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An Introduction to the Prehistory of the Southeast

An Introduction to the Prehistory of the Southeast

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An Introduction to the of The Southeast or, “They were Shootin’em as Fast as They Could Make ’em…” and Other Popular Misconceptions about the Prehistoric Southeast by Scott Jones

A Personal Perspective competent technicians and teachers of nature- As a primitive technologist and replicative spe- based skills often have little background in the cialist, my profession leads me into working rela- chronology of prehistory and the dynamics of tionships with other archaeologists, educators, out- material culture change. To demonstrate a skill and door skills enthusiasts, and the public. Varying pro- declare “the Indians did this” is but one level of portions of my time are spent doing archaeology, understanding; yet another level involves knowing replicative and experimental work, teaching class- which Indians did what, where they did it, and sig- es, and demonstrating prehistoric . nificant to our discussion here, when. Thus the The hands-on aspect of my occupation affords me nature of my work has been to bring practical wis- the opportunity to apply long-term experiential dom to bear upon archaeology, and to bring knowledge to archaeological interpretation, while archaeology into the thinking of both the public my participation in mainstream archaeology allows and the primitive skills community. This integra- me to bring sound archaeological information to tive approach is perhaps best characterized by my those outside the profession. involvement with the Society of Primitive As one who spends considerable time working , and is evident in many of the articles with the public, I hear quite a few interesting lay I have written for the Society’s journal, the Bulletin interpretations of archaeological sites. I hear about of Primitive Technology. innumerable “Indian mounds” in improbable loca- In recent I have had requests from other tions, finds of “buckets full of ,” “vil- primitive technologists for a brief, readable lages” with “arrowheads all over the place,” and, as chronology of regional prehistory as an accompani- a flintknapper, one of my favorites relates the sub- ment for lectures and demonstrations. With this in title. “We found a site with literally hun’erds (sic) mind, I drafted the basic outline of what you see of arrowheads on it…they must’ve been shoot- here. This article is an expansion of that text, in’em as fast as they could make ’em.” Realizing adapted for a wider audience, with the hope that it that popular culture often fosters long-standing imparts a sense of context and continuity to those stereotypes and misconceptions, one of my jobs is who are interested in the flow of time and events. to try and guide some of this popular thinking The following sections outline the four principal towards an understanding of the past grounded in time periods of Southeastern prehistory, with a the best state of modern archaeological knowledge. brief commentary on the historic era after 1540. Likewise, in working with other primitive skills They are compiled from numerous sources and practitioners, I began to comprehend that many present a broad historic perspective, with some

Jones operates his educational enterprise, Media Prehistoria, from his home in Oglethorpe County. His work ranges from demonstrations and interpretive programs to experimental archaeology and . 36 • Early Georgia • volume 29, number 1 •

Archaeologists seeking to reconstruct past life- A Word about Time Designations ways rely for their interpretations on the time- Time notations, both in scientific and popular worn remains of ancient cultures for guidance; here reading, can be confusing. Most readers are familiar in our humid , we are further disadvantaged with the Gregorian or Christian calendar nota- since often only the inorganic residues of prehis- tions, where dates are either AD (Latin anno domi- toric culture remain. The study of stone , ni,"in the of our Lord") or BC (before Christ). sherds of , and the scant remnants of organ- You may also see the corresponding use of CE ic items and foods have helped to reconstruct (common era) and BCE (before the common era), which is seen as more inclusive and less Christian- much of the detail of aboriginal life since the centric, but refers to the same time scale as AD/BC. arrival of people at the end of the Ice Age. But, Finally, many archaeologists use BP or Before unlike our counterparts in arid regions who are able Present (arbitrarily the “present” is 1950, to avoid to examine directly numerous organic artifacts pre- the mental gymnastics of adding or subtracting the served in dry and rock shelters, experimental two millennia since the birth of Christ). In addi- archaeologists working in the Southeast are not tion, an archaeological report using the lower case rigidly bound to a list of facts about the material ad/bc is discussing uncorrected radiocarbon dates. culture