upper limit: 3647 values in Tilia Decrease limit: 4055–3950 cal lower Cannabis : 4055–3950 cal 4055–3950 cal Ranunculaceae: occurrenceRegular of Chenopodiaceae and Humulus occurrenceand Sporadic , Ranunculaceae of Urtica conc.: 248,611 Mean charcoal 4014 Brassicaceae: : 4058 Rumex 4114 Fabaceae: 4155 Caryophyllaceae: ma ./ media : 4216 Plantago 4462 Caryophyllaceae: 4730 Brassicaceae: 4750 Caryophyllaceae: : 4937 Polygonum : 4978 Rumex : 5061 Rumex occurrenceRegular of Chenopodiaceae and Humulus occurrenceSporadic , Apiaceae and Cichori - of Urtica conc.: 306,170 Mean charcoal Pollen related to human impact, charcoal; FID 60 A charcoal; human impact, to related Pollen - Juniperus (11%) (1.4%) as theabundant species most Tilia pollen shows a slight increase during a slight increase the period pollen shows aceae (0.6%) and Picea (5.8%) abundant (0.7%) as the most (0.9%) and Tilia Quercus species Juniperus in proportions present are 0.4 from ranging 0.6% to (10.5%) (1.1%) as theabundant species most and Tilia (0.5%), JuniperusCyperaceae (0.7%) and Salix (0.4%) (39%), Pinus (36%) and Alnus Dominance of Betula 8.8%, with trees: CorylusNoble (3%), Ulmus (3%) and By the end of the period, Picea > 2%. reaches Herbs: most abundant are Poaceae (1.2%) and Cyper Poaceae abundant are Herbs: most General descriptionGeneral (36%), Alnus (9.4%) Dominance of Pinus (39%), Betula 6.1%, with trees: CorylusNoble (2.1%), Ulmus (1.8%), Herbs and shrubs: Salix and Poaceae, Cyperaceae, (38.8%), Pinus (35.9%) and Alnus Dominance of Betula 7.1%, with trees: CorylusNoble (2.7%), Ulmus (2.2%), 3.4% Picea constitutes Herbs and shrubs:(0.8%), abundant Poaceae most bc bc bc General descriptionsGeneral of the FID 60 A dominant pollen types in sediment cores interpretations and C separate with on principal special emphasis pollen types (Behre anthropogenic FID 60A 206–263 cm FID 60C 199–249 cm ) for both cores 1981 ) for Neolithic periodsfor only in bold type. The interpretations provided shown are are flora the belong to native and do not that(anthropochores) taxa introduced are Pollen 2 Table Period FID 60A 148–183 cm FID 60C 146–185 cm FID 60A 183–206 cm FID 60C 185–199 cm Early Neolithic Early 3900–5200 Middle Neolithic 3200–3900 Late Neolithic 1800–3200

1 3 Veget Hist Archaeobot criterion for cereals was an annulus with a distinct outer Early Neolithic annulus boundary. It therefore seems unlikely that pollen originating from Glyceria fluitans would have been con- The earliest human impact dates to the Early Neolithic, fused with Cerealia-types. between ca. 4400 and 3900 bc. It includes some use of fire and cultivation of hemp and barley, as deduced from Geochemical data the occurrence of three Cannabis-type pollen grains from the core obtained from the middle of the bay and one Hor- The data accuracy of the geochemical data may be affected deum-type obtained from the end of the bay and dating to by the heterogeneity (e.g. varying density and mineral con- this period. Two peaks in charcoal values, obtained from tent) of the sediment samples, as elemental concentrations the middle of the bay, date to ca. 4140 and 4178 bc and are of unprocessed samples measured by pXRF are prone to associated with Cannabis-type pollen. More precisely, the accuracy issues (e.g. Holmqvist 2017). These effects were Hordeum-type was dated to 4040–3930 cal bc (2δ) (Poz- controlled by performing LOI and focusing on mid- or 79,594). A likely explanation for the sudden erosion phase, high-Z elements, which can be more accurately measured visible in LOI and susceptibility values between 4090 and by this portable instrument. We can conclude that the data 4165, is the land use activity around the lake. The land use patterns acquired by pXRF are consistent with the results activity has also generated new biotopes, deduced from a provided by other methods. The concentrations of phospho- slight