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Pompeii & Naples

Pompeii & Naples

& BAY: ANCIENT ROMAN WATER SUPPLIES & WATER USE

REPORT OF FIELD OBSERVATIONS ‐ SEPTEMBER 2016 Wayne Lorenz

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PREFACE

The Wright Paleohydrological Institute (WPI) has been researching the , the ancient Roman that served the Naples Bay region of , including the ancient City of Pompeii, and water use in the city. A few facts regarding the aqueduct and related water systems provide some background to this report.

First, ancient Pompeii can justifiably be identified as the most famous archaeological site in the world (Berry, 2007), likely due to its preservation under about 3 to 12 meters (10 to 40 feet) of after the eruption of in A.D. 79. It was here that the modern study of “archaeology” began when the city started to be unearthed over 250 years ago. It is interesting to note that Pompeii is about 75 percent excavated and has revealed many unique details of Roman culture and . The archaeological areas of Pompeii, (as well as and ) were listed as UNESCO World Heritage sites in 1997. The historic center of Naples is also a UNESCO site.

The and construction of the Aqua Augusta (also known as the Aqueduct) provided a fresh to communities and fostered economic development in the Naples Bay region during the first century A.D. The aqueduct supplied Pompeii and at least 9 other distinct communities, plus multiple villas, in the Bay of Naples through a system of ten side branches. This seems to have been the most complex single aqueduct ever built by the Romans (Keenan-Jones, 2010). As a comparison, the City of was supplied by 11 separate aqueducts.

The aqueduct was built under the Emperor (between 33 and 12 B.C.), it crossed hilly terrain with channel gradients that varied, impacting . A minimum gradient of the channel in one segment was 0.04 percent. Nevertheless, a flow of at least 1,000 liters per second (15,850 gallons per minute or 23 million gallons per day) was possible. A great portion of the Aqua Augusta was engineered to be tunneled under the hilly terrain, with some sections as much as 65 to 97 meters (210 to 320 feet) below the existing grade. One of the goals of WPI is to map

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the alignment of the aqueduct, some 100 kilometers (approximately 60 miles) from the Acquaro – Pelosi Springs to the presumed end of the aqueduct at the storage reservoir called the .

Pompeii had a population of between 8,000 and 12,000 (Storey, 1997) when Mt. Vesuvius erupted. Several researchers have made attempts to estimate the flow of water from the Aqua Augusta that was directed to Pompeii for domestic use in the city. H. Eschebach (1993) calculated the total water supply to the city to 75 liters per second (1,200 gallons per minute or 1.7 million gallons per day) based on the water inlet area of the aqueduct, 0.25 by 0.3 meters (0.8 by 1 foot), and a water velocity of 1 meter per second (3.3 feet per second). Ohlig (2001) discussed the water demands of the city and based his estimation on a water consumption of 200 to 400 liters per person per day (50 to 100 gallons per capita per day) for a population of about 8,000 people, giving a calculated total water quantity of 20 to 40 liters per second (320 gallons per minute to 634 gallons per minute, or up to 0.9 million gallons per day). Based on review of the hydraulic engineering evidence, the flow to Pompeii from the aqueduct was about 40 liters per second (634 gallons per minute or 0.9 million gallons per day).

The water was distributed in the city through a water distribution system that included a hydraulic flow splitter box and gates, lead piping, water towers, and street . Water from the aqueduct was used for public baths, commercial shops, irrigation of private gardens, indoor water features, and in-house domestic applications.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

1.0 INTRODUCTION ...... 1

2.0 HOUSES IN POMPEII ...... 2 2.1 Casa dei Vettii (September 29) ...... 3 2.2 Casa dell’ Efebo (September 24) ...... 4 2.3 Casa di Orfeo (September 29) ...... 7 2.4 Casa di Trebius Valens (September 26) ...... 8

3.0 PISCINA MIRABILIS ...... 9

4.0 ARCADES ...... 11 4.1 Mura d’Arce (September 26) ...... 11 4.2 Pomigliano D’Arco (September 29) ...... 12

5.0 SANITA’ NAPLES (SEPTEMBER 24) ...... 14

6.0 SARNO SPRINGS MUSEUM VISIT, AND IDENTIFICATION OF ANOTHER ALIGNMENT LOCATION (SEPTEMBER 26) ...... 15

7.0 VOLTURARA IRPINA – DRAGON’S MOUTH & SPRINGS (SEPTEMBER 28) ...... 18

8.0 CISTERNS IN (SEPTEMBER 25 AND 27) ...... 20 8.1 Grottoni Cistern ...... 21 8.2 Villa Angri Sani Cistern ...... 21 8.3 Dragonara Cistern ...... 22 8.4 Scalandrone Tunnel ...... 22

