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Home , Atlantic (period), Boreal (age), Maglemosian culture, Preboreal

International 378 (2015) 73e87

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Quaternary International

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Early in the landscape: Archaeology and vegetation from the earliest site in at Lundby Mose, Sjælland

Catherine A. Jessen a,*, Kristoffer Buck Pedersen b, Charlie Christensen a, Jesper Olsen c, Morten Fischer Mortensen a, Keld Møller Hansen b a The National Museum of Denmark, Environmental Archaeology & Materials Science, Ny Vestergade 11, 1471 Copenhagen K, Denmark b Museum Southeast Denmark, Slotsruinen 1, 4760 Vordingborg, Denmark c AMS 14C Dating Centre, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Aarhus, Ny Munkegade 120, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark article info abstract

Article history: The transition from Late Palaeolithic to early Mesolithic cultures is strongly associated with the major Available online 24 April 2014 environmental and climatic changes occurring with the shift from the to the in northern . In this paper, we present an interdisciplinary study combining archaeological and Keywords: palaeoenvironmental research in an attempt to examine the relationship between environment and Mesolithic culture during this transition. Lundby Mose is a former kettle hole lake in southern Denmark where the Preboreal vegetation earliest Danish human traces of the Holocene were excavated. Two types of bone deposits were found, 1) Elk deposits ritual offerings of worked, marrow-split elk bones and antler and 2) settlement waste with multiple Denmark fi /cultural transitions species. These date to the early Holocene and are af liated to the early Maglemose culture. The modelled 14 Pollen C ages suggest that the bones were deposited in four phases. A pollen based palaeoenvironmental reconstruction suggests that the ritual offerings were deposited in an environment of limited, under- developed forest with unstable soils and areas of open grassland. The settlement waste deposit is associated with a more developed Preboreal forest type. This forest type was not fully established until c. 11,250 cal BP and if substantiated by further evidence, may be one of the reasons why there are no known early Maglemose/Preboreal settlement sites in southern . Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.

1. Introduction (Brinch Petersen, 2009; Tolksdorf et al., 2009). Sites allowing an integrated approach combining these different data are rare but can The PleistoceneeHolocene transition is one of the most abrupt aid our understanding of both the cultural and the environmental climatic changes in the history of the human settlement of northern responses to the Holocene shift. Europe. It marks the cultural transition from the Palaeolithic to the Our knowledge of landscape change in southern Scandinavia is Mesolithic culture (Petersen, 1973) and dates to 11,703 b2k built upon numerous studies stretching back to the pioneer phase (c. 11,653 cal BP) in the data (Rasmussen et al., of vegetational reconstructions (von Post, 1916; Jessen, 1935; 2006). The vegetational landscape is thought to have responded Nilsson, 1935; Iversen, 1942, 1946, 1947; Mikkelsen, 1949; Iversen, to this shift within a very short time period and understanding its 1960). Many of these studies were carried out prior to the devel- development is pertinent to any associated archaeology, as certain opment of radiocarbon dating and often served a double function types of vegetation supply certain food resources for humans and by also supplying a relative date to archaeological sites (Iversen, thus have a strong influence on the material culture retrieved. 1946; Jørgensen, 1954). Very few of these earlier studies system- Direct correlations between the climatic impact, the vegetational atically analysed plant macrofossils or calculated pollen influx but response and the human response are challenging due to the lack of recent work is now showing a more nuanced vegetational devel- dated archaeological sites on both sides of the transition opment with differences in small-scale vegetation patterns over relatively short distances and significant time delays during periods of climatic transitions (Mortensen et al., 2011; Fischer et al., 2013;

* Corresponding author. Mortensen et al., 2014a). The distinctive shift from the late Palae- E-mail address: [email protected] (C.A. Jessen). olithic Ahrensburg cultural material of the Younger Dryas to that of http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.03.056 1040-6182/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. 74 C.A. Jessen et al. / Quaternary International 378 (2015) 73e87 the Mesolithic Maglemose culture of the Holocene on the northern studies were mostly based on pollen analyses and much of the European plain is clearly observed on a large scale. Seen in more biostratigraphic zonation was determined from southern Scandi- detail there is an evident chronological gap between the two cul- navian sites (von Post, 1916). They also detected hitherto undocu- tures but due to the limited number of known settlement sites, and mented rapid climatic changes during the early Holocene (c. the few reliable radiocarbon ages available, it is difficult to be more 11,653e8000 cal BP) (Iversen, 1973). These events, recorded in precise as to how long this gap lasts (Hansen et al., 2004). correlated relative chronologies, have since been shown in many Modern agriculture with intensive ploughing and drainage has palaeoclimatic indicators from the northern hemisphere within strongly degraded Late Palaeolithic and early Mesolithic sites and absolute chronologies (Alley and Ágústsdóttir, 2005; Jessen et al., the loss of potential prehistoric hunteregatherer sites is very 2008; Blockley et al., 2012 and references therein). The events, evident in the east Danish . Nonetheless in 1999 a group of which are often suggested to be associated with meltwater pulses students from a local agricultural college (Lundby Landbrugsskole) into the North Ocean (Teller et al., 2002; Jessen, 2006), dug into a kettle hole and discovered well preserved, worked elk were part of an early Holocene dynamic climate with rapidly (Alces alces) bones and antler. The subsequent excavation revealed a changing temperatures and precipitation regimes, possibly series of bundled, marrow-split elk bones deposited around the impacting the developing landscapes and the large scale migrations edge of a small ancient lake and has proved to be the earliest Ho- of the associated flora and fauna. Disentangling this complex locene site with human traces found in Denmark so far. In this mixture of responses to early Holocene climatic change with all paper we present the excavation and the different types of bone their associated time delays can be aided by sites with secure deposits together with a palynological vegetational reconstruction. stratigraphic contexts and the integration of different scientific Lundby Mose is a unique site and key in the understanding of how disciplines. humans adapted to the environmental changes at the beginning of the Holocene and offers the exceptional opportunity to apply an 2.2. Archaeological and cultural context integrated palaeoenvironmental and archaeological approach and consider the relationship between environment and culture in the The sites of eastern Denmark have played an important role early Mesolithic. in establishing and developing Mesolithic archaeology in Europe (Fig. 1). The first investigation was at Mullerup in western Zealand 2. Background (Sarauw, 1903) and the name of the bog, ‘Maglemosen’, later gave its name to the early Mesolithic of southern Scandinavia: the 2.1. Palaeoclimatic and environmental context Maglemose culture (c. 11,600e8400 cal BP) (Brinch Petersen, 1993). The characteristic flint and big game forest The start of rapid Holocene warming at 11,703 b2k hunting distinguish it from the preceding late Palaeolithic hunters (c. 11,653 cal BP) (Rasmussen et al., 2006) initiated a complex series of the northern European plain. During the 20th century many of climatic responses in with associated responses Danish bog excavations defined and described the Maglemosian in biological systems and their ecology. The late Glacial succession and became a frame of reference for early Mesolithic research in of vegetational immigration has been well described in northern northern Europe. These Maglemose sites are positioned in the Europe over many (Jessen, 1935; Iversen, 1954, 1967). These Preboreal, and the early Atlantic biostratigraphic zones