of the native peoples; we seek, at best, to One final note: AD and ad are used before a date present a range of available technological possibil- (as in AD 1200, or ad 500), but all other designa- ities. These possibilities extend beyond the recon- tions follow the digits. You will notice that I employ two different time struction of material archaeological remains; by designations in this article. I used the BP notation combining aspects of archaeology, ethnography, in the Paleoindian, Archaic, and Woodland sec- and natural history, a world of organic materials tions, and switch to the Christian calendar in the normally hidden from the archaeologist’s trowel and Historic period discussions. I did emerges. Rarely are we fortunate enough to glimpse this because the dates in recent centuries are more the artistry of fibercraft, basketry, and woodwork- familiar to us in the form of “years AD”, and thus ing that doubtless flourished in the prehistoric easier to comprehend. I hope that this makes it eas- Southeast. Several flooded sites in Florida have ier, not more difficult, to follow the timeline at yielded substantial organic remains; we believe hand. that similar objects were probably commonly in use in what is now Georgia. specific observations on material culture based Such interpretive freedom is a mixed blessing upon my own experiences in primitive technology. since, on the one hand, one may experiment with ideas and adjust perceptions of prehistory; on the Reconstructing the Past: Archaeology and other, one must be attentive to the realities of Experimentation life provided by archaeology, and thus Starting with the oldest identifiable culture, the rein in unrealistic ideas before they wander too far following text covers the next 12,000 years, from afield. To the informed student of primitive tech- the long periods of and gathering known nology falls the task of responsibly filling in gaps in as the Paleoindian and Archaic periods, to the early our knowledge by recognizing, using, and docu- horticulturists of the , and the menting the wealth of possible material resources maize-producing agriculturalists of the Mississippi- in our environments. an period, ending with the arrival of Europeans in recent times. While some traditional crafts are still Paleoindian: 12,000–10,000 BP practiced by Indians of the Southeast, much of the While a growing body of evidence suggests that accumulated knowledge of the past 12,000 years people inhabited the New World by about 13,500 was lost through the unfortunate acts of the years ago (often referred to as the Pre-Paleoindian Europeans who ultimately came to dominate period), the first definable, widespread culture North America. For further reading, try The appeared around 12,000 years ago at the end of the Southeastern Indians by Charles Hudson’s (1976) last Ice Age. The dry, windswept landscape was and Archaeology of the Southeastern United States: strongly shaped by, but just out of reach of, the Paleoindian to World I by Judith Bense (1994). massive continental ice sheet that lay a few hun- • An Introduction to the Prehistory of The Southeast • Jones • 37

Historic circa ad 1540-present ad/ Before bc Present ad/ Before The de Soto expedition’s four-year tour of the Southeast, was the 3500 5500 bc Present first visit of Europeans to Georgia’s Interior. The incursion of 3600 5600 2000 0 Europeans profoundly changed the lives of the Native Americans, 3700 5700 1900 100 introducing new foods, technologies, and diseases. Some aboriginal practices still remain. Some descendants of 3800 5800 1800 200 Mississippian peoples tell stories passed down from their 3900 5900 1700 300 forbearers, and craft traditional items as their ancestors did. 4000 6000 1600 400 4100 6100 1500 500 Middle Archaic 4200 6200 1400 600 Mississippian ca. 8000-5500 bp 4300 6300 1300 700 4400 6400 circa ad During the Middle 1200 800 900-1540 4500 6500 1100 900 Archaic, reliance on plant 4600 6600 1000 1000 foods continued to Mississippian peoples increase. People still lived 4700 6700 900 1100 cultivated large fields in mobile groups in major 4800 6800 800 1200 and lived in some- river valleys. The 4900 6900 700 1300 Woodland times large villages. development of - 5000 7000 600 1400 circa 3000-1100 bp Some were surround- thrower weights improved 5100 7100 500 1500 ed by defensive pali- their throwing accuracy 5200 7200 400 1600 Woodland peoples made that sades and ditches. Vil- and impact. They used 5300 7300 300 1700 were more efficient than those of lages and peoples locally available stone for 5400 7400 200 1800 their predecessors, making it easier were members of making tools, suggesting to clear fields, indicating the loose confederacies, 5500 7500 100 1900 the territories in which 5600 7600 increasing importance of agriculture or regional political they moved were smaller AD 0 2000 5700 7700 for their subsistence. They ate more groups we call than previously. BC 100 2100 species of cultivated plants than chiefdoms. Early his- 5800 7800 200 2200 their ancestors and sometimes lived toric