POMPEII (AND ROME) WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS

REPORT OF FIELD OBSERVATIONS (OCTOBER 2010)

JUNE 2011

i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This report was prepared by Wayne Lorenz with a detailed review by Erik Baros and Meisha Hunter. The final draft was assembled by Nicole Chancey. Photographs in this report were taken by Wayne Lorenz and Erik Baros. The maps shown in Figures 11 and 18 were prepared by Erik Baros.

The Project Team would like to thank Ken Wright, Wright Paleohydrological Institute, and Wright Water Engineers, Inc. for support and encouragement during the study of Roman aqueducts in the Pompeii and Rome Regions.

ii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page 1.0 INTRODUCTION ...... 3 1.1 Authorization – Superintendant of Archaeology ...... 4 2.0 INTERVIEWS WITH EXPERTS...... 5 2.1 Giuseppe Illiano ...... 5 2.2 Raffaella Bosso ...... 5 2.3 Luigi Sorrentino and Marilena Noppi...... 5 2.4 Giovanni De Feo and Sabino De Gisi ...... 6 2.5 Pasquale Maiella and Public Works Staff at Avella ...... 7 2.6 Paolo Iandolo ...... 8 2.7 Direttore Varrone ...... 8 2.8 Dr. Anna Maria Sodo...... 9 2.9 Professore Mattia Crespi ...... 9 3.0 SITES VISITED AND MAJOR OBSERVATIONS ...... 9 3.1 City of Pompeii ...... 10 3.1.1 Castellum Aquae ...... 10 3.1.2 House of the Hanging Balcony ...... 13 3.1.3 Pompeii Wells ...... 17 3.2 Pompeii Region ...... 18 3.2.1 Tirone – Serino ...... 19 3.2.2 Muro d’Arce ...... 21 3.2.3 Acquaro-Pelosi and Urciuoli Springs ...... 22 3.2.4 Avella Springs and the Roman Aqueduct Bridge ...... 24 3.2.5 Roccarainaolla Qanats ...... 25 3.3 Rome Region ...... 26 3.3.1 Traiana Aqueduct at the American Academy in Rome...... 26 3.3.2 Source Springs and Aqueduct Section – Aqua Claudia and Marcia ...... 27 3.3.3 Source Springs – Virgo ...... 27 4.0 FUTURE STUDY AND ACTION PLAN ...... 28 5.0 REFERENCES ...... 30

iii TABLES

Table 1 Water Quality of the Acquaro-Pelosi Springs Compared to Barbegal Springs ...... 23

FIGURES

Figure 1. The October 2010 Pompeii Field Trip Team in the Anio River Watershed. From left: Gail Lorenz, Wayne Lorenz, Erik Baros, and Meisha Hunter...... 2 Figure 2. Gruppo Archeologico Avellano – Terra di Palma. From left: Luigi Sorrentino, Wayne Lorenz, Gail Lorenz, Meisha Hunter, Marilena Noppi, and Erik Baros...... 6 Figure 3. Castellum Aquae at Pompeii. Three Major Supply Pipelines Exited Building at Lower Part of Wall...... 10 Figure 4. Aqueduct Outlet to the Castellum with Meisha Hunter...... 12 Figure 5. House of the Hanging Balcony with Support Scaffolding...... 13 Figure 6. Water Tower Serving the House of the Hanging Balcony...... 14 Figure 7. Following the Piping into the House of the Hanging Balcony...... 15 Figure 8. Piping Manifold with Valves – House of the Hanging Balcony...... 16 Figure 9. Survey at the House of the Hanging Balcony...... 16 Figure 10. Pompeii Well Structure Located Behind a Public Fountain...... 18 Figure 11. Schematic Layout of the Serino (Augustan) Aqueduct. (From DeFeo) ...... 19 Figure 12. Serino Aqueduct (Looking Westerly) at Tirone Showing the South Channel (323 A.D.) on the Left and North (Old) Channel on the Right...... 20 Figure 13. Southern Aqueduct Dimensions. Built by Constantine in 323 A.D...... 21 Figure 14. Acquaro-Pelosi Springs – Round Spring House Showing Water Cascading From Infiltration Galleries to Clearwell...... 23 Figure 15. Roman Aqueduct Bridge at Avella...... 25 Figure 16. Inside the Triania Aqueduct underneath the American Academy of Rome...... 26 Figure 17. Current Day Water Tower at the Site of the Groundwater Spring Used for the Ancient Virgo Aqueduct that Served Rome...... 28 Figure 18. Route of Avella and Serino (Augustus) Aqueducts...... 29

APPENDIX

A Authorization Letters dated September 19, 2010 and October 25, 2010 from the Superintendant of Archaeology at Pompeii

iv October 2010 Field Trip – Research Sites and Aqueduct Alignment

v REPORT OF FIELD INVESTIGATIONS – POMPEII, ITALY (AND ROME) OCTOBER 2010

In October, 2010, the Wright Paleohydrological Institute, Inc. (WPI) conducted field studies in Italy of water systems associated with the ancient site of Pompeii. This trip to Pompeii was the initial field visit to the area by WPI with the major purposes of reconnaissance and initial field measurements of study areas. The team also visited Rome and several major aqueduct sites in the areas surrounding Rome.