Fig. 1. A) Map of Denmark with the sites mentioned in the text. B) LIDAR map of Køng Sværdborg bog with early Mesolithic sites. LM: Lundby Mose, L: Lundby, S: Sværdborg, H: Hasbjerg, KF: Køng Flaskholm. C.A. Jessen et al. / Quaternary International 378 (2015) 73e87 75

Fig. 2. Lundby Mose Younger Dryas and Preboreal in profile (Photo: Charlie Christensen). though most date to the Boreal and no occupation sites are found 3. Methods until around the middle of the Preboreal. Amongst the best studied are Klosterlund (Mattiassen and Iversen, 1937; Brinch Petersen, After the initial discovery of worked elk bones, large trenches 1966), Sværdborg (Friis Johansen, 1919; Broholm, 1924; Henriksen were opened with a mechanical digger and excavated in 1999 and et al., 1976), Holmegård I, IV, V, VI (Broholm, 1924; Becker, 1945), 2000. The animal bone deposits and stratigraphy were documented Ulkestrup I & II (Andersen, 1951; Andersen et al., 1982), Barmosen by profile drawings and photographs (Figs. 2 and 3). The kettle hole (Johannson, 1990) and Lundby I & II (Henriksen, 1980; Hansen, is w100 40 m and situated on arable land. The good preservation 1995). of the elk is due to their low-lying position below the level of The Lundby Mose site lies close to the large Køng Sværdborg Bog present day drainage. which contains several well-known early Mesolithic sites. The best preserved are found on islets in the former lake, for example, the 3.1. Cores and sampling Boreal site Sværdborg I, which covers an area of 1.5 ha and the slightly younger sites on the Lundby Islet (Lundby I e III)(Brinch The cores were collected in 2010 from a position undisturbed Petersen, 1972; Henriksen, 1980; Hansen, 1995). by the previous excavation and approximately equidistant

Fig. 3. Lundby Mose excavation plan with numbered deposits. Red circle indicates core position. LM indicates the different bone deposits. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) 76 C.A. Jessen et al. / Quaternary International 378 (2015) 73e87

Fig. 4. Core image with loss-on-ignition results at 550 C (black) and 1000 C (grey). Black squares show positions of AMS 14C ages and dashed line shows sediment boundaries. between deposits 1 and 5 (Fig. 3) (Lat: 55.103, Long: 11.864). A level to only 278 grains due to low pollen numbers. Influx was generalised description of the analysed core (180e258 cm below calculated using the modelled sedimentation rate per (grains/ present day surface) can be found in Fig. 4. The shift from gyttja cm2/y). No weighting for variable pollen production by individual to peat occurs at 164 cm. The distinct ‘dark-light-dark-light’ taxa has been applied. gyttja stratigraphy immediately above the grey clay spanned ca. 6 cm at this position. The bone deposits found around the edge of the past lake stratigraphically correlate to the ‘light’ layer at 253e254 cm. Sub-sampling was undertaken from 180 through to 258 cm at 1 cm intervals for the estimation of organic and cal- cium carbonate content by loss-on-ignition (LOI) and pollen analysis.

3.2. Loss-on-ignition

Known weights of samples at 1 cm intervals between 180 and 258 cm were placed in crucibles and oven dried at 105 C overnight. The remaining material was then fired at 550 C for 4 h and at 1000 C for 2 h (Boyle, 2001). The weight loss was calculated as a percentage of dry weight (Fig. 4).

3.3. Pollen analysis

A total of 44 samples were analysed from between 182 and 258 cm mostly at 1 cm analysis intervals in the lower section of the core (in stratigraphic association with the bone deposits) and at 2e 3 cm intervals in the upper section. The samples were mounted in silicone oil after preparation following standard procedures (Fægri and Iversen, 1989) and each sample was spiked with one Lycopo- dium tablet for the estimation of pollen influx (Stockmarr, 1971). Percentage calculations are based on the total terrestrial pollen sum. At least 500 terrestrial pollen grains were counted in most of Fig. 5. Bayesian modelled ageedepth curve (black line with grey shading) and cali- the samples but a few levels were counted to þ350 grains and one brated radiocarbon ages for the sediment core. The outlier is shown without shading. C.A. Jessen et al. / Quaternary International 378 (2015) 73e87 77

4. Dating biozone is modelled to 10,440 cal BP. The model omits the outlier at 248 cm as other data indicates a possible disturbance relating to 4.1. Sediment chronology lake levels (see 6.1). The stratigraphic position of the elk bone and antler deposits LM1e3(249e254 cm) are modelled to between The age model is based on 7 AMS radiocarbon ages of terrestrial 11,310 and 11,250 cal BP. Analysis of samples for microtephra gave macrofossils extracted from 1 cm sediment samples and includes a inconclusive results (Bramham-Law, pers. comm.). replicate sample from the lowest level in the Holocene sediments e (254 255 cm) (Table 1 and Fig. 5). The replicate sample was sub- 4.2. Bones and antler mitted due to the outlier at 248e249 cm and confirms the age of the earliest lake sediment deposition. Dated samples were posi- Nine bone samples and one antler sample were submitted for tioned at lithological boundaries. The radiocarbon ages were cali- AMS radiocarbon dating and calibrated using OxCal 4.2 and e brated using OxCal 4.2 and IntCal09 and the age depth model was IntCal09 (Fig. 6 and Table 2)(Bronk Ramsey et al., 2012; Reimer produced with OxCal 4.1.7 (Bronk Ramsey, 2008; Bronk Ramsey, et al., 2009). During the excavation all the elk deposits were 2009; Reimer et al., 2009). Ages are reported as cal BP where BP recorded as belonging to the same early Preboreal sediments but denotes 1950 AD or as before 2000 AD (b2k). The replicated cali- the resultant 14C ages range from 10,127 to 8877 14C BP indicate that brated ages of the lowest Holocene level are modelled to between they probably represent multiple events. Using the deviation, in 11,390 and 11,260 cal BP. The uppermost date, positioned to date terms of the standard deviation from combined weighted mean of > the shift to the Boreal period (Corylus 5%), is modelled to between all samples, the samples produced four separate groups (Table 3) 10,554 and 10,296 cal BP. suggesting four separate events. To further clarify, a Bayesian phase

Table 1 AMS radiocarbon dates for Lundby Mose sediment core calibrated using OxCal v4.1.7 with IntCal09 (Reimer et al., 2009; Bronk Ramsey, 2009).