accounts descri- 5900 7900 300 2300 in larger villages. They also bed the chiefs living 6000 8000 400 2400 developed the bow and , atop mounds, and the 6100 8100 500 2500 which made both hunting by stealth tribute or goods that 6200 8200 600 2600 of animals and people easier. Some member villages sent EarlyArchaic 6300 8300 700 2700 Woodland villages had mounds, to their chief. The ca. 10,000-8000 bp 6400 8400 800 2800 indicating an elaborate ritual life. central area of large 6500 8500 900 2900 villages may have had With the extinction of 6600 8600 1000 3000 multiple mounds, and many large game animals, 6700 8700 1100 3100 even large buildings Early Archaic peoples 6800 8800 1200 3200 in which groups could focused on whitetail , assemble for meetings 6900 8900 1300 3300 Late Archaic small game, nuts, and a 7000 9000 circa 5,500-3000 bp and rituals. Mississip- wider variety of plant 1400 3400 pian peoples made 7100 9100 1500 3500 foods. Population 7200 9200 Peoples of the Late Archaic lived many kinds of plain increased and people 1600 3600 far different lives than their and decorated pottery 7300 9300 1700 3700 lived in small groups ancestors. They began to cultivate a vessels, and ate a mostly in major river 7400 9400 1800 3800 few plant species and make ceramic variety of wild and valleys, staying mobile, 7500 9500 1900 3900 vessels. Together these and other cultivated plant and not occupying settled 7600 9600 2000 4000 changes indicate significant changes foods, including communities. 7700 9700 2100 4100 in diet, daily life, and technology. maize. 7800 9800 2200 4200 7900 9900 2300 4300 8000 10000 2400 4400 8100 10100 2500 4500 Paleoindian circa 12,000-10,000 bp 8200 10200 2600 4600 8300 10300 2700 4700 Immigrants from Asia brought their stone types 8400 10400 2800 4800 and technologies with them. Later, new types, 8500 10500 2900 4900 including fluted and unfluted , became widely 8600 10600 3000 5000 distributed; some are thought to have been used as 8700 10700 3100 5100 hafted spear points with atlatl throwing sticks. 8800 10800 3200 5200 Subsistence focused on large game, yet a range of plants and animals must have been used and 8900 10900 3300 5300 consumed. Paleoindian sites are few and dispersed 9000 11000 3400 5400 across the landscape; there must have been only a few 9100 11100 3500 5500 Paleoindians in Georgia at any one time. 9200 11200 9300 11300 9400 11400 9500 11500 9600 11600 A Georgia Chronology: 9700 11700 9800 11800 9900 11900 Change and Continuity 10000 12000 38 • Early Georgia • volume 29, number 1 •

dred miles to the north. The coastal lowlands The specific hunting used by Paleoindi- extended far beyond the present coast, because ans are the topic of speculation; while some pro- massive amounts of the ocean’s water locked up in jectile points are large enough to be used as tips for polar ice sheets lowered sea levels. In this land- heavy thrusting or stabbing , most of those scape of forest and grassland, these earliest found in the Southeast are small enough for use on Americans coexisted briefly with numerous Ice lighter thrown with a spear thrower. No Age mammals that are now extinct. In the direct evidence for spear throwers has been found, Southeast were found wooly mammoth, mastodon, and the scarcity of Paleoindian sites does not favor and ancient bison, as as living species includ- the recovery of an actual spear thrower, yet the Old ing caribou, elk, and deer. World flavor of the assemblage favors the Paleoindian sites are rare and their distinctive presence of this for the pursuit of large, points are scarce, often found in the dangerous, and now largely extinct prey. Southeast only as isolated artifacts. Paleoindians are believed to have migrated across the land Archaic: ca. 10,000–3000 BP bridge connecting Siberia and Alaska (a conse- quence of lower sea levels during glacial times). Early Archaic: ca. 10,000–8000 BP Their lifestyle was one of hunting and gathering, At the close of the Ice Age about 10,000 years and the few well preserved kill sites discovered in ago, a people who once lived by hunting a variety the Western US indicate an emphasis on large of large game were forced to alter their way of life game. This is likewise reflected in their tools: well- in the face of a changing climate. In the Southeast, made projectile points, sometimes bearing a char- the extinction of mammoth, mastodon, and the acteristic channel flake removed lengthwise from ancient bison, as well as the disappearance from the base (fluted points); long narrow flake blades the region of modern species such as elk and cari- struck from bou, left the whitetail deer as the principal large prepared game animal. Along with deer, the new climate cores; and allowed forests with the same species we see today unifacial to flourish; they were dominated by , , scrapers (now almost gone due to disease), and manufac- . Focusing on deer, black bear, small game, and tured by the mast (nuts) from the mature forests, Early Archaic removal of peoples adopted a generalized hunting and gather- many small