The field team consisted of the following people (the team photograph is Figure 1):

Wayne Lorenz – Director of Roman Aqueduct Research for WPI. Wayne is manager of the Pompeii research.

Gail Lorenz – Logistics and energy maintenance assistant.

Erik Baros – GIS and GPS specialist formerly with Wright Water Engineers, Inc. and now with Geospatial Consultants. Erik was invited to be on the field team to address the GIS aspects of the alignment of the Pompeii Branch and the Serino Aqueducts.

Meisha Hunter – Historical preservation specialist with Li/Saltzman Architects in New York City. Meisha speaks fluent Italian, studied the Virgo Aqueduct at the American Academy in Rome, and has contacts in the Rome area.

The purpose of this report is to document the field activities and interviews conducted during the October, 2010 field study. The dates and general locations of this study were: October 20 to 22 in Rome; October 23 to 25 in Pompeii and the surrounding region; October 26 at University of Salerno, Avella, and Pompeii; October 27 Avella and Pompeii; October 28 Serino Springs and Avella.

This report represents only a portion of the field measurements that were conducted on aqueduct sections and within the City of Pompeii. Further study of the information that was gathered will be carried out. The results of these further studies will be presented in separate, more detailed, publications.

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Figure 1. The October 2010 Pompeii Field Trip Team in the Anio River Watershed. From left: Gail Lorenz, Wayne Lorenz, Erik Baros, and Meisha Hunter.

There are many highlights of this field visit and much new information obtained. These highlights include:

• Field surveys and detailed measurements of the water supply serving a house in the City of Pompeii, the House of the Hanging Balcony (Casa Balcone de Pensile).

• A meeting and discussion with Giovanni De Feo and Sabino De Gisi, leading researchers on the Serino Aqueduct and professors at the University of Salerno.

• A field visit to the Acquaro, Pelosi, and the Urciuoli Springs. These springs are the sources of water for the Serino Aqueduct and were used to obtain modern water quality data of the spring water.

• Visits to the Avella Springs area and meeting with the Town Public Works staff to understand the ancient use of the springs. The WPI Project Team members were the first foreigners to visit the Sambuco Spring, near Avella.

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• Obtained measurements of several Avella and Serino Aqueducts remnants: Tirone, Muro D’Arce, and the Fontenelle Valley north of Avella.

• Toured the Anio River Valley and the sources of water for several of the great aqueducts near Rome.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The Ancient Romans were not the first to build an urban settlement at the site of Pompeii. From at least the 6th Century, the Greeks, Etruscans, Samnites, and then Romans used this strategic site for urban development. It is somewhat hard to visualize today, but Pompeii was essentially a harbor town situated on the River Sarno in the fertile area of Campania. The Greek geographer, Strabo, claimed that Pompeii served as a port for Nola, Nuceria, and Acherrae (Berry, 2007). After the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 A.D., the area surrounding Pompeii was significantly changed. This included the relocation of the Sarno River to the south of Pompeii.

The long archaeological history and the changes in geography came into focus during our field visit. There are many archaeological sites that have significance regarding water supply and transport. The important water structures were no doubt used and restored (many times over) by earlier peoples, the Romans (both pre- and post-eruption), and by later and more modern civilizations. This is almost always the case with the study of Roman aqueducts and a fascinating element that can be studied in detail to weave a story of design and construction/reconstruction.

The unique aspect of Pompeii, the change in the landscape due to the 79 A.D. eruption, really only factors in to the investigation of the alignment of aqueducts within a proximity of 5 to 10 kilometers from Mt. Vesuvius and Pompeii.

Water supplies that were used in Pompeii are well documented. It is known that the groundwater supply was used by the city inhabitants and there are many existing well structures located within Pompeii for providing water from the supply. Rainwater and roof runoff were also water supplies that were collected on a household basis. Many of the individual houses in Pompeii have compluviums (i.e., gutters and holes in the roof) and impluviums (i.e., cisterns) that were used to collect rainwater. The Sarno River may have also been a source of water, since it was

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fed by the Sarno Springs which are located within 13 kilometers (8 miles) northeast of Pompeii. Finally, aqueducts were used to bring spring water from the nearby Apennine Mountains.

Although it is known that aqueducts were used to bring water to Roman Pompeii, there are some historical aspects of the aqueducts that are uncertain. The great Serino Aqueduct was constructed between 12 and 6 B.C.; during the Augustan Age. Therefore, the Serino Aqueduct is often referred to as the Augustan Aqueduct. It is reported that a branch of the Serino serviced Pompeii until at least 62 A.D. and may have serviced Pompeii until the eruption in 79 A.D.

Prior to the construction of the Serino, there was an aqueduct and source that serviced Pompeii. The water source and aqueduct of this earlier Pompeii branch has been the subject of more recent studies (Ohlig, 2001). We are calling this earlier aqueduct the Avella Aqueduct. The water source and alignment of this earlier Pompeii branch were of interest to the Project Team during this site visit.