9.0 HERCULANEUM (SEPTEMBER 28) ...... 23

10.0 REFERENCES ...... 25

11.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... 25

12.0 APPENDIX ...... 26

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FIGURES

Figure 1. WPI team from left to right include Wayne Lorenz (Team Leader), Gary Witt (Hydrogeologist and Photographer) and Peppe Iliano (Local Guide and Liason) ...... 1 Figure 2. Peppe Iliano and Prof. Stefani in the Casa dei Vettii...... 3 Figure 3. Large lead pipe in the kitchen of the Casa dei Vettii...... 4 Figure 4. Evidence of a water vessel attached to the wall...... 4 Figure 5. Private water tower behind a large painting of Mars and as observed from the entrance to the residence from Vicola dell’Efebo...... 5 Figure 6. Plan view of Casa dell’ Efebo showing the configuration of lead pipes used to deliver water throughout the residence...... 6 Figure 7. Nymphaeum and water basin in the garden area of Casa dell’ Efebo...... 6 Figure 8. cast of a guard dog found in the Casa di Orfeo...... 7 Figure 9. Valve box with two valves in Casa di Orfeo...... 8 Figure 10. Marble valve box with cover adjacent to pedestal and impluvuim...... 8 Figure 11. Water with remaining pedestal in Casa di Trebius Valens...... 9 Figure 12. Interior of Piscina Mirabilis near the south east stairway...... 10 Figure 13. Mura d’Arce and buttresses as viewed from the south...... 12 Figure 14. Aerial image of the large railroad span that by passes the foundation of the Aqua Augusta...... 13 Figure 15. Remnant of arcade foundation near Pomigliano d’Arco...... 13 Figure 16. Archeological excavation along proposed elevated railway section shows a remnant of arcade foundation...... 13 Figure 17. Gary Witt, Meisha Hunter Burkett and Wayne Lorenz meet for espresso in downtown Naples ...... 14 Figure 18. Model of the Aqua Augusta as discovered beneath several buildings in downtown Naples. .. 15 Figure 19. City of Sarno staff and WPI researchers behind a map listing 26 Roman remnants in the area...... 16 Figure 20. Portion of the Sarno map that shows a new location of the Aqua Augusta...... 17 Figure 21. Cut and cover section of the Aqua Augusta in Sarno...... 18 Figure 22. Part of the WPI team with VIPs from Vulturara Irpina...... 19 Figure 23. Ascending from the Dragon’s Mouth...... 19 Figure 24. Elevated view of a portion of Vulturara Irpina and the Dragon’s Plain...... 19 Figure 25. Pollentina Spring ...... 20 Figure 26. View from second story balcony of the large arched remnants of the Grottoni cistern...... 21 Figure 27. A view northward across the partially-excavated City of Herculaneum and the overlaying current City of (middle ground) with Mt. Vesuvius in the distance...... 23 Figure 28. Fountain located adjacent to the remnant of the northernmost water tower observed during our September 2016 field investigation ...... 24

APPENDIX

A Letters of Authorization

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Pompeii & Naples Bay: Ancient Roman Water Supplies and Water Use

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The Wright Paleohydrological Institute (WPI) has been conducting water engineering studies in the Naples Bay area, focusing on the aqueduct that brought water to the ancient City of Pompeii and on water use within the city. The work is being accomplished under the direction of Wayne Lorenz, WPI Research Associate.

In late September 2016, Wayne Lorenz and Gary Witt traveled to Naples, Italy, to conduct field investigations of water engineering that were applied in antiquity. Wayne and Gary were accompanied during the entire investigation by Giuseppe “Peppe” Illiano (Figure 1). Giuseppe resides in , Bacoli, and he arranged for most of the meetings that we attended during this tour.

This field investigation was the sixth such investigation by Wayne Lorenz to the Naples Bay area. We have previously performed research in Pompeii in 2006, 2010, 2011, 2012, and 2015. Previous reports have been prepared for the 2010 investigation and daily diaries have been prepared for all of the investigations.

Figure 1. WPI team from left to right include Wayne Lorenz (Team Leader), Gary Witt (Hydrogeologist and Photographer) and Peppe Iliano (Local Guide and Liason)

The specific goals of the September 2016 field work were to:

 Obtain photographs of the major features of the WPI study to be used in technical articles and to be used for a special presentation planned at the Denver Museum of Nature and

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Science in April 2017. Because the museum presentation will be in the planetarium, we utilized special full 360 degree panoramic photography techniques and equipment.

 Obtain information in houses in Pompeii that have private water towers. Specifically, the Casa dell’ Efebo and Casa di Trebius Valens. We also wanted to observe the marble valve box in the Casa di Orfeo.

 Identify and observe specific locations of the Aqua Augusta not previously known or investigated.

 Research and investigate the Dragon’s Plain and Dragon’s Mouth to better understand the water resources that the Romans used to supply water to Pompeii.

WPI was granted written authorization to perform studies in the Naples Bay area. In particular, the letter from the Soprintendenza (September 9, 2016) to allow our investigations of the houses in Pompeii was important. This letter, and other authorization letters, are included in Appendix A.

Field notes were taken at all of the locations addressed in this report. The field notes by Wayne Lorenz and Gary Witt include specific measurements of many of the features observed during this investigation. Readers interested in these details may request copies of the field notes.