Core depth (cm) Lab no. Material analysed Weight Age (14C yr BP) Calibrated age Model age d13C(& VPDB) (mg) (cal BP, 2s interval) (cal BP, 2s interval)

189e190 AAR14656 Betula seeds 2.7 9277 32 10,301e10,574 10,554e10,296 26.9 216e217 AAR14657 Betula seeds and leaves 5.0 9458 31 10,584e10,775 10,791e10,651 28.5 229e230 AAR14658 Betula seeds and leaves 1.8 9536 33 10,706e11,081 11,070e10,806 27.8 241e242 AAR14659 Betula seeds and leaves, 2.5 9704 41 10,875e11,226 11,207e11,087 27.1 Carex seeds 248e249 AAR14660 Betula leaves, Carex seeds 1.1 10,073 41 11,394e11,956 11,955e11,392 27.5 254e255 AAR14661 Carex seeds 2.6 9934 30 11,243e11,595 11,390e11,260 24.0 254e255 AAR16264 Carex seeds 3.7 9944 34 11,246e11,602 11,390e11,260 22.2

Based on this model, sedimentation rates show a decreasing analysis was performed using OxCal 4.2 with IntCal09. The result- trend between the onset of lake sedimentation at 11,310 cal BP ing model has an agreement index of 117% and the plotted (254 cm) and 10,740 cal BP followed by a period of high sedimen- boundaries between the different groups also show four, clearly tation rates (0.095 cm/y) until 10,450 cal BP. The shift to the Boreal separate, phases (Fig. 6 and Table 2).

Table 2 AMS radiocarbon dates for Lundby Mose bone calibrated using OxCal v4.2 with IntCal09 and Bayesian phase analysis (Reimer et al., 2009; Bronk Ramsey et al., 2012). The elk antler (AAR15630) is omitted from the model.

Lab no. Bone deposit Material Phase Age (14C yr BP) s deviation from Calibrated age Model age d13C(& VPDB) weighted mean (cal BP, 2s interval) (cal BP, 2s interval)

AAR15630 1 Elk antler adze 10,127 33 11,977e11,613 21.0

Onset phase 1 12,912e11,419 AAR15632 6 Elk bone 1 10,119 30 18 11,973e11,508 11,959e11,611 20.1

Transition phase 1e2 11,777e11,270 AAR5469 2 Elk bone 2 9950 75 5 11,715e11,223 11,606e11,226 21.9 AAR5470 1 Elk bone 2 9930 70 5 11,701e11,213 11,601e11,220 21.6 AAR5471 3 Elk bone 2 9860 70 4 11,604e11,172 11,593e11,176 22.2 Phase 2, weighted average 9912 41 (c2: 1.1 < 6.0) 11,597e11,222

Transition phase 2e3 11,342e10,853 AAR15635 5 Elk bone 3 9585 50 1 11,141e10,737 11,122e10,755 21.3 AAR15631 15 bone 3 9585 30 0 11,101e10,760 11,097e10,774 21.1 AAR15636 5 Red bone 3 9557 50 0 11,105e10,708 11,100e10,737 20.4 AAR15633 4 Elk bone 3 9553 33 0 11,085e10,720 11,085e10,738 22.6 Phase 3, weighted average 9571 21 (c2:0< 3.8) 11,085e10,747

Transition phase 3e4 11,061e10,152 AAR15637 29 bone 4 8877 29 24 10,173e9891 10,170e9908 21.3

End phase 4 10,165e8630 78 C.A. Jessen et al. / Quaternary International 378 (2015) 73e87

Table 3 Lundby Mose bone deposits.

Deposit Type No. of individuals Species Sex and age Age No. of bones (elk)

1 Offering 1 Elk \4.5e8.5 yrs Early PBO 97 2 Offering 2 Elk ? 3e4 yrs Early PBO 729 ? 8 yrs 3 Offering 3 Elk _ 3 yrs Early PBO 515 _ 4 yrs _ 6 yrs 4 Offering 1 Elk ? 1e1.5 yrs PBO 127 5 Settlement waste 3 Perch, pike, mallard, common scoter, Adults PBO 256 (Elk) red-breasted merganser, Hooper swan, hedgehog, horse, red deer, , elk, aurochs, wild boar and dog. 6 Diffuse concentration 1? Elk ? Early PBO 13

5. Results Phase 1 is based on 1 date, a shoulder (scapula) from LM6 (AAR-15632) and modelled to 11,960e11,610 cal BP (95.4%). 5.1. Archaeology and osteoarchaeology Phase 2 is based on 3 dates of left mandibles from deposits LM1 (AAR-5470), LM2 (AAR-5469) and LM3 (AAR-5471). Phase 2 is The first three elk deposits (LM1, LM2 and LM3) (Fig. 3)were modelled to 11,610e11,180 cal BP (95.4%). Phase 3 is based elk excavated in 1999 following the initial discovery (Hansen, 2003; bones from LM4 (AAR-15633), elk and red deer (Cervus elaphus) Hansen et al., 2004; Hansen and Brinch Petersen, 2006) and were from LM5 (AAR-15635, AAR-15636) and an aurochs bone (15, embedded in a layer of light coloured gyttja. The deposits were AAR-15631). This phase is modelled to 11,120e10,740 cal BP located in the south western part of the kettle hole and each (95.4%). The last phase, Phase 4, is a small deposit of bones from a covered a total area of approximately 1 m2 (Figs. 3 and 7). These wild boar (Sus scrofa)(29) and modelled to 10,170e9910 cal BP very tight clusters of bones indicate that they were thrown or put (95.4%) (Fig. 6). into the lake bound in some sort of wrapping, probably elk hide.

Fig. 6. Calibrated bone dates, phases and boundaries. The elk antler adze is omitted from the model. C.A. Jessen et al. / Quaternary International 378 (2015) 73e87 79

treatment, hide and sinew removal, disarticulation at all levels of the skeleton and meat removal on all bulky parts (Leduc, 2012a). Almost all bones containing marrow have been characteristically marrow split except from those of LM6. In spite of intensive refit- ting analyses of the marrow split bones, it was not been possible to connect the individual deposits and this suggests that the deposits represent multiple events (Leduc, 2012a, 2012b, 2014). Single bones and small collections of bones from other animals, e.g. aurochs (Bos primigenius)(15) and wild boar (15) (Fig. 3) were additionally found. These both displayed a distinctly different character to the elk deposits and the wild boar deposit is dated significantly later (Table 2, Phase 4).