A major water engineering feature of Pompeii is the distribution system that was constructed to deliver the aqueduct water to the city’s inhabitants. Prior to the site visit, the Project Team performed research to identify one dwelling that used aqueduct water for specific study. The House of the Hanging Balcony was selected, since it is one of the only dwellings in Pompeii where the lead piping still exists in the house and the piping can be traced back to one of the nearby water distribution towers.

1.1 Authorization – Superintendant of Archaeology

WPI requested permission from the Superintendant of Archaeology at Pompeii, to study the water handling system within the city, visit and take measurements of the old Serino Aqueduct outside of the city, and take GPS measurements. In August, 2010, WPI received an Authorization Letter from the Superintendant to perform these studies. The Authorization Letter is included in Appendix A. The authorization was for the month of October, 2010.

Once the Project Team arrived in Pompeii, it was made known that the Superintendent that signed the WPI Authorization Letter (Prof. Giuseppe Projetti) had been replaced and the authorization to study in the City was no longer valid.

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On October 25, 2010, after meetings with the Pompeii Administrative staff (Assistant Superintendant Varrone) at the site, the team received reauthorization for study and access to specific areas in Pompeii. The reauthorization was signed by the new Superintendent, Jeannette Papadopoulos. The authorization for access specifically addressed the House of the Hanging Balcony. This second Authorization Letter is also included in Appendix A.

2.0 INTERVIEWS WITH EXPERTS

The visits and interviews with Pompeii experts regarding hydraulics and aqueducts were highlights of the October 2010 studies. We also conducted several interviews of experts that were located in Rome. The following sections describe each interview in detail and the highlights of these discussions.

2.1 Giuseppe Illiano

Prior to our trip, we contacted the Italian Institute in Denver to assist us in finding a guide located in the Pompeii area for our fieldwork. Mr. Giuseppe Illiano was our guide for three days while we were in the Pompeii area. Giuseppe speaks excellent English, made some very important appointments for us, and was a tireless worker. He has a degree in Foreigners and Modern Literatures Languages from the Istituto Universitaro Oreientale in Naples. For this trip, Giuseppe arranged our appointments with Raffaella Bosso, people from the Gruppo Archeologico Avellano, Public Works staff at the Town of Avella, and engineers at A.R.I.N. at the Acquaro, Pelosi, and Urciuoli Springs.

2.2 Raffaella Bosso

We met Ms. Bosso in the ancient City of Pompeii where she provided technical background on some of the water systems in the city. Ms. Bosso has an advanced degree in Archaeology from the University of Naples. She is currently researching the possible existence of one of the lead water storage tanks that stood atop one of the water towers in Pompeii.

2.3 Luigi Sorrentino and Marilena Noppi

Mr. Sorrentino and Ms. Noppi represent the Gruppo Archeologico Avellano – Terra di Palma. We met Mr. Sorrentino and Ms. Noppi at the Serino Aqueduct archaeological site at Tirone and

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Muro d’Arce. Mr. Sorrentino is an engineer and has written a book on archaeology in the Palma area. Mr. Sorrentino presented us with a complimentary copy of his book during our visit (Antichita’a Palma Campania). Mr. Sorrentino, Ms. Noppi, Mr. Illiano, and the Project Team are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Gruppo Archeologico Avellano – Terra di Palma. From left: Luigi Sorrentino, Wayne Lorenz, Gail Lorenz, Meisha Hunter, Marilena Noppi, and Erik Baros.

2.4 Giovanni De Feo and Sabino De Gisi

Dr. De Feo and Dr. De Gisi are professors that instruct engineering at the University of Salerno in Salerno, Italy.

We spent much of a rainy day (October 26, 2010) with De Feo and De Gisi in a meeting room at the University. During our discussions, we discovered that the majority of De Feo’s work on the Serino Aqueduct has been a “desktop survey” with very little field work. We discussed several good references for the Serino Aqueduct research including L’Acqua Del Serino by Ottavaniano De Biase. Other items discussed at this meeting were:

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• The marble epigraph found at the Acquaro-Pelosi Spring which listed the towns that receive water from the Serino Aqueduct; in order of water amount.

• The Serino Aqueduct is the longest of all Roman aqueducts.

• According to De Feo, the only areas of remnants of the Serino Aqueduct are near Sarno and Castel San Giorgio.

• De Gisi is an expert on the Roman reservoirs. He discussed the Piscina Mirabilis, the reservoir at the terminus of the Serino Aqueduct. This reservoir had a storage volume of approximately 12,600 cubic meters (335,000 gallons).

• The Piscina Mirabilis and Serino Aqueducts were built sometime between 33 and 6 B.C. (i.e., Augustine).

• The Piscina Mirabilis may have been used for storage of water to supply to Roman ships since the location of the reservoir is about 150 meters (500 feet) from the harbor.

• De Feo discussed what is called the “Dragon’s Plain” and the “Dragon’s Mouth” where surface water enters a limestone sinkhole to recharge some of the groundwater springs in the area. There are concerns regarding water quality of the surface water that enters the Dragon’s Mouth.