increase in the rarefacted number of taxa between rus (P) are of interest in relation to human activity. How- 4200 and 4140 bc, visible in the pollen record obtained ever, P was rarely detected in our samples, probably due from the middle of the bay. In addition to the cultivated to instrumental limitations in measuring light elements in plants Hordeum and Cannabis, apophytes such as Plantago sediments by pXRF (Hunt and Speakman 2015). Most of major/media, Rumex, Fabaceae, Campanula and Caryo- the detected P signals do not correlate with the apparent phyllaceae are recorded. Of these, Plantago major/media is human activity phases, such as the Iron Age field erosion a plant species that is associated with more or less nitrogen- (at the uppermost ca. 50 cm), and thus appear to be linked rich footpaths and ruderal communities (Behre 1981). to natural processes. As discussed above, the misidentification of Cerealia- For the most part, the detected geochemical signals and type as pollen belonging to wild grasses seems unlikely, variation in the sediment samples represent natural geo- as most of the wild grasses that produce pollen similar to chemical events and sediment production processes. In the that of Cerealia-types either do not grow in Finland at all uppermost and lowermost parts of the sediments, the val- or are newcomers from 1950 onwards. Also Glyceria flui- ues of Fe, Rb, Zn, Sr, Y and Zr follow the changes in the tans, a species common in Finland, can clearly be separated LOI values. Such changes are typical for early lake stages from Cerealia-type by its indistinct outer annulus bound- after isolation and also for recent anthropogenic influence, ary. However, if we assume that Cerealia-type pollen did in although it is often not straightforward to interpret them in fact originate from wild grasses, one might expect to find relation to increased catchment erosion, atmospheric input, this pollen evenly scattered through the Holocene, also in and fluctuations in oxygen and redox conditions in the the Mesolithic period. In Lake Huhdasjärvi, no pollen of water column (e.g. Bengtsson and Enell 1986). Cerealia-type dating to the Mesolithic period has been found. Furthermore, the dating (4040–3930 cal bc) of the Fire frequency Hordeum-type closely agrees in age with the former anal- ysis from the lake (Alenius et al. 2013), where a single Microscopic charcoal concentration in the Lake Huh- occurrence of Hordeum pollen was dated to ca. 4260 bc. dasjärvi sediment records suggests that, apart from a few The dates for the Hordeum-type also agree in age with the individual peaks, the general fire activity did not increase wider context in Finland, Estonia and the Karelian Republic significantly during the Neolithic period. In eastern Fin- in Russia, where the earliest cultivation dates to the Early land, the mean interval of 220–260 years for forest fires and Middle Neolithic (between 4300 and 3200 bc) (Tolo- has been recorded at a dry forest site prior to significant nen 1978; Vuorela et al. 2001; Poska et al. 2004; Poska and human impact between 4300 bc and ad 1500 (Pitkänen Saarse 2006; Kriiska 2009; Mökkönen 2010; Nordqvist et al. 2002), and in central Finland, local fire history stud- and Kriiska 2015). It also seems unlikely that Cerealia-type ied from a small forest hollow has shown a 430-year return pollen from more recent layers could have been included in period between 3000 and 1 bc (Clear et al. 2013). This, in the samples as down-core intrusions. In all cores from Lake general, agrees with fire frequency on the European scale, Huhdasjärvi, the outer parts of the cores were first removed where sedimentary charcoal records suggest only little fire and the sample for pollen analysis was obtained from the activity during the Early and Middle Holocene compared to middle of the sediment core. recent millennia (Molinari et al. 2013).