When we arrived in the ancient City of Pompeii on September 24, we were surprised to discover that many of the areas that are normally accessible to tourists were fenced off due to major renovations that were underway. Therefore, our access to water towers and other houses that we had planned to photograph for the Denver Museum presentation was limited. We were ultimately allowed access to the construction areas on September 29.

2.0 HOUSES IN POMPEII

We have been studying several houses in Pompeii (since 2010) focusing on the water use and the water features in each house. Previously, we have documented water use in the Casa Balcone De Pensile, Casa dell’ Orso, and Casa di Trebius Valens.

In 2016, we were granted access to study in four houses: Casa dei Vettii, Casa dell’ Efebo, Casa di Orfeo, and Casa di Trebius Valens.

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2.1 Casa dei Vettii (September 29)

We met Superintendent/Professor Greta Stefani at the Casa dei Vettii (Figure 2). Once we entered the house, many of the water features were covered with wooden enclosures to protect them from potential damage from construction workers during renovation. The Casa dei Vettii is located just down the street (Vicolo dei Vettii) from the Aquae and across the street from Water Tower No. 7.

Figure 2. Peppe Iliano and Prof. Stefani in the Casa dei Vettii.

We observed a large marble impluvium with an ornate compluvium (with flutes) in the roof above. There was a smaller impluvium in the room near the kitchen.

The highlight of the investigation of Casa dei Vettii came when Prof. Stefani directed us to the kitchen and pointed to a large vertical lead pipe on the wall. She asked “what is this?” and we looked at the pipe as shown in Figure 3.

The pipe extended from the floor to a height of 2.7 meters (9 feet) and was raggedly severed at its top. An impression of what appeared to be a water vessel was evident on the wall just above the top of the pipe, with a height of 1.5 meters (4.9 feet) (Figure 4). The total height of the lead pipe with the impression was therefore 4.2 meters (13.8 feet).

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Figure 3. Large lead pipe in the kitchen of Figure 4. Evidence of a water vessel attached to the Casa dei Vettii. the wall.

The lead pipe had outer dimensions of 12.5 centimeters by 10 centimeters (5 inches by 4 inches) and was considered to be a large pipe for use in an individual house.

There was a cistern in the kitchen located just below this pipe section. A connection between the pipe and cistern was not readily observable.

2.2 Casa dell’ Efebo (September 24)

One of the reasons for our study of the Casa dell’ Efebo is that it contains a private water tower. The water tower is observed at the opposite side (west end) of the house as one enters the front door from Vicola dell’ Efebo (Figure 5). The water tower has a large painting of Mars and Venus on one of its sides and is adjacent to a shrine.

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Figure 5. Private water tower behind a large painting of Mars and Venus as observed from the entrance to the residence from Vicola dell’Efebo.

We obtained dimensions of many aspects of the water system in the house, but were not able to visually observe the top of the tower. The private water tower was measured at 3.1 meters (10 feet) high and 1.7 by 1.3 meters (5.5 by 4.3 feet) in plan, outside dimensions. According to Jashemski (1993), the top of the tower has a reservoir, lined with hydraulic , with a 3 cubic meter (800 gallon) capacity.

Water was provided from the aqueduct source serving Pompeii through the main Castellum Aquae and through the water towers along Via Stabiana (i.e., Water Towers Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4). The water was diverted from Water Tower No. 4 (at the intersection of Via Stabiana and Via dell’ Abbondanza) to Water Tower No. 5 located about 130 meters (425 feet) to the east of Water Tower No. 4. The water was delivered to the entrance of the Casa dell’ Efebo from the Water Tower No. 5 through a smaller lead pipe that was observed just outside of the main door of the house. The lead pipe directed water from the front entrance area to the private water tower as shown in Figure 5. Water was then distributed in the house from the tower.

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Lead Pipe into Water

Nymphaeum

Spigot

Figure 6. Plan view of Casa dell’ Efebo showing the configuration of lead pipes used to deliver water throughout the residence.

Lead pipe directed water from the private water tower to several locations in the residence. There were at least three distribution pipes as shown in Figure 6. The garden area included a fountain (nymphaeum) and a water basin on the south side of the garden. One pipe provided water to the nymphaeum and a (unknown sculpture) mounted at the top of a marble step cascade that dropped water into the basin, as shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Nymphaeum and water basin in the garden area of Casa dell’ Efebo.

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Another lead pipe extended through the water basin to the peristyle in the south portion of the house. Here the lead pipe extended downward adjacent to a stairway to end in a spigot valve. This arrangement (valve at the end of pipe like a modern hose bibb) was rare according to Jansen (Koloski-Ostro, 2001). Another lead pipe carried water from the private water tower through two walls to a water feature located in the southern small atrium.

We performed an elevation survey using a hand level with the result that the top of the water tower was about 3 meters (10 feet) tall. From the top of the water tower there was approximately 2.8 meters (9.8 feet) difference to the main fountain and 5.1 meters (9.2 feet) to the water feature in the south small atrium.

The distribution from a water tower, rather than from a lead manifold as we have seen in other houses (e.g., Casa Balcone De Pensile), is rare in Pompeii. We believe that a private water tower in the Casa di Trebius Valens also serves in a similar fashion.