• De Feo told us that Roman engineers built the qanat at Roccaraniola. Qanats are water supply tunnels with vertical shafts that tap into subterranean water supplies. We later visited the qanat during our field visit to the Town of Avella.

• De Feo was sure that there was a branch of the Serino Aqueduct that served Herculaneum, and this branch may have gone from Pompeii to Herculaneum.

2.5 Pasquale Maiella and Public Works Staff at Avella

Pasquale Maiella was most helpful. Mr. Maiella, an architect, is on the Publics Works staff of the Town of Avella. He arranged for meetings with several townspeople including Nicola Montanile, Avella’s local historian. These people described the springs that were located above the town, explained that there were several millstone buildings that used the power of the water

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coming from the springs to grind grain, and told us of the Roman aqueduct bridge to the north of town. They also gave a tour of all of these locations.

In addition, they explained that the rivers in the area had changed their course after the Mt. Vesuvius eruption in 79 A.D. The Coghinas River, prior to the eruption, connected with the Sarno River in the general area of Pompeii. After the eruption, the river changed its course toward Nola and Naples.

During our visit to Avella, we also met the Mayor of the Town, Ms. Carmela Guerriero.

All of the people that we interviewed in the town thought that it was very possible that Pompeii received water from the Avella Springs since the route for an aqueduct would not have to traverse mountains and the descent from the springs to Pompeii would have been quite direct.

2.6 Paolo Iandolo

Paolo Iandolo is an engineer with the Naples Water Company (Azienda Risorse Idriche Napoli [ARIN]). We met Mr. Iandolo at the Acquaro and Pelosi Springs and later visited the Urciuoli Spring with Mr. Iandolo. He was very helpful with the engineering aspects of the current delivery system that provided water from the springs to the City of Naples. He also provided background on the Roman use of the modern day springs.

At our request, Mr. Iandolo provided water quality of the springs after we were back in Denver.

The ancient and modern aqueducts took separate paths with the modern aqueduct traveling some 57 kilometers to the City of Naples. The ancient Serino Aqueduct traveled 92 kilometers all the way to the Piscina Mirabilis located to the northwest of the City of Naples.

2.7 Direttore Varrone

Dr. Varrone is the Director of Excavations at the City of Pompeii. We met briefly with him to obtain final permission to perform work in Pompeii. He told us that we were welcome to do work at the Castellum Aquae and the House of the Hanging Balcony; however, we could not perform any work at the Stabian Baths due to restoration activities being conducted during our visit.

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Dr. Varrone also directed us to the work completed by Christoph Ohlig and told us that it was the best reference for the water/hydraulic work that we were there to perform.

2.8 Dr. Anna Maria Sodo

At the suggestion of Dr. Varrone, we met with Dr. Sodo at the Archaeological Information System Vesuvius (SIAV) which is part of the Archaeological Superintendent’s Office of Pompeii, located in the building of the Museum of Bosco Reale. The SIAV is a database that addresses the details of Pompeii. We were told that, in the coming years, a computer record of all data relating to archaeological sites around Vesuvius would be available in the SIAV.

We received a significant amount of detailed GIS and AutoCAD data from the SIAV after our return to Denver.

2.9 Professore Mattia Crespi

On November 3, 2010, Meisha Hunter met with Prof. Crespi and three Ph.D. students in the Geodesic Engineering Department of the Universita la Sapienza in Rome. Prof. Crespi mentioned that two of his students are archaeologists (Jolanda Patruno, Nicole Dore) who are working on radar imaging and creating digital terrain models (DTM) of certain UNESCO sites.

They are also working with coarse version SRTM free NOAA 3x3, and RTK (real time kinematic). Prof. Crespi and his students were interested in assisting with documenting the alignment of the aqueduct from Avella to Pompeii, and suggested that some underground points may be located using ground penetrating radar.

3.0 SITES VISITED AND MAJOR OBSERVATIONS

Much of our time in Italy was spent in the field performing observations and measurements of the physical remnants. Although we visited some very unique areas in Rome, the major objective of the field visit was to study the water features in the Pompeii area. So, this section is organized by the specific sites visited, first in Pompeii and then Rome.

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3.1 City of Pompeii

Several sites within the City of Pompeii were studied specifically. These include the Castellum Aquae, House of the Hanging Balcony, and Pompeii Wells.

3.1.1 Castellum Aquae

The Castellum Aquae is located at the Porta del Vesuvio on the north side of the city. This building is the highest elevation of Pompeii at approximately 42 meters (138 feet). This structure was the distribution point of the aqueduct water supply entering Pompeii. Once the water reached the Castellum, it was split into three major pipelines for distribution. We have learned that the lower, primary part of the Castellum was supposedly built with the initial aqueduct (i.e., Avella Aqueduct) just after Pompeii became a Roman colony in 80 B.C. Later, when the Serino Aqueduct was built (12 to 6 B.C.), the Castellum was modified to its existing shape. A photograph of the outside of the Castellum is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Castellum Aquae at Pompeii. Three Major Supply Pipelines Exited Building at Lower Part of Wall.