5.1.1. LM1 LM1 consists of 97 elk bone fragments and all except 3 bones probably belong to the same individual with a skull morphology suggesting a female. An age of between 4.5 and 8.5 years has been estimated based on teeth wear pattern (Leduc, 2012a). Many of the bones from the individual in LM1 are missing including a portion of the thoracic vertebra and ribs, the upper part of the right forelimb, the entire back of the animal, the carpals, tarsals and the lower parts of the leg and the right metatarsal. All skeletal remains con- taining marrow were marrow split and cutmarks suggest that slaughtering took place on site (Leduc, 2012a). An elk antler adze and two first incisors from an older individual were also included in Fig. 7. Bundled marrow-split elk bones from LM2 (Photo: Charlie Christensen). the deposit (Fig. 8a).

The northern part of the kettle hole was excavated in 2000 and 5.1.2. LM2 another small elk deposit (LM4) was found along with the much LM2 was positioned 8 m south of LM1 and thus closer to the larger deposit LM5 (Fig. 3). ancient lake shore (Fig. 3). The bones were less well preserved and fl The zoological analysis of the bones from Lundby Mose has more fragmented than those of LM1 and this is re ected in the e shown that every elk carcass was incomplete (Leduc, 2010, 2012a). analysis. LM2 consisted of two individuals with age estimates of 3 The missing parts form large skeletal portions such as heads, 4 years and 8 years. Gender determination was not possible due to fi complete limbs, half parts of the axial skeleton and half ribcages. the poor preservation. Only 77 skeletal parts could be identi ed The good condition for organic preservations allows us to interpret from within the 729 bone fragments found in LM2. these absences not as a product of differential preservation but as a result of human choices in terms of carcass treatment and selective 5.1.3. LM3 transport or disposal (Leduc, 2012b, 2014). Many of the elk bones LM3 yielded 514 bones from 3 individuals and positioned have numerous cutmarks. In LM1, 60.6% of the number of identi- approximately 15 m east of LM1 and LM2 (Fig. 3). Three male in- fiable specimens (NISP) and 72.7% of the minimum number of el- dividuals aged 3, 4 and 6 years were identified. A sternum pierced ements (MNE) show cutmarks. Fewer cutmarks were seen in the by a flint point was also found in this deposit (Fig. 8b). other deposits but they are still noteworthy: LM3 (46% of NISP and 53.4% of MNE), LM4 (36.2% of the NISP and 53.4% of the MNE) and 5.1.4. LM4 LM5 (27.7% of the NISP and 36.7% of the MNE). Cutmark location LM4 was found in the northern part of the lake basin, and arrangement highlights several phases of the carcass approximately 40 m north of the three first deposits. This

Fig. 8. a) Elk antler adze from LM1 (Photo: Henrik Dahl). b) Elk scapula with flint from LM3 (Photo: Geert Brovad). 80 C.A. Jessen et al. / Quaternary International 378 (2015) 73e87

5.1.7. Other deposits To the east of LM1e3 were found bones from aurochs (15) and wild boar (29) (Fig. 3). A radiocarbon age of the aurochs bone gave a date contemporaneous with LM5 (Table 2). The wild boar bones (29) were dated considerably younger than the elk deposits and of Boreal age (Table 2).

5.2. Pollen analysis and LOI

The sequence has been grouped into zones based on combined visible changes in sediments, LOI, pollen percentages and pollen influx for the purposes of this description (Figs. 4, 10 and 11).

5.2.1. Zone a) c. 11,380e11,325 cal BP (259e255 cm) The LOI profile from these clay rich sediments indicates low values of both organic and calcium carbonate content and thus indicates a high proportion of clastic material. Two pollen samples are available giving w60% woodland taxa and 20e25% grasses and terrestrial herbs (based on total terrestrial pollen sum). Further- more high percentages of Cyperaceae (sedges) are recorded (max. w80%), decreasing between the two samples, and indicate the presence of wetlands. High percentage values of the algae Pedias- trum are also seen. Total pollen concentration values are low, averaging w86,000 grains/cm3. The age model is not considered sufficiently reliable to calculate total influx for this zone.

5.2.2. Zone b) c. 11,325e11,250 cal BP (255e249 cm) Sedimentation in the basin switches from clays to gyttja at c. 11,325 cal BP. As can be seen in Fig. 4, an alternating sequence characterised by variable organic input continues until c. 11,250 cal BP. The elk bone deposits were excavated from this distinctive sediment stratigraphy and this is clearly identified in the core. At this core position these alternating layers are of similar Fig. 9. Settlement waste LM5 (Photo: Charlie Christensen). thicknesses, but the available profile sketches and excavation photographs show that the lighter, more calcareous layers domi- nate closer to the edges of the lake. Relatively high percentage deposit contained 127 elk bones from a single individual. It has pioneer type woodland pollen taxa (w80%) mainly and an estimated age of 1e1.5 years but sex could not be are recorded. Within the terrestrial herbs are also recorded, albeit determined. at very low percentages, Plantago major (greater plantain) and Rumex acetosella (sheep’s sorrel). All taxa contribute to the low total pollen influx values (w7000 grains/cm2/y). Wetland taxa percent- 5.1.5. LM5 ages are much lower than in the previous zone (a) at w30e40%. The LM5 was found in the northern part of the basin and is signifi- sequence shows peaks in Filipendula (meadowsweet), Equisetum cantly different from the other deposits (Figs. 2, 3 and 9, Table 3). (horsetail) and Salix () concentrated in this zone and Firstly, it extends over an area substantially larger than deposits decreasing percentages of Empetrum nigrum (crowberry). LM1e4 and secondly because it included a number of bones of species other than elk. These included red deer, wild boar, aurochs, 5.2.3. Zone c) c. 11,250e11,160 cal BP (249e242 cm) roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), wild horse (Equus ferus), and At c. 11,250 cal BP (249 cm), a rapid and brief increase is seen in hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) along with bones from freshwater organic and CaCO contents and in pollen influx. This is also the fish and waterfowl. In all, 256 bones from at least three elks were 3 position of the outlier in the radiocarbon dates and a marked found in LM5 but neither age nor sex could be determined. A group decrease in Pediastrum percentages. Subsequent to this peak, of 3 elk metapodials were interpreted as a hoard of raw material organic content values remain higher than previously (w25%), intended for manufacture. Additionally 12 flint artefacts, whereas CaCO content shows only a minimal increase. Percent- mostly simple blades, were found. 3 ages of woodland taxa show an increasing trend with a corre- sponding decrease in grasses and terrestrial herbs. A slight halt in 5.1.6. LM6 increasing trend of woodland taxa and a resurgence of Poaceae LM6issituatedeastofdeposits4and5(Fig. 3) and significantly (grasses) is evident at c. 11,200 cal BP. Salix, Filipendula, and Equi- different to the other bone deposits. It consists of 13 bones spread setum all show declining percentage trends through the time over an area of 20 square meters and therefore not a distinct period of this zone and Betula (birch) shows a strong increase from concentration as per deposits LM1e4. According to the excavators, w40% to over 60% by 11,160 cal BP. No significant hiatus at c. the bones in this deposit were found at lower stratigraphic levels 11,250 cal BP is indicated by the pollen percentages which continue than LM5 but unfortunately the stratigraphic context of the finds to demonstrate an undisturbed classical immigration sequence of was destroyed when the profile collapsed due to a sudden thermophilous trees and shrubs during the Holocene (Iversen, flooding of the excavated area. None of the bones from LM6 were 1960). Within this group, E. nigrum disappears and Equisetum and marrow split. Filipendula decline as would be expected from the classical ..Jse ta./Qaenr nentoa 7 21)73 (2015) 378 International Quaternary / al. et Jessen C.A. e 87