2.3 Casa di Orfeo (September 29)

The major objective in obtaining approval to enter the Casa di Orfeo was to inspect the marble valve box and valve arrangement at the water feature in the atrium of the house. However, this house is also well known because it is here that a void left by the remains of big guard dog chained in the entrance were found on November 20, 1874. The dog’s plaster cast is an icon of Pompeii (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Plaster cast of a guard dog found in the Casa di Orfeo.

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The water feature valves are located behind a pedestal on the west side of an impluvium (Figure 9). Two valves that controlled water to the water features (unknown sculptures) were contained in a marble cassette with a marble cover (Figure 10). The marble cassette and cover are rare features in Pompeii.

Figure 9. Valve box with two valves in Casa di Figure 10. Marble valve box with cover adjacent to Orfeo. pedestal and impluvuim.

2.4 Casa di Trebius Valens (September 26)

We previously investigated the Casa Di Trebius Valens in 2015 (on March 23) with Peter Foster. At that time, we observed a private water tower in the back of the residence. The water tower has a clay storage vessel, or a pot, at the top. The vessel had a mouth with a rim diameter of about 40 centimeters (16 inches) and an inside pot diameter of approximately 70 centimeters (28 inches) and a depth of at least 70 centimeters (28 inches) (there was probably some sediment and trash at the bottom of the pot that impacted our measurement). The volume of the vessel was estimated at 0.27 cubic meters (70 gallons).

The water tower served a water fountain in the garden (Figure 11) and an impluvium in the atrium. We do not know what the water features may have been at the fountain or the impluvium. Another water feature was probably at the back of the garden; however, we were not able to access this

area because of scaffolding placed around it.

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Figure 11. Water fountain with remaining pedestal in Casa di Trebius Valens.

Apparently (although not completely confirmed in our study), the distribution to piping within the house was from the tower rather than from lead boxes or manifolds, as we have seen in other Pompeii houses with individual water service.

On September 26, 2016, the Casa di Trebius Valens was closed to the public and there was vegetation that had grown throughout the house. Photos were obscured by this vegetation. There was scaffolding around the water tower and the back of the garden (scaffolding was also there in March 2015). We were requested by the Pompeii staff not to enter the area of the scaffolding.

Gary and I performed a rudimentary hand level survey and determined that the water tower was 3.5 meters (11.5 feet) high from the base. The fountain in the garden was on a pedestal with its top at 4.0 meters (13 feet) below the top of the tower. The impluvium (ground surface) near the entrance to the residence from Villa dell’ Abbondanza was estimated to be 4.7 meters (15.4 feet) below the top of the tower.

3.0 PISCINA MIRABILIS

We last investigated the Piscina Mirabilis in 2011. In 2016, our goal was to photograph the inside of the grand structure with particular emphasis on obtaining on a 360 degree panorama (for the upcoming Denver Museum of Nature and Science presentation).

The interior dimensions of the grand reservoir are 66 meters (217 feet) long by 25 meters (82 feet) wide and 15 meters (50 feet) deep. The structure has 48 large columns (pilasters) in four rows along its length and 12 rows along the width. The columns are cruciform in shape with the main

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shaft approximately 1 meter square and the arms approximately 60 centimeters by 60 centimeters (24 by 24 inches). There is a basin in the center of the reservoir (between the sixth and seventh row of columns) with a depth of about 1 meter (3.3 feet) that may have served as a settling area for cleaning of the reservoir.

The Piscina Mirabilis has excellent examples of the Roman construction techniques used to support the structure and provide a waterproof lining, see Figure 12. The interior wall was reticulatum mixtum with bands of brick courses. The columns and the roof are constructed of opus vittatum. The entire interior appears to have been covered with hydraulic cement, or check cocciopesto, and there are fillets (triangular) at the contact seams between the floor and

walls (also at base of columns).

Figure 12. Interior of Piscina Mirabilis near the south east stairway.

There is a calcium carbonate (sinter) deposit on the inside of the reservoir, consistent with the source water being from the Aqua Augusta. One of our objectives was to determine whether or not the thickness of the deposits differed from a location near the inlet of the reservoir and the opposite end (it has not been determined where the outlet to the reservoir is located – or exactly how the water was taken out of the reservoir). The inlet is located in the northwest corner and maintenance stairways into the reservoir are located in this corner (42 stairs, each 2 meters [6.6 feet] wide) and the opposite southeast corner. Based on our observations, the sinter deposits were

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quite consistent at between 5 to 6 millimeters (0.20 to 0.24 inches), with no difference in thickness at the inlet and the opposite corner of the reservoir.

4.0 ARCADES

There were three major stretches of arched construction in the Aqua Augusta: (i) Mura d’Arce, (ii) the arcade near Pomigliano d’Arco, and (iii) the Ponti Rossi. Together, these three account for 3.6 percent of the total length of the main channel of the aqueduct. During the 2016 field tour, we investigated Mura d’Arce and Pomigliano d’Arco.