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The Castellum has a circular interior layout, approximately 6 meters (20 feet) in diameter. It contains an interior domed vault and exterior trapezoidal dimensions. On the lower portion of the southern wall, the three major pipelines exited the Castellum. On the exterior south wall, there are three arches that have been filled in with brickwork, perhaps rebuilt after 62 A.D., when the earthquake occurred.

During our visit, we were allowed the special privilege (by permission of Dr. Varone) of entering the interior of the Castellum to make measurements and then to crawl through the influent tunnel aqueduct for 16.5 meters (54 feet) to exit from a square vent shaft. This influent tunnel is the aqueduct that was used as an escape route during the Vesuvius eruption for the main characters Attilia and Corelia in Robert Harris’ novel Pompeii.

The upstream vent shaft also served as a junction of two tunnel aqueduct sections, one from the north and a second from the east. The primary aqueduct is oriented from the north. The source of this second branch from the east is unknown. We made measurements of the shaft and tunnel.

Measurements of the aqueduct section entering the Castellum showed a width of 52 cm (20 inches) and a height of 140 cm (55 inches). The aqueduct width measured at the shaft was also 52 cm (20 inches). There is a smaller channel section at the bottom of the aqueduct that measures 23 cm (9 inches) wide and 30 cm (12 inches) deep. This smaller section is what was believed to be used for conveying water with the upper wider channel used for maintenance access. The aqueduct outlet to the Castellum is shown in Figure 4.

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Figure 4. Aqueduct Outlet to the Castellum with Meisha Hunter.

There is a wall painting above the aqueduct entrance to the Castellum that includes a garland (indicative of prosperity), a river, and three nymphs.

We consulted the security guard manning a checkpoint located outside the gates, immediately north of the Castellum to determine if he had any knowledge of the aqueduct. He was not aware of any remnants and does not have any idea of the alignment of the aqueduct that most likely went through his property.

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3.1.2 House of the Hanging Balcony

In our research prior to the field trip to Pompeii, we discovered that the lead water distribution pipe system has been completely preserved in only one house in the entire city, Casa del Balcone Pensile (Jansen, 2001), see Figure 5. So, we chose the House of the Hanging Balcony (the House) to obtain field measurements and investigate the hydraulics of water service to the House.

Figure 5. House of the Hanging Balcony with Support Scaffolding.

During our first visit, we were unable to enter the House since it was padlocked and the staff did not have the key. We came back the next day after the staff had cut the lock. According to the staff, our team was the first to visit the interior of the House for several years.

Water that served the House was distributed from the Castellum to one of 17 local water towers in the city, see Figure 6. The water tower that served the House is to the west along Avenue Vicolo Del Balcone Pensile with the base of the tower at approximately elevation of 32 meters (105 feet). This is approximately 10 meters (33 feet) less than the elevation of the Castellum.

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We measured the height of the water tower at 6.27 meters (21 feet) and its location is only 28 meters (92 feet) from the front door of the House. Based on our observations, lead piping ran from the tower on both sides of the Avenue Vicolo Del Balcone Pensile to the east of the tower. The piping fed other houses and a public fountain approximately 44 meters (144 feet) from the tower.

Figure 6. Water Tower Serving the House of the Hanging Balcony.

As reported by Jansen, the piping within the House has been preserved from the outside of the front door to the water feature located inside. The piping has an inside clear diameter of approximately 30 mm (1.2 inches) and we observed some calcium carbonate scaling on the inside surfaces of the pipe. We followed the piping from the door into the center area of the House, where we discovered a manifold with 4 valves to control water flow, see Figures 7 and 8. The manifold and valve assembly was remarkable since it is very similar to what is used in modern residential plumbing, see Figure 8. The valves appeared to be made of bronze (due to the green discoloring of the valve bodies by oxidation since the uncovering).

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Figure 7. Following the Piping into the House of the Hanging Balcony.

The water served by the piping system was used in a water fountain statue of a small boy with water coming out of his hand. Two other pipes went from the manifold system to fountains that jetted water from curved sections of small lead pipes to a catch basin below the statue. The statue is no longer in the House, but we have a photo taken of the statue, in situ, just after excavation of the House (in 1897). Since our trip, we have also located the statue (by letter with the Superintendent) in the storage area of Pompeii artifacts recovered during excavations that are not currently on display.

Also, as shown in Figure 9, we borrowed a level instrument from a Spanish archeological team from the University of Salamanca that was doing work in Pompeii. Based on survey, the House had a water pressure at the fountain of about 4.8 meters (15.7 feet).

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Figure 8. Piping Manifold with Valves – House of the Hanging Balcony.

Figure 9. Survey at the House of the Hanging Balcony.

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3.1.3 Pompeii Wells

Prior to the aqueduct bringing water to Pompeii, the inhabitants relied on groundwater and rainwater as supplies. There are 22 deep wells that have been identified in the excavated portion of Pompeii. Several of these wells were larger than others and served important functions of providing water to the public baths.

The depth of groundwater beneath Pompeii is between 20 and 37 meters (66 and 121 feet), with the shallower depth occurring in the lower city surface elevations on the south side and the deeper groundwater located on the north side.