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In addition to misidentification, one potential source species is not native to Finland, but has been introduced to of error concerns the datings. In this work, the dating was the area. The misidentification of Humulus as Cannabis based on two independent dating methods, namely palaeo- seems unlikely, as in our analysis, the size limit of Canna- magnetic dating and 14C dating. As these two methods gave bis was set to ≥30 μm, a criterion that is higher than that similar results for the Hordeum-type, we have no reason to recommended by most authors. If one assumes that the pol- doubt the datings. In the first analysis (Alenius et al. 2013), len identified as Cannabis actually originated from Humu- the chronology was based on 14C datings. Because of the lus, one might expect this pollen to be scattered evenly in absence of limestone in the local bedrock, we do not expect the sediment. However, in Lake Huhdasjärvi, all the Can- a freshwater reservoir effect (Olsson1986 ) to be a factor nabis-type pollen grains date to the Neolithic, between affecting radiocarbon ages. 4400 and 3200 bc.

Middle Neolithic Hemp and lime

After the Early Neolithic land use, direct evidence of human Both hemp and lime are known to be an important source activity again becomes visible during the Middle Neolithic, of bast fibres. Coarse hemp textiles have been used for dif- in the pollen analysis obtained from the end of the Pit- ferent purposes and strong hemp fibre is especially well kälahti bay (FID 60 A). A sudden and atypical decrease in suited for making ropes. In addition to providing fibre, Tilia pollen values starts at ca. 4000 bc (Poz-79,593) and is hemp is also a food plant: for humans, it is an oil-producing connected with a single Cannabis-type pollen grain. In our plant with edible seeds that could be consumed as a raw or charcoal data, it seems reasonable to assume that the peak at roasted whole grain snack, and for animals, it can be used the level of 3890 bc is locally human-induced, as this coin- as fodder (Barber 1991; Mannering et al. 2012; Clarke and cides with the onset of the abrupt decrease in lime trees. The Merlin 2013; Zohary et al. 2013). decrease in Tilia then lasts about 350 years until ca. 3650 bc. The domestication of hemp had taken place in central In contrast to a natural, long, and gradual process, where Asia, probably in the southern margin of the taiga forest or Tilia was replaced by Picea during the Middle and Late the forest steppe region (Clarke and Merlin 2013; Zohary Neolithic (Seppä et al. 2009) due to their overlapping eco- et al. 2013; Long et al. 2017) and it does not belong to the logical niches, the decrease in Tilia in the Lake Huhdasjärvi natural vegetation in Finland. Hemp is proposed as having diagram is very abrupt. Coinciding with the start of decrease spread into Europe in two main stages: in Tilia, a clear increase in Juniperus values is recorded from ca. 4000 bc until ca. 3200 bc. A plausible explanation is for- 1. The earliest distribution to Europe is dated to the Neo- est clearing, which increased light and open patches in the lithic, ca. 5000 bc, as shown by a few Linearbandker- forest, creating a favourable environment for this shade-intol- amik sites, one in Romania and another in Germany, erant species. After the ca. 350 years of Tilia use around the which have produced charred hemp seeds and hemp end of the bay, direct evidence of human activity can again seed imprints in pottery be seen in the core obtained from the central part of the bay, 2. The second stage, connected to the spread of the peo- where three Cannabis-type and one Rumex are recorded ples from the Eurasian steppe, dates to about 3500– from the layers dating between ca. 3640 and 3200 bc. 3000 bc and probably also included the use of narcotic The 14C dates taken at the depths of 206 and 210 cm in species, (Sherratt 1991; Mallory and Adams 1997; FID 60 A show a very minor reversal (Fig. 4; Table 1). In Clarke and Merlin 2013). the LOI, there is a peak in mineral matter content, and also in geochemistry, small decreases in Zr, Sr and Zn values The early Cannabis species found in northern Europe are recorded around 206 cm. The minor reversal in the 14C and in the northern part of eastern Europe were most likely result could then be explained by instability in the catch- species with a notably low psychoactive chemical con- ment through disturbance, likely caused by people. tent, which were not as suitable for