4.1 Mura d’Arce (September 26)

The WPI project team last investigated the Mura d’Arce in 2011 (with Luigi and Marilena Sorrentino) when we were on the property only for a few minutes before we were escorted out by the angry property owner.

Due to this experience, in 2016 we scheduled a meeting with staff from the City of Sarno who arranged for a police escort to work out our investigation with the owner. We were thus allowed a rare visit to the site.

The original alignment of the aqueduct in this area was a “cut and cover” tunnel along the hillside. There must have been problems in this original alignment due to instable soils or stormwater washouts. The Mura D’Arce (Walls of Arce) is a segment that appears to have been constructed as a restoration segment to avoid the hillside tunnel. The Mura D’Arce begins with a 60 degree bend to direct the aqueduct away from the hillside to the west (from the southwest direction) and then straighten out (with another 60 degree bend) to follow the base of the mountain range.

This segment is known to have three types of construction along a length of approximately 180 meters (590 feet). After the 60 degree bend away from the hillside and then another 60 degree bend to straighten the aqueduct, the eastern section of the Mura D’Arce is comprised of a straight section of a series of arches (we counted 28 arches on an old plan layout). The second section is constructed with solid masonry but with scalloped (in plan) sections that are constructed of opus recticulatum. The third section comprises solid walls of mass concrete.

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Figure 13. Mura d’Arce arches and buttresses as viewed from the south.

The arcade section has major buttress supports, all on the south side of the arcade to support the aqueduct from instability that may occur on the north hillside (Figure 13). The buttresses are located at every other arcade foundation with a dimension of 6 meters (19.7 feet) perpendicular to the aqueduct. We also measured each arcade span at approximately 2.2 meters (7.2 feet) with the pier measurement of 1.9 meters (6.2 feet) by 2.7 meters (8.9 feet).

4.2 Pomigliano D’Arco (September 29)

Our contact in Pomigliano d’Arco (the city) is Mr. Nino Leone, a retired physician. He directed us on a tour of the area on the northwestern side of Mt. Vesuvius in the area of the Villa di Augustus and the arcade of the Aqua Augusta that is known as the Pomigliano d’Arco. The Pomigliano d’Arco arcade seems to have been one of the longer continuous stretches of opus arcuatum in an ancient (Keenan-Jones, 2010). This arcade also conveyed the aqueduct from the Clanius River watershed to the Sebethes River watershed.

There are very few material remnants of this arcade. This is unfortunate since the arcade has been shown to have a length of about 3.6 kilometers (2.2 miles) and a maximum height of over 12 meters (39 feet) and must have had the grandeur of the still-standing arcades of the Claudia aqueduct near Rome.

During the construction of an elevated portion of the modern railway, several foundations of the Pomigliano d’Arco were discovered. These foundations were under several meters of soil. The discovery prompted the redesign of the piers supporting the modern railway to avoid the remnants, as can be seen in Figure 14.

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Figure 14. Aerial image of the large railroad span that by passes the arcade foundation of the Aqua Augusta.

An artist’s image (from a XVI century map by Barrionuovo), shows that near the church of the Madonna dell’Arcora (Madonna of the arcades) in (near Pomigliano d’Arco) there were still six arches in the XVI century (information from Nino Leone). However, Nino also informed us that in the XVII century, a fellow named Diomede Carafa, Fuedatary of Pomigliano d’Arco, had his own palace burned to get permission from the King Ferrante II to use the stone material of the Aqua Augusta arcades for his new palace. Therefore, it seems that this is one reason why we see no remnants of the arcade today.

Figure 15. Remnant of arcade foundation Figure 16. Archeological excavation along near Pomigliano d’Arco. proposed elevated railway section shows a remnant of arcade foundation. The arcade piers were constructed of a concrete and rubble core with opus mixtum brick layer with tufa blocks as the foundation of the piers. This construction is seen in Figures 15 and 16, photos that were taken during the railway construction. Today, these sections are covered by a layer of soil to preserve them for future study.

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5.0 SANITA’ NAPLES (SEPTEMBER 24)

On September 24, we traveled to downtown Naples to meet our friend Meisha Hunter Burkett (Figure 17). Meisha is a historical preservation specialist with Li/Saltzman Architects in New City. Meisha was on the Pompeii team during the field investigations in 2010 and 2011. In September 2016, she was in Naples on holiday and decided to accompany us on our investigation of a recent find in the middle of Naples.

Figure 17. Gary Witt, Meisha Hunter Burkett and Wayne Lorenz meet for espresso in downtown Naples

In 2011, a section of the Aqua Augusta was discovered in an existing structure in downtown Naples, in the basement of Palazzo Peschici Maresca of Health (via Arena alla Sanità 6). It has been determined that there were two parallel sections of the aqueduct at this location, with one older than the other. The reason for the construction of parallel segments is not yet known, but could be related to the changes in the ground elevation over time, called bradyseism. Bradyseism is known to have occured up to several meters in the Naples region.