Fig. 10. Lundby Mose percentage pollen diagram on age (cal BP) scale calculated on total terrestrial pollen. Also showing depth scale, lithology, LOI data, pollen zones and position of the associated bone deposits. 81 82 C.A. Jessen et al. / Quaternary International 378 (2015) 73e87

Fig. 11. Lundby Mose selected pollen influx (grains/cm2/y). Influx values for Zone a are included for clarity, but the fading indicates that the model is based on only few radiocarbon ages in this zone. The position of the associated bone deposits is also shown.

sequence and this is seen in both percentage and influx. Total contribution of wetland taxa. Organic content decreases and CaCO3 terrestrial influx values increase to w21,200 grains/cm2/y in this increases slightly relative to Zone e). Pediastrum increases slightly zone. compared to the previous three zones (c, d and e). Total pollen influx values average w27,500 grains/cm2/y. 5.2.4. Zone d) c. 11,160e10,980 cal BP (242e230 cm) Betula dominates pollen percentages during this period. Poaceae 5.2.7. Zone g) c. 10,450e10,350 cal BP (190e182 cm) percentages remain fairly stable (w20%) but within the longer term This zone shows a sharp increase in Corylus () increasing decreasing trend and with a general decrease in the contribution from around 5%e37% within c. 100 years. Betula shows a corre- from other terrestrial herbs. Wetland taxa are below w10% and sponding decrease in dominance corresponding to the rise in Cor- remain so throughout the remainder of the analysed portion of the ylus. Woodland taxa continue to dominate and total influx values core. Total pollen influx average w18,700 grains/cm2/y. This zone reach maximum at an average of w34,600 grains/cm2/y. Organic shows an increase in CaCO3 content to w30% relative to organic content remains relatively high, fluctuating around 30%. content of w20% (Figs. 4 and 10). 6. Discussion 5.2.5. Zone e) c. 10,980e10,740 cal BP (230e217 cm) Percentage organic content recovers during this period to be- 6.1. Dating and core chronology tween w40 and 50%. The woodland taxa are still dominated by Betula but Pinus (pine) increases its relative contribution for a c. 100 All age calibrations from the early Preboreal give large ranges year period that centres at c. 10,850 cal BP. A little later at c. with overlapping probability distributions due to the major plateau 10,800 cal BP, and for a shorter time period, influx values of espe- in the IntCal09 calibration curve (Mellars, 1990; Cziesla and Pettitt, cially Betula but also Pinus are decreased to levels resembling those 2003; Reimer et al., 2009). According to the Greenland Ice core prior to c. 11,250 cal BP. However prior to c. 10,740 cal BP, the influx chronology (GICC05) the rapid warming marking the shift from the values, which are mainly controlled by the Betula influx, fluctuate Younger Dryas cold period to the Holocene occurs within just a few 2 between c. 5000 and 20,000 grains/cm /y so this decrease is not years at 11,703 b2k (11,653 cal BP)(Rasmussen et al., 2006; Blockley especially marked. Grass percentage values remain between 9 and et al., 2012). The shift from the grey, clay-rich Younger Dryas gyttja 20% of total terrestrial pollen. Total pollen influx values continue to to Holocene gyttja in the Lundby Mose sediment core (Zones a/b) is 2 increase and are now w18,500 grains/cm /y. The presence, modelled to between 11,348 and 11,276 cal BP (Fig. 5) (unmodelled although at very low percentages, of P. major, Plantago lanceolata, ages of earliest Holocene gyttja are 11,602e11,246/11,595e Rumex acetosa and the return of Artemisia sp. is also seen in this 11,243 cal BP (Table 1)). This suggests a significant time difference zone. (>300 years) between the Greenland Younger DryaseHolocene shift as defined in the ice cores (Rasmussen et al., 2006) and the 5.2.6. Zone f) c. 10,740e10,450 cal BP (217e190 cm) sedimentary and biostratigraphic shift seen in the Lundby Mose Vegetational composition is now dominated by woodland taxa sediments. A hiatus could exist between the Younger Dryas and (>90%) and strongly dominated by Betula and Pinus. Terrestrial Holocene sediments if lake levels were either so low that sedi- herbs, mainly Poaceae, now decrease to minimal values as does the mentation ceased or if the lake dried out and eroded the topmost C.A. Jessen et al. / Quaternary International 378 (2015) 73e87 83 deposits. This is not however, suggested by our data as no erosive in other diagrams but this may be due to the high resolution pro- boundary is evident and the two pollen levels counted from the vided by the Lundby Mose sediments (Zones a and b; Figs. 10 and clay rich sediments already show high percentages of woodland 11). taxa (>60%) (Fig. 10). It is more likely that the earliest Holocene At first sight, the pollen percentage assemblage would indicate a pollen is found within the top few centimetres of the ‘Younger fairly established forest both prior to and continuing into the Dryas type’ sediments together with significantly increased values earliest gyttja sediments with Betula and Pinus dominating for the of Cyperaceae, which is typical for Younger Dryas sediments in whole of the Preboreal time period (Fig. 10). It is important to note Denmark. however, that influx values are extremely low prior to c. Higher up in the sequence, the date outlier at 248 cm along with 11,250 cal BP (Zones a and b). Pollen percentages describe the the sediment changes and pollen influx peak could also suggest a relative composition of the pollen taxa illustrating their changing possible hiatus at this depth. However it is evident that no signif- dominance/weakness in comparison to each other in the total icant hiatus is indicated by the pollen sequence and the ageedepth spectra. Pollen influx describes the actual number of pollen model does not indicate that any significant length of time is deposited in the sediments per year and indicates the pooled missing from the sequence. Although it is recognised that this could production of pollen by the vegetation. Each can be affected by be misleading as the model assumes continuous sedimentation. For other variables, for example the taxa in percentage diagrams are the purposes of this paper therefore, and in the absence of further interdependent and only describe their relative composition. On evidence, we propose that no significant hiatus exists and that the the other hand, pollen influx values can be distorted by variable anomalous data represents redeposited older sediments which sedimentation changes and cannot be applied where the chronol- may relate to lake level changes associated with melting dead ice. ogy, and therefore the sedimentation rate, is inadequate. Woodland The terrestrial macrofossil dates from the distinctive Preboreal pioneer type taxa percentages are already high in the early Pre- gyttja in the sediment core models to an age between c. 11,325 and boreal which would indicate the presence of forest (Zones a and b) 11,250 cal