use as drugs as a few It is worth noting that in addition to human activity, also other Cannabis species with a more southern and eastern natural disturbance dynamics, such as wind throw, natural distribution (Clarke and Merlin 2013). The early European animal/plant interactions, diseases or natural forest fires can utilization of hemp was likely concentrated on the produc- create openings within the canopy that could have replaced tion of fibres and seeds, as it was during the early phase in Tilia and generated niches within which Juniperus could eastern Asia (Clarke and Merlin 2013). In the eastern part grow. In this case, interpreting the change to have been of the Baltic Sea, pollen and seeds of hemp were present caused by human impact rather than natural disturbance early on. The earliest hemp pollen is dated to the transition dynamics is supported by the simultaneous occurrence of between the Mesolithic and Neolithic Stone Ages and the several Cannabis-type pollen finds in the pollen data. This Early Neolithic—in Estonia ca. 5600 bc (Poska and Saarse

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2006). Further to the south, the evidence for hemp is a bit charcoal concentration indicates only low fire activity in more recent. In Latvia, hemp seeds have been found at the area. A clear increase in organic matter input into the the Sãrnate dwelling site (Vasks et al. 1999). The pottery bay is detected at both coring sites between ca. 2600 and found at the Sãrnate site represents Early and Late Sãr- 1840 bc, the highest peak in organic content dating to ca. nate Ware, with some Typical Comb Ware as well as Late 2300 bc. This could be connected to a slight eutrophica- Comb Ware, and the complex is dated to ca. 4300–2900 bc tion of the lake. Coincident with the organic peak, the (Bērziņš 2008). In Lithuania, a wider spectrum of evidence measured Yttrium (Y) proportional values also peak is provided from the wetland dwelling sites in Šventoji. in the geochemical data, also possibly associated with At the Šventoji 3 site, hemp seeds were recovered, and at changes in trophic level. After ca. 2300 bc, a decreasing the Šventoji 23 site, hemp seeds and pollen were detected, trend in the concentration values of Sr, Rb, Y and Zr can and even a piece of hemp rope was discovered in the lay- be seen, possibly connected to the diminishing land use ers of the dwelling site (Rimantienė 1979, 1999, 2005, but in the surroundings of the lake. After ca. 2300 bc, also see also the critical discussion of these finds in Piličiauskas the measured Fe (and possibly Zn) values are consistently et al. 2017). The former site is dated to 3200–2500 cal bc, higher than in earlier sediment layers. and the latter to 2900–2000 cal bc (Rimantienė 2005). In addition to geochemical changes in the sediment, Tilia bast was widely in use as a raw material for dif- which may possibly be associated with the trophic level ferent textiles and cordage during the Stone Age. Textiles and later with decreasing land use in the surroundings made of lime bast have been found, for example, in Neo- of the lake, there are changes in the CONISS zonation, lithic Denmark (Bender Jørgensen 1990; Mannering et al. indicating a change in herb vegetation in the surround- 2012), and plenty of carbonized debris from the extraction ings of the bay. In the CONISS zonation in FID 60 C, one of bast fibres has been discovered in central Europe (Sch- major division was dated to ca. 1965 bc, that is, close to weingruber 1990). In the Baltic States, bast fibre products the transition between the Late Neolithic and Early Metal include cordage, mats or clothes, fishing nets and braided Period according to Finnish periodization. This transi- baskets, which were used in addition to products made of tion period is characterized by a scarcity of archaeologi- birch bark and fibres of nettle and hemp. Such artefacts cal remains in the Finnish inland in general (Taavitsainen have been found, for example, at the Šventoji sites, Lithua- et al. 1998; Lavento 2001, 2015), as well as around Lake nia, dated to ca. 4000–2000 bc (Rimantienė 2005; Rimkuté Huhdasjärvi. 