There are two series of arches in this Sanita segment, which are parallel for about 10 meters (33 feet) and then change direction and apparently converge and intersect. The arches and pillars have a facing of mixed work with alternating 14 to 15 rows of bricks in brick and 15 to 16 rows of tuff bricks. Inside the facing is an inner core of cement with finely crushed tuff flakes.

Carlo Leggieri and Francesco Colussi constructed a model showing the parallel channels beneath the existing structures, see Figure 18. The model is on display in the Sanità building.

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Figure 18. Model of the Aqua Augusta as discovered beneath several buildings in downtown Naples.

6.0 SARNO SPRINGS MUSEUM VISIT, AND IDENTIFICATION OF ANOTHER ALIGNMENT LOCATION (SEPTEMBER 26)

On September 26, Giuseppe Illiano arranged a meeting with the Mayor of the City of Sarno, Giuseppe Canfora, and others. The City of Sarno has three very prolific springs that have a total flow of 4,000 to 5,000 liters per second (63,000 to 79,000 gallons per minute). The springs are the main headwaters of the Sarno River. Assuming these springs were flowing in antiquity, there is no doubt that the Roman engineers considered these for the water supply to Misenum. However, the Roman engineers must have concluded that these springs are too low in elevation to have been used for the Aqua Augusta. The Sarno springs are at approximately 20 meters (66 feet) above sea level (a.s.l.) and the aqueduct was at 51 to 52 meters (167 to 171 feet) a.s.l. in this area. Reportedly, the travertine that formed around the Sarno Springs was used in ancient Pompeii as a building material.

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Figure 19. City of Sarno staff and WPI researchers behind a map listing 26 Roman remnants in the area.

The City of Pompeii was located adjacent to the north bank, and at the mouth of the Sarno River as it emptied into the . Pompeii was only some 15 to 16 kilometers (9 to 12 miles) downstream from the Sarno springs, so it is easy to imagine that the residents would have used the water in the Sarno River for domestic purposes. However, an aqueduct from the Sarno springs to Pompeii would only have served the lower portion of the city since much of its elevation is above 15 to 20 meters (49 to 66 feet). For example, the Porta Vesuvius/Castellum Acqua is at about 43 meters (141 feet) a.s.l.

During our visit to the City of Sarno offices, we reviewed information that was available regarding the Aqua Augusta alignment and old photographs of the tunneled sections (exposed during construction activities). Included in the meeting was Michele Manfredonia who we had met during our March 2015 investigation.

One of the references reviewed was a long map of the Sarno area that designated 26 locations of Roman remnants (the entire Sarno team gathered behind the map for a photo in Figure 19; Catello

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Grimaldi was the photographer and not in the photo). After inspection of the records, it was concluded that the WPI team had previously located all but one location that was on record as being archeological remains of the tunneled section of the aqueduct. The location was designated on a map (see Figure 20) as point number “24. Via San Vito.” Michele Manfredonia told us that he had inspected an access shaft and a portion of the tunnel some years ago at this location. The point number 24 represents a new location of the alignment of the aqueduct.

New Point 24 ‐ Aqueduct

Figure 20. Portion of the Sarno map that shows a new location of the Aqua Augusta.

We were also given a thumb drive with several old photographs of the Aqua Augusta “cut and cover” sections that have been excavated over the years in the Sarno area. One example is shown as Figure 21, which includes an exceptional “cut and cover” example with a thick layer of sinter buildup on each side of the channel wall. The sinter extends to the haunches of the tunnel . Also, we note in the photo that the man that is closest to the aqueduct section (on the right) is a young Michele Manfredona.

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Figure 21. Cut and cover section of the Aqua Augusta in Sarno.

7.0 VOLTURARA IRPINA – DRAGON’S MOUTH & SPRINGS (SEPTEMBER 28)

The water source for the mighty Aqua Augustus, the reason that the aqueduct existed at all, was the pure water springs in the Appenine Mountains to the east of the Naples Bay. The natural water system in these mountains is a fascinating, life-giving source that nurtured civilization in the Naples region. The precipitation in the mountains was captured in the valleys and sinkholes of the karst geology and retained in the subsurface as if it were a giant sponge. There are several closed basins located in the Terminio Mountain area, where the runoff from the steep mountain slopes is gathered and seeps into fissures and sinkholes thus becoming the groundwater that discharges on the lower slopes of the mountainsides as copious springs. These basins are called endorheic because there is no natural surface drainage outlet; the runoff water becomes groundwater.

On September 28, we investigated one such basin at Volturara Irpina, a small town on the edge of a circular shaped basin plain called the Dragon’s Plain. Water collects near the center of the plain and is channeled to a fissure where it disappears into the earth. This fissure is aptly called the Dragon’s Mouth, and there are several legends surrounding this. We met the Mayor and other Town representatives (Figure 22) and were given a tour of the Dragon’s Mouth (Figure 23). We

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also drove and hiked up a mountain west of the town to observe outcrops of important local formations and observe the Dragon’s Plain during sunset (Figure 24).

Figure 22. Part of the WPI team with VIPs from Vulturara Irpina.