ing lifestyle with a greater reliance upon plant flakes from foods than their Paleoindian ancestors. the edge of a Although population increased rapidly in the larger flake, new, temperate environment, Early Archaic peo- thus forming ples still ranged far and wide, often using major Using friction, Jones creates an ember with a beveled river valleys as territorial corridors for foraging and which to start a fire, demonstrating one of the travel between the Coastal Plain and the interior. most fundamental of primitive skills. tool. This tech- Following the example set by their Paleoindian nology is quite similar to that of the Old World ancestors, they sought high-quality material for Upper , and attests to the origins of the their stone tools. Well-made, easily maintained earliest inhabitants of the New World. Because tools were a necessity for highly mobile bands of winters were severe, access to good stone was lim- hunter-gatherers; yet their mobility allowed them ited, and the animals these people hunted were to choose the best material from within their terri- often large and dangerous, the stone tools of the tory. The bow was unknown to these people; the Paleoindians were made from the highest quality primary weapon remained the spear-thrower (or materials available and were used for as long as pos- atlatl), and the side- and corner-notched stone sible. To get the most possible use from them, they points they used are not really arrowheads at all. were often resharpened many times before being They are, in fact, tips for darts thrown with the discarded. atlatl. Using spear throwers to hunt swift game, • An Introduction to the Prehistory of The Southeast • Jones • 39 hunters equipped lightweight darts with detach- ceramic pottery, about 3500 BP. The appearance of able foreshafts that allowed the stone points to ceramic and stone vessels signaled the beginning of serve double duty as both and projectile the end of the 8500 year-old hunting and gathering point, and also permitted easy replacement of an way of life that had endured since the earliest accidentally broken tip. arrived in North America. The invention of pottery indicates a more sedentary lifestyle that Middle Archaic: ca. 8000–5500 BP included an early form of horticulture for cultivat- By about 8000 years ago, a minor climatic shift ing squash (Cucurbita pepo) and gourds (Lagenaria (called the Altithermal) imposed its effect upon siceraria). For in-depth information about fiber- the increasing population of the Southeast. tempered ceramics, soapstone bowls, and other Warmer and dryer conditions west of the Late Archaic technology, see Kenneth E. Appalachians influenced people to concentrate Sassaman’s Early Pottery in the Southeast: Tradition into river valleys, while the wetter climate that and Innovation in Cooking Technology (1993). prevailed to the east resulted in a general migration The transition from hunting and gathering to into the uplands. Perhaps in response to their sedentism is further evidenced by intensive gather- growing population as well as climatic change, ing of shellfish for food along many of the rivers in Middle Archaic peoples increased their reliance the Southeast. This practice left immense piles of upon plant foods. Their preference for locally discarded shell, which sometimes extend for hun- available stone from which to make their decep- dreds of meters along creeks and estuarine margins. tively simple, contracting-stem projectile points Increased sedentism likewise brought about changes indicates that they foraged in smaller territories in technology. The simple chipped stone axes than their ancestors. Using simple chipped-stone that well-served the needs of earlier peoples were axes to fell modest-sized trees needed for shelter refined to suit the rigors of house construction and and tools, they continued to forage in much the limited land clearing. While of Late Archaic same way as their Early Archaic predecessors. grooved axes was apparently similar to earlier During the Middle Archaic, stone spear-thrower flaked stone types (a flexible twig or splint wrapped weights first appear, an innovation that improved around a or constriction), greater durability the weapon’s performance. Although we suspect and maintainability were accomplished by pecking spear throwers had been used since the end of the and grinding the surface, and polishing the edge. Paleoindian times (and probably before), perforat- ed stone weights provide the best hard evidence for Woodland: ca. 3000–1100 BP the existence of this weapon in the Southeast. By about 3000 years ago, the horticulture exper- Late Archaic: ca. 5500–3000 BP iments begun by Late Archaic peoples became a Although many of the trends of the Early and way of life for people of the Woodland period. Middle Archaic continued into the Late Archaic, Despite the name, Woodland peoples were perhaps it differed from them in some significant ways. In less dependent upon the forest environments of the addition to relatively large stemmed projectile Southeast than their