BP (Fig. 5, Table 1). The bone deposits are associated with but this contrasts with the distinctly low influx values and the these sediments. The two oldest bone and antler ages are from presence of open ground type taxa which together would indicate a deposits LM1 and LM6 and date to between c. 11,980 and more open landscape. Total influx values are strongly correlated to 11,610 cal BP (Fig. 6, Table 2). This mismatch would suggest that Betula but all influx values are low regardless of whether the taxa either the sediments are giving ages too young or that the bone and are wetland herbs, terrestrial herbs or woodland taxa. Thus the antler are giving an age which are too old. Two points can be made pollen percentages and influx values could suggest that forest taxa here with reference to these radiocarbon ages. Firstly, the antler were present in the environment but with low pollen production. adze dates a few centuries older than the other bone dated from the This effect would be amplified by any long distance transport of same deposit (LM1) and secondly, the age of the bone from LM6 forest pollen which would produce a more significant proportion of was excavated from an uncertain stratigraphic context due to the the total due to limited local input. A more open landscape at this collapse of the profile and therefore it is possible that it was time is supported by the correlation of pollen influx values with deposited in the Younger Dryas. This is however, considered un- those of organic content as open landscapes generally input less likely as although there is evidence of elk in at this time organic material into a lake than forested landscapes (Bennike (Magnell et al., 1999), none of the other many elk bones found in et al., 2004). Denmark have as yet been dated to the Younger Dryas period The Lundby Mose data presented here show that although the (Aaris-Sørensen, 2009). Thus the scapula from LM6 probably rep- proportions of the different taxa are as seen in previous percentage resents the earliest deposit in Lundby Mose but of Holocene date. studies, the influx data suggests that a ‘Preboreal forest’ in the One explanation for why the antler adze is older than the other classical sense is delayed at least until c. 11,250 cal BP, and possibly dated bone of LM1 may be that it was already an old adze when it even longer. This is at least 400 years after the shift to the Holocene was deposited. The adze is broken at the base so this could be a as per the ice cores. The accepted picture of the early Holocene plausible explanation. It is also possible that the difference in age vegetation in southern Scandinavia is based upon the many pollen between the elk bones (LM1 and LM6) and the antler adze (LM1) and macrofossils studies (Nathorst, 1871; Hartz and Milthers, 1901; and the earliest Holocene sediments may relate to a hitherto un- Jessen, 1920) produced by pioneers in the field. In the following documented effect. Not only were the early Holocene soils years research questions were mainly aimed towards understand- unstable and calcareous in this region at the time, it is known that ing the immigration of different plant taxa during the Holocene and elk can consume a large proportion of their diet from aquatic the development of forest (e.g. Iversen, 1942, 1960; Berglund et al., plants, especially in certain seasons (Belovsky and Jordan, 1981; 1994). Most of these were based upon pollen percentage data. The Fraser et al., 1984). Although the 13C values of these bones are absence of concentration or influx data (or plant macrofossil data) similar to the later dated bones and are within the terrestrial range, in these pollen diagrams may have given a distorted picture of the it still may be possible that the freshwater reservoir effect may be landscape development. Recent research into Allerød landscapes biasing the results in this case and producing ages which are too old using both pollen and plant macrofossil data have shown a signif- (Fischer et al., 2007; Olsen et al., 2010). A sample from the LM6 elk icant delay (c. 200 years) between the appearance of trees in the bone is presently being analysed by compound specific radiocarbon pollen diagram and their actual presence in the landscape dating to further assess this. (Mortensen et al., 2011, 2014a, submitted for publication). A late Glacial pollen and macrofossil analysis from Hasselø, 40 km south 6.2. The Preboreal environment of Lundby Mose, stretches only a short time into the Holocene but no macrofossils of tree birch are found while pollen percentages The pollen diagrams illustrate the classic immigration sequence would otherwise indicate the presence of forest (Mortensen et al., of thermophilous trees and shrubs of the early Holocene and the submitted for publication). Similarly at Slotseng, southern Jut- formation of the Preboreal forest after the end of the Younger Dryas land, the first c. 200 years of the Holocene had very low pollen seen in previous pollen work (Iversen, 1973). The distinct peaks of E. influx and no macrofossils of tree birch (Mortensen et al., 2011). In nigrum followed by Filipendula and Equisetum in the early Preboreal the Slotseng study, Betula pollen was separated on the basis of size, are seen together with those of Populus and Juniperus. These two into tree birch and dwarf birch (Betula nana) and shows that in the latter taxa show peaks somewhat smoother than those often seen first c. 200 years, dwarf birch continues a decreasing trend begun at 84 C.A. Jessen et al. / Quaternary International 378 (2015) 73e87 the end of the Younger Dryas but also that tree birch was minimal. certain whether they are in association with the PBO as identified in Most Danish Holocene pollen analyses do not separate between the ice cores. tree and dwarf birch but those available indicate a longer than The biostratigraphic end of the Preboreal period is positioned at expected delay between the beginning of the Holocene and the the point when Corylus avellana t. pollen rises above c. 5% of total classical early Holocene forest landscapes (Kolstrup, 1982; Kolstrup terrestrial pollen. This sharp rise is modelled to c. 10,450 cal BP and Buchardt, 1982). (10,509e10,387 cal BP) in the Lundby Mose sediments and one of How far the forest had developed is an important question the older dates of this event in Denmark which can vary by up to relative to human settlement. The pollen data from Lundby Mose 800 years (Iversen, 1967; Fritzbøger and Odgaard, 2010). suggests that the bones from LM1e4 (Phases 1 and 2) and those from LM5 (Phase 3) were deposited in different types of landscapes. 