We inspected several wells during the Pompeii site visit. We visited a well that served the Stabian Bath (2.90 meters by 2.0 meters by approximately 25 meters deep). This well had calcium carbonate scaling on the sides where the water was pulled from the well. It is known that a water lifting mechanism was used to haul up the water from the well into the bath complex. We were denied detailed study access to the Stabian Bath since a restoration campaign was in progress. We measured another large well structure with interior dimensions of 2 meters by 2.4 meters (6.5 feet by 8 feet) at a location behind a public fountain in Pompeii at the approach of Region VI, from the direction of the Pompeii Forum. A photograph of this well structure is shown in Figure 10. This well had a foundation of a water tower (outside dimensions of 1 meter by 1.2 meters) adjacent to the well wall. This suggests that the well may have been used to provide groundwater to the water tower. Perhaps the water towers were in use before the aqueducts were constructed?

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Figure 10. Pompeii Well Structure Located Behind a Public Fountain.

Two other wells were observed. One was at the Terme Del Foro, also with an adjacent water tower. This well is also known to have had a lifting mechanism. Another well was a private house well at Casa Di Sallustio located in the corner of a room towards the front of the house.

3.2 Pompeii Region

The Avella and Serino Aqueduct systems that brought water from outside of the city were a major focus of our field studies. A schematic layout of the Serino Aqueduct is shown in Figure 11. We traveled in the Pompeii Region to gather information regarding these systems.

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 Tirone

Figure 11. Schematic Layout of the Serino (Augustan) Aqueduct. (From DeFeo)

3.2.1 Tirone – Serino

The aqueduct vestiges at Tirone are located about 12.3 kilometers (7.7 miles) north from the Castellum Aquae. These ruins are in a key location; in the area where the earlier constructed Avella Aqueduct was intersected with the later Serino Aqueduct. With what we know now, the Tirone artifacts are the closest remaining aqueduct sections to the city. One of the objectives of future study will be to determine if there are other remnants that are on a theoretical aqueduct alignment from Tirone to the Castellum (we have learned that there may be other remnants in private houses in the Tirone area).

The remnants at Tirone are fenced and accessible by a gate that is normally locked. We were allowed into the site by Mr. Sorrentino and Ms. Noppi of the Gruppo Archeologico Avellano – Terra Di Palma. The Tirone site is fascinating in many ways. First, there are two parallel sections of the Serino, as shown in Figure 12. One section (north) is the older section from the original Augustan construction. The other (south) section was constructed during a rehabilitation of the aqueduct in 323 A.D., during the reign of the emperor Constantine. According to Mr. Sorrentino, the rehabilitation included approximately 15 kilometers (9 miles) of the original Serino Aqueduct in this area.

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Figure 12. Serino Aqueduct (Looking Westerly) at Tirone Showing the South Channel (323 A.D.) on the Left and North (Old) Channel on the Right.

Next, the aqueduct was constructed with a gabled roof, which was typical of the aqueduct sections in this region. The aqueduct width of the south section was measured at 82 cm (32 inches) wide, with no scaling, and 258 cm (101 inches) from the bottom to the apex of the gable. The north aqueduct section had a width of 71 cm (28 inches) and a total height of 220 cm (87 inches). The south aqueduct and dimensions are shown in Figure 13.

Another aspect of the aqueduct sections at Tirone is that the calcium carbonate scaling on the aqueduct walls are quite different when comparing the two sections. The older, north section has very little scaling. The Constantine (south) section shows more water use with a buildup of scale of 13 to 15 cm (5 to 6 inches) thick on each wall of the aqueduct channel. In addition, the thickness of scaling varies with the depth of the channel with the maximum thickness at the mid- depth of the channel. From mid-depth, the thickness tapers both higher and lower than mid- depth. This indicates that the depth (and flow) of water in the channel varied considerably during the operation of the aqueduct. This may have been due to the seasonal variation of flow from the springs.

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Figure 13. Southern Aqueduct Dimensions. Built by Constantine in 323 A.D.

We have calculated the slope of an aqueduct that would stretch from the Tirone area to the Castellum at S = 0.0005.

3.2.2 Muro d’Arce

Located approximately 3.4 kilometers (2 miles) southeast of the Tirone site is Muro d’Arce (wall of Arce). The site is so named because the aqueduct was located on top of a long wall located on a former farm called d’Arce. The Muro d’Arce follows the topography along a steep hillside and a portion is supported by a retaining wall engineered by the Romans.

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The aqueduct at this location carried the Serino with flow occurring from southeast to northwest. We were able to visit only the northwest section of this site, in an olive grove, since we received permission from only this property owner. The Muro d’Arce has suffered significant degradation due to natural forces on a slope, farming activities, and development.

A major aspect of this location was the Roman engineering use of a unique semi-circular (in plan) design for foundation support of the aqueduct on a steep hill. We measured the radius of the circular portions of the structure at one meter (3.3 feet) and the supporting buttresses between the semi-circular portions at 1.1 meters (3.6 feet) thick.

3.2.3 Acquaro-Pelosi and Urciuoli Springs

Visiting the source water location of the Serino Aqueduct was a major objective of our research site visit. Mr. Paolo Iandolo, ARIN, was a gracious host at the site and provided us much information.