Figure 23. Ascending from the Dragon’s Figure 24. Elevated view of a portion of Vulturara Irpina and the Mouth. Dragon’s Plain.

We drove about 16 kilometers (10 miles) from the town to the east side of the Terminio and investigated one of the springs that served the communities on the side opposite to the Naples Bay. This spring was an impressive natural upwelling and the water is captured under a dome structure that protects the water quality. Called the Pertusillo Springs, they are now used by the Acquedotto

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Pugliese (AQP) water company for domestic supply. The dome is approximately 27 meters (90 feet) in diameter. The spring water surfaces within the dome and then is collected and conveyed into gravity pipelines that head down valley to the customers.

As shown in Figure 25, the capture of this spring water at the Pollentina Springs is different from the method of capturing the spring water at the Acquaro Pelosi Springs. The Pollentina Springs are simply gathered under the dome as the water surfaces from the ground. As a comparison, in 2011, we investigated the Acquaro Pelosi Springs and observed that the springs there were captured using a “Ranney Well” approach, which relies on radial lateral collection pipeline arms that bring water to a central collection basin.

Figure 25. Pollentina Spring

8.0 CISTERNS IN BACOLI (SEPTEMBER 25 AND 27)

We investigated several water storage cisterns that are located toward the terminus of the Aqua Augusta, all located in Bacoli. These are described in this section. Based on the observations made during these investigations, the following preliminary conclusions were made:

1. The area was developed in antiquity primarily with larger villas for the elite. Each appeared to have their own cisterns for water storage. This may indicate that the constant flow of water normally associated with the aqueduct was interrupted and storage was necessary or the aqueduct water was not available to local users in this region.

2. Some of the cisterns we observed were at elevations that could not have been served from the Aqua Augusta. Cisterns at Belle Vista and La Sibilla Vini were at higher elevations than the elevation of the Aqua Augusta in this area. This suggests that there were other

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sources of water in the area or that the water was lifted from the Aqua Augusta to these cisterns.

3. Apparently, there is fresh groundwater in the area and the presence of groundwater may have been a significant water source for the villas.

4. The research of the aqueduct alignment, and which features were fed off of the Aqua Augusta in Bacoli, is incomplete.

8.1 Grottoni Cistern

We met with the Biagio family and school teacher Dr. Rosaria Esposito at the Grottoni cistern. The Biagio family owns the property that includes the Grottoni cistern. This cistern is a vast complex with 4 parallel rows of at least 6 arches (Figure 26). This complex is to the east of the currently assumed location of the Aqua Augusta alignment.

Figure 26. View from second story balcony of the large arched remnants of the Grottoni cistern.

We began taking measurements here; however, we decided to suspend the effort until we could determine whether this was an Aqua Augusta feature.

8.2 Villa Angri Sani Cistern

Another ancient villa on the hillside of Miseno is the Villa Angri Sani, today owned by an American from Houston, Texas. Here, we inspected a deep access shaft to a possible cistern. We observed water in the shaft that was 4.3 meters (14 feet) below the surface. The local caretaker has

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first-hand knowledge of the shaft and apparent construction with a cistern based on her descent into the shaft when water levels were much lower.

8.3 Grotto Dragonara Cistern

Another very large cistern in Bacoli is the Grotto Dragonara Cistern located in Miseno. This cistern has a reported capacity of 7,700 cubic meters (272,000 cubic feet) (compared to a capacity of at least 10,700 cubic meters [378,000 cubic feet] in the Piscina Mirabilis). The grotto consists of 5 naves and a barrel vault supported by 12 pillars. It has been thought by some researchers that this cistern was also fed by the Aqua Augusta and was the terminus of the aqueduct (rather than the terminus being at the Piscina Mirabilis).

Many researchers believe the cistern was used for capturing rainwater since there are several large openings on the surface to potentially capture rainwater.

Unlike observations in the Piscina Mirabilis, the Dragonara Cistern walls do not have calcium carbonate scaling (except where groundwater seeps into cracks along bedding planes and features). This is a major observation since all of the water features that we know had contained water from the Acquaro Pelosi springs (and the Aqua Augusta) have calcium carbonate scaling characteristics. Based on this one major observation, we agree that the Dragonara Cistern probably was not fed (at least not exclusively) by the Aqua Augusta.

8.4 Scalandrone Tunnel

We investigated the Scalandrone Tunnel because the tunnel contains an inscription which celebrates the opening of a Haustus (passage intended as a water catchment) connected to the Aqua Augusta aqueduct. The date of the event is reported as December 30, 10 A.D. (Ferrari and Lamagna). Lucci Franco is the current owner of the tunnel property.

The tunnel slopes from south to north and it appears to be quite steep. There are remnants of Roman villas in this area, which may have had cisterns supplied with water by the Scalandrone Tunnel.

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9.0 HERCULANEUM (SEPTEMBER 28)

The Pompeii team has had five previous field investigations, but we had not investigated Herculaneum until this year. We investigated Herculaneum to confirm that the city had a central water system (Figure 27). We also wanted to obtain information regarding the existing water towers and to investigate the possibility that Herculaneum was served by the Aqua Augusta. The highlight of the investigation was a meeting with the Herculaneum supervisor and the head archeologist.