6.3. The archaeological material The tight bundles of elk bones (LM1e4) are associated with an environment where soils are unstable and the pioneer forest is 6.3.1. Cultural affiliation limited with patchy areas of more open grasslands (Zone b, c. Early Mesolithic culture is primarily defined through its lithic 11,325e11250 cal BP). The settlement waste deposit with multiple artefacts (Brinch Petersen, 1966; Sørensen, 2006). Only uncharac- species (Table 3) is associated with an environment where the teristic specimens were found at Lundby Mose and it is difficult to Preboreal forest is more established but where some grassland still definitively link the deposits to a cultural affiliation. A few artefacts persists (Zones d/e, c. 11,160e10,740 cal BP) and therefore an were found which can aid the association of the Lundby Mose environment well suited to the variety of fauna found in this de- material with their archaeological context. of the few posit. These grasslands do not disappear until after c. 10,740 cal BP. flint blades and flakes found in LM5 has shown that they may It is also interesting to note here that a number of terrestrial herbs belong to the early Mesolithic Maglemose phase 0 (Sørensen, which can be associated with humans or animals disturbing the 2006), although the number of artefacts is insufficient for quanti- ground and trampling are especially present in pollen Zones b and tative analysis. A settlement site, Lundby IV, lies close to the kettle e, i.e. the zones associated with the bone deposits. Climate re- hole and is also typologically dated to the earliest part of the early constructions and orbital forcing show that temperatures would Mesolithic Maglemose culture (Johannson, 1990). The earliest sites have been suitable for the establishment of an extensive Preboreal in southern Scandinavia, belonging to Maglemose phase 0, are forest (Coope and Lemdahl, 1995; Lowe et al., 1995). It is clear that defined by both microlithic typology (Brinch Petersen, 1966) and the taxa were present in the region, but it is not clear how quickly (Sørensen, 2006) are Barmosen 1 (Johannson, they thrived or how quickly forests were formed with their asso- 1990) Draved 611 & 604 south (Sobotta, 1991) and Klosterlund ciated stabilization of the soils. The discrepancy seen in these few (Tauber, 1971). Outside of southern Scandinavia Preboreal Meso- available datasets between pollen percentages and those of plant lithic sites known from northern Germany are Duvensee macrofossils and pollen influx during the Preboreal thus raises the (Bokelmann et al., 1983), Bedburg-Königshoven (Street, 1991), question of whether this could also apply to other Preboreal sites in Friesack 4 & 27 (Gramsch, 1991, 2000; Görsdorf and Gramsch, 2004) Denmark. If this is the case, our interpretation of the pollen per- and Haverbeck (Tolksdorf et al., 2009). Two other sites close to centage diagrams previously published, and upon which many of Lundby Mose; Favrbo (2 elks) and Skottemarke (6 elks) have been our perceptions of the Preboreal landscape are based, should be dated to approximately the same period as Lundby Mose Phase 3 adjusted. The correct reconstruction of the actual, local vegetation (Sørensen, 1978; Fischer, 1996). The artefacts found at Skottemarke and the presence/absence of forest are vital to our interpretation of (large flake , a broken microlith and fine notched bone points) archaeological material and to the understanding of early Meso- (Fischer, 1996) suggest that the elk were deposited very close to a lithic subsistence and culture. settlement site. The break of c. 50e100 years (Zone c) in the increasing per- Two other artefacts are of much more importance when centage trend of Betula and the decreasing trend of Poaceae is of a considering the typological dating of the elk deposits. Firstly a similar pattern to that seen in the pollen data analysed from a core sternum pierced by a flint point was found in the deposit con- collected from Bølling Lake in 1939 (Iversen, 1942, 1967; de Klerk, taining 3 elks (LM3) (Fig. 8b). The base of the point was broken off 2004). Although it is not possible to date this early work, a rapid leaving only the tip deeply embedded in the bone. This cannot be climatic cooling in the early Preboreal has since been identified in extracted without either breaking the bone or the point and it is not many other climatic proxies and known as the Preboreal Oscillation possible to determine the flint type from a visual analysis of the (PBO) and is associated with a major freshwater input into the exposed part. The tip may have lateral retouch on one side but this North Atlantic (Fairbanks, 1989; Bard et al., 1996; Björck et al., 1997; is not diagnostic as this can be found on flint points from van der Plicht et al., 2004; Rasmussen et al., 2006; Bos et al., 2007; both the late Palaeolithic and the early Mesolithic. The second Blockley et al., 2012). The PBO is dated to 11,450e11,350 in the artefact is the worn elk antler adze found in LM1 (Fig. 8a). Elk antler Greenland ice core chronology GICC05 (Rasmussen et al., 2007), but are so far only known from Preboreal, early Mesolithic con- it is difficult to correlate this event with terrestrial sediment proxies texts in southern Scandinavia and sites in adjacent areas such as due to both radiocarbon plateaux and proxy responses. The PBO is Friesack IV in Germany (Pratsch, 2011) and in Yorkshire, clearly registered in the ice cores c. 300 years after the onset of the (Clark, 1954; Mellars and Dark, 1998). On the Scandinavian Holocene and lasts around 100 years, but its response in terrestrial Peninsula elk antler adzes are also found in later contexts ecosystems (often based on summer proxies only) appears to be (Mikkelsen and Høeg, 1977) and on the upper Volga, they are dated delayed and may not begin until towards the end of the ice core to both the Preboreal and the early Boreal periods (Hartz et al., responses (Björck et al., 1997; Bos et al., 2007). In the Lundby Mose 2010). It is significant for the interpretation of the Lundby Mose data the changes are seen centred at c. 11,230 cal BP and are within site that no elk antler adzes have been found in a late Palaeolithic the wiggle-matched dates of the PBO (Rammelbeek Phase) of The context and that the pollen analysis shows that the adze is asso- (Bos et al., 2007). The PBO occurs within a time period ciated with the Preboreal. when climate is dynamic and unstable, and when the vegetation is So far the best key to understanding how humans responded to developing and responding to many changes in addition to those of the Holocene climatic changes seems to be via the Epi- regional climate. As with all proxy reconstructions from this time Ahrensburgian and the ‘long blade’ (Gob, 1991; Johansen period it is difficult to disentangle these different responses and be and Stapert, 1999; Terberger et al., 2009). This lithic industry has C.A. Jessen et al. / Quaternary International 378 (2015) 73e87 85 been dated to the end of Younger Dryas/beginning of the Preboreal the Mesolithic sites Skottemarke and Favrbo and was probably part in the United Kingdom and (Barton and Roberts, 2004). In of a post-kill ritual (Møhl, 1978). Thus, the absence of adzes in the southern Scandinavia the Long Blade Industry has been identified late Palaeolithic, the characteristic bone