The source of water to the ancient Roman Serino aqueduct was in the southern Apennine Mountains near the modern town of Serino, Italy. The Acquaro and Pelosi Springs are located at an elevation of 375 meters (1230 feet) when compared to the elevation of the Castellum Aquae at 44 meters (145 feet). This is a drop of 341 meters (985 feet) over a projected ancient aqueduct length of 60 kilometers (37 miles). This calculates to an average slope of 0.0057.

The springs are still very productive and originate from the Terminio Karst Aquifer of the Apennine’s. The springs are a major potable water supply for the modern City of Naples. Water is transported to Naples through a 2 meter (6.6 feet) diameter pipeline for a length of 72 kilometers (43 miles).

At the time of our visit, the Acquaro-Pelosi springs were producing about 500 to 600 liters per second (18 to 21 cubic feet per second) and can produce 1,000 liters per second (35 cfs) in the winter rainy season. The springs are, in fact, two long horizontal infiltration galleries (700 meters and 800 meters, respectively) that are constructed at a depth of about 30 meters. The infiltration galleries flow into a round spring house (9 meters in diameter), see Figure 14. One of the highlights of our visit was that we were able to visit the interior of the spring house (which is not common because of security reasons). The visit was arranged by Mr. Illiano.

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Figure 14. Acquaro-Pelosi Springs – Round Spring House Showing Water Cascading From Infiltration Galleries to Clearwell.

The water quality of the springs was provided to us by Mr. Iandolo and is presented in Table 1 along with water quality of spring water from Southern France near Barbegal. The quality of the Acquaro-Pelosi shows slightly hard water with a calcium carbonate scaling potential. This explains the calcium carbonate depositions that are evident on the walls of the ancient Serino Aqueduct.

Table 1 Water Quality of the Acquaro-Pelosi Springs Compared to Barbegal Springs

Parameter Southern France – Barbegal Acquaro-Pelosi Springs, Italy

Hardness (mg/L) 310 214 Calcium (mg/L) 110 64 Magnesium (mg/L) 9.5 13

Sodium (mg/L) 10 7 Chloride (mg/L) 10 9 Sulfate (mg/L) 38 9

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When the Acquaro-Pelosi Springs were developed for the modern Naples water supply, a Roman marble epigraph was discovered and is on display in the spring house. The epigraph explains the restoration of the Serino Aqueduct under the Emperor Constantine and lists the towns that the aqueduct served. The date on the epigraph is 323 A.D. Of course, the list of towns served does not include Pompeii, since it was buried under the volcanic material of the Mt. Vesuvius eruption in 79 A.D.

The Urciuoli Springs are separate and located approximately 5 kilometers from the Acquaro- Pelosi Springs. These springs were more productive at 1,380 liters per second (49 cfs) during our visit. These springs may not have been used in the Serino Aqueduct and were known to be a source of water to the ancient City of Benevento with an aqueduct that followed the path of the nearby Sabato River. This separate ancient Roman aqueduct was called the Sannitico Aqueduct. A section of the Sannitico Aqueduct survives, located near the Urciuoli Springs. The section is similar to the Serino section with a gabled top. We took measurements of the Sannitico Aqueduct section: 61 centimeters (24 inches) wide and 168 centimeters (66 inches) to the top of the section.

3.2.4 Avella Springs and the Roman Aqueduct Bridge

The Avella Springs were a source of water for the Roman inhabitants in the area. Whether or not the Avella Springs supplied water to Pompeii is a question that we seek to investigate in our future studies.

The springs are located in a valley to the northeast of the modern Town of Avella in the Apennine Mountains. There are many small springs in this valley and we visited four of them with the Town Public Works staff. The range of flow rates at each of these springs at the time of our visit ranged from 5 to 45 liters per second (0.2 to 1.6 cfs). All of these springs are being used as a water supply for the Town of Avella.

The remote spring we visited was the Sambuco Spring. A spring house was constructed over the spring with water coming from a hillside cave.

Several years ago, a Roman aqueduct vestige was discovered during the construction of a modern pipeline near the Bontino 6 Spring. It appears that the aqueduct carried the spring water

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down the valley and, according to the Town staff; the remnants of four water powered mills have been identified. We visited three of the four sites with initial observations that were inconclusive as to whether these were mill sites.

The Roman aqueduct bringing the water out of the valley included a bridge to carry the water over the Clanio River. We visited the bridge and it is a superb single arch bridge with a span of 8.6 meters (28 feet) and is fully intact, see Figure 15. We measured the width of the channel over the bridge at 60 centimeters (24 inches).

Figure 15. Roman Aqueduct Bridge at Avella.

3.2.5 Roccarainaolla Qanats

During our visit with the Avella Public Works staff, they suggested that we visit an ancient tunneled site in the area of Roccarainaolla, west of Avella. As we learned from Prof. De Feo, these were qanats that may have been constructed prior to the Roman colonization of the area.