Figure 27. A view northward across the partially-excavated City of Herculaneum and the overlaying current City of Ercolano (middle ground) with Mt. Vesuvius in the distance.

The city did possess a central water system based on the observations of lead pipe, water towers (two), and fountains, all similar to those observed in Pompeii (but far fewer in number). There are at least two baths in the city (the and ) and many of the individual residences had impluviums and some water features.

Surviving water towers that are similar to those in Pompeii are rare in ancient Roman sites. The ancient writings by address what were called castella and in the City of Rome water system, which are believed to be cisterns or other specialized features of the water distribution system. However, water towers in Rome (like those in Pompeii) were not specifically addressed by Frontinus. Water towers that are similar to those found in Pompeii, if they existed in Rome, are no longer evident.

There are three structures in Herculaneum that are believed to be water towers. We field inspected two of the towers. One of the structures is a tower that is very similar to the towers in Pompeii.

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Located in the northern section of the excavated portion of Herculaneum (at the intersection of Decumanus Maximus and IV), this tower had pipe chases and a lead pipe section in one of the chases (Figure 28). The tower dimensions were 80 to 90 centimeters (31 to 35 inches) square in plan and about 2.5 meters (8.2 feet) high.

Figure 28. Fountain located adjacent to the remnant of the northernmost water tower observed during our September 2016 field investigation Another tower was observed near the Casa Sannitica (at Decumanus Inferior and Cardo IV). We measured this tower to be 95 centimeters by 89 centimeters (37 by 35 inches) in plan, and 2.4 meters (7.9 feet) tall.

We met with Ms. Emanuella Santaniello, Supervisor, and Mr. Domenico Camardo, Chief Archeologist, and discussed water use in Herculaneum. From that conversation, we learned the following:

 Whether or not the Aqua Augusta served Herculaneum is not certain. Mr. Camardo is certain, however, of another source of water that served the city. This conclusion is based on fluoride analysis of a nearby spring and the condition of the teeth of individuals that were found in the city. Mr. Camardo provided a copy of a paper that discusses this conclusion.

 There are no remnants of an aqueduct from Pompeii or from the Aqua Augusta.

 There have been no lead storage tanks found on the top of water towers and no large cisterns.

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 There are valves from the city in storage (in the future, we could ask for permission to inspect these valves).

 There are no signs of calcium carbonate on the towers or other water features in the city.

 The population of Herculaneum at the time of the eruption has been estimated at 4,000 based on the size of the theater.

 Apparently, the earthquake of 62 A.D. did not impact Herculaneum like it did Pompeii.

10.0 REFERENCES

Berry, Joanne, 2007. The Complete Pompeii, Thames & Hudson; London.

Eschebach, Hans, 1993. Gebäudeverzeichnis und Stadtplan der antiken Stadt Pompeji, Liselotte Eschebach; Köln.

Ferrari, G. and Lamagna, R., N.D. Il bimillenario dell’acquedotto augusteo di Serino.

Jashemski, W.F., 1993. The Gardens of Pompeii, Volume II: Appendices. Caratzas; New York.

Keenan-Jones, Duncan, 2010. The Aqua Augusta Regional Water Supply in Roman and Late Antique Compania, Ph.D. Dissertation, Marquarie University, Australia.

Koloski-Ostro, A.O. editor, 2001. Water Use and Hydraulics in the Roman City, Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company; Dubuque, Iowa.

Ohlig, Christoph P.J., 2001. De aquis Pompeiorum. Das Castellum Aquae in Pompeji: Herkunft, Zuleitung und Verteilung des Wassers. Circumvesuviana, Volume 4. Nijmegen: Books on Demand GmbH; Norderstedt.

Storey, Glenn, 1997. The Population of , Antiquity, 71:966-78.

11.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This report was prepared by Wayne Lorenz with a detailed review by Gary Witt. The final draft was assembled by Sally Kribs. Photographs in this report were taken by Wayne Lorenz, Gary Witt, and Catello Grimaldi.

The study of the Aqua Augusta has been a collaborative effort between individuals that have a deep interest in the engineering, historical, and cultural aspects of the aqueduct. Key members of the Project Team include Giuseppe Illiano, Giovanni De Feo, Giacinto Libertini, Nino Leone, Bruno Miccio, Catello Grimaldi, DeBase, and Vittorio Bovolin.

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Special thanks go to Giuseppe “Peppe” Illiano. Peppe has been our guide and colleague for Naples Bay area field investigations since 2010. We are grateful to Peppe for his hard work and diligence in obtaining the approvals and cooperation with the local representatives.

The Project Team would like to thank Ken Wright, Wright Paleohydrological Institute, and Wright Water Engineers, Inc., for support and encouragement during the study of Roman aqueducts and ancient engineering in the Pompeii and Naples Bay regions.

12.0 APPENDIX

A - Letters of Authorization

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APPENDIX A LETTERS OF AUTHORIZATION

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