breakage and the associ- at the site Nørregård IV in Jutland (Sørensen and Sternke, 2004) and ation with the Preboreal pollen assemblage argues in favour of an at Årup in Scania. At Årup one lithic concentration has been cat- early Mesolithic Maglemose context for the first two phases at egorised as Ahrensburgian (Karsten and Nilsson, 2006), but as it is Lundby Mose. These early phases are associated with an environ- based on lithic technology and a single radiocarbon date, it is more ment with limited and/or patchy forests. The later phases in Lundby likely that it belongs to the Epi-Ahrensburgian/Long Blade industry Mose are associated with the further development of forest, more sphere (Sørensen, 2007; Brinch Petersen, 2009). variable faunal remains and known settlement sites in the region. Since these observations are specific to this region, it seems 6.3.2. The bone deposits reasonable to suggest that the shift from late Palaeolithic to Lundby Mose is by far the largest Preboreal elk deposit site Mesolithic cultures was part of the human response to the envi- known and it is evident that the deposits LM1e4 do not represent a ronmental changes that took place at the beginning of the Pre- random disposal of bones. The bones in these deposits have been boreal and seen mainly in southern Scandinavia. carefully selected and not mixed with other species and are inter- preted as ritual deposits (Hansen et al., 2004; Pedersen, submitted 7. Conclusions for publication). The many cutmarks show the importance of separating the bones from the meat and hide although the many The Lundby Mose data and the integration of research disci- marrow split bones show that some parts of the elks were cooked plines have aided our understanding of how humans responded to and eaten close to the kettle hole. It is significant that not all of the the major environmental changes affecting northern Europe during bones from the elk skeletons were deposited in the kettle hole. the shift to the Holocene. The archaeological and the palae- Missing parts include the metapodials, (which could be used for oenvironmental data show different human practices associated bone tools), entire spines, (where the best meat could be found) with different landscapes. These are separated by only a few hun- and the skulls. The missing parts were possibly transported to, as dred years and show a change from the sporadic ritual use of the yet unknown, settlement sites in the vicinity. site in an underdeveloped forest to a semi-permanent settlement in LM5 is evidently dissimilar to the other deposits (Table 2, Fig. 9) a more developed forest supporting a greater variety food sources. and has multiple species represented. The composition of bones is This site represents some of the earliest Mesolithic traces from the similar to those found at the Boreal sites in Køng-Sværdborg bog region and reveals an ability to rapidly adapt to major environ- (Aaris-Sørensen, 1976) and supports the interpretation of LM5 as a mental changes with their associated changes in food and material refuse layer rather than as a ritual offering as per LM1e4. No resources. Mesolithic settlement sites have, as yet, been directly dated to the The main conclusions can be summarized thus: early Preboreal in southern Scandinavia and LM5 most likely rep- resents waste from the site Lundby IV which lies w100 m NW of the Lundby Mose is the largest known site of elk deposits dating to deposit. Lundby IV can be compared to the site Barmose I, which is the early Mesolithic/early Preboreal in the northern European typologically dated to the earliest part of the Maglemose culture, plain and is the earliest Holocene evidence for the presence of phase 0 (Sørensen, 2006), and radiocarbon dated to the later part of humans in southern Scandinavia. the Preboreal (Johansson, 1990; Fischer, 1996). This agrees with the The deposits illustrate two different site types: bundled elk radiocarbon ages from this study. The Lundby IV site was identified bones indicating a temporary cultural act and settlement waste only through surface finds and has never been excavated. No set- associated with a semi-permanent settlement. tlement features were found on the shores of the kettle hole during The bundled elk bones were deposited in an environment where the excavation of Lundby Mose, although field walking did produce forest was not yet fully developed. The bones show numerous early Mesolithic to late flint artefacts in the vicinity of the cutmarks and were marrow-split before selected skeletal parts Preboreal lake. were bundled together and placed or thrown into the shallow The four different phases at Lundby Mose are dated to c. lake. 11,500 cal BP, c. 11,200 cal BP, c. 10,800 cal BP and c. 10,300 cal BP The settlement waste dates to c. 100e200 years later than the (Fig. 6). Of these only the 3rd and 4th phases correspond with bundled bone deposits. This deposit is associated with a more known, dated, early Mesolithic settlements (Brinch Petersen, developed Preboreal forest landscape and a much wider range 2009). The first and second phases are considerably older than of fauna. This phase may be associated with a known settlement the previously known oldest Mesolithic settlement sites from the site located close to the ancient lake. area. Only Stellmoor (Fischer and Tauber, 1986) and the dated Long No occupation sites have been found from the early Preboreal/ Blade Industry sites from northern France and the United Kingdom early Mesolithic during the time period when this data suggests (Wymer et al., 1975; Lewis, 1991; Fagnart, 1997) are as old as the limited forest cover. earliest Lundby Mose phases. This work along with other recent studies raises questions as to It is relevant to ask whether the oldest deposits are the rem- how well pollen percentage diagrams alone describe the actual nants of the last Palaeolithic hunters or the first of the Mesolithic landscape during climatic transitions. The comparison of pollen (Hansen and Brinch Petersen, 2006). Apart from the elk antler adze percentage and influx data suggests that the establishment of there are other features from the Lundby Mose deposits that link forest in Denmark occurred several hundred years later than this site to the early Mesolithic rather than the late Palaeolithic. that suggested by the classic picture produced by past pollen Based on the analysis of the bones from Lundby Mose it can be percentage studies. concluded that the characteristic breakage of the mandible is part of a characteristic Maglemose bone breakage pattern, which has Acknowledgements also been identified at the other early Mesolithic sites at Favrbo, Skottemarke, Mullerup and others (Leduc, 2012b). Additionally, all The authors would like to thank Dr. J.A. Bos and Dr. J. Innes for the preserved shoulder blades from Lundby Mose show that the constructive reviews of the manuscript. This research is part of spine was removed. 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