We inspected a tunnel section that was not familiar to us as a typical Roman aqueduct. The tunnel was dug through the existing geologic strata with no trace of mortar or stones or rubble or hydraulic concrete. However, there were vertical air shafts that were constructed from stone and mortar. We visited seven of these shafts over a distance of several hundred meters. The shafts were circular in section with a diameter of 49 centimeters (19 inches).

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3.3 Rome Region

We visited Rome for two days and photographed some of the iconic aqueduct sites in and around the city. One of our goals was to visit the ancient spring water sources in the Anio River Valley.

3.3.1 Traiana Aqueduct at the American Academy in Rome

The Aqua Traiana was an aqueduct built in the 1st Century by the Emperor Trajan and inaugurated on 24 June 109 AD. During our visit with Dr. Cory Brennan and fellow John Matteo, we were invited to inspect a section of the aqueduct that has been preserved under the c. 1913 villa at the American Academy in Rome (Academy). We entered the aqueduct section by a hatchway built into the floor of the cryptoporticus. The Traiana section had dimensions of 181 centimeters (71 inches) from floor to apex and 98 cm (39 inches) wide, see Figure 16.

Because of Meisha Hunter’s past study at the Academy, we were able to spend some time in the library to do some research. Here, we obtained copies of several papers addressing Pompeii hydraulics.

Figure 16. Inside the Triania Aqueduct underneath the American Academy of Rome.

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3.3.2 Source Springs and Aqueduct Section – Aqua Claudia and Marcia

The water sources for the great Aqua Claudia and the Marcia (also the Aqua Anio Novus) are located in the Anio River Valley approximately 50 kilometers (31 miles) east (straight line) of ancient Rome. The Aqua Claudia was about 69 kilometers (43 miles) long along the aqueduct route. This compares to the Serino Aqueduct at 96 kilometers (about 60 miles).

The geology in the Anio River Valley is similar to the geology of the more southern section of the Apennine Mountains at the Acquaro-Pelosi Springs that served the Serino Aqueduct at Pompeii. The spring sources for the Claudia and Marcia are from the Simbruini Mountains, which are in the central section of the Apennines. The limestone and karst landscape, with the fissures and caves that provide storage for the rainfall on the mountains, is also similar to the geology in the Alpilles Mountains that served as the water source supply at Barbegal in Southern France.

We went as far as Nero’s Villa, where the Roman Emperor constructed dams on the Anio River, which later became the source of the Anio Novus. We visited modern day springs (Marano Equo) where the local people come and fill jars for their home supply.

The springs in the Anio Valley are currently used to supply potable water to Rome. We stopped at a maintenance facility for the springs and talked with a man with the Azienda Comunale Energia e Ambiente (ACEA) who informed us that the current capacity of the springs that delivered water to Rome was at 5,000 liters per second (176 cfs).

We also made a stop at the San Cosimato Tunnel where the Claudia Aqueduct crossed the Anio River (the location is Map 14, Aicher 1995). We were able to measure the aqueduct width at 98 centimeters.

3.3.3 Source Springs – Virgo

Meisha Hunter studied the 21 km long, gravity fed, Virgo Aqueduct during her fellowship year at the Academy. Thus, we had a personal tour of the source springs and detailed history of the Virgo during our visit.

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The Virgo was dedicated in 19 B.C. after both the Aqua Claudia and the Marcia; however, the source spring water at the Sorgente di Salone was much closer to the city, see Figure 17.

Figure 17. Current Day Water Tower at the Site of the Groundwater Spring Used for the Ancient Virgo Aqueduct that Served Rome.

4.0 FUTURE STUDY AND ACTION PLAN

The research and data obtained during this field visit will be developed with the goal of authoring papers and articles for submittal to civil engineering and water history journals and magazines. Currently, the following subjects are planned for papers:

1. The Hydraulics of Water Supply to the House of the Hanging Balcony.

2. Groundwater Well Supply at Pompeii.

3. Ancient Roman Water Supplies from Karstic Landscapes: Similarities from Pompeii, Rome, and Gaul (Southern France).

Additional field work is needed in the Pompeii region. One priority of study is for research and investigation of site archeological remains to confirm the route of the Avella and Serino Aqueducts, as shown in Figure 18.

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Figure 18. Route of Avella and Serino (Augustus) Aqueducts.

Within the City of Pompeii, work remains to inventory and measure the public fountains, wells, and water towers. In addition, the use of wells and mechanisms for pumping water to the Pompeii public baths is an area of desired research.

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5.0 REFERENCES

Aicher, Peter J. 1995. Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. Bolchazy – Carducci Publishers, Wauconda, Illinois.

Berry, Joann. 2007. The Complete Pompeii. Thames and Hudson Publishing, New York.

Jansen, 2001. Water Pipe Systems in the Houses of Pompeii in A.O. Koloski-Ostrow (ed.) Water Use and Hydraulics in the Roman City. Dubuque, I.A. Kendall Hunt: 27-40.

Ohlig, Christoph P.J. 2001. De aquis Pompeiorum. Das Castellum Aquae in Pompeji: Herkunft, Zuleitung und Verteilung des Wassers. Circumvesuviana, Volume 4. Nijmegen: Books on Demand GmbH, Norderstedt.

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