predecessors. Taking the points, the Late Archaic was characterized by the refinements of stone axe technology a step further, first fired clay ceramics in North America. Plant the grooved axes of an earlier time gave way to a fiber added to the raw clay strengthened (tem- polished tapered form called a . Instead of fas- pered) the unfired vessel. The fiber burned during tening a flexible sapling around a groove to form a the firing process, yielding a sturdy vessel bearing handle, the was fitted into a hole in the end the impressions of plant fibers. Fiber-tempered pot- of a club-like handle. With friction holding the tery appears around 4500 BP in the Coastal Plain celt blade securely in its haft, the club-like handle of Georgia and South Carolina. provided additional weight and momentum. This More commonly found in the southern allowed Woodland farmers to clear yet larger areas Appalachians and piedmont of northern Georgia of land for villages and fields. and adjacent states are fragments of soapstone During the early part of the Woodland period, bowls. Contrary to popular belief, these carved corn (maize) was virtually unknown, with food stone bowls actually appear after the invention of production based almost entirely on native culti- 40 • Early Georgia • volume 29, number 1 •

gens—mainly lamb’s quarters (Chenopodium became a practical alternative to long-distance berlandieri), marsh elder (Iva annua), sunflowers hunting forays, while serving to protect increasing- (Helianthus annuus), maygrass (Phalaris caroliniana), ly valuable food crops from animals. The venerable knotweed (Polygonum sp.), as well as squash and spear thrower—an Ice Age legacy of hunters and gourds. Although Woodland peoples probably gatherers in nearly every part of the world— retained some of the hunting and gathering mobil- became obsolete in the face of the need for effi- ity of their ancestors, large-scale production of ciency, stealth, and increased rate of fire. Although native seed plants provided a margin of security requiring a greater initial labor investment than against food shortages during the lean months of the spear thrower, the bow—one of the most rec- late winter and early . Starchier than most ognizable symbols of native ingenuity—became wild plant foods, cultivated foods require longer the weapon of choice for hunting and warfare. And cooking times. As dependence on these foods sedentism—the practice of living more or less per- increased, so too did the demands placed upon pot- manently in one place—allowed adequate storage tery. Heavy fiber-tempered pottery gradually was and seasoning of bowstaves, a cumbersome com- modity requiring shelter. As with many technological innovations, the core idea of -and- propelled projectiles did not spring suddenly onto the of prehisto- ry; indeed, the bow was merely a technological refinement of flexible spear-thrower technology. During the developmental phase of the technology, simple, light draw-weight bows could be construct- ed easily from readily available materials and used for fishing or hunting small game. While a mobile hunter/gatherer could easily carry additional two- foot long wooden blanks from which to produce atlatls, the same wanderer, in seeking to make a more substantial weapon, could scarcely afford to travel about the countryside with a five-foot long nonfunctional bowstave; nor could he leave it behind to be potentially exposed to the destructive elements of the humid Eastern US. In other words, archaeologists think Woodland peoples had to stay in one place long enough for the bowstave to sea- son, before they could finish the bow. As in other parts of the world, the advent of agri- culture and sedentism, along with necessity, result- Jones demonstrates the use of a . Jones made this ed in the development of the bow-and-arrow, the bow using traditional methods. The arrow is made of rivercane. ultimate weapon. During the transition from spear-thrower to bow, a profusion of projectile replaced by thinner, more refined sand- and grit- point designs were tested as hunters sought lighter, tempered wares that made a lighter, sturdier vessel. faster projectiles. Dominated by a variety of small As they struggled with the new challenges of stemmed types and relatively large triangular sedentism, food production, and territoriality, points, the triangular style ultimately succeeded all Woodland peoples experimented with ways of others in the Southeast. By the end of the adapting their weapons to new circumstances. Woodland period, triangular projectile points had Surplus food afforded the luxury of remaining become much smaller. Although often called "bird longer in one place, and as villages grew, competi- points" in the mistaken belief that only small game tion for arable land and other resources was could be taken with such a small , inevitable. Also, ambush hunting in food plots these tips are among the few types that may be con- • An Introduction to the Prehistory of The Southeast • Jones • 41