2010). In addition, imprints of different textiles in pottery Despite the scarcity of archaeological remains in the since the third millennium bc show indirect evidence for Late Neolithic period (between 2500 and 2100 bc) in Fin- Neolithic textiles in Estonia (Kriiska et al. 2005). In Fin- land, this is the phase which in Finland and Estonia in land, archaeological data does not include any Stone Age general show quite a diverse range of evidence connected artefacts made of Tilia bast, even if such artefacts must to agriculture, evidently indicating that the custom of cul- certainly have been used, and the imprints of any kind of tivation was becoming more common in the Northern textiles in pottery are rather limited and date no earlier than Boreal Zone (Tolonen 1980; Alenius 2008; Alenius et al. the Late Neolithic (Lavento 2001). 2009; see also; Vuorela 1999). In the earlier study, a single Hordeum-type was found at the level dating to ca. 2160 bc Late Neolithic from Lake Huhdasjärvi. Further, the earliest macrofossil evidence for cultivation (Vuorela and Lempiäinen 1988; In our new pollen data, there is no prominent human see also; Vanhanen and Pesonen 2015), biomarker lipids 13 impact on vegetation after ca. 3200 bc during the Late and δ values have revealed the presence of milk in pot- Neolithic (3200–1800 bc). Interestingly, the Pukkisaari tery around 2500 bc (Cramp et al. 2014). Also, the earliest housepit site, situated on a small island in the middle bone of sheep/goat recovered from a dwelling site of the of Lake Huhdasjärvi, with Pöljä Ware and some poorly Kiukainen Culture (ca. 2200–1950 bc) in southern Finland known Neolithic pottery, dates to 3020–2890 cal bc (Ale- (Bläuer and Kantanen 2013) dates to this transition period, nius et al. 2013). This period, then, seems to be con- which shows quite a diverse range of evidence connected to nected with the people who used Pöljä Ware pottery and agriculture. built the largest housepits in the area. Although direct evidence of human impact is absent, there is, however, a phase of increased charcoal concentration visible in the Conclusions core obtained from the end of the bay, lasting from ca. 3370 to 2970 bc. In addition, two peaks in charcoal data In general, all three independent studies provided similar in the core obtained from the middle of the bay date to sedimentary data and pollen data describing the vegeta- ca. 2275 and 2160 bc. With the exception of these, a low tion development in the region, such as the spread of Tilia

1 3 Veget Hist Archaeobot and Picea abies to eastern Finland from ca. 5400 bc and when the Younger Early Comb Ware, style 1:2, was to be 4100 bc onwards. Based on the empirical studies, the rele- overridden by the subsequent pottery style, Typical Comb vant source area (RSAP; Sugita 1994, 1998) of pollen is ca. Ware (3900–3500 bc). The appearance of the first Can- 1,500-2,000 m in similarly sized sites (Sugita et al. 2010; nabis and Hordeum pollen during this particular time is Poska et al. 2011). As the distance between the coring sites not unexpected, as this period shows increasing evidence is about 450 m, the source areas of all the sediment cores of cultivation and human impact on vegetation within the partially overlap. There are, however, clear differences in sphere of Typical Comb Ware distribution (Kriiska 2009; the pollen data that can be connected to local vegetation. Mökkönen 2010). In addition, this period is associated Six of altogether seven Cannabis-type pollen findings orig- with a profound cultural change, which spread rapidly over inated from the sediment core that was obtained from the vast areas in the north-north-eastern European forest zone middle of the bay, indicating that hemp cultivation has been through highly active contact networks that incorporated practiced somewhere around the central part of the bay new technologies, new raw materials, and obviously new rather than around the end of the bay, whereas the use of ideas that affected the way people engaged with the mate- Tilia trees was only visible in the pollen analysis obtained rial world (Núñez and Okkonen 2005; Mökkönen 2011; from the end of the Pitkälahti bay. These differences indi- Herva et al. 2014, 2017; Nordqvist and Kriiska 2015; cate that the archaeological sites were small in size and Nordqvist et al. 2015). At the same time, sedentary habi- land use was very local in origin and concentrated on dif- tation in village-like arrangements of pithouses became ferent areas during different periods, resulting in differ- established (Zhul’nikov 1999, 2003; Núñez and Okkonen ences in the vegetation. 2005; Vaneeckhout 2009; Mökkönen 2011), a high tide of The earliest human impact, only detected in the ear- rock art was about to begin (Lahelma 2008; Gjerde 2010), lier pollen analysis (Alenius et al. 2013), dated to the very and the number of furnished burials with intense red-ochre beginning of the Neolithic, 5370–5060 cal bc, when a usage increased (Halinen 1999; Zagorska 2006, 2008). single pollen find indicated the cultivation ofFagopyrum Although not all of these phenomena are found in the cur- esculentum by the lake. This was connected to forest clear- rent study area, these changes are part of the Neolithization ance, deduced from the simultaneous and abrupt decrease process that took place in the north-north-eastern European of Betula and Pinus and increase in charcoal concentration. boreal forest zone (Herva et al. 2014, 2017; Nordqvist and In archaeology, this phase refers to Early Comb Ware, style Kriiska 2015). I:1. No pollen originating from Fagopyrum esculentum was The actual crop cultivation was small scale and sporadic, found in the new analyses. This is not surprising, as this and did not play a significant role as a subsistence source. is an entomophilous cross-pollinating plant in which pol- Osteological data (Ukkonen 1996; Mökkönen 2001; Nur- len is carried from the anther of one flower to the stigma minen 2007; Seitsonen et al. 2017), fishing structures of another by insects. It has large dimorphic pollen grains (Koivisto and Nurminen 2015) and lipid analysis (Cramp (60 × 35 μm in brevistyled and 45 × 24 μm in longistyled et al. 2014), all beyond the 60th parallel north, suggest that flowers) (Erdtman et al. 1961). Although pollen grains the subsistence base was aquatically oriented in the econ- originating from Fagopyrum esculentum are occasionally omy of Neolithic populations. Various nuts, fruits, roots found in sediments, they are always rare in the pollen rain and seeds, such as hazel, water chestnut, dropwort and wild (de Klerk et al. 2015). strawberry were gathered in Finland during the Stone Age The most active land use phase can be seen in all (Vanhanen and Pesonen 2015). Evidently, the period from three pollen diagrams and dates to between ca. 4400 and the introduction of cultivation to the point where it actually 3200 bc. According to new pollen analyses, an important acted as a key factor in subsistence in north-eastern Euro- part of the human activity seems to be connected to pro- pean boreal forests was a long-term process that took sev- ducing fibres from hemp and lime. Cannabis-type pollen eral thousands of years. was found in the layers dating to 4400 and 3200 bc, and the utilization of lime trees dates to between ca. 3890 and Acknowledgements The study was financed by the Academy of Finland through the Academy Research Fellow project “Land use, bc Hordeum- bc 3650 . type pollen date to ca. 4260 and to cultivation and animal husbandry during the Neolithic in North-East- 3960 cal bc. The mosaic of land use activities has resulted ern Europe between c. 6000 and 1000 bc” granted to Teija Alenius in an increase in open patches in the forest, in which Juni- (project 274851). Teemu Mökkönen was financed by the Academy of perus, which demands light, and other apophytes such as Finland for the project “The use of materials and the Neolithisation Plantago major media Rumex of north-east Europe (ca. 6000–1000 bc)”, University of Oulu (2013– / , Caryophyllaceae and can 2017). Many thanks to Krista Vajanto for discussions concerning the grow. textiles and fibres. We acknowledge the helpful comments by two In the surroundings of Lake Huhdasjärvi, the beginning anonymous reviewers. Language revision was provided by Sarianna of hemp and barley cultivation and beginning of lime use Silvonen. roughly dates to the turn of the 5th and 4th millennia bc,

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Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Bronk Ramsey C (2009) Bayesian analysis of radiocarbon dates. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http:// Radiocarbon 51:337–360 creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted Bronk-Ramsey C (2008) Deposition models for chronological records. use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give Quat Sci Rev 27:42–60 appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a Carpelan C (1999) Kääannekohtia Suomen esihistoriassa aikavälillä link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were 5100–1000 eKr. In: Fogelberg P (ed) Pohjan poluilla: suoma- made. laisten juuret nykytutkimuksen mukaan. Bidrag till kännedom av Finlands natur och folk 153. Societas Scientiarum Fennica, Helsinki, pp 249–280 Clarke RC, Merlin MD (2013) Cannabis: evolution and ethnobotany. 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