Archaeological Site Reporting So you’ve found an archaeological site…maybe just a of artifacts found, and an area to note cultural periods. few stone flakes, a projectile point, or some broken If this is beyond your available information, you may pottery. If you’re not familiar with the procedures for wish to consult with an archaeologist or amateur to site reporting, then you may find yourself contemplat- learn more. There are many knowledgeable persons in ing many baffling questions: Is the site large enough to the state, many of whom are active in the Society for be important? What agency or organization do I con- Georgia Archaeology, and would be happy to assist tact? What procedure is involved in notifying that you in artifact identification. agency? Will they—whoever they are—want me to Your site will be assigned an official state site number give up my artifacts? For answers, read on. consisting of three parts. For example, my home is an To begin, let’s consider site size as a factor in report- archaeological experimental area, and its site files ing a site. The small site you located in your yard, gar- number is 9OG445. Each state is designated alpha- den, or vacant lot is of value to archaeologists. Each betically, so all sites in Georgia begin with 9. (This piece of information is added to a growing database, system was implemented before Alaska and Hawaii and cumulatively that helps refine our understanding became states, and they are 49 and 50, respectively.) of the past. Even if you only find a few pieces of pot- The "OG" indicates that the site is in Oglethorpe tery, that can tell archaeologists something about the county. The last digits are numerical ranking of sites type of settlement and the people who lived there. within that particular county. Thus, 9OG445 is the The data from each and every site are important. official number that lets me know I’m dealing with a How do I report a site, and whom do I contact? The site in the state of Georgia, in Oglethorpe County, Georgia Archaeological Site Files maintains Georgia’s and the 445th site recorded in that county. archaeological site records. Site forms for noting per- As for your collection of artifacts, you needn’t fear tinent information about sites are available from the that any professional archaeologist covets them. So as GASF, either on-line (http://quat.dac. uga.edu/gasf/) long as your artifacts were obtained legally (i.e., sur- or by calling 706-542-8737. Simply, ill out the site face collected), you may keep them. By recording the form as completely as possible and return it to the site from which they were collected, you have provid- GASF. For the map on a site form, a simple sketch ed a beneficial service to the field of archaeology. If, map is sufficient. However, if you have access to US however, you wish to contribute further, you may give Geological Survey 7.5-minute topographic maps, your collection to the GASF for permanent storage. using them would greatly assist GASF personnel. The This makes the artifacts available to researchers who site form also contains a section for recording the type may find them informative for future projects. fidently called arrowheads. Attached to rivercane present in sufficient quantity to qualify as a signifi- launched from powerful bows by skilled cant food source across the Southeast. Yet by the archers, the tiny arrow points proved fatal to the time new varieties of maize as well as new ideas largest creatures of the Eastern Woodlands, arrived from Mexico around AD 900, the cultural whether deer, bear, or human. mechanisms for large-scale food production initiat- The Woodland Period also signals the beginning ed in the Woodland period were firmly in place. of the construction of earthen mounds. Sedentism With nearly 2000 years of horticulture experience, brought with it the necessity for greater social maize claimed a central place in Southeastern organization, and also permitted the accumulation Native American culture, alongside beans, squash, of material goods. From this came the concept of sunflowers, jerusalem artichokes, gourds, and status, and by Middle Woodland times some indi- tobacco. viduals were interred in conical earthen mounds, The Mississippian period, so called because of often with elaborate funerary items and trade goods the extensively cultivated bottomlands of the acquired from great distances. Mississippi River, represents the most complex political organization and extensive social stratifi- Mississippian: ca. AD 900–1540 cation achieved in North America prior to the Corn—or more correctly, maize—is known only arrival of Christopher Columbus and his ships. sporadically in the preceding Woodland period, While political structure in much of North and certainly not until late Woodland times is it Carolina and the mid- states continued 42 • Early Georgia • volume 29, number 1 •

the Woodland tradition of tribe- or clan-based vil- cane or twigs, and covered with clay, roofed with lages, the Mississippi River drainage and much of thatch or bark; a council house, which occasional- the Southeast was dominated by an array of polities ly took the form of a semi-subterranean earthlodge; (or political units) known as chiefdoms. Though and a central plaza, which served as a gathering much of our knowledge about the geographical size place and game court. In the plaza, the men played chunkey, a game wherein spears or sticks are thrown at a rolling, -like stone (a chunkey stone), often accompanied by copious gambling. The plaza was also used as a ball court for the ball game, the southern equivalent of lacrosse. A rough (and occasionally fatal) enterprise, the ball game was known as "little brother of war," and was used to settle disputes between hostile groups as a way of avoiding outright warfare. The chiefdom was a formidable polit- ical and force, and Mississippian towns, enclosed in their palisades of sharpened, upright timbers, often con- tained populations numbering in the thousands. Equipped with powerful bows, their arrows tipped with tiny tri- See this mound at Etowah Mounds State Historic Site near Cartersville. Three angular stone points, garfish scales, large mounds on this site date to the Mississippian period. antler, or often just sharpened cane alone, defended their towns and of chiefdoms is lost, it is believed that some (such villages. But they were entirely unprepared for that as Coosa, in northwestern Georgia) were quite which was to come. large. Each chiefdom consisted of several villages, each of which was answerable to a central (para- Historic: ca. AD 1540–1840 mount) chief or leader believed to have god-like With the entrance of Hernando De Soto into powers, who resided on the flat-topped earthen the interior of the Southeast in 1539, the region’s mound, often with one or two other influential history was forever changed (Hudson 1997). De leaders living atop lesser mounds in the village com- Soto’s initial exploration was followed by more pound. The head man exacted agricultural tribute expeditions, first by other Spaniards (Hudson from his subjects, and, during lean times he over- 1990), and then by the English and French (Hudson the redistribution of food and other goods to and Tesser 1994). Iron tools and other trade goods, his subjects. In return, the people were required to diseases to which the natives were not immune, provide labor to the chief. They constructed his and the inherent disadvantages faced by Indians house upon the spot where his predecessors had who survived European diseases and depredations lived; upon his death, his subjects often buried him all contributed to the devastation of Indian culture. beneath the dirt floor of his mound-summit resi- Some groups, like the Muskogee-speaking Creeks dence. Then, in accordance with custom, the house further south, maintained considerable cultural was often burned. In preparation for the new heir, identity, although still dependent upon European a new mantle of earth was added to the mound, trade goods. The Cherokees of northern Georgia, and a new house constructed. Thus were the great however, attempted a different strategy. By the late mounds of the Mississippian Indians constructed. 1700s their material culture differed little from that In addition to the chiefly mounds, the village of their Euroamerican neighbors. Even with log compound often included residential houses with houses, farms, orchards, slaves, porcelain, and a walls constructed of upright posts interwoven with written language, they suffered much the same fate • An Introduction to the Prehistory of The Southeast • Jones • 43 as their native kinsmen. Throughout the 1830’s is reflected in the large amount of archaeological they were removed to the Oklahoma Territory by work conducted in compliance with historic decree of US President Andrew Jackson, and their preservation laws. For once, Indians and archaeol- homes and land were seized by white settlers. The ogists are working for similar ends, albeit for differ- rest is literally "history." ent reasons. Native American groups are increas- ingly aware that their goal of site protection is Concluding Remarks attainable by cooperative work with archaeologists. Despite great efforts to extirpate Native As archaeology seeks to preserve sites, the way Americans from the Southeast, Indian culture is in which sites are investigated and interpreted has nonetheless alive and well. Just as the foregoing changed accordingly. Instead of digging high-status chronological descriptions depict this culture as burials for ornate funerary objects, research now dynamic and ever-changing, Southeastern Indians emphasizes goals that are achievable through today still retain distinct elements of their respec- broad, often non-invasive techniques such as sur- tive cultures. Regardless of what many Americans veys of timber clearcuts to study prehistoric settle- (and archaeologists) think of casinos and the all- ment patterns. Specific sites are sometimes exca- encompassing pan-Indian movement that identi- vated with painstaking thoroughness. These are fies all Native Americans with tipis, feather head- often sites that will be impacted by development or dresses, and New Age spirituality, the threads of construction, portions of which must be dug com- modern Indian life will ultimately be woven into pletely. By recovering subtle information from fea- this cultural tale. Strangely, it is this renewed iden- tures, , and the physical distribution of arti- tity that places archaeologists and Native Ameri- facts within a site, much can be learned. Fragile cans in an unlikely alliance. remains of pollen, charcoal, botanical and faunal The relationship between archaeologists and remains much about everyday life in the Indians has traditionally been adversarial. In the past. From the few sites so scrutinized, better- past, the principal concern for archaeologists was to recover information in the form of arti- facts. These artifacts were obtained by digging, and excava- tions often focused on burials. In an effort to retain some cultural privacy, Native Americans were (and are) opposed to digging buri- als as a matter of principle. In recent decades, changes in the goals of archaeological research and a greater sensitivity to other cultures has resulted in a decrease in the focus on burials. Difficulties imposed by legislation also worked to make archaeologists reluctant to disturb burials. These factors alone, however, did not provide sufficient impetus to mend the rift between the two groups. Faced with rampant develop- ment and site destruction on a massive scale, in recent years archaeological interest has begun De Soto was the first European to travel through the Interior Southeast. Archaeological to focus on site preservation. This and historical data have been used together to reconstruct his route. 44 • Early Georgia • volume 29, number 1 •

informed inferences about other sites (whether for examination by researchers engaged in legiti- recorded through survey or reported by amateurs) mate pursuits. As for the latter of the two above are possible. statements, archaeologists and Native Americans Looting is also a serious problem that faces generally agree: artifacts do not exist solely for aes- archaeologists and Native Americans. While an thetic appreciation by modern peoples. Apart from uneasy truce unites these two groups, looting of controlled storage in a federally approved facility, archaeological sites for art objects continues the only better environment for artifacts is, of unabated. Two different, though equally specious, course, in the ground. arguments are sometimes proffered as a feeble In closing, it should be said that the information defense for looting. The first asks: why should contained in the chronology section is the result of beautiful artifacts that are excavated by archaeolo- much tedious work by innumerable researchers gists be stored away where no one can see them? over many years. Our knowledge about dates, tools, The second states: technology, population, environments, and paleob- artifacts that are in otany stems from the careful excavation of subtle the earth are clues to the past. Looting destroys this information unavailable and in an attempt to recover material art objects. As therefore cannot be looting and development threaten increasing num- properly “appreciat- bers of sites, preservation of intact sites remains a ed.” priority for everyone, professional and amateur. So, Both of these too, does the reporting and recording of sites. All views treat artifacts persons who are interested in archaeology can con- as art objects, with tribute positively to the present state of knowledge an implied value about the past. beyond the histori- cal information References Cited they provide. Most Bense, Judith A. sites excavated by 1994 Archaeology of the Southeastern United States: archaeologists pro- Paleoindian to World War I. Academic Press, San duce few artifacts to Diego. Hudson, Charles which great value 1976 Southeastern Indians. University of Tennessee could be attached; Press, Knoxville. the majority of arti- 1990 The Juan Pardo Expeditions: Exploration of the facts are stone Carolinas and Tennessee, 1566–1568. Smithsonian flakes, fragmentary Institution Press, Washington, DC. tools, or small pot- 1997 Knights of Spain, Warriors of the Sun: Hernando de tery sherds. While Soto and the South’s Ancient Chiefdoms. University of Jones is working to dehair a whitetail deer Georgia Press, Athens. these provide the Hudson, Charles, and Carmen Chaves Tesser (editors) hide stretched taut on a wooden frame. In necessary data for the 1700s, Indian hunters traded thou- 1994 The Forgotten Centuries: Indians and Europeans in sound archaeologi- the American South, 1521–1704. University of sands of deer hides annually to white Georgia Press, Athens. traders living near Georgia’s coast. cal interpretation, they are in no other Sassaman, Kenneth E. way valuable. Stored in a climate-controlled, 1993 Early Pottery in the Southeast: Tradition and Innovation in Cooking Technology. University of secure environment, these